Hindawi

International Journal of Rotating Machinery

Volume 2018, Article ID 5159189, 18 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5159189

Research Article
Investigation on the Effects of Structural Dynamics on Rolling
Bearing Fault Diagnosis by Means of Multibody Simulation

Reza Golafshan , Georg Jacobs, Matthias Wegerhoff, Pascal Drichel, and Joerg Berroth
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute for Machine Elements and Systems Engineering (MSE), RWTH Aachen University,
Schinkelstr. 10, 52062 Aachen, Germany

Correspondence should be addressed to Reza Golafshan; reza.golafshan@imse.rwth-aachen.de

Received 23 October 2017; Accepted 22 January 2018; Published 13 March 2018

Academic Editor: Paolo Pennacchi

Copyright © 2018 Reza Golafshan et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The present study aims to combine the fields modal analysis and signal processing and to show the use of Frequency Response
Function (FRF), as a vibration transfer path, in enhancing reliability and abilities of the next generation vibration-based rolling
bearing condition monitoring (CM) systems in complex mechanical systems. In line with this purpose, the hereby-presented paper
employs an appropriate numerical model, that is, Multibody Simulation (MBS) of a vehicle’s drivetrain as a manner for numerical
modal and structural analyses. For this, first, the principles of vibration-based bearing fault detection are reviewed and presented.
Following that, a summary of MBS modelling and validating strategies are given. Then, the validated MBS model is used as a case
study for further investigations. The results can confirm existence of challenges in fault detection of rolling bearings, in particular
in complex mechanical systems. In further discussions, the capability of FRFs in fault localization and determination of ideal sensor
positions is discussed in some detail. Finally, concluding remarks and suggestions for future works are summarized.

1. Introduction of the analyzed structure/machine may be needed for the

reliable and next generation vibration-based fault detection
In a vibration-based fault detection and fault diagnosis sys- systems [3, 4]. It is known that the captured vibration signals
tem, mechanical damage is referred to changes on geometric contain structural properties (i.e., vibration transfer path)
properties of the analyzed machine. These sudden changes of the system being analyzed and they are assumed to
may generate additional dynamical forces acting in the sys- remain same under varying operating conditions (e.g., torque
tem. Then, based on the system responses, damage/faults can loads and rotating speeds). Thus, a prestudy on dynamics
be detected and localized. Since all machines vibrates even in of the analyzed structure/machine may be necessary to
their good operational condition due to interactions between develop suitable and reliable condition monitoring (CM)
machine components, the captured vibrations signals are and detection techniques to detect and diagnose various
required to analyze using signal postprocessing techniques. failures and achieve cost savings to the industry. The modal
Many diagnostic procedures assume a linear behavior, and behavior of a system can be a useful insight to gain beneficial
thus each individual spectral component (or a group of them) information on the system response to various possible faults
is supposed to relate to a specific dynamic force in the and failures. According to the findings in the literature, modal
corresponding machine [1]. Therefore, captured time domain domain features (i.e., natural frequencies, mode shapes, and
vibration signals need to be transformed to the frequency damping ratios) are widely used in the field Structural Health
domain to distinguish the various sources and to detect Monitoring (SHM), in particular for composite and large civil
the probable faults, accordingly [2]. However, due to the structures [5]. By tracking and analyzing changes over time
mechanical complexities and varying operating conditions, the presence of a failure, from crack propagation to unbalance
it is not always possible to capture, separate, process, and localization, can be approved. However, for mechanical and
identify the faulty signals, and this could be the case in rotating systems, it is assumed that modal features remain
many complex systems; hence, an overview of dynamics more or less constant in case of presence of a mechanical fault,
2 International Journal of Rotating Machinery

for example, pitting in bearings. This mentioned assumption subsystems (i.e., components) running in varying operat-
is the basis for some of the recent and nonstationary signal ing conditions.
processing techniques [6]. By eliminating the estimated Rolling bearings, as one of the most common and impor-
structural response characteristics, a less sensitive signal to tant components in many mechanical engineering applica-
speed and load changes can be obtained [7]. These methods tions (e.g., drivetrains), are always considered as a part
are based on removing the estimated vibration transfer with potentially high-risk against the failures. Bearings have
path effects and modal characteristics of the system from very significant impact on the global vibrations of a rotary
measured signals. Note that the dynamical analysis of a mechanical system. Furthermore, in electrified vehicles, a
structure/machine can be performed using the well-known bearing failure may lead to increasing the rotational friction
Experimental Modal Analysis (EMA) techniques to extract of the rotor, and thus a decrease in the performance of the
the exact vibration transfer path in its frequency domain. In electric motor. Therefore, vibration-based fault detection and
this regard, dynamic analysis can also be performed using diagnosis of the rolling bearings have become a vigorous
continuous (permanent) measurements. For example, Oper- area of work and have attracted more and more attention in
ational Modal Analysis (OMA), as one of the most common the literature [15, 16]. These studies in condition monitoring
techniques for dynamic analyses of running machines, is used are mainly focused on finding the best signal processing
for CM of wind turbines, for example, for tower and blades technique to detect an incipient failure. Since rolling element
[8, 9], where some important modal info and parameters can bearings are subjected to moving distributed radial and axial
be extracted, tracked, and analyzed for a specific application. loads, any probable fault can excite the system resonances
In addition to the traditional use of modal testing for in a specific frequency range depending on neighboring
design, Noise Vibration Harshness (NVH), and fault local- components. It can be concluded that the captured bearing
ization purposes, the Frequency Response Function (FRF) vibration signals carry the information about the system
in modal analysis, as a vibration transfer path function, can structure in a comparatively high frequency range, which can
be used in other applications such as fault isolation and be interpreted as the transmission path(s) of the vibration.
ideal sensor placement. However, it should be pointed out It is also known that the inherent frequency of a bearing is
that the modal analysis on a real structure/machine may not fixed resonance frequency/frequencies even if the fault repe-
be feasible due to test environment restrictions or due to tition frequencies (bearing fundamental frequencies) tend to
the lack of reliable mount data. It can therefore be shown change with shaft speed. This can be a key factor in localizing
that, with a reliable numerical model in hand, the corre- the similar faulty bearing(s) rotating at the same speed.
sponding dynamical analysis can be carried out numerically Many research studies are dedicated to the field of
and reliably. The Multibody Simulation (MBS) approach has vibration-based condition monitoring (CM), diagnosis, and
approved its usability in identification of system dynamic fault detection, mostly in oil and gas, wind energy, and
(modal) characteristics, as a reliable alternative for the real railway, including tracks and vehicles, sectors, yet fewer
machine [10]. The MBS models can be used for assess- ones are focused on specific requirements and demands
ments of load interactions between various components in for a similar system in the field of automotive engineering.
a mechanical system [11]. These models can also represent Although numerous general-purpose fault detection and
a testing manner [12], in case there are some restrictions to diagnosis algorithms and methods using signal processing
performing measurements on the real machine. Recently, it is techniques are reported in the literature, implementation,
shown that the online or up-to-minute condition monitoring applicability, reliability, and ideal (optimal) sensing positions
is also a growing application field for the so-called Digital for both offline and online CM systems are still a challenge
Twin concept using MBS modelling [13, 14]. Only relying on due to the involved computational complexity and expensive
sensor data is sometimes not sufficient. In this situation the hardware. On-Board Diagnostic (OBD) systems in auto-
simulation (i.e., MBS) models, provided by the Digital Twin, motive engineering applications are recently employed and
can regularly be modified through measured data and reused used for various purposes (e.g., Co2 emission and electronic
after these modifications. By using the simulation models, it components). In order to achieve a reliable and cost-effective
is also possible to interpret the measurements in a different an OBD CM and fault detection system for the drivetrain
way, rather than just detecting deviations from the norm. of a vehicle, the diagnostic algorithm should be simple,
For improving the performance of the machine monitor- robust, and beneficial from ideally located sensors. Since
ing and fault detection procedures, it can be shown that, as thousands of data points are captured and need to be pro-
a complementary investigation in the scope of ideal sensing cessed during the monitoring process, characteristics of the
positions as well as estimation of the fault location, a model- captured signals, number and locations of the sensor(s), and
oriented approach using MBS modelling may be a useful the detection algorithm itself have become critical parameters
strategy. In addition to this, the model-oriented designing for a precision monitoring.
approach for CM and fault diagnosis algorithms may offer a The present study therefore aims to address and inves-
new degree-of-freedom, in particular in the context of Blind tigate some challenges and complexities in vibration-based
Source Separation (BSS) family methods. The core of BSS- fault detection and diagnosis for rolling bearings in automo-
based signal processing method may be optimized according tive sector for a drivetrain of an electrified vehicle. In line
to insights from a comprehensive MBS model, where the exci- with this purpose, an experimentally validated MBS model
tation sources can be specified numerically and reliably. This is used for the investigations. Note that a large number of
becomes even more critical for those systems having many manufacturers, in particular in automotive and wind energy
International Journal of Rotating Machinery 3

𝑁 ∞
sectors, already have and use numerical models for NVH
and testing purposes, so that the modelling step in the + 𝑠2 (𝑡) ( ∑ ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑡) 𝛿 (𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇𝑛 )) + 𝑛 (𝑡)] ,
𝑛=1 𝑘=−∞
development and design procedure of a dedicated and/or
implemented condition monitoring systems would not be (2)
a time consuming step in designing the next generation
monitoring and testing systems. It is worth stating here that where 𝑛, 𝑎𝑛 (𝑡), and 𝛿(𝑡), respectively, are the number of
this study should be considered as a basis for future works in fault(s) existing in the bearing (varying from 1 up to 𝑁 = 4,
combination of the fields vibration-based fault detection and as there are generally 4 types of faults in a rolling bearing),
numerical modelling. the amplitude of the vibration response to the 𝑛th fault which
In the present study, the use of structural dynamics in reflects the strength of the fault, and Dirac delta function,
condition monitoring and fault detection of the complex where 𝑇𝑛 denotes the time period between impulses (i.e.,
mechanical systems are studied. The MBS model of a driv- 1/BPFO or 1/BPFI). Note that the maximum amplitude of
etrain for an electrified vehicle created and validated in a pre- 𝑎𝑛 (𝑡) can be assumed to be constant over time for outer race
vious study is used in numerical analyses as a case study. First, defects due to its stationary condition [17]. The amplitude
a comprehensive theoretical basis of the vibration-based fault spectrum of the vibration signal model in (2) for a system
detection for rolling bearings is given. Then, a summary of having a bearing with a single fault can therefore be derived
the modelling strategy as well as subsequent revisions applied using Fourier Transform as
to the model to create faulty components (i.e., bearings) is
described. Three artificially created faulty cases using the F {𝑥 (𝑡)} = 𝑋 (𝜔) = F {ℎ (𝑡)
MBS model are then used for numerical investigations on
bearing fault diagnosis. In further discussions, the role of (3)
∞
Frequency Response Function (FRF), as the transfer path
function, in faulty bearing(s) localization and also in finding ∗ [𝑠1 (𝑡) + 𝑠2 (𝑡) ( ∑ 𝑎 (𝑡) 𝛿 (𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇)) + 𝑛 (𝑡)]} .
𝑘=−∞
the ideal sensor location is studied. Finally, some concluding
remarks are made about the reliability and applicability of the In case the signal energy distribution is desired, the energy
approach used in this study for bearing fault diagnosis and spectral density of 𝜔 can also be obtained as
sensor placement.
|𝑋 (𝜔)|2 = 𝑋 (𝜔) 𝑋 (𝜔), (4)
2. Vibration-Based Rolling Bearing Fault
Diagnosis: Theoretical Background where 𝑋(𝜔) denotes the complex conjugate of 𝑋(𝜔).
It is well-known that the amplitude spectrum of vibra-
In general, a mechanical system’s dynamic characteristics tion signals may not detect and display the bearing fault
(i.e., vibration response) are specified by the corresponding frequencies. In such cases, envelope spectrum is the most
transfer path and excitation sources, as governed by the math- common method for the fault frequency detection. Neverthe-
ematics of convolution. According to the previous findings less, in harsh operating conditions, the calculated envelope
in the literature [2], a typical captured vibration signal by a spectrums are not capable of displaying the fault diagnostic
sensor, 𝑥(𝑡), of a machine consists of shaft(s), electric motor, information (i.e., bearing fault frequencies) due to heavy
rolling bearing(s), gear stage(s), coupling(s), and so on in background noise and/or existence other excitation sources.
its operating condition with an individual focus on rolling As a result, some preprocessing steps, prior to the envelope
bearing vibrations can be considered as analysis, are strongly recommended in the literature.
Recall from convolution properties
𝑥 (𝑡) = ℎ (𝑡) ∗ [𝑠1 (𝑡) + 𝑠2 (𝑡) 𝑦 (𝑡) + 𝑛 (𝑡)] , (1)
F {(𝑓 ∗ 𝑔) (𝑡)} = 𝐹 (𝜔) 𝐺 (𝜔) (5)
where 𝑦(𝑡), ℎ(𝑡), and 𝑛(𝑡) correspond to the bearing, the
transfer path which modulates the fault(s) response to a and Nyquist sampling theorem
higher frequency range (i.e., system resonances), and noise
∞
originating from measurement system, numerical errors, 1 ∞
and/or incidental and transient excitations, and so on, respec- F {𝑓 (𝑡) ∑ 𝛿 (𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇𝑟 )} = ∑ 𝐹 (𝜔 − 𝑘𝜔𝑟 ) . (6)
𝑘=−∞
𝑇𝑟 𝑘=−∞
tively. While both 𝑠1 (𝑡) and 𝑠2 (𝑡) are related to uncontam-
inated periodic responses of all other machine parts (due Using the convolution and Nyquist sampling properties, the
to electric motor, gears, shaft misalignment and unbalances, right-hand side of (3) can be expanded as follows:
etc.), 𝑠1 (𝑡) represents the unmodulated part and 𝑠2 (𝑡) rep-
resents the modulated part of periodic responses with the 𝑋 (𝜔) = F {ℎ (𝑡) ∗ 𝑠1 (𝑡)}
bearing signal. Also, ∗ stands for the convolution operator.
Eq. (1) can then be extended as ∞
+ F {ℎ (𝑡) ∗ 𝑠1 (𝑡) ( ∑ 𝑎 (𝑡) 𝛿 (𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇))} (7)
𝑘=−∞
𝑥 (𝑡) = ℎ (𝑡) ∗ [𝑠1 (𝑡) + F {ℎ (𝑡) ∗ 𝑛 (𝑡)} .
4 International Journal of Rotating Machinery

Then, from unbalances, torsional vibrations, and eccentric faults.

In some cases, in particular in complex mechanical systems,
𝑋 (𝜔) = 𝐻 (𝜔)⏟⏟⏟𝑆⏟1⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟ (𝜔) ⏟⏟ estimation of 𝐻(𝜔) can be a complex and time consuming
non-related
uncontaminated step.
periodic Back to the present theoretical formulation in (9), in prac-
components
(e.g. gear stages) tice, however, demodulation on the bearing signal, 𝑦(𝑡), is
carried out by a bandpass filtering (e.g., SK-based optimized
1 ∞ filter) with a central-frequency at the system resonance, and
+ 𝐻 (𝜔) 𝑆2 (𝜔) ( ∑ 𝐴 (𝜔 − 𝑘𝜔)) then Hilbert Transform in the time domain as
𝑇 𝑘=−∞
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟ (8)
Modulated impulsive
components, which
𝐴 (𝑡) = √𝑦2 (𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦𝐻2 (𝑡), (11)
contain bearing diagnostic
information, 𝐴(𝜔−𝑘𝜔) where 𝐴(𝑡) is also known as the envelope signal and 𝑦𝐻 is the
Hilbert Transform of 𝑦(𝑡) as
+ 𝐻 (𝜔) 𝑁 (𝜔)
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟ .
Noise 1 ∞ 1
representing random and 𝑦𝐻 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑𝜏. (12)
transient components 𝜋 −∞ (𝑡 − 𝜏)
Eq. (8) reveals that 𝑋(𝜔) contains various and crucial The so-called envelope spectrum is then be obtained by
information regarding current status of the test machine (i.e., Fourier Transform of the envelope signal, 𝐴(𝑡), as
bearing system). These three constituents can be categorized
as (I) uncontaminated period components, (II) modulated Env {𝑦 (𝑡)} = F {𝐴 (𝑡)} . (13)
impulsive components, and (III) noise. From rolling bearing
fault detection point of view, the diagnostic info is associated As is being shown, the transfer path function, 𝐻(𝜔),
with the term 𝐻(𝜔)𝑆2 (𝜔)𝑦(𝜔). plays a major role in diagnostic vibration signals captured
A wide range of studies available in the literature are ded- from a mechanical system. In the following sections in the
icated to signals containing multiple sources [6, 18]. Source present study it is shown that the transfer path can be
separation techniques are proposed in order to separate analyzed in more detail in order to estimate fault location and
and eliminate (if needed) the nonrelated periodic compo- ideal sensing positions. This function can be represented by
nents. Perhaps the most common prewhitening technique for Frequency Response Function.
eliminating the nonrelated periodic components in rolling
bearing vibration signals is autoregressive (AR) filtering, 3. Summary of Numerical Modelling
documented and suggested in [2]. Prior to further postpro-
cessing, the other component needs to be eliminated is the In this section, a brief summary of numerical modelling is
noise, 𝐻(𝜔)𝑁(𝜔), representing the random and unwanted presented. In addition, some details of the model revision for
signals. This can be carried out using denoising algorithms, fault detection purposes are described.
such as SVD-based denoising method presented in [19]. As In general, the dynamical systems can be presented in
a result, after the prewhitening and denoising processes, the terms of their equation of motion (E.o.M.) as
denoised version of 𝑋(𝜔), called 𝑋𝑑 (𝜔), can be estimated as
[𝑀] {𝑢}̈ + [𝐶] {𝑢}̇ + [𝐾] {𝑢} = {𝑓} , (14)
𝑋𝑑 (𝜔) = 𝐻 (𝜔) 𝑆2 (𝜔) 𝑦 (𝜔)
where {𝑢}, {𝑓}, [𝑀], [𝐶], and [𝐾] stand for the displacement
1 ∞ (9) vector, the force vector (including external and internal
= 𝐻 (𝜔) 𝑆2 (𝜔) ( ∑ 𝐴 (𝜔 − 𝑘𝜔)) . torques and moments), inertia (mass), damping, and stiffness
𝑇 𝑘=−∞
matrices of the involved bodies, respectively. In Elastic
In order to extract the modulating component, 𝐴(𝜔 − Multibody Simulation (EMBS), the E.o.M. may be solved in
𝑘𝜔), in (9), demodulation should be performed. For this, an iterative way, either in time domain or frequency domain.
an appropriate estimation of 𝐻(𝜔) is required in order to For this, the system matrices and the force (e.g., containing
extract the fault diagnostic info. One method to estimate the excitations) vector need to be formed first. However,
𝐻(𝜔) in the desired frequency range (i.e., system resonance) prior to assemblies of the machine parts by implementation
is the spectral kurtosis (SK) [20]. Using the same property of the masses, stiffness, and the external excitations, EMA
of convolution theorem given earlier, demodulating in the is employed in order to validate the modal properties of
frequency domain can then be formulated as each elastic parts used in the model. Following this bottom-
up process, the entire dynamical system (i.e., drivetrain)
𝑆2 (𝜔) 𝐴 (𝜔 − 𝑘𝜔) consisting of all validated subsystems is validated against the
(10) experiments. Some details of the numerical modelling and
̂
≈ lowpass filter {H (𝜔) ∗ 𝑆2 (𝜔) 𝑦 (𝜔)} , validation process are readily available in [21]. The previously
created EMBS model of a test Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
̂ is an estimation of 𝐻(𝜔). Again, here 𝑆 rep-
where 𝐻(𝜔) for which the numerical investigations are performed is
2
resents, for example, shaft-related components originating shown in Figure 1.
International Journal of Rotating Machinery 5

Normalized amplitude
1

−

−/2

−/3

/2


CK
SIM PA
Angle (rad)
Figure 1: The validated MBS model of an electrified vehicle’s Impulse-like
excitation function
drivetrain.
fe1 ()
fe2 ()
fe3 ()
In line with the purpose of rolling bearing fault diagno-
sis, the numerical model investigated and validated in the Figure 2: Illustration of three distinct impulse-like forces for the
single localized bearing fault with respect to angular position of the
previous paper is used in numerical analysis. As discussed
rolling element.
in the previous section, in rolling bearings with localized
defects, an excitation force may be produced when the rolling
elements move over the faulty area [22]. This force may then B2
B1
results in sudden and sharp changes in vibration trend of the 6205 type
6205 type
system, that is, 𝑦(𝑡) in (1), accordingly. The magnitude and ball
all bearing
ball bearing
the duration of this force are related to the radial load carried
by the rolling element, the defect natures (severity and age),
velocity, and the material properties used in the bearing [23].
Assuming a dependency between the excitation force due to
the localized bearing defect and its generated vibrations, the
bearing faults are modelled in terms of their excitation forces B3 6305 type
by amplifying the magnitudes of the corresponding force ele- ball
b ll bearing
b
ment in a certain zone in the force vector in (14). A computer Figure 3: Illustration of the faulty test bearings, namely, B1, B2, and
program developed in Fortran Programming Language is B3.
used to generate the excitation force, considering the bearing
kinematics. Again, the magnitude of the excitation force
depends on various parameters, and this is beyond the scopes direction, 𝑓𝑏 (𝑡), representing the fault, can be therefore
of the present study. Some various shapes and magnitudes, obtained as
however, are generated and used in numerical investigations.
The developed computer program is capable of locating the 𝑓𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑒 (𝑡) 𝑃 (𝑡) cos 𝜃, (16)
given number of defective bearings at the given positions and where 𝑃(𝑡) and 𝜃 are the radial load on the rolling ele-
creates the dynamic excitation forces suitable for calculations ment/raceway and rolling element position, respectively.
(i.e., time integration) in a Multibody Simulation platform, Figure 2 shows three distinct forces artificially generated and
namely, SIMPACK. As the rolling elements pass through applied to the test bearings in the MBS model. In the present
the faulty area in the bearing, duration of each impact by study, it is assumed that 𝑓𝑒1 , 𝑓𝑒2 , and 𝑓𝑒3 represent three
interaction between rolling elements and faulty area highly different fault stages on outer race as a tiny crack (e.g., initial
depends on the shaft speed. In general, the impulse-like stage), medium-size fault (e.g., intermediate-stage), and a
force, 𝑓𝑒 (𝑡), generated due to repetitive interactions of the large-size fault (e.g., advanced stage), respectively.
rolling elements with the defective area, can be expressed Three deep groove ball bearings, two of which are 6205
as type and one is 6305 type, are used as the test bearings. The
∞
test bearings are labeled and shown in Figure 3.
𝑓𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝐴 (𝑡) ∑ 𝛿 (𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇) , (15) Table 1 lists the corresponding geometric details of ball
𝑘=−∞ bearings used in the tests. The fundamental fault frequency
for outer race, BPFO, where outer race is stationary and inner
where 𝐴(𝑡) and 𝑇 are magnitude of the force and time race rotates in shaft can be formulated as
period between impulses (i.e., 1/BPFO), respectively. Note 𝑁𝐵 𝐷 cos 𝛽
that 𝑇 may also be considered as a time-varying parameter BPFO = 𝑓 (1 − 𝑏 ), (17)
2 𝑟 𝐷𝑝
for nonstationary operating conditions (i.e., nonconstant
shaft velocity). It is then assumed that the desired excitation where are 𝑁𝐵 , 𝑓𝑟 , 𝐷𝑏 , 𝐷𝑝 , and 𝛽 number of rolling elements,
force depends on the impulse-like force obtained in (15), shaft rotating frequency, rolling element diameter, pitch
and the radial load, 𝑃(𝜃). The excitation force in the radial diameter, and rolling bearing contact angle, respectively.
6 International Journal of Rotating Machinery

Table 1: The geometry details of test bearings.

Bearing Bearing type Pitch diameter Ball diameter Number of balls Contact angle
B1 6205 type 38.9 mm 7.9 mm 9 0∘
B2 6205 type 38.9 mm 7.9 mm 9 0∘
B3 6305 type 43.4 mm 11.1 mm 7 0∘

Table 2: Details of the numerical case studies.

Case study Test bearing(s) Fault type Fault freq. Hz Fault freq. ord
Outer race
#1 B1 32 [Hz] 3.551
Exc.: 𝑓𝑒1
Outer race
B1 32 [Hz] 3.551
Exc.: 𝑓𝑒1
#2
Outer race
B3 11 [Hz] 2.61
Exc.: 𝑓𝑒1
Outer race
B1 32 [Hz] 3.551
Exc.: 𝑓𝑒1
#3
Outer race
B2 32 [Hz] 3.551
Exc.: 𝑓𝑒1

S2
Accelerometer
S1 S4 torque loads from electric motor. The simulation results are
Accelerometer Accelerometer exported to MATLAB for postprocessing. Note that only the
second half of the simulations, that is, from 1 s to 2 s, are used
for postprocessing to avoid high amount of nonstationarities
during run-up.
It is also worth mentioning that in order to avoid from
S3 unnecessary complexities, the gears mesh stiffness values are
Accelerometer assumed to be constant over time. As a result, the term
𝐻(𝜔)𝑆1 (𝜔) in (8) has not been taken into account in the
present study.

4. Results
Figure 4: Illustration of the sensor positions, namely, S1, S2, S3, and
S4. In this section, the captured vibration signals of simulations
are analyzed and investigated in both time and the frequency
domains. The aim is to show and discuss the advantages,
In addition, four sensor locations are specified and shown disadvantages, and limitations of the well-known envelope
in Figure 4. Note that sensors measure acceleration in normal analysis in bearings fault detection and diagnosis. In what
to surface direction. The related fault frequencies for the test follows, the details of these simulations are presented for three
bearings are obtained and presented in Table 2. Three case different case studies.
studies, namely, single faulty bearing, multiple faulty bearings
rotating in different velocities (different shafts), and multiple 4.1. Case Study 1: Single Faulty Bearing. This case study
faulty bearings rotating in the same velocity (same shaft), investigates the dynamical behavior of the MBS model having
used in numerical investigations, are also listed and detailed one single faulty bearing on the drive shaft. Figure 6 illustrates
in Table 2. The fault stages for all the case studies are assumed the artificially generated excitation force applied to B1 in time
as a tiny crack (i.e., 𝑓𝑒1 ) on outer races. The other fault stages domain and its representation in frequency domain. As stated
(i.e., 𝑓𝑒2 and 𝑓𝑒3 ) have been investigated in the section further earlier, this excitation force is generated using the excitation
discussions in some detail. function, 𝑓𝑒1 , to analyze the vibration behavior of the model,
The acceleration signals of the MBS model in normal as well as the real drivetrain, in a condition with a bearing
to surface direction are captured as fault signatures. The having an initial localized fault such as a tiny crack. The
data are collected for 2 s at 20 kHz rate in SIMPACK. In magnitude of force acting on the outer race of B1 with a
all the simulations, both drive and intermediate-stage shafts certain repetition frequency (i.e., BPFO) is assumed to be
are given fixed nominal angular velocities in the steady-state 120 N in this case study.
area which are shown in Figure 5. As seen, both shafts are Figure 7 shows the signals captured from four different
subjected to some torsional vibrations due to fluctuations in locations in the time domain as well as their spectrums up
International Journal of Rotating Machinery 7

800 400

600 300
RPM

RPM
400 200

200 100

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)

Figure 5: Angular velocities of (a) drive shaft (b) intermediate-stage shaft.

250

200
100

150

Magnitude
Force (N)

10−2
100

50

0
1 1.5 2 0 2000 4000 6000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(a) (b)

Figure 6: Illustration of the applied excitation force to B1 in (a) time domain and (b) frequency domain.

to the Nyquist frequency. As expected, the excitation force for S3, and the fault frequencies have small magnitudes in
excites the system resonances in a specific frequency range. S1.
However, by analyzing the force spectrum in Figure 6(b) and In this case, it is seen that the envelope analysis, briefly
the obtained spectrums in Figure 7, it is revealed that small reviewed and explained in Section 2, is capable of detecting
amount of energy in a high frequency range strongly excites the fault frequency, taking into account the fact that the
the system resonances. This behavior may be explained by magnitudes are greatly influenced by related transfer path
transfer path of the vibration from B1 to the sensing locations. and system structure. This suggests that, using a proper FRF
In the next section, it is shown that using this valuable insight, function, it is possible to select an ideal sensing location for
an ideal sensor location (between four sensing locations) can monitoring and test purposes.
be selected. Again, the results presented here suggest that S3
can yield better diagnostic results in terms of the amplitude 4.2. Case Study 2: Multiple Faulty Bearings on Different Shafts.
of faulty signal. The analyses carried out for the case study 1 are repeated here
The corresponding envelope spectrums of time domain for the case study 2, but this time, as shown in Figure 9, two
signals in Figure 7 are illustrated, respectively, in Figure 8. excitation forces using the excitation function, 𝑓𝑒1 , having
Since the variations in shaft velocities are very low, that is, magnitudes of 120 N and 200 N are applied, respectively, to
shown in Figure 5, the smearing effect in envelope spectrums B1 and B3. Again, from frequency domain point of view, both
is negligible. However, as expected, the fault frequencies are excitations carry a high level of energy in low frequency band,
highly modulated with torsional vibrations, and it is more but low level of energy in high frequency range (i.e., higher
obvious in signal captured from S3. It is seen that all envelope than 1 kHz).
and envelope order spectrums can reveal the fault frequency. Figure 10 shows the captured vibration signals, which
Note that the results presented in Figure 8 make these carry fault diagnostic information for two distinct bearings.
findings more obvious where the diagnostic information The great influence of the sensor location on the fault
obtained in envelope spectrums is very sharp and obvious detectability feature of the signals is very obvious. In fact,
8 International Journal of Rotating Machinery

0.2
10 S1 S1
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude
0 0.1

−10
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(a) (e)
0.2
10 S2
S2
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude
0 0.1

−10
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(b) (f)
0.2
10
S3 S3
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude

0 0.1

−10
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(c) (g)
0.2
10 S4
S4
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude

0 0.1

−10
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(d) (h)

Figure 7: Case study 1: the captured time domain vibration signals from S1 to S4 in (a) to (d), respectively, and their corresponding spectrums
in (e) to (h).

the amplitude of the impact trains, as the symptom of valid here. Once again, the highest magnitudes in the fault
existence of bearing faults, in signal captured using S3 is frequencies appear in the envelope spectrums obtained from
approximately three times greater than that the one obtained S3. However, it is quite obvious that the diagnostic results for
using S4 and much sharper than other two sensors. This B3 are not as good as those of for B1.
is an important result, showing that the performance of a Similar to the previous case study, the envelope order
CM system is also highly dependent on the sensor loca- spectrums using the related rpm info are computed and
tion. presented in Figure 11. The resampling process from time
The comments made before about the location of sensor domain to angular domain in order tracking can eliminate
on detecting feature of the envelope spectrum are also the modulation effect of torsional vibrations by removing
International Journal of Rotating Machinery 9

0.6 S1 0.6 S1

Magnitude
Magnitude
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (ord)
(a) (e)

0.6 S2 0.6 S2
Magnitude

Magnitude
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (ord)
(b) (f)

0.6 S3 0.6 S3
Magnitude
Magnitude

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (ord)
(c) (g)

0.6 S4 0.6 S4
Magnitude

Magnitude

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (ord)
(d) (h)

Figure 8: Envelope spectrums (a–d) and envelope order spectrums (e–h) for the time domain signals in Figure 7, respectively, from (a) to
(d).

the side-bands around the fault frequency and its higher again a case study using multiple faulty bearings, but on the
harmonics. same shaft, is investigated.
Figure 12 shows the force excitations applied to B1 and
4.3. Case Study 3: Multiple Faulty Bearings on the Same Shaft. B2 having, respectively, magnitudes of 120 N and 80 N. Also,
In previous case studies, the performance of the envelope Figure 13 shows the time and frequency domains of the
analysis is assessed using two distinct bearings. It is shown vibration responses obtained from four different locations.
that the envelope spectrum can yield reliable diagnostic Again, similar to the previous cases, in contrast to the applied
results for cases having well separated fault frequencies. Here, low external energy level in high frequency range to the
10 International Journal of Rotating Machinery

250

200
100

150

Magnitude
Force (N)

10−2
100

50

0
1 1.5 2 0 2000 4000 6000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(a) (c)
250

200 100

150
Magnitude
Force (N)

10−2
100

50

0
1 1.5 2 0 2000 4000 6000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(b) (d)

Figure 9: Illustration of the excitation forces to B1 and B3 in the time domain in (a) and (b), and in the frequency domain in (c) and (d),
respectively.

system by these forces, inspection of the frequency spectrums can be explained by existence of a fault in B2, which excites
in Figure 13 reveals that the system is more sensitive in higher the system in a different frequency range; thus S4 and S3 may
frequencies due to its dynamical characteristics. have a nearly similar transfer path to the faulty area.
Figure 14 shows the envelope spectrums and envelope Again, the effects of torsional vibrations, as the term 𝑆2 in
order spectrums of the time domain signals in Figure 13. (10), are very clear in terms of side-bands around the bearing
As seen, due to overlying of the diagnostic information of fault frequency.
B1 and B2, it is not possible to detect and diagnose both
the bearings by relying merely on signal frequency domain 5. Further Discussions
information. This is an illustration of limitation of envelope
spectrum in revealing that the fault frequencies of the same 5.1. Ideal Sensor Placement. As briefly discussed in introduc-
bearings rotate on the same rotating shaft. In the following tion, in reality, the number of used sensors is limited due to
section, in further discussion, it is shown that this can be various reasons, and this may result in some restrictions. As
explained by the combination of the structural dynamics and a result, optimization of the location of sensor(s) becomes a
frequency domain signal processing. necessary and crucial step in practice for a given problem. The
According to the results calculated and shown in Fig- problem of determining the ideal or optimal sensor place-
ure 14, it is also can be seen that the signals captured using S3 ments has already received much attention. Most of them
and S4 share more or less same level of fault magnitudes. This share a common basis and deal with a specific application
International Journal of Rotating Machinery 11

0.2
10 S1
S1
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude
0 0.1

−10
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(a) (e)
0.2
10 S2
S2
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude
0 0.1

−10
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(b) (f)
0.2
10 S3
S3
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude

0 0.1

−10
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(c) (g)
0.2
10
S4 S4
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude

0 0.1

−10
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(d) (h)

Figure 10: Case study 2: the captured time domain vibration signals from S1 to S4 in (a) to (d), respectively, and their corresponding spectrums
in (e) to (h).

other than condition monitoring and fault detection such fault detection and has its effects on the performance of a CM
as modal testing and control engineering. According to the system. These effects can be analyzed in two different aspects:
findings in the previous section, this section is concerned (I) the influence of transfer path on diagnostic information,
with the specific question of ideal sensor placement for the and (II) estimation of transfer path in the desired frequency
purpose of bearing fault detection. It should be noted that range for the bandpass filtering prior to envelope analy-
here, unlike a classical optimization problem, the sensing sis.
positions are compared and investigated in terms of their fault Figure 15 illustrates the FRFs obtained from four different
detectability. locations, namely, S1, S2, S3, and S4, based on two distinct
As discussed and shown in theory, the transfer path of excitation points, on B1 and B3. It is well-known that the
the bearing vibration signal plays a major role in the bearing FRFs can represent the transfer path in a mechanical system.
12 International Journal of Rotating Machinery

0.6 S1 0.6 S1
Magnitude

Magnitude
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (ord) Frequency (ord)
(a) (e)

0.6 S2 0.6 S2
Magnitude

Magnitude
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (ord) Frequency (ord)
(b) (f)

0.6 S3 0.6 S3
Magnitude

Magnitude

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (ord) Frequency (ord)
(c) (g)

0.6 S4 0.6 S4
Magnitude

Magnitude

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (ord) Frequency (ord)
(d) (h)

Figure 11: Envelope order spectrums for B1 (a–d) and for B3 (e–h) for the time domain signals in Figure 10, respectively, from (a) to (d).

With reference to the earlier results in previous section, it is times greater than other FRFs. This suggests that S3 can be
expected that the FRFs obtained from S3 have the highest the ideal location among other sensing locations investigated
peak in a frequency range of 4.5 kHz to 6.5 kHz, where the in this study. According to the FRFs in Figure 15(b), similar
fault excites the system resonances. In fact, close inspection increasing trend, but this time with a less difference compared
of results in Figure 15, in particular comparing envelope spec- to other FRFs, can also be seen for B3.
trums in Figures 8 and 11, reveals that the FRFs, as a transfer In case the experimental FRFs are desired for a similar
path, have a great influence on the amplitudes of generated purpose, with a reasonable assumption, a nearby point can be
impact trains, and thus detectability of the corresponding selected for excitation. In reality, to obtain the experimental
fault frequencies. It is clearly seen that the modulus of the FRFs, it is not always possible to excite the system from a
FRF from B1 to S3 in resonance range is approximately ten point on (or close to) the bearing.
International Journal of Rotating Machinery 13

250

200
100

150

Magnitude
Force (N)

100 10−2

50

0
1 1.5 2 0 2000 4000 6000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(a) (c)
250

200
100

150
Magnitude
Force (N)

100

10−2
50

0
1 1.5 2 0 2000 4000 6000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(b) (d)

Figure 12: Illustration of the excitation forces to B1 and B2 in the time domain in (a) and (b), and in the frequency domain in (c) and (d),
respectively.

5.2. Estimation of Bearing Fault Location. As shown in case Similar to the findings in Figure 15 for B1, while a domi-
study 3, the envelope spectrum is unable to detect the fault nant frequency range (i.e., between 4.5 kHz and 6.5 kHz) can
frequencies of multiple same-type faulty bearings rotating be seen for different cases having only one faulty bearing
at the same angular velocity. It is shown here that using (i.e., B1), some other additional dominant frequency ranges
the structural information obtained from dynamics of the appear in the power spectrum for a case having multiple
system, it becomes possible to estimate the probable fault faulty bearings (i.e., B1 and B2). Again, this is an important
location(s). insight, in particular for the cases where the faulty bearings
Figure 16(a) presents an overlaid plot for power spec- share same geometry and rotate at the same angular velocity,
trums for faulty B1, from S3, using 𝑓𝑒1 function, each of where envelope spectrum may not be able to diagnose both
which with different amount of force magnitude. As seen, bearings. To have a better understanding of system resonance
all the fault stages in the same bearing excite the same areas and the effects of fault excitations due to the localized
frequency range, but with different magnitudes. In addition, bearing faults, Figure 17 illustrates the Campbell diagrams,
Figure 16(b) presents the power spectrum for case study 3, representing both time and frequency domains for case
where both B1 and B2 are faulty. These results in Figure 16 studies 1 and 3. According to the results in Figure 17(a),
confirm that a localized fault on a specific component in a although the faulty bearing, B1, may excite the total system
total system may excite the resonances depending on neigh- in a broadband frequency range (with a specific repetition
boring components and system dynamics. rate), this excitation reaches to its highest amplitude within
14 International Journal of Rotating Machinery

50 S1 S1
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 ) 0.4

Magnitude
0
0.2

−50
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(a) (e)

50 S2 S2
0.4
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude
0
0.2

−50
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(b) (f)

50 S3 S3
0.4
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude

0
0.2

−50
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(c) (g)

50 S4 S4
0.4
Amplitude (m/Ｍ2 )

Magnitude

0
0.2

−50
0
1 1.5 2 0 5000 10000
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
(d) (h)

Figure 13: Case study 3: the captured time domain vibration signals from S1 to S4 in (a) to (d), respectively, and their corresponding spectrums
in (e) to (h).

a frequency range between 4.5 kHz and 6.5 kHz for case of resonances in different frequency bands; however, the
study 1. Similar insights are obtained in Figure 17(b) for case numerically generated FRFs excited from a point on the B2,
study 3, but this time two similar faulty bearings rotating which are shown in Figure 18, suggest that this specific system
at the same speed, B1 and B2, produce highest excitations shows its highest sensitivities to the excitations from B2 in
in distinct frequency ranges. The comparison of results of two frequency ranges, one around 4 kHz and one around
both case studies here may confirm the existence of another 8 kHz, for S3 and S4. Similar results are previously shown in
bearing fault with the same repetition frequency, which Figure 14 for case study 3.
may lead to a conclusion of existence a fault on B2. Note Until now, initial fault stages on bearings and their effects
that, in practice, mechanical faults may lead to excitation on vibration trend of the system are investigated. Here,
International Journal of Rotating Machinery 15

3 3
S1 S1

2 2

Magnitude
Magnitude

1 1

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (ord)
(a) (e)
3 3
S2 S2
2 2
Magnitude

Magnitude
1 1

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (ord)
(b) (f)
3 3

S3 S3
2 2
Magnitude

Magnitude

1 1

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (ord)
(c) (g)
3 3
S4 S4

2 2
Magnitude

Magnitude

1 1

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (ord)
(d) (h)

Figure 14: Envelope spectrums (a–d) and envelope order spectrums (e–h) for the time domain signals in Figure 13, respectively, from (a) to
(d).

using other two excitation functions, shown in Figure 2, when bearing faults grow, they may lose their sharpness
two other fault stages are numerically analyzed in terms of by passing the roller elements over time. This example
their envelope spectrums. Figure 19 shows an overlaid plot once again illustrates the great importance of detection of
for two envelope spectrums obtained from S3, as a desired bearing faults as early as possible to avoid resulting complica-
sensor position. This is a comparison of a semilocalized tions.
fault and a semidistributed fault. As seen, while the fault
frequency, BPFO, and its harmonics are visible and sharp 6. Concluding Remarks and Future Works
for a medium-size fault, they become subtle and difficult to
detect for a large-size bearing fault with a more distributed 6.1. Concluding Remarks. (i) In the present paper, in accor-
faulty area. This is an expected result, where in reality, dance with the purpose of improving capabilities and
16 International Journal of Rotating Machinery

100 100
Modulus-/F

Modulus-/F
10−2 10−2

10−4 10−4

10−6 10−6

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

Sensor location Sensor location

S1 S3 S1 S3
S2 S4 S2 S4
(a) (b)

Figure 15: Simulated FRFs obtained in four different sensor locations, exciting from (a) B1 and (b) B3.

0.01 0.08

0.008
0.06
Magnitude

Magnitude

0.006
0.04
0.004

0.02
0.002

0 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

The excitation force The excitation force

function: fe1 () function: fe1 ()
280 [N] on B1 120 [N] on B1 120 [N] on B1 & 80 [N] on B2
200 [N] on B1 40 [N] on B1
(a) (b)

Figure 16: The power spectrum of the captured signal from S3 for (a) single faulty bearing (b) multiple faulty bearings.

reliabilities of the present vibration-based condition moni- example, in monitoring of the nearby components with
toring and fault detection systems for complex mechanical similar geometric details.
machines/structures in general, and for drivetrains in auto- (iv) The benefits and limitations of the well-known
motive engineering in particular, a new approach based on envelope analysis in automotive engineering applications
combination of numerical modelling and signal processing are highlighted and discussed. A combination of the fields
techniques is developed and investigated in some detail. structural dynamics and signal processing, to overcome the
(ii) For the objectives of this study, an experimentally available difficulties in finding a desired sensor placement and
validated MBS model of the drivetrain of an electrified vehicle fault location(s) for the purpose of condition monitoring, is
is used as a tool for numerical investigations as well as for developed. It is shown that using FRFs, as the transfer path
illustrating the relations between dynamics of the system and functions, delivers a new degree-of-freedom for CM systems.
rolling bearing fault signals. These insights may even be beneficial and useful for further
(iii) Three various case studies are defined first and process such as source separation purposes.
investigated in terms of their vibration responses. It is shown (v) Finally, the results from this study show that the
and seen that using only frequency domain information of approach of analyzing and fault identifying the complex
the measured data may lead to some missed detection, for systems using a corresponding MBS model can also be
International Journal of Rotating Machinery 17

10 10

B2
8 8
Frequency (kHz)

Frequency (kHz)
6 6
T T

B1

B1
4 4 T

B2
2 2
1 1
BPFO = BPFO =
T T
0 0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)

Figure 17: Time-frequency representations of the captured signals from S3 for (a) case study 1: single faulty bearing and (b) case study 3:
multiple faulty bearings.

0.05
100
0.04
Modulus-/F

10−2

0.03
Magnitude

10−4

0.02
10−6

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 0.01
Frequency (Hz)

Sensor location 0
0 50 100 150 200
S1 S3
S2 S4 Frequency (Hz)

Figure 18: Simulated FRFs obtained in four different sensor loca- Excitation forces applied to B1
tions exciting from B2. 100 [N] using fe2 ()
80 [N] using fe3 ()

Figure 19: Envelope spectrums for two various excitations.

employed as a quality control tool for manufacturers for
testing purposes.
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