How Products Are Made

II
Ja c q uelineo L. Lon go, Edito r
Nr :pI LI Km m
PRODUCTS
A=CMADE
PRODUCTS
=CIADE
An Illustrated Guide to
Pro du c t Manufacturing
Jacqueline L. Longe, Editor
GGALE GROUP
Detroit
San Francisco
London
Boston
Woodbridge, CT
STAFF
Jacqueline L. Longe, Editor

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All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended.
Copyright i 2000
Gale Group, Inc.
27500 Drake Rd.
Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher,
except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages or entries in connection with a review written
for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper.
ISBN 07876-2444-6
ISSN 1072-5091
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Gale Group and Design is a trademark used herein under license.
Contents
Introduction........... . vii Crash Test Dummy .....122
Contributors ............ ix Cubic Zirconia .....128
Acknowledgments ..... ... .xi Dog Biscuit ...... .133
Aluminum . Doorknob ....... .....137
Ambulance .......... Doughnut. .......141
Antiperspirant/ Eggs .......... .....
..146
Deodorant Stick. ..11 Electric Automobile .....150
Artificial Blood. ..15 Envelope ....... ....
.157
Artificial Flower. ..21 Eraser ......... ....
.162
Bean Bag Plush Toy. ..25 Eyeglass Frame . . ....
.167
Bed Sheet . ..31 Fill Dam ........ ....
.173
Billboard ......... ..36 Fishing Fly ...... ....
.180
Bioceramics .......... ..42 Fishing Lure ..... ....
.185
Bisque Porcelain Figurine ..46 Fishing Rod ..... ....
.190
Bow and Arrow . ..51 Flute .......... ....
.196
Brassiere. ..57 Foam Rubber .... ....
.201
Castanets. ..61 Frisbee ......... .....205
Ceramic Filter. ..65 Frozen Vegetable . .....210
Cheese Curl. ..70 Fruit Leather ..... .....216
Chicken ............ ..74 Galoshes ....... .....220
Child Safety Seat . ..80 Gelatin ........ .....225
Compost. ..86 Glass Ornament . . .....229
Computer Mouse. ..91 Glue .......... .....234
Concrete Dam . ..97 Golf Tee ........ .....238
Cork . .103 Green Tea ...... .....242
Cough Drop . .107 Greeting Card ... .....248
Cranberries. .111 Hang Glider ..... .....253
Crane . .116 High Heel ....... .....258
v
How Products Are Made, Volume 3
Holiday Lights .... ... . . . 263 Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

Honey ......... ..269 Safety Razor ... .388
Hourglass . ..274 Sheet Music .... .393
Incense Stick ..... ..279 Silly Putty ...... .398
Jam and Jelly .... . .284 Soccer Ball ..... .401
Jukebox ........ ..288 Soy Milk ...... .406
License Plate ..... ..292 Spacesuit .... .410
Lock ........... ..296 Sponge ....... .417
LP Record ....... ..301 Statuary .. .421
Lyocell ........ ..308 Steel Pipe ...... .425
Macadamia Nut .. ..312 Sunflower Seed .430
Molasses. ..316 Suspension Bridge .434
Mousetrap ...... ..321 Sword ........ .441
Mustard ........ ..325 Telephone ..... .447
Nuclear Submarine ..329 Thread ........ .452
Nutcracker ..... ..335 Toilet ......... .458
Oatmeal ...... ..340 Tuba ......... .464
Olives ........ . .343 TV Dinner ...... .469
Paintbrush ...... . .348 Vegetarian Burger .474
Parachute ....... ..353 Video Game .... .478
Pepper ......... ..359 Vodka ........ .484
Pipe Organ ..... ..363 Voting Machine . .489
Pita Bread ...... ..368 Wheelbarrow ... .494
Plastic Doll ...... ..372 Wind Chime .... .498
Popcorn ........ ..377 Index ......... .503
vI
Introduction
About the Series
Welcome to How Products Are Made: An Illustrated Guide to Product Manufactur-
ing. This series provides information on the manufacture of a variety of items, from
everyday household products to heavy machinery to sophisticated electronic equip-
ment. You will find step-by-step descriptions of processes, simple explanations of
technical terms and concepts, and clear, easy-to-follow illustrations.
Each volume of How Products Are Made covers a broad range of manufacturing
areas: food, clothing, electronics, transportation, machinery, instruments, sporting
goods, and more. Some are intermediate goods sold to manufacturers of other prod-
ucts, while others are retail goods sold directly to consumers. You will find items
made from a variety of materials, including products such as precious metals and
minerals that are not "made" so much as they are extracted and refined.
Organization
Every volume in this series is comprised of many individual entries, each covering a
single product. Although each entry focuses on the product's manufacturing process,
it also provides a wealth of other information: who invented the product or how it has
developed, how it works, what materials are used, how it is designed, quality control
procedures, byproducts generated during its manufacture, future applications, and
books and periodical articles containing more information.
To make it easier for you to find what you're looking for, the entries are broken up
into standard sections. Among the sections you will find are the following:
* Background * Quality Control
* History * Byproducts/Waste
* Raw Materials * The Future
* Design * Where To Learn More
* The Manufacturing Process
Every entry is accompanied by illustrations. Uncomplicated and easy to understand,
these illustrations generally follow the step-by-step description of the manufacturing
process found in the text.
vii
Every entry is accompanied by illustrations. Uncomplicated and easy to understand,

these illustrations generally follow the step-by-step description of the manufacturing
process found in the text.
A general subject index of important terms, processes, materials, and people is found
at the end of the book. Bold faced items in the index refer to main entries.
Main entries from previous volumes are also included in the index. They are listed
along with their corresponding volume and page numbers.
About this Volume

This volume contains essays on over 100 products, arranged alphabetically, and 16
special boxed sections, describing interesting historical developments related to a
product. Photographs are also included.
Contributors/Advisor
The entries in this volume were written by a skilled team of technical writers and
engineers, often in cooperation with manufacturers and industry associations. The
advisor for this volume was David L. Wells, PhD, CMfgE, a long time member of
the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) and the Academic Dean at Focus:
HOPE, a nonprofit civil and human rights organization dedicated to the technical
training and education of the multicultural community of Detroit, Michigan.
Suggestions
Your questions, comments, and suggestions for future products are welcome. Please
send all such correspondence to:
How Products Are Made

Gale Group, Inc.
27500 Drake Rd.
Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535
viii
Contributors
Nancy EV Bryk Randy Schueller
Chris Cavette Rose Secrest
Loretta Hall Laurel Sheppard
Gillian S. Holmes David L. Wells
Mary McNulty Angela Woodward
Perry Romanowski
ix
Acknowledgments
The editor would like to thank the following individuals, companies, and associa-
tions for providing assistance with Volume 5 of How Products Are Made:
Artificial Flower: Ardith Beveridge, AAF, AIFD, PFCI, Director/Instructor,
Koehler & Dramm's Institute of Floristry, Minneapolis, MN; Trice Whitaker, Owner,
American Prestige Silks Inc., Nocona, TX. Bean Bag Plush Toy: Peggy Gallagher,
Beanie Baby expert and authenticator of rare Beanie Baby collectibles; Ray Bol-
house, Co-owner, SWIBCO Inc., Lisle, IL. Bed Sheet: Jeff Day, Sheeting Supevisor,
Fieldcrest Cannon Corp., Kanapolis, NC. Brassiere: Bernadette Chavez, Playtex
Inc. Castanets: Morca Foundation, Bellingham, WA. Cheese Curl: Kent Hunold,
Planning Manager, Frito-Lay Production Plant, IN; Liz Doyle, Snack Food Associa-
tion, Chicago, IL. Child Safety Seat: Carol M. Dingledy, COSCO, Inc., Columbus,
Indiana. Computer Mouse: Debra Reich, Kensington Technology Group, a division
of ACCO Brands Inc., San Mateo, California. Doughnut: Larry Jabro, General
Manager, Krispy Kreme, Dearborn, MI. Eggs: Lehman's Egg Service, Greencastle,
PA. Electric Automobile: General Motors , Lansing Craft Centre, Lansing, MI.
Fishing Fly: John Herzer, Owner, Blackfoot River Outfitters, Missoula, MT; Bob
Knapp, hand-tier, Missoula, MT. Fishing Lure: David Nichols, President and CEO,
Nichols Lures Inc., San Antonio, TX. Fruit Leather: Keith Barton, Technical
Department, Favorite Brands International, Inc. Galoshes: Scott Hardy, Co-Owner,
N.E.O.S.; John A. Greene, Kensington Cobblers, Kensington, CA. Greeting Card:
Susan Millichamp, Assistant Production Technician, Avanti Press Inc., Detroit, MI;
Matt Burckhardt, Customer Service Representative, Northwestern Printing, Grosse
Pointe, MI. High Heel: John A. Greene, Kensington Cobblers, Kensington, CA.
Holiday Lights: Sandy Kinderman, Chief Executive Officer, Brite Star Company,
Inc. Hourglass: David W. Hood, The Hourglass Connection. Incense Stick: Mark
Radlinski, Product Coordinator, Wild Berry Incense Inc., Oxford, OH; Deepak Roy,
Senior Representative, Excelsior Incense Works, San Francisco, CA. Lock: John
Crocco, Illinois Lock Co. Lyocell: Mike Finlen, Accordis Fibers. Moustrap: Harry
Knuppel, Engineering Manager, Kness Manufacturing, Albia, IA. Olives: Craig A.
Makela, President, Santa Barbara Olive Co., Santa Barbara, CA. Paintbrush: Scott
Routledge, Marketing Manager, The Wooster Brush Co., Wooster, OH. Parachute:
Strong Enterprises, Orlando, FL. Pepper: Carlo Busceme, IH, Vice President of
Operations, Texas Coffee Co. Popcorn: Jon Tiefenthaler, Snappy Popcorn Co.; Tom
Elsen, American Pop Corn Co. Sheet Music: Don Zegel, Alafia Publishing and
Music Sales; Robert Loughrige, Owner, Bob's Music Notation Service. Statuary:
Design Toscano Inc., Arlington Heights, IL. Thread: Viola Hechinger, Giitermann
AG, Germany. Voting Machine: Bill Carson, Carson Manufacturing. Wind Chime:
Stacey Bowers, President, Woodstock Percussion Inc., West Hurley, NY.
Photographs appearing in Volume 5 of How Products Are Made were received from
the following sources:
xI
Acknowledgments
AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission: Suspension Bridge. Deegan,

Patrick (standing on Tacoma Narrows Bridge, tying cable strands for the suspension
cable of the bridge), photograph.
Archive Photos Inc. Reproduced by permission: Cork. Assorted vintage bottle caps,
photograph.
Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by permission: Molasses. Boston Molasses Disaster,
photograph.
Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village. Reproduced by permission: Toilet.
Ceramic chamber pot, photograph.
The Library of Congress: Artificial Blood. Landsteiner, Karl, photograph; Concrete
Dam. Bayless Dam on Freemans Run, photograph; Frozen Vegetable. Birdseye,
Clarence (reading book at desk), photograph; Galoshes. Goodyear, Charles, sketch;
Glue. Cooper, Peter, portrait; Hang Glider. Langley, Samuel, painting; Hourglass.
Harrison, John, portrait; LP Record. Edison, Thomas Alva (pouring substance),
photograph; Nuclear Submarine. Fulton, Robert (seated at drawing table), painting;
Telephone. Gray, Elisha, photograph; Vodka. Pasteur, Louis (holding bottle in right
hand, piece of paper in left hand), photograph.
U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA): Spacesuit. Ride,
Sally (wearing a dark NASA jumpsuit), 1978, photograph.
All line art illustrations in this volume were created by Electronic Illustrators
Group (EIG) of Fountain Hills, Arizona.
x ii
Aluminum
The metallic element aluminum is the third that made economical mass production of Aluminum is the third most
most plentiful element in the earth's crust, aluminum possible. Known as the Hall-
comprising 8% of the planet's soil and rocks Heroult process after its American and plentiful element in the
(oxygen and silicon make up 47% and 28%, French inventors, the process is still the earth's crust, comprising
respectively). In nature, aluminum is found primary method of aluminum production
only in chemical compounds with other ele- today. The Bayer process for refining alu- 8% of the planet's soil
ments such as sulphur, silicon, and oxygen. minum ore, developed in 1888 by an Aus-
Pure, metallic aluminum can be economical- trian chemist, also contributed significant- and rocks (oxygen and
ly produced only from aluminum oxide ore. ly to the economical mass production of silicon make up 47% and
aluminum.
Metallic aluminum has many properties 28%, respectively).
that make it useful in a wide range of appli- In 1884, 125 lb (60 kg) of aluminum was
cations. It is lightweight, strong, nonmag- produced in the United States, and it sold for
netic, and nontoxic. It conducts heat and about the same unit price as silver. In 1995,
electricity and reflects heat and light. It is U.S. plants produced 7.8 billion lb (3.6 mil-
strong but easily workable, and it retains its lion metric tons) of aluminum, and the price
strength under extreme cold without be- of silver was seventy-five times as much as
coming brittle. The surface of aluminum the price of aluminum.
quickly oxidizes to form an invisible barrier
to corrosion. Furthermore, aluminum can
easily and economically be recycled into
new products. Rawv Materials
Aluminum compounds occur in all types
of clay, but the ore that is most useful for
Background producing pure aluminum is bauxite.
Aluminum compounds have proven useful Bauxite consists of 45-60% aluminum
for thousands of years. Around 5000 B.C., oxide, along with various impurities such
Persian potters made their strongest vessels as sand, iron, and other metals. Although
from clay that contained aluminum oxide. some bauxite deposits are hard rock, most
Ancient Egyptians and Babylonians used consist of relatively soft dirt that is easily
aluminum compounds in fabric dyes, cos- dug from open-pit mines. Australia pro-
metics, and medicines. However, it was not duces more than one-third of the world's
until the early nineteenth century that alu- supply of bauxite. It takes about 4 lb (2 kg)
minum was identified as an element and iso- of bauxite to produce 1 lb (0.5 kg) of alu-
lated as a pure metal. The difficulty of ex- minum metal.
tracting aluminum from its natural
compounds kept the metal rare for many Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) is used to
years; half a century after its discovery, it dissolve the aluminum compounds found in
was still as rare and valuable as silver. the bauxite, separating them from the impu-
rities. Depending on the composition of the
In 1886, two 22-year-old scientists inde- bauxite ore, relatively small amounts of
pendently developed a smelting process other chemicals may be used in the extrac-
1
Crushing
Grinding Digester
Flash tanks
Precipitation tanks
Smelting
Aluminum is manufactured in two

phases: the Bayer process of refin- tion of aluminum. Starch, lime, and sodium the electrolyte (current-conducting medium)
ing the 6auxite ore to obtain alu- sulphide are some examples. in the smelting operation. Naturally occur-
minum oxide, and the Hall-Heroult ring cryolite was once mined in Greenland,
process of smelting the aluminum
Cryolite, a chemical compound composed of but the compound is now produced syntheti-
oxide to release pure aluminum. sodium, aluminum, and fluorine, is used as cally for use in the production of aluminum.
2
Aluminum
Aluminum fluoride is added to lower the 4 The slurry is pumped into a settling tank.
melting point of the electrolyte solution. 1 As the slurry rests in this tank, impurities
that will not dissolve in the caustic soda set-
The other major ingredient used in the tle to the bottom of the vessel. One manufac-
smelting operation is carbon. Carbon elec- turer compares this process to fine sand set-
trodes transmit the electric current through tling to the bottom of a glass of sugar water;
the electrolyte. During the smelting opera- the sugar does not settle out because it is dis-
tion, some of the carbon is consumed as it solved in the water, just as the aluminum in
combines with oxygen to form carbon diox- the settling tank remains dissolved in the
ide. In fact, about half a pound (0.2 kg) of caustic soda. The residue (called "red mud")
carbon is used for every pound (2.2 kg) of that accumulates in the bottom of the tank
aluminum produced. Some of the carbon consists of fine sand, iron oxide, and oxides
used in aluminum smelting is a byproduct of of trace elements like titanium.
oil refining; additional carbon is obtained
from coal. 5 After the impurities have settled out, the
5remaining liquid, which looks somewhat
Because aluminum smelting involves pass- like coffee, is pumped through a series of
ing an electric current through a molten cloth filters. Any fine particles of impurities
electrolyte, it requires large amounts of that remain in the solution are trapped by the
electrical energy. On average, production of filters. This material is washed to recover
2 lb (1 kg) of aluminum requires 15 kilo- alumina and caustic soda that can be reused.
watt-hours (kWh) of energy. The cost of
electricity represents about one-third of the 6 The filtered liquid is pumped through a
cost of smelting aluminum. Useries of six-story-tall precipitation
tanks. Seed crystals of alumina hydrate (alu-
mina bonded to water molecules) are added
The Manufacturing through the top of each tank. The seed crys-
Process tals grow as they settle through the liquid
Aluminum manufacture is accomplished in and dissolved alumina attaches to them.
two phases: the Bayer process of refining
the bauxite ore to obtain aluminum oxide, 7 The crystals precipitate (settle to the bot-
and the Hall-Heroult process of smelting the tom of the tank) and are removed. After
aluminum oxide to release pure aluminum. washing, they are transferred to a kiln for
calcining (heating to release the water mole-
cules that are chemically bonded to the alu-
The Bayer process mina molecules). A screw conveyor moves
1 First, the bauxite ore is mechanically a continuous stream of crystals into a rotat-
crushed. Then, the crushed ore is mixed ing, cylindrical kiln that is tilted to allow
with caustic soda and processed in a grinding gravity to move the material through it. A
mill to produce a slurry (a watery suspen- temperature of 2,000° F (1,100° C) drives
sion) containing very fine particles of ore. off the water molecules, leaving anhydrous
(waterless) alumina crystals. After leaving
The slurry is pumped into a digester, a the kiln, the crystals pass through a cooler.
2tank that functions like a pressure cook-
er. The slurry is heated to 230-520°F (110- The Hall-Heroult process
2700C) under a pressure of 50 lb/in2 (340
kPa). These conditions are maintained for a Smelting of alumina into metallic aluminum
time ranging from half an hour to several takes place in a steel vat called a reduction
hours. Additional caustic soda may be pot. The bottom of the pot is lined with car-
added to ensure that all aluminum-contain- bon, which acts as one electrode (conductor
ing compounds are dissolved. of electric current) of the system. The oppo-
site electrodes consist of a set of carbon rods
3The hot slurry, which is now a sodium suspended above the pot; they are lowered
3aluminate solution, passes through a se- into an electrolyte solution and held about
ries of flash tanks that reduce the pressure 1.5 in (3.8 cm) above the surface of the
and recover heat that can be reused in the re- molten aluminum that accumulates on the
fining process. floor of the pot. Reduction pots are arranged
3
in rows (potlines) consisting of 50-200 pots process, is also a useful final product. It is a
that are connected in series to form an elec- white, powdery substance with a consisten-
tric circuit. Each potline can produce 66,000- cy that ranges from that of talcum powder to
110,000 tons (60,000-100,000 metric tons) that of granulated sugar. It can be used in a
of aluminum per year. A typical smelting wide range of products such as laundry de-
plant consists of two or three potlines. tergents, toothpaste, and fluorescent light
bulbs. It is an important ingredient in ceram-
8 Within the reduction pot, alumina crystals ic materials; for example, it is used to make
8are dissolved in molten cryolite at a tem- false teeth, spark plugs, and clear ceramic
perature of 1,760-1,7800 F (960-9700 C) to windshields for military airplanes. An effec-
form an electrolyte solution that will conduct tive polishing compound, it is used to finish
electricity from the carbon rods to the car- computer hard drives, among other prod-
bon-lined bed of the pot. A direct current (4-6 ucts. Its chemical properties make it effec-
volts and 100,000-230,000 amperes) is tive in many other applications, including
passed through the solution. The resulting re- catalytic converters and explosives. It is
action breaks the bonds between the alu- even used in rocket fuel-400,000 lb
minum and oxygen atoms in the alumina (180,000 kg) is consumed in every space
molecules. The oxygen that is released is at- shuttle launch. Approximately 10% of the
tracted to the carbon rods, where it forms car- alumina produced each year is used for ap-
bon dioxide. The freed aluminum atoms set- plications other than making aluminum.
tle to the bottom of the pot as molten metal.
The largest waste product generated in
The smelting process is a continuous one, bauxite refining is the tailings (ore refuse)
with more alumina being added to the cryo- called "red mud." A refinery produces about
lite solution to replace the decomposed the same amount of red mud as it does alu-
compound. A constant electric current is mina (in terms of dry weight). It contains
maintained. Heat generated by the flow of some useful substances, like iron, titanium,
electricity at the bottom electrode keeps the soda, and alumina, but no one has been able
contents of the pot in a liquid state, but a to develop an economical process for recov-
crust tends to form atop the molten elec- ering them. Other than a small amount of
trolyte. Periodically, the crust is broken to red mud that is used commercially for color-
allow more alumina to be added for processing masonry, this is truly a waste product.
ing. The pure molten aluminum accumulates Most refineries simply collect the red mud
at the bottom of the pot and is siphoned off. in an open pond that allows some of its
The pots are operated 24 hours a day, seven moisture to evaporate; when the mud has
days a week. dried to a solid enough consistency, which
may take several years, it is covered with
9 A crucible is moved down the potline, dirt or mixed with soil.
9 collecting 9,000 lb (4,000 kg) of molten
aluminum, which is 99.8% pure. The metal Several types of waste products are generat-
is transferred to a holding furnace and then ed by decomposition of carbon electrodes
cast (poured into molds) as ingots. One com- during the smelting operation. Aluminum
mon technique is to pour the molten alu- plants in the United States create significant
minum into a long, horizontal mold. As the amounts of greenhouse gases, generating
metal moves through the mold, the exterior about 5.5 million tons (5 million metric tons)
is cooled with water, causing the aluminum of carbon dioxide and 3,300 tons (3,000 met-
to solidify. The solid shaft emerges from the ric tons) of perfluorocarbons (compounds of
far end of the mold, where it is sawed at ap- carbon and fluorine) each year.
propriate intervals to form ingots of the de-
sired length. Like the smelting process itself, Approximately 120,000 tons (110,000 met-
this casting process is also continuous. ric tons) of spent potlining (SPL) material is
removed from aluminum reduction pots
each year. Designated a hazardous material
Byproducts/Waste by the Environmental Protection Agency
Alumina, the intermediate substance that is (EPA), SPL has posed a significant disposal
produced by the Bayer process and that con- problem for the industry. In 1996, the first
stitutes the raw material for the Hall-Heroult in a planned series of recycling plants
4
Aluminum
opened; these plants transform SPL into Where to Learn More
glass frit, an intermediate product from
which glass and ceramics can be manufac- Books
tured. Ultimately, the recycled SPL appears
Altenpohl, Dietrich. Aluminum Viewedfrom
in such products as ceramic tile, glass fibers,
Within: An Introduction into the Metallurgy
and asphalt shingle granules. of Aluminum Fabrication (English transla-
tion). Dusseldorf: Aluminium-Verlag, 1982.
The Future
Russell, Allen S. "Aluminum."McGraw-
Virtually all of the aluminum producers in Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology.
the United States are members of the Volun- New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
tary Aluminum Industrial Partnership
(VAIP), an organization that works closely
with the EPA to find solutions to the pollu- Periodicols
tion problems facing the industry. A major Thompson, James V. "Alumina: Simple
focus of research is the effort to develop an Chemistry-Complex Plants."Engineering
inert (chemically inactive) electrode materi- & Mining Journal (February 1, 1995): 42 ff.
al for aluminum reduction pots. A titanium-
diboride-graphite compound shows signifi- Other
cant promise. Among the benefits expected
to come when this new technology is per- Alcoa Aluminum. http://www.alcoa.com/
fected are elimination of the greenhouse gas (March 1999).
emissions and a 25% reduction in energy
use during the smelting operation. Reynolds Metals Company. http://www.
reynoldswrap.com/gbu/bauxitealumina/
(April 1999).
-Loretta Hall
5
Ambulance
The first motorized An ambulance is a self-propelled vehicle The first motorized ambulance went into op-
specifically designed to transport critically eration in Chicago in 1899.
ambulance went into sick or injured people to a medical facility.
operation in Chicago in Most ambulances are motor vehicles, al- In areas where there were no major hospi-
though helicopters, airplanes, and boats are tals, the local undertaker's hearse was often
1899. also used. The interior of an ambulance has the only vehicle capable of carrying a pa-
room for one or more patients plus several tient on a stretcher, and many funeral homes
emergency medical personnel. It also con- also provided an ambulance service. As a
tains a variety of supplies and equipment result, the design and construction of ambu-
that are used to stabilize the patient's condi- lances and hearses remained closely related
tion while en route. for many years.
Most early ambulances were simply intend-

Background ed to transport patients. After the doctor or
fire department rescue squad applied first
The earliest ambulances were simple two- aid, the patient was loaded into the back of
wheeled carts used to carry sick or wounded the ambulance for a quick ride to the hospi-
soldiers who were unable to walk by them- tal. In some cases, the doctor rode along, but
selves. The word ambulance comes from the most of the time the patient rode alone and
Latin word ambulare, meaning to walk or unattended. In the United States that
move about. The first ambulances specifi- changed dramatically when the federal gov-
cally used to transport patients to a medical emnment passed the Highway Safety Act in
facility were developed in the late 1700s in 1966. Among its many standards, the new
France by Dominique-Jean Larrey, surgeon- act set requirements for ambulance design
in-chief in Napoleon's army. Larrey noted and emergency medical care. Ambulances
that it took almost a full day for wounded with low-slung, hearse-like bodies were re-
soldiers to be carried to field hospitals, and placed by high-bodied vans to accommodate
that most of them died in that time "from additional personnel and equipment. Radios
want of assistance." To render more imme- were installed. Many ambulances carried
diate aid and provide faster transportation, advanced equipment like cardiac defibrilla-
he designed a horse-drawn carriage staffed tors, along with an arsenal of life-saving
by a medical officer and assistant with room medicines and drugs.
for several patients on stretchers.
Today, ambulances come in a wide variety
The first military ambulance corps in the of shapes and sizes. The simplest designs
United States was organized in 1862 during are equipped to provide basic life support,
the Civil War as part of the Union army. or BLS, while larger, more sophisticated de-
The first civilian ambulance service in the signs are equipped to provide advanced life
United States was organized three years support, or ALS. Ambulances may be oper-
later by the Cincinnati Commercial Hospi- ated by private companies, hospitals, the
tal. By the tum of the century, most major local fire or police department, or a separate
hospitals had their own private ambulances. city-run organization.
6
Ambulance
Ambulance manufacturers pur-
chase many components from
other suppliers rather than fabri-
cate them themselves. The body
framework is usually made of
formed or extruded aluminum.
The outer walls are painted alu-
minum sheet, and the interior
walls are usually aluminum sheet
covered with a vinyl coating or a
laminated plastic. The subfloor
may be made of plywood or may
use an open-cored plastic honey-
comb laminated to aluminum
sheet. The interior floor covering is
usually a seamless, industrial-
grade vinyl that extends partially
up each side for easy cleaning.
Raw Materials Interior grab handles and grab rails are made
of stainless steel. Other interior trim pieces
Ambulance manufacturers purchase many may be made of various rubber or plastic
components from other suppliers rather than materials.
fabricate them themselves. These include
the vehicle cab and chassis, warning lights
and sirens, radios, most electrical system Design
components, the heating and air condition- Ambulance designs fall into three cate-
ing components, the oxygen system compo- gories. Type I ambulances have a modular,
nents, and various body trim pieces like or detachable, body built on a truck chassis.
windows, latches, handles, and hinges. The truck cab is connected to the body
through a small window, but the occupants
If the ambulance has a separate body, the of the cab must go outside the vehicle to
body framework is usually made of formed enter the ambulance body. Type II ambu-
or extruded aluminum. The outer walls are lances use a van with a raised roof. Because
painted aluminum sheet, and the interior of the van construction, the occupants of the
walls are usually aluminum sheet covered cab can easily enter the body from the in-
with a vinyl coating or a laminated plastic. side, although the interior space is limited.
The subfloor may be made of plywood or Type III ambulances have a modular body
may use an open-cored plastic honeycomb built on a cut-away van chassis. This design
laminated to aluminum sheet. The interior combines the capacity of the larger modular
floor covering is usually a seamless, indus- body with the walk-through accessibility of
trial-grade vinyl that extends partially up a van.
each side for easy cleaning.
The federal requirements for ambulances
Interior cabinets in the patient compartment are defined by General Services Administra-
are usually made of aluminum with trans- tion Standard KKK-A-1822: Federal Speci-
parent, shatter-resistant plastic panels in the fications for Ambulances. It covers overall
doors. The counter and wall surfaces in the construction, electrical systems, emergency
"action area," the area immediately opposite warning lights, and many other aspects of
the patient's head and torso in the left-hand ambulance design. Some states have adopt-
forward portion of the ambulance body, are ed this federal standard, while others have
usually covered with a seamless sheet of their own design requirements. Because an
stainless steel to resist the effects of blood ambulance is a motor vehicle, the Federal
and other body fluids. Interior seating and Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS)
other upholstered areas have a flame-retar- apply to the vehicle portion. Certain Occu-
dant foam padding with a vinyl covering. pational Safety and Health Administration
7
Interior cabinets are usually made

of aluminum with transparent,
shatter-resistant plastic panels in
the doors. The counter and wall
surfaces in the "action area," are
usually covered with a seamless
sheet of stainless steel to resist the
effects of blood and other body
fluids. Interior seating and other
upholstered areas have a flame- Seating
retardant foam padding with a
vinyl covering. Interior grab han-
dles and grab rails are made of
stainless steel. Other interior trim
pieces may be made of various
rubber or plastic materials.
Corner cabinetry
Interior
Biohazard drawer
(OSHA) standards regarding blood-borne standard machine shop tools, or are cut
and airborne pathogens also apply. Within from specially shaped aluminum extrusions
the framework of these standards, manufac- that have been purchased from suppliers.
turers may specify specific features and ma- The components are held in the proper po-
terials to provide their products with unique sition with a device called a jig and are
advantages in the marketplace. welded together to form the body frame-
work.
The Manufacturing
Process 2The exterior skin pieces are fabricated
Ambulances are usually manufactured in a using standard sheet metal shop tools
modified assembly line process, where the and are fastened to the outside of the
vehicle or body moves from one fixed area framework using either mechanical fasten-
of a plant to another, rather than being ers or adhesive bonding. The external com-
pulled along an assembly line. Specific parts partments are fabricated and welded in
are brought to each area for installation or place. Finally, the external body doors are
assembly. Different manufacturers may use fabricated and are fastened in place on
slightly different processes. The following is hinges.
a typical sequence of operations for the
manufacture of a Type I ambulance with a
modular body. 3The outside of the body shell is then
cleaned, sanded, and spray painted with a
primer. Next, a sealer is applied. This is fol-
Building the body shell lowed by a base coat of paint, usually white,
The structural components of the ambu- and then a clear coat of paint to protect the
lance body-the supporting struts, base color and give the surface a shiny ap-
braces, and brackets for the floor, sides, pearance. Between each coat, the body is
and roof-are either bent to shape using placed in an oven to dry.
8
Ambulance
Preparing the cab and chassis With all the systems in place, the inte-
rior cabinets are installed and the
4Additional wiring is added to the cab, walls, floors, and ceilings are covered. The
£4chassis, and engine electrical system to electrical power distribution board is in-
accommodate the warning lights and sirens stalled in a forward compartment of the
and to bring power to the body. Additional body and the panel is connected to the cab
switches and controls are added to the dash and chassis electrical wiring. If the ambu-
as required. The heating and air condition- lance is specified with an inverter, which
ing system may also be modified. converts 12 volts direct current from the ve-
5Holes are drilled in the vehicle frame hicle batteries into 120 volts altemating cur-
5rails and mounting brackets are installed rent for use with certain medical equipment,
to support the ambulance body. The frame it is also installed at this time.
rails may be cut to the proper length for the
12 The seats and upholstery pieces, which
body.
are either purchased or assembled in a
separate area, are fastened in place. The in-
Mounting the body terior grab handles, containers, and trim
6The painted body shell is lowered onto pieces are installed as the final step.
the chassis mounting brackets and is
bolted in place.
Quality Control
7The cab is usually ordered with the same The design of ambulances is regulated by
background color as the body, and does several standards, and the manufacturer
not require priming or base/clear painting. must take appropriate steps to ensure com-
Most ambulances are specified with one or pliance with those standards. Each system is
more colored stripes that extend along the inspected and tested for proper installation
sides and rear of the cab and body. The and operation as part of the manufacturing
areas around the stripes are masked off with process. In addition, every material, from
paper and tape so that the position of the the aluminum in the body to the foam in the
stripes on the cab and the body match. The head rests, is certified by the manufacturer
stripes are then painted and dried, and the to meet the required specifications.
masking removed.
8 The front and rear bumpers, which are The Future
Vnot painted, are then installed. If the mir-
rors have been removed to paint the stripes, Many fire departments are finding that ap-
they are reinstalled. proximately 80-90% of their calls are for
medical emergencies, while only 10-20%
are for fires. In the case of medical emer-
Finishing the body gencies, an ambulance has to be called in
9The electrical wiring in the body walls addition to the fire engine. Instead of re-
and ceiling is installed from the inside, sponding to all calls with large pumpers or
and foam panels are bonded in place to pro- ladder trucks, some fire departments are
vide thermal and noise insulation. With the starting to use smaller, lower-cost first-re-
wiring in place, the exterior lights are sponse vehicles that combine the equipment
mounted and connected, and the exterior and patient transport capabilities of a rescue
latches, grab handles, windows, and other truck and ambulance with the fire suppres-
trim pieces are installed. sion capabilities of a small pumper. These
combination vehicles are able to handle a
The oxygen piping and outlets, which variety of emergency situations, including
are part of the patient life-support sys- those involving small fires such as might
tem, are installed in the body walls. The occur in vehicle accidents. This saves wear
vacuum system, which removes blood, sali- on the larger firefighting vehicles, and elim-
va, and other body fluids is also installed. If inates the need to dispatch two vehicles to
the ambulance body requires an auxiliary the same incident. In the future, an increase
heating and air-conditioning system, it is in- in traffic congestion and an increase in the
stalled at this time. average age of the population in the United
9
States are expected to increase the number Sachs, Gordon M. "The Evolution of the
of medical emergency calls. When this hap- Fire Service EMS Vehicle."Fire Engineer-
pens, it is expected that the single-function ing (July 1998): 22, 24, 26.
ambulance may be replaced by a multi-func-
tion combination vehicle in many areas. Other
Federal Specifications for Ambulances.
Where to Learn More General Services Administration Standard
KKK-A- 1822.
Books
Barkley, Katherine Traver. Ambulance: The American Emergency Vehicles. September
Story of Emergency Transportation of Sick 28, 1998. http://www.ambu1ance.com/ (June
and Wounded Through the Centuries. 29, 1999).
_, 1990. McCoy Miller Corporation website. May 26,
1999. http://www.mccoymiller.com/ (June
Haller, John S. Jr. Farmcarts to Fords: A 29, 1999).
History of the Military Ambulance, 1790-
1925. Southern Illinois University Press, Road Rescue, Inc. http://www.roadrescue.
1992. com/ (June 29, 1999).
McCall, Walt and Tom McPherson.Classic -Chris Cavette
American Ambulances. Iconografix, 1999.
Periodicals
Kelly, Jack. "Rescue Squad."American Her-
itage (May/June 1996): 91-99.
10
Antiperspirant/
Deodorant Stick
Background body metabolism, it does noticeably lessen Body odor is primarily
underarm wetness.
Antiperspirant/deodorant (APD) sticks are generated in the area
used to reduce underarm wetness and con-
trol body odor. These products are made by History under the arms where
blending active ingredients with waxes, oils, there is a high
and silicones and molding the mixture into Products to control body odor and wetness
stick form. have been used for centuries. Before bathing concentration of sweat
became commonplace, people used heavy
Body odor is primarily generated in the area colognes to mask body odor. In the late nine- glands. While sweat from
under the arms where there is a high concen- teenth century, chemists developed products
tration of sweat glands. While sweat from that were able to prevent the formation of these glands is initially
these glands is initially odorless, it contains these odors. Early antiperspirants were pastes odorless, it contains
natural oils, called lipids, that provide a that were applied to the underarm area; the
growth medium for bacteria living on the first such product to be trademarked in the natural oils, called lipids,
skin. These bacteria interact with the lipids, United States was Mum in 1888. It was a
converting them into compounds that have a waxy cream that was difficult to apply and that provide a growth
characteristic sweaty odor. Isovaleric acid, extremely messy. A few years later, Everdry, medium for bacteria living
for example, is one chemical compound that the first antiperspirant to use aluminum chlo-
gives sweat its smell. ride was developed. Within 15 years, a vari- on the skin. These bacteria
ety of products were marketed in a number of
There are two primary types of products different forms including creams, solids, interact with the lipids,
used to control body odor. The first, de- pads, dabbers, roll-ons, and powders. converting them into
odorants, reduce body odor by killing the
odor-causing bacteria. These products do In the late 1950s, manufacturers began compounds that have a
not affect the amount of perspiration the using aerosol technology to dispense per-
body produces. Antiperspirants, on the sonal care products such as perfumes and characteristic sweaty odor.
other hand, inhibit the activity of sweat shaving creams. In the early 1960s, Gillette
glands so less moisture is produced. In ad- introduced Right Guard, the first aerosol an-
dition to avoiding unpleasant wetness, these tiperspirant. Aerosols became a popular way
products also decrease odor because there is to dispense antiperspirants because they al-
less sweat for the bacteria to act upon. lowed the user to apply without having to
While deodorants are considered to be cos- touch the underarm area. By 1967, half the
metic products because they only control antiperspirants sold in the United States
odor, antiperspirants are actually drugs be- were in aerosol form, and by the early
cause they affect the physiology of the 1970s, they accounted for 82% of all sales.
body. Although the exact mechanism of this
physiological interaction is not fully under- However, later that decade two technical is-
stood, theory has it that antiperspirant salts sues arose which greatly impacted the popu-
form temporary plugs in some of the sweat larity of these products. First, in 1977, the
gland openings so that moisture is not se- Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
creted. While this moisture reduction is not banned the primary active ingredient used in
severe enough to interfere with normal aerosols, aluminum zirconium complexes,
I 1
Elevator '
platform
Solid Hollow case
Threaded spindle
STICK
Antiperspirant
Antiperspirant sticks are packaged

in hollow tubes with an elevator due to concerns about long term inhalation ing. Such products were generally associat-
platform inside that moves up and safety. (This ingredient remains safe for use ed with deodorants for men. Because of
down to dispense the product. In in stick form.) Next, the Environmental Pro- breakthroughs in ingredient technology that
some packages, this platform can tection Agency (EPA) strictly limited the use allowed for drier, more efficacious products,
be pushed up by hand, in others it of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) propellants sticks gained acceptance between 1974-
is elevated by turning a screw that used in aerosols due to growing concerns 1978. Consumers embraced sticks as an al-
causes it to travel up along a cen-
tral threaded post. that these gases may contribute to the deple- ternative to aerosols and their market share
tion of the ozone layer. CFCs were preferred swelled to over 35% by the mid 1980s.
as propellants for antiperspirants because Today, sticks are the single most popular
they gave a soft dry spray. Although the in- antiperspirant form.
dustry reformulated their products to be safe
and efficacious, it was too late. Consumers
had lost confidence in aerosol antiperspi- Raw Materials
rants. By 1977, sales of the reformulated ver- Antiperspirants consist of the active drug in-
sions dropped to only 50% of the market, gredients that control perspiration; gelling
and by 1982, they dipped below 32%. While agents that form the stick matrix; and other
some brands still offer antiperspirants in ingredients, such as fragrance or colorants,
aerosol form, today these account for a very that make the product aesthetically pleasing.
small percentage of the total market.
Active ingredients
As the popularity of aerosols waned, an-
tiperspirants in stick form became increas- The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
ingly popular. In 1974, sticks held only controls the active ingredients used in an-
about 4% of the market and they were con- tiperspirants because they are legally classi-
sidered to be wet and aesthetically unpleas- fied as drugs. The FDA publishes an Over
1 2
Antiperspirant/Deodorant Stick
the Counter (OTC) Drug monograph that Filling
lists which ingredients are approved for use.
The ingredients on this list are limited to 2 Stick packages are typically hollow
aluminum chlorohydrate, aluminum chlo- tubes with an elevator platform inside
ride, aluminum sulfate, and aluminum zirco- that moves up and down to dispense the
nium complexes. Of these compounds, the product. In some packages, this platform
most commonly used is aluminum zirconi- can be pushed up by hand, in others it is ele-
um tetrachlorohydrex glycine. Most of these vated by turning a screw that causes it to
materials are supplied as powders, and they travel up along a central threaded post.
are typically used at levels of 8-25% based These empty containers move along a con-
on the weight of the finished product. veyor belt where the molten product is dis-
pensed through a filling nozzle. The exact
process varies depending on whether the
Gelling agents package is designed to be filled from the top
or bottom. In general, the product is filled
The bulk of the formulation consists of slightly above its congealing temperature so
waxy or fatty materials that are gelled to that it flows easily. If it is filled too hot, the
form a solid stick. Common examples in- dispersed solids may settle to the bottom; if
clude stearyl alcohol, cetyl alcohol, hydro- it is filled too cold, air bubbles will be
genated castor oil, and glyceryl stearate. trapped in the stick.
These waxy materials are blended with lu-
bricating oils and emollients such as cy- Finishing operations
clomethicone, which is a volatile silicone
compound. These silicones are liquids at ')Sticks may then go through subsequent
room temperature, but they quickly evapo- 3Jfinishing operations to ensure the sur-
rate and are used because they leave the face is smooth and that they are free from
skin feeling smooth and dry. In addition, trapped pockets of air. These operations
talc, starches, or other powders may be usually involve heating the tops of the sticks
added to control stick consistency and to slightly by passing them under an infrared
give the product a dry feel and a smooth lamp.
payoff.
4 A probe is then stuck into the center of
'4the stick to allow air to escape and the
Other ingredients surface is heated again to remelt the prod-
Fragrance and colorants may be added to uct, allowing it to flow into the void.
the formula to improve its odor or appear- At the next station, the sticks pass
ance. Some brands have fragrances that are 5Jthrough a refrigeration tunnel that rapid-
time released. Other brands may add fea- ly lowers the temperature and forces them to
tured ingredients that contribute little func- solidify. Depending on the package design,
tionality but are designed to increase con- a top or bottom piece is put into place to seal
sumer appeal. the container.
6 Finally, the sticks may pass through
The Manufacturing cleaning stations before they are placed
Process in cartons for shipping.
Batching Quality Control

In the batching process, ingredients are
combined in a jacketed stainless steel ket-
Safety testing
tle. Steam heat is applied to melt the ingre- Safety testing guidelines are recommended
dients while the batch is being mixed. Dur- by the Cosmetics, Toiletries, and Fragrance
ing the blending process, the temperature Association (CTFA), the primary trade or-
must be carefully controlled to avoid ganization for the cosmetic industry. While
scorching the waxy ingredients. Once all the these guidelines are not absolute rules, they
ingredients have been added to the batch, it do give manufacturers an indication of the
is blended until uniform. minimal level of testing that should be done
13
to ensure their products are safe. These tests wise unsuited for refilling must be disposed
include evaluation of the irritation potential of in accordance with local regulations.
(for skin and eyes), contact sensitization
(where contact with the product can result in
a chemical delayed reaction), photodermati- The Future
tis (where light interacts with the product to Clear APD sticks have gained popularity in
cause a reaction), as well as toxicity (both the 1990s. Although the first clear stick
ingested and inhaled.) products appeared as early as 1979, these
early products had stability problems and did
not have a significant impact on the market.
Efficacy testing Since the late 1970s, chemists for various
According to the OTC monograph, antiper- companies have struggled to advance clear
spirants must reduce the amount of perspira- APD stick technology. It wasn't until 1993,
tion by at least 20% and a variety of test when Bristol Myers introduced Ban for Man,
methods are used to ensure formulations that clear stick products achieved significant
meet this requirement. One method, known commercial success. It is also interesting to
as the visualization technique, shows the ac- note earlier that year Gillette began spending
tion of the sweat glands via a color change. millions of dollars in advertising for the
This is done by first painting the skin with a launch of its Cool Wave clear APD gel-stick.
mixture of iodine castor oil and alcohol. This product was actually a gel, but it was
After drying, the skin is then whitened with dispensed from a stick-type package. The
a layer of powdered starch. When sweat long term market impact of clear APD sticks
droplets are exuded, they appear as very and gel-sticks remains to be seen.
dark spots against the white background.
Another method involves painting a silicone
polymer painted onto the skin to form a Where to Learn More
film. The subject is made to sweat by expo-
sure to elevated temperature or by physical Books
exertion and the film is peeled off and ex- Laden, Karl. Antiperspirants and Deodor-
amined for tiny holes formed by the sweat ants New York: Marcel Dekker, 1988.
drops. A relative measure of the amount of
sweat produced by the body can be obtained
by counting the number of holes in the film. Periodicals
Sweat production can also be measured "Flexibility is the hallmark of fluid packag-
using infrared gas sensors that detect mois- ing."Drug & Cosmetic Industry (June
ture loss. In this process, a constant stream 1996): 98.
of gas is passed over the subject's armpits
and is subsequently analyzed for moisture "Gillette deodorants are fit to fill upside-
content. Gravimetric techniques are also down."Packaging Digest (September 1993):
used to measure the amount of sweat col- 54.
lected on cotton balls.
Kintish, Lisa."A Clear Advantage. The
emergence of clear technology has given a
Byproducts/Waste much-needed boost to the antiperspirant
During the filling process, overfilling or and deodorant market."Soap-Cosmetics-
spillage may occur, resulting in scrap prod- Chemical Specialties (July 1997): 29.
uct. This can usually be returned to the batch
tank and remelted. Depending on the quanti- Springer, Neil and Helga Tilton. "Staying
ty of material involved and the degree of re- Power."Chemical Marketing Reporter (Au-
heating, the batch may have to be assayed to gust 9, 1993): SR12.
ensure it still meets quality specifications.
Additional solvent or fragrance may be Strandberg, Keith. "Antiperspirant & De-
added to replace that which was driven off odorant Update."Soap-Cosmetics-Chemical
during the reheating operation. The product Specialties (April 1993): 30.
can then be filled into the packages. Any
waste material that is contaminated or other- -Randy Schueller
114
Artificial Blood
Artificial blood is a product made to act as a membranes of these cells are proteins that It is anticipated that when
substitute for red blood cells. While true the body recognizes as its own. For this rea-
blood serves many different functions, arti- son, a person can use only blood that is an artificial blood product
ficial blood is designed for the sole purpose compatible with her type. Currently, artifi- is available, it will have
of transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide cial blood products are only designed to re-
throughout the body. Depending on the type place the function of red blood cells. It annual sales of over $7.6
of artificial blood, it can be produced in dif- might even be better to call the products
ferent ways using synthetic production, being developed now, oxygen carriers in- billion in the United States
chemical isolation, or recombinant bio- stead of artificial blood. alone.
chemical technology. Development of the
first blood substitutes dates back to the early
1600s, and the search for the ideal blood History
substitute continues. Various manufacturers There has been a need for blood replace-
have products in clinical trials; however, no ments for as long as patients have been
truly safe and effective artificial blood prod- bleeding to death because of a serious in-
uct is currently marketed. It is anticipated jury. According to medical foLldore, the an-
that when an artificial blood product is cient Incas were responsible for the first
available, it will have annual sales of over recorded blood transfusions. No real
$7.6 billion in the United States alone. progress was made in the development of a
blood substitute until 1616, when William
Harvey described how blood is circulated
Background throughout the body. In the years to follow,
Blood is a special type of connective tissue medical practitioners tried numerous sub-
that is composed of white cells, red cells, stances such as beer, urine, milk, plant
platelets, and plasma. It has a variety of resins, and sheep blood as a substitute for
functions in the body. Plasma is the extracel- blood. They had hoped that changing a per-
lular material made up of water, salts, and son's blood could have different beneficial
various proteins that, along with platelets, effects such as curing diseases or even
encourages blood to clot. Proteins in the changing a personality. The first successful
plasma react with air and harden to prevent human blood transfusions were done in
further bleeding. The white blood cells are 1667. Unfortunately, the practice was halted
responsible for the immune defense. They because patients who received subsequent
seek out invading organisms or materials and transfusions died.
minimize their effect in the body.
Of the different materials that were tried as
The red cells in blood create the bright red blood substitutes over the years, only a few
color. As little as two drops of blood con- met with minimal success. Milk was one of
tains about one billion red blood cells. the first of these materials. In 1854, patients
These cells are responsible for the trans- were injected with milk to treat Asiatic
portation of oxygen and carbon dioxide cholera. Physicians believed that the milk
throughout the body. They are also respon- helped regenerate white blood cells. In fact,
sible for the "typing" phenomena. On the enough of the patients given milk as a blood
15
substitute seemed to improve that it was

concluded to be a safe and legitimate blood
replacement procedure. However, many
practitioners remained skeptical so milk in-
jections never found widespread appeal. It
was soon discarded and forgotten as a blood
replacement.
Another potential substitute was salt or

saline solutions. In experiments done on
frogs, scientists found that they could keep
frogs alive for some time if they removed all
their blood and replaced it with a saline so-
lution. These results were a little mislead-
ing, however, because it was later deter-
mined that frogs could survive for a short
time without any blood circulation at all.
After much research, saline was developed
as a plasma volume expander.
Other materials that were tried during the

1800s include hemoglobin and animal plas-
ma. In 1868, researchers found that solu-
tions containing hemoglobin isolated from
red blood cells could be used as blood re-
placements. In 1871, they also examined the
use of animal plasma and blood as a substi-
tute for human blood. Both of these ap-
proaches were hampered by significant
technological problems. First, scientists
found it difficult to isolate a large volume of
hemoglobin. Second, animal products con-
tained many materials that were toxic to hu-
mans. Removing these toxins was a chal-
lenge during the nineteenth century.
A significant breakthrough in the develop-

ment of artificial blood came in 1883 with the
creation of Ringer's solution—a solution
composed of sodium, potassium, and calcium
salts. In research using part of a frog's heart,
scientists found that the heart could be kept
beating by applying the solution. This eventu-
ally led to findings that the reduction in blood
pressure caused by a loss of blood volume
could be restored by using Ringer's solution.
This product evolved into a human product
when lactate was added. While it is still used
today as a blood-volume expander, Ringer's
solution does not replace the action of red
blood cells so it is not a true blood substitute.
Blood transfusion research did not move

forward until scientists developed a better
understanding of the role of blood and the
issues surrounding its function in the body.
During World War I, a gum-saline solution
16
Artificial Blood
containing galactoso-gluconic acid was used natural blood which can only be stored for
to extend plasma. If the concentration, pH, one month before it breaks down. There are
and temperature were adjusted, this material two significantly different products that are
could be designed to match the viscosity of under development as blood substitutes.
whole blood, allowing physicians to use less They differ primarily in the way that they
plasma. In the 1920s, studies suggested that carry oxygen. One is based on PFC, while
this gum solution had some negative health the other is a hemoglobin-based product.
effects. By the 1930s, the use of this materi-
al had significantly diminished. World War Perfluorocarbons (PFC)
II reignited an interest in the research of
blood and blood substitutes. Plasma donated As suggested, PFC are biologically inert ma-
from humans was commonly used to replace terials that can dissolve about 50 times more
blood and to save soldiers from hemorrhagic oxygen than blood plasma. They are rela-
shock. Eventually, this led to the establish- tively inexpensive to produce and can be
ment of blood banks by the American Red made devoid of any biological materials.
Cross in 1947. This eliminates the real possibility of spread-
ing an infectious disease via a blood transfu-
In 1966, experiments with mice suggested a sion. From a technological standpoint, they
new type of blood substitute, perfluoro- have two significant hurdles to overcome be-
chemicals (PFC). These are long chain poly- fore they can be utilized as artificial blood.
mers similar to Teflon. It was found that First, they are not soluble in water, which
mice could survive even after being im- means to get them to work they must be
mersed in PFC. This gave scientists the idea combined with emulsifiers-fatty com-
to use PFC as a blood thinner. In 1968, the pounds called lipids that are able to suspend
idea was tested on rats. The rat's blood was tiny particles of perfluorochemicals in the
completely removed and replaced with a blood. Second, they have the ability to carry
PFC emulsion. The animals lived for a few much less oxygen than hemoglobin-based
hours and recovered fully after their blood products. This means that significantly more
was replaced. PFC must be used. One product of this type
has been approved for use by the Federal
However, the established blood bank system Drug Administration (FDA), but it has not
worked so well research on blood substi- been commercially successful because the
tutes waned. It received renewed interest amount needed to provide a benefit is too
when the shortcomings of the blood bank high. Improved PFC emulsions are being de-
system were discovered during the Vietnam veloped but have yet to reach the market.
conflict. This prompted some researchers to
begin looking for hemoglobin solutions and
other synthetic oxygen carriers. Research in Hemoglobin-based products
this area was further fueled in 1986 when it Hemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs
was discovered that HIV and hepatitis could to the other tissues in the body. Artificial
be transmitted via blood transfusions. blood based on hemoglobin takes advantage
of this natural function. Unlike PFC products
where dissolving is the key mechanism, oxy-
Design gen covalently bonds to hemoglobin. These
The ideal artificial blood product has the fol- hemoglobin products are different than
lowing characteristics. First, it must be safe whole blood in that they are not contained in
to use and compatible within the human a membrane so the problem of blood typing
body. This means that different blood types is eliminated. However, raw hemoglobin
should not matter when an artificial blood is cannot be used because it would break down
used. It also means that artificial blood can into smaller, toxic compounds within the
be processed to remove all disease-causing body. There are also problems with the sta-
agents such as viruses and microorganisms. bility of hemoglobin in a solution. The chal-
Second, it must be able to transport oxygen lenge in creating a hemoglobin-based artifi-
throughout the body and release it where it is cial blood is to modify the hemoglobin
needed. Third, it must be shelf stable. Unlike molecule so these problems are resolved.
donated blood, artificial blood can be stored Various strategies are employed to stabilize
for over a year or more. This is in contrast to hemoglobin. This involves either chemically
17
3 y
|Ecoliocteria strain | Sedtnkk | Fermenttion
Artificial blood can be produced

in different ways using synthetic cross-linking molecules or using recombi- based products, this involves isolation or
production, chemical isolation, or nant DNA technology to produce modified synthesization of hemoglobin, molecular
recombinant biochemical technol- proteins. These modified hemoglobins are modification then reconstitution in an artifi-
ogy. Synthetic hemoglobin-based stable and soluble in solutions. Theoretical- cial blood formula. PFC products involve a
products are produced from he- ly, these modifications should result in prod- polymerization reaction. A method for the
moglobin harvested from an ucts that have a greater ability to carry oxy- production of a synthetic hemoglobin-based
E. coli bacteria strain. The hemo- gen than our own red blood cells. It is product is outlined below.
globin is grown in a seed tank anticipated that the first of these products
and then fermented.
will be available within one to two years. Hemoglobin synthesis
To obtain hemoglobin, a strain of E. coli
Raw Materials bacteria that has the ability to produce
Depending on the type of artificial blood human hemoglobin is used. Over the course
that is made, various raw materials are used. of about three days, the protein is harvested
Hemoglobin-based products can use either and the bacteria are destroyed. To start the
isolated hemoglobin or synthetically pro- fermentation process, a sample of the pure
duced hemoglobin. bacteria culture is transferred to a test tube
that contains all the nutrients necessary for
To produce hemoglobin synthetically, manu- growth. This initial inoculation causes the
facturers use compounds known as amino bacteria to multiply. When the population is
acids. These are chemicals that plants and great enough, they are transferred to a seed
animals use to create the proteins that are es- tank.
sential for life. There are 20 naturally occur-
ring amino acids that may be used to pro- 2 A seed tank is a large stainless steel ket-
duce hemoglobin. All of the amino acid tle that provides an ideal environment
molecules share certain chemical character- for growing bacteria. It is filled with warm
istics. They are made up of an amino group, water, food, and an ammonia source which
a carboxyl group, and a side chain. The na- are all required for the production of hemo-
ture of the side chain differentiates the vari- globin. Other growth factors such as vita-
ous amino acids. Hemoglobin synthesis also mins, amino acids, and minor nutrients are
requires a specific type of bacteria and all of also added. The bacterial solution inside the
the materials needed to incubate it. This in- seed tank is constantly bathed with com-
cludes warm water, molasses, glucose, acetic pressed air and mixed to keep it moving.
acid, alcohols, urea, and liquid ammonia. When enough time has passed, the contents
of the seed tank is pumped to the fermenta-
For other types of hemoglobin-based artifi- tion tank.
cial blood products, the hemoglobin is iso-
lated from human blood. It is typically ob- The fermentation tank is a larger version
tained from donated blood that has expired 3J of the seed tank. It is also filled with a
before it is used. Other sources of hemoglo- growth media needed for the bacteria to grow
bin come from spent animal blood. This he- and produce hemoglobin. Since pH control is
moglobin is slightly different from human vital for optimal growth, ammonia water is
hemoglobin and must be modified before added to the tank as necessary. When enough
being used. hemoglobin has been produced, the tank is
emptied so isolation can begin.
The Manufacturing 4 Isolation begins with a centrifugal sepa-
Process rator that isolates much of the hemoglo-
The production of artificial blood can be bin. It can be further segregated and purified
done in a variety of ways. For hemoglobin- using fractional distillation. This standard
18
Artificial Blood
Once fermented, the hemoglobin
is purified and then mixed with
water and other electrolytes to
create useable artificial blood.
column separation method is based on the regularly during the entire process. Particu-
principle of boiling a liquid to separate one larly important are frequent checks made on
or more components and utilizes vertical the bacterial culture. Also, various physical
structures called fractionating columns. and chemical properties of the finished prod-
From this column, the hemoglobin is trans- uct are checked such as pH, melting point,
ferred to a final processing tank. moisture content, etc. This method of produc-
tion has been shown to be able to produce
Final processing batches as large as 2,640 gal (10,000 L).
Here, it is mixed with water and other The Future
%Jelectrolytes to produce the artificial
blood. The artificial blood can then be pas- Currently, there are several companies
teurized and put into an appropriate packag- working on the production of a safe and ef-
ing. The quality of compounds is checked fective artificial blood substitute. The vari-
19
ous blood substitutes all suffer from certain Periodicals

limitations. For example, most of the hemo-
globin-based products last no more than 20- Fricker, Janet. "Artificial blood - bad news
30 hours in the body. This compares to for vampires?"The Lancet (May 11, 1996).
transfusions of whole blood that lasts 34 Maclean Hunter, "The Quest for Blood:
days. Also, these blood substitutes do not Blood substitutes may ease chronic short-
mimic the blood's ability to fight diseases ages."Maclean 's (August 24, 1998).
and clot. Consequently, the current artificial
blood technology will be limited to short- Robb, W. J. "Searching for an ideal blood
term blood replacement applications. In the substitute."RN (August 1998).
future, it is anticipated that new materials to
carry oxygen in the body will be found. Ad- Ross, Philip. "Brewing blood: can Somato-
ditionally, longer lasting products should be gen bring its artificial blood to
developed, as well as products that perform market?"Forbes (November 17, 1997).
the other functions of blood.
Winslow, R. "Blood Substitutes - A Mov-
ing Target."Nature Medicine (1995).
Where to Learn More -Perry Romanowski
Books
Winslow, R. Hemoglobin-Based Red Cell
Substitutes. Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1992.
20
Artificial Flower
Background they looked down on both dried flowers and As early as the twelfth
artificial flowers as inferior. Today, silk
Silk and other artificial flowers manufac- flowers are prized for their versatility and are century, the Italians
tured today are breathtakingly real and must used by florists to enhance live plants and
be touched if they are to be distinguished mingle with cut blossoms. This tradition is
began making artificial
from nature's own. Silk trees bring the out- hundreds of years old and is believed to have florals from the cocoons
doors into sterile offices, and flower been started by the Chinese who mastered
arrangements change the color and feel of a the skills of working with silk as well as cre- of silkworms, assembling
room for a relatively small investment. Hob- ating elaborate floral replicas. The Chinese
byists find them a joy to work with and take the dyed, velvety blooms,
used artificial flowers for artistic expression,
pleasure in completing arrangements that but they were not responsible for turning silk and selling them.
make beautiful, lasting gifts and ornaments. flower-making into a business.
The vast improvements in the quality of arti-
ficial flowers as well as lifestyles that de- As early as the twelfth century, the Italians
mand carefree home decorating accessories began making artificial florals from the co-
have caused a flowering of the artificial coons of silkworms, assembling the dyed,
flower industry into a multi-billion-dollar velvety blooms, and selling them. The
business. Many of the individual flowers, French began to rival their European neigh-
stems, and foliage are now imported from bors, and, by the fourteenth century, French
Thailand, China, and Honduras where the silk flowers were the top of the craft. The
intensive hand labor can be acquired more French continued to improve both fabrics
readily. and the quality of flowers made from them.
In 1775, Marie Antoinette was presented
Faux flowers allow home decorators to defy with a silk rosebud, and it was said to be so
the seasons, not only by having summer perfect that it caused her to faint. The Revo-
blooms in the dead of winter but by mixing lution that ended Marie Antoinette's reign
flowers from several seasons in a single dis- also dispatched many French flower artisans
play. Some manufacturers use real materials to England, and, by the early 1 800s, English
to enhance silk flowers, such as inserting arti- settlers had taken the craft with them to
ficial branches in real tree trunks. Real touch- America.
es are also added to the false flora; leaves
may have holes that look like insect damage, The Victorian Age was the setting for a true
silk roses are complete to the thorns, and explosion in floral arts, including both living
some fabulous fakes are even fragrant. Their and artificial varieties. The Victorians fa-
ultimate attraction may be their least natural vored an overdone style of decor in which
aspects; these plants don't need water, fertil- every table and mantelpiece bore flowers or
izer, sunlight, or tender care. other ornaments. Flowers were so adored
that "the language of flowers" grew to cult
History status in which floral bouquets carried mes-
sages and meanings. During the mid- to late-
Florists call silk and other artificial flowers 1800s, artificial flowers were made of a
"permanent botanicals," and for many years, wider variety of materials than any time be-
21
The manufacture of high-quality

artificial flowers made of silk,
rayon, or cotton involves die-cut-
fing each petal size from the cho-
sen fabric, hand dyeing the
petals, and then molding the
petals to create a life-like effect.
Wires are inserted by hand after
the petals are pressed. Each
flower is assembled individually,
and once complete, the flowers
are wrapped in florist's paper,
and the stems are placed in boxes
as if they are to be delivered like a
bouquet of real flowers.
fore or since. Fabrics included satin, velvet, supplied silk flowers and other artificial flo-
calico, muslin, cambric, crepe, and gauze. rals to milliners, makers of bridal and ball
Other materials included wood, porcelain, gowns, and other dressmakers, as well as for
palm leaves, and metal. Wax flowers were room decoration. They sold separate stems
popular and became their own art form, and and arrangements that were either pre-made
flowers were even made of human hair espe- or commissioned. By 1920, florists began to
cially to commemorate deceased loved ones. add them to their products and services to
cover those times when cut blossoms were
In the United States, lavish arrangements in short supply.
and apparel made use of permanent botani-
cals. The Parisian Flower Company, which The trend toward wreaths and ornaments
had offices in both New York and Paris, using false fruit in the Italian della Rob-
22
Artificial Flower
bia style flourished in the 1920s and Design
1930s and waned by 1940. Celluloid be-
came a popular material for flowers in Most silk flowers are sold by the stem. Their
the 1940s, but the highly flammable designs begin with nature. When a silk
flowers were banned from importation flower manufacturer plans to make a new
from Japan after several disastrous fires. design of a magnolia, for example, the de-
Plastic soon overwhelmed the industry, signer takes a magnolia fresh from the tree
however, and is still responsible for its and dissects it to use the actual parts as
versatility in the 1990s. Inexpensive models. Dies called tools must be made to
plastics to realistic silk blossoms offer cut the silk petals. The exact petals are used
something for everyone. to design these tools, and three or four are
required to make the different sizes of petals
that comprise the flower. The leaves also re-
quire several tools. The cutting dies are ex-
Raw Mcaterials pensive to machine, so the manufacturer
makes a significant financial commitment
Artificial flowers are made in a wide vari- when investing in a new design.
ety of materials depending on the market
the manufacturer is reaching. In quantity,
polyester has become the fabric of choice Silk flower design is also heavily influenced
by flower makers and purchasers because by trends in interior design and fashion.
of lower cost, ability of the fabric to accept Manufacturers attend trade shows to learn
dyes and glues, and durability. Plastic is about colors and styles in wallpaper and fur-
also the material used most often for the niture or summer dresses and hats that are
stems, berries, and other parts of flowers forecast for one to two years ahead.
for the market that includes picks-small
clusters of artificial flowers on short plastic
and wire stems that can be inserted into The Manufacturing
forms to make quick, inexpensive floral Process
decorations-and bulk sales of longer The manufacturing process described below
stems of flowers that are also less expen- features high-quality silk flowers that are
sive. Artificial flowers are made of paper, sold by the stem and are made for custom
cotton, parchment, latex, rubber, sateen decorating, millinery, other fashion acces-
(for large, bold-colored flowers and sbries, displays, package ornamentation,
arrangements), and dried materials, includ- candy companies, and floristry.
ing flowers and plant parts, berries, feath-
ers and fruits. l White silk, rayon, or cotton fabric are
used for all petals, regardless of their fin-
For more upscale silk flowers, silk, rayon, ished color. The fabric is die-cut using the
and cotton are the fibers of choice. Wire in tools described above into the many petal
a wide range of gauges or diameters is sizes and shapes that go into a single type of
used for firmness in creating the stems flower. The petals are dyed in the first step
(and in stiffening some flower petals and of a detailed hand assembly process. The
parts), but the wire is wrapped with spe- dyer uses cotton balls and paintbrushes to
cially dyed, tear-resistant, durable paper. touch color onto the petals beginning with
No plastic is used. Other natural materials the edges of the petal and working in toward
such as dried flowers, feathers, and berries the center. Dyeing a single petal can take an
are also significant in the upper end mar- hour of concentrated work.
ket. To make fruit and some berries, spe-
cialty suppliers manufacture forms that are 2 To give them their distinctive curves,
precisely sized and shaped to look like the wrinkles, and other shapes, the petals are
real fruit from mixtures of tapioca or flour inserted in molds to which heat is applied to
base. The forms are sold to the flower press the petals into individual shapes. After
manufacturer who dyes them and mounts they are pressed, some petals and leaves are
them on paper-wrapped stems or stalks. stiffened with thin wires. The wires are in-
All dyes and glues are also derived from serted by hand, and glue is touched on to fix
natural materials. the wire in place.
23
3 The separate flowers and sprays of beauty of faux flowers. Technology is also
3leaves are assembled individually, but used to produce dried-look and soft-touch
several of each may be used to construct a (velvet touch) plants; foliage especially has
single stem. Another skilled worker has benefited from soft-touch processing that
taken wire precut to specified lengths and varies the sizes of leaves on a single branch
covered it with floral paper or tape that has a and gives them a warm, gentle feel.
waxy coating to make it self-sticking. Final-
ly, assemblers add the individual flowers The future of artificial flowers is likely to
and sprays of leaves to the stem. imitate its long past. People like to be sur-
rounded by beautiful representations from
4 The finished stems are taken to the nature, but they also want the convenience
1I packing department. Each stem is of low-maintenance, everlasting flowers.
wrapped in florist's paper, and the stems are Our homes and fashions benefit from the ad-
placed in boxes as if they are to be delivered dition of artificial flowers, and many other
like a bouquet of real flowers. The boxes are businesses from millinery to confectionery
sealed and stored for shipment. rely on silk flowers to add the finishing
touch to their products.
Quality Control
As with most hand-assembled products, silk
Where to Learn More
flowers are inspected by workers at each step Books
of the process. The assemblers are responsi-
ble for rejecting imperfect flower parts; for Beveridge, Ardith and Shelly Urban. "Per-
example, if the presser receives petals that manent Botanicals" In A Centennial Histo-
have dye spots on them, the presser rejects ry of the American Florist. Topeka, KS:
the petals rather than proceeding with insert- Florist Review Enterprises, 1998.
ing them in molds for pressing.
Blacklock, Judith. Silk Flowers: Complete
Before the finished stems are wrapped and Color and Style Guide for the Creative
packed for shipping, they are subjected to Crafter Radnor, PA: Chilton Book Compa-
three separate inspections. The finish in- ny, 1995.
spectors work independently, but all three
must approve the silk flower before it is Miller, Bruce W. and Mary C. Donnelly.
hand wrapped and taped for boxing. Handmade Silk Flowers. New York: Pren-
tice Hall Press, 1986.
Byproducts/Waste Periodicals
There are no byproducts from the manufac- Caldera, Norman J. "How Honduras devel-
ture of silk flowers, but the manufacturer's oped exports of artificial flowers."Interna-
line may include hundreds of different vari- tional Trade Forum (January-March 1990):
eties. Waste is very limited and includes 4+.
wire and fabric scraps that are disposed.
Dyes are all natural and can be recycled. Kelly, Mary Ellen. "Fake flowers evolve
The materials also do not subject workers to further."Discount Store News (November 4,
any hazards. The die-cutting machines are 1991): 21+.
enclosed to protect the operator's hands, and Mastropoalo, Dominick. "Artificial flow-
other metals like the florists' wire arrive at ers: looking better, selling more."Home Im-
the factory in pre-cut lengths. Both glues provement Market (June 1997): GSR1O.
and dyes are non-toxic, and assemblers wear
latex gloves as an additional safeguard. Other
American Prestige Silks, Inc. http://www.
The Future americanprestige.com/.
New technologies like the permastem or Koehler & Dramm, Inc., and the Institute of
permasilk processes that fuse flowers to Floristry. http://www.kdfloral.com/.
their stems and makes them more durable
continue to improve the functionality and -Gillian S. Holmes
24
Bean Bag Plush Toy
Background worked for Dakin, a major plush toy maker, In March 1999, the
before founding Ty Incorporated, in Oak
Investors who woffy about bull and bear Brook, Illinois, in 1986. He designed and "Peanut the Royal Blue
markets should consider the alternatives- manufactured larger plush toys (typically 12-
the moose, lobster, pink pig, platypus, and 20 in [30.5-51 cm] long) in the United States,
Elephant" Beanie Baby,
dolphin markets, just for starters. These stars England, Germany, Mexico, and Canada be- who originally sold for
in the investment firmament "Chocolate the fore inventing Beanie Babies. Mr. Wamer de-
Moose," "Pinchers the Lobster," "Squealer veloped Beanie Babies with the idea of creat- $5.95 in June 1995, was
the Pink Pig," "Raspberry Patti the Platy- ing small plush toys that fit children's hands
pus," and "Flash the Dolphin" are among the easily and that also were priced to fit their al- "experiencing a strong
original nine Beanie Babies produced in lowances. He had previously used pellets of secondary market" at the
1993 by Ty Incorporated. The cute critters polyvinylchloride (PVC) to fill the feet of his
are more generically known as bean bag larger stuffed animals, so a combination of price of $4,500.
plush toys, and, not only have they shaken understuffmg with polyester filler and PVC
kids and the toy domain to its roots, they pellets was used to make the little toys soft.
have forced many adults to rethink their re-
tirement plans, storage space, and sanity.
In November 1993, Mr. Warner debuted the
Is the craze ridiculous? History will tell, but, first nine Beanie Babies, modeled after de-
in March 1999, "Peanut the Royal Blue Ele- signs used for his larger stuffed toys, at a toy
phant" who originally sold for $5.95 in June exposition. The first nine Beanie Babies
1995 was "experiencing a strong secondary found their way to store shelves in 1994,
market" at the price of $4,500. and Ty Inc., began introducing nine to 12
new designs every six months. By 1995,
Beanie Babies had become a phenomenon,
History and Ty factories were unable to match sup-
The bean bag plush toy exploded on the ply to demand. So-called "beanie baby
scene in 1993, but its origins are ages old. mania" began in Chicago near Ty's Oak
Bean bags are among the oldest toys and Brook headquarters but was soon experi-
have been made in geometric, animal, and enced as far afield as Canada and England.
doll shapes and filled with beans, peas, rice,
and pebbles for centuries. Rag dolls are an- Apart from endearing designs, Ty Inc. em-
other predecessor and are literally as old as ployed several strategic marketing tactics.
fabrics themselves that could be tied in When demand began to increase, production
knots or shapes. Rags are the stuffing in was limited to spur on that demand. The
many old dolls with cloth bodies and china toys were and still are not sold in major
or bisque porcelain heads. Bears-the most stores; instead, small shops that sell cards,
popular bean bag plush toy-are a merging other types of small toys, candy, and other
of the bear shape of the classic teddy bear items attractive to children became the
(born in 1903) and the ancient bean bag. major sellers of beanie babies. The designs
themselves included color and clever detail-
The phenomenon known as Beanie Babies is ing in eyes, whiskers, feet, tails, and other
the brain child of one man. H. Ty Wamer parts of the small animals.
25
Each also bears two tags. One printed paper mass production of the toys were made, and
tag is suspended from the ear of each animal color errors in materials, missing accessories,
and is termed a hang tag, swing tag, or heart or incorrect tagging also created rarities
tag because of its heart shape. The second among collectors. Some notable mistakes
tag called a tush or butt tag carries the man- have been made. Spotted dogs have been pro-
ufacturing location, toy contents, and com- duced without the right spots, legs are some-
pany insignia and date and is folded into a times stitched in place backwards, fabrics
seam in the toy's tail area. The hang tag have been mismatched to the wrong animals,
identifies the animal by name, birth date, and hang tags and tush tags don't always
and after 1996, it is inscribed with a short match. For collectors, these errors may add to
poem describing the animal's habits or most the thrill of the hunt because the faulty ani-
endearing characteristics. mals may be valuable in their own right.
All of these features attract kids and enhance Demand has also caused a significant coun-
the collectible value of the toys. In addition, terfeiting industry to grow. Legitimate man-
Ty Inc., began retiring the toys routinely; the ufacturers fight this with unique fabrics, ac-
fact that a particular toy may become an en- cessories, and tags. Holograms on tush tags
dangered species also adds to its appeal and are an example of the manufacturers' at-
limited availability. Collectors are pushed to tempts to prevent copying. Planet Plush is-
snap them up while they are available. These sued its "Windy, the Chicago Bear" de-
features and intelligent marketing campaigns signed by famed plush artist Sally Winey in
have made Beanie Babies a colossal retail a limited edition of 36,000 with serial num-
success, creating a strong secondary market bers, and Limited Treasures also released
and numerous offshoots as well. production figures to increase demand. For
retired toys that are commanding high prices
The success of Beanie Babies can also be at- on the secondary (resale) market, manufac-
tributed to the Internet. In August 1996, Ty turers recommend that potential buyers have
Inc., debuted on the Internet and, courtesy of experts toys authenticate the little animals
a guest book, Beanie Baby collectors could before investments are made.
exchange information and buy and sell toys.
A host of web sites followed with every re- Most soft toy makers and many other toy
lated opportunity from auctions of Beanie and novelty producers began generating
Babies to web pages created by children to their own designs and pitching unique takes
show off photos of their toys. Another boost on the plush bean bag. From Meanie Bean-
to this success came with McDonald's April ies to baseball and NBA bears to remakes of
11, 1997, launch of its first Teenie Beanie classic bunnies and bears in miniature, the
Baby promotion, featuring 10 miniature ver- market has responded with something for
sions of existing Beanie Baby designs that every taste-all based on small size, small
were sold in McDonald's Happy Meals. The price, plastic pellets, and polyester fiber.
promotion intended to last for five weeks
was terminated in less than two weeks when
the supply of 100 million toys was exhaust- Raw Materials
ed. Two months after the death of Britain's Bean bag plush toys do not contain beans.
Princess Diana, Ty Inc., released its first spe- Their characteristic soft stuffing consists of
cial-issue Beanie, a purple bear with a white two materials, which are plastic pellets and
rose stitched over its heart and named polyester fiber fill. The plastic pellets are
"Princess." All of Ty's profits from sale of made of either polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or
this Beanie Baby were dedicated to the polyethylene (PE), and they are produced by
Diana, Princess of Wales, Memorial Fund. specialty suppliers. The polyester fiber is
Sports teams giveaways, charity auctions, the filling commonly used for decorative
the opening of the Beanie Baby Official pillows, comforters, some furniture, and
Club on January 1, 1998, and other promo- many other products.
tions further boosted public interest.
The bean bag toy's outer fabric skin is made
Changes in the hang tags and tush tags proof synthetic plush. Manufacturers try to use
duced "generations" of Beanie Babies and unique fabrics to distinguish their products;
again enhanced interest. Inevitably, errors in for example, SWIBCO, which makes the
26
Bean Bag Plush Toy
Plush toy patterns and their corre-
sponding cutting dies are comput-
er-generated to maximize efficien-
cy and minimize the amount of
waste fabric. Multiple layers of
plush fabric are simultaneously cut
with dies.
Puffkins Collection, uses high-pile fabric for that are more difficult to copy have been
a fluffy, furry appearance. Ty Inc., recently added to tush tags.
created its own fabric called Tylon to add
shimmer and color variations to its line. Design
The eyes, noses, and other hard plastic fea- The process of designing a bean bag plush
tures of bean bag plush toys are designed to toy begins with a prototype and may take
suit the animal and are made by specialty several years to finalize. For Beanie Babies,
subcontractors. All are child-proof parts that Ty Warner himself designs the toys by mak-
became an accepted industry standard in the ing several prototypes of the same design.
1960s because they can't easily be pulled Shapes, colors, materials, features, and ac-
off the toys. The eyes are mounted on plas- cessories are varied on the prototypes. Mr.
tic stems and fixed to the back side of the Warner then polls friends and employees to
fabric with washers, collars, or grommets. help select the best design. Further evolu-
Some manufacturers use felt eyes and other tions are involved in the toy design itself but
features that are prefabricated and stitched also in its name, tags, and the poem on the
securely in place or overstitched features tag. Some designs have been reissued with
that are made of many layers or wraps of color changes and other variations to im-
sewing thread by machine. Yarn and thread prove the products.
are used for insect antennae and cat
whiskers. Larger appendages like legs, feet, Pufflins go through a similar process. These
beaks, wings, and ears are made of plush or plush toys all have rounded shapes so some
other fabric and are also stuffed. Ribbons types of animals like snakes, worms, long-
are high-quality double-sided satin. beaked or -legged birds are not suited to the
Puffkins style. Employees often suggest
The toy's other prominent attachments are new ideas-an employee contest resulted in
the tags. Hang tags are printed on paper and the Puffkins name-and public opinion is
bear the manufacturer's identification and recorded through e-mail, collectors' input,
information about the character of the ani- and suggestions from children. SWIBCO's
mal toy. The hang tag is attached to the toy art department produces up to six designs,
with a plastic strip fastener; these are made and the sketches are reviewed by the firm's
of either red or clear plastic, and each one is owners. The art work is sent to the factory
0.5-0.74 in (1.3-1.9 cm) long. On the ani- where handmade prototypes are constructed
mals' hindquarters, a fabric safety tag tells from different fabrics and color combina-
the contents of the critter and its place of tions. These may be approved for produc-
manufacture (usually China, Korea, tion or new art boards may be requested,
Malaysia, or Indonesia), as well as its name, and the process repeats. Of the original six,
company, and registration and trademark four may be ordered. The two that are not
data. Because of counterfeiting, holograms selected may be revised and kept for future
27
Miscellaneous parts and acces-

sories are attached to the fabric
with a special hand tool. Next,
pattern pieces are sewn together
by seamstresses. Once sewn, the
plush body is turned right side out
and stuffed with fiber fill and PVC
pellets. Stuffing is accomplished
both by machine and by hand.
use. Filed designs are often studied later and first. The grommeted eyes and nose are
may prompt new ideas. snapped into place with a special hand tool,
and whiskers or other thread and yarn fea-
The Manufacturing tures are stitched into seams.
Process
The patterns made for the selected proto-
type are computer-generated to fit a given 3 At long rows of sewing stations, seam-
length and width of fabric and are laid out stresses stitch segments of the animal to-
for optimal use of the fabric. Cutting dies gether. One station may produce ears only
are also computer-generated from the pat- or wings, paws, heads, or bodies. Industrial
tern data, and pieces of the toy are stamped sewing machines are used, but the ma-
out of multiple layers of plush fabric with chines' access and attachments are specially
the dies. Hand-cutting is also done. made for the small pieces to be sewn. At
other stations farther along the assembly
2 The animal's face and other parts with line, arms and legs and tush tags are at-
accessory attachments are assembled tached to bodies until construction of the toy
28
Bean Bag Plush Toy
is nearly complete. The whole animal is tempt children and their parents every day.
turned right side out. Still, these toys are easy to collect and store,
given their small size, and they have some-
4Depending on the manufacturer, fiber thing for everyone in color, type of animal,
fill may be added to some pieces like seasonal characters, and charm. Bean bag
legs before they are stitched to the body. addicts claim the demand will last for many
Stuffing is added to the body after careful more years on the secondary market alone.
measuring of both the bean-like pellets and Whether a toy stalwart or a fad, bean bag
the polyester fiber. Measurements ensure a plush toys have the perennial attraction of
uniform weight and understuffed feel to bean bags and cloth toys behind them and
each tiger or penguin, and assemblers also future generations of kids to enrapture with
subject the creature to a touch and squeeze their names, birth dates, bright eyes, wel-
test to make sure it will sit in the hand, bend coming price tags, and cuddly feel.
at the legs, and otherwise be appropriately
cuddly. The last of the stuffing is forced in
by hand, and the final opening in the head or Where to Learn More
side seam is stitched by hand.
Books
Final details like neck ribbons are tied in Collector's Value Guide. Ty Beanie Babies.
J place, and the hang tags are clipped on Meriden, CT: Collectors' Publishing Co.,
with plastic fasteners. The toys are sent to Inc., 1998.
the packaging department where they are
bagged and boxed 60 to a carton for ship- Fox, Les and Sue.The Beanie Baby Hand-
ment. book. Midland Park, NJ: West Highland
Publishing Company, 1998.
Qucality Control King, Constance Eileen.The Encyclopedia
Seamstresses and assemblers are responsi- of Toys. Crown Publishers Inc., 1978.
ble for the quality of their work. A final
quality control review is done prior to pack- Phillips, Becky and Becky Estenssoro.
ing at the factory, and when the boxed toys Beanie Mania H1: The Complete Collector's
reach their distribution centers in the United Guide. Sun Prairie, WS: Royale Communica-
States or elsewhere, they are inspected again tions Group Inc., 1998.
when they are repackaged for shipment to
retail stores. Periodicals
Bryant, Adam. "Time to Short Beanies?
Byproducts/Waste Lessons about Investing from Peanut the
Elephant."Newsweek (March 29, 1999): 46.
Makers of bean bag plush toys produce lines
of toys with similar design characteristics Chen, Kathy. "Modem Marco Polos head
but no true byproducts. They may use their east in search of Peanut and Garcia."The
designs to make other companion products. Wall Street Journal (June 19, 1998): B1.
SWIBCO, for example, has adapted its
Puffkins to smaller versions for key rings Dunne, Claudia and Mary Beth Sobolewski.
and magnets. Wastes are minimized to be "How to Protect Yourself from Counter-
able to keep the price of the toys within a feits: Part II."Beanie World Monthly sup-
child's affordability. Polyester fiber fill can plement (Fall/Winter 1998).
be recycled.
Other
The Future Beanie Mom's Newsletter. http://beanie
mom.com/.
Naysayers claimed that the bean bag plush
toy market was about to burst in 1998,but Beanie Nation. http://www.BeanieNation.
others including the manufacturers them- com/.
selves say it has at least two to five more
years to run its course. The toy market is Mary Beth's Beanie World Monthly
very volatile, and new fads and interests http://www.beanieworld.net/.
29
Peggy Gallagher Enterprises, Inc. http:H/

www.beaniephenomenon.com/.
Planet Plush http://www.planetplush.com/.
SWIBCO, Inc. http://www.swibco.com/.
Ty Inc. http:llwww.ty.com/.
-Gillian S. Holmes
30
Bed Sheet
Background likely that the first true bed sheets were linen. Typically, 8, 000 yd
Linen, derived from the flax plant, has been
A bed sheet is a flat-woven textile that is cultivated for centuries and was expertly culti- (7,312 m) of sheeting is
used on a bed between the occupant of a bed vated, spun, and woven by the Egyptians. It is
and the warm blanket above. It is generally woven on a loom and
a laborious plant to cultivate but the finished
a rectangle of broadloomed fabric, meaning
it is made without a center seam. Bed sheets
fabric is perfect for bed sheeting because it is wound up in rolls and
more soft to the touch than cotton and be-
have hems at top and bottom. The selvages, comes more lustrous with use. Linen sheeting shipped for further
or finished edges of the woven sheet as it is
was made on conventional looms that were processing.
made on the loom are used as side seams between 30-40 in (76.2-101.6 cm) wide, re-
and thus there is no need for hemming on sulting in bed sheets that had to be seamed
the sides. Today, the bed sheet comes as part down the center in order to be large enough
of a set of bed linens that match in color, for use. Europeans brought linen culture to the
fabric, and detail and includes the fitted New World; linen processing flourished in the
sheet (to cover the mattress), the flat sheet Northeast and Middle Colonies for two cen-
and at least one pillow case. turies. However, because of the painstaking
The bed sheet may be made of a variety of cultivation process, linens were difficult and
fibers, including linen, cotton, synthetics time-consuming to make. Nevertheless, many
(often blended with natural fibers such as seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth
cotton) and occasionally silk. Bed sheets are century American women worked relentlessly
made of a wide variety of fabrics. Particu- producing linen goods-pillow cases, bed
larly popular is percale, a closely-woven sheets, napkins, towels-for family use upon
plain weave of all cotton or cotton-polyester their marriage.
blend that is smooth, cool, and comfortable
against the skin. Also of plain weave but By about 1830 in the United States, cotton
more coarsely woven than percale is muslin. cultivation and processing was becoming
In winter months flannel sheets, which are well-established. Previously, it was difficult
woven with nappy cotton fibers, provides to remove the tenacious seeds found in
additional warmth. Silky, satiny bed sheets, short-staple cotton which grows easily in the
generally woven of synthetics (silk is very American South. Eli Whitney's develop-
expensive) are a novelty. Linen is also occa- ment of the cotton gin enabled the seeds to
sionally used for bed sheeting but is not gen- be stripped from the cotton wool easily and
erally commercially available in this coun- quickly; southern plantations immediately
try as linen is not processed in the United began growing the now-lucrative plant
States. Linen sheeting is either imported using enslaved labor. At the same time, New
from Eastern Europe or Britain. England textile mills were quickly adapting
British cotton manufacturing technologies
and were able to spin, weave, dye, and print
History cotton in huge quantities. By about 1860,
Beds of some sort have been around for mil- few bothered to make bed sheets from linen
lennia. It is unknown when sheeting was first anymore-why spend the time when cotton
used to keep the sleeper comfortable but it is sheeting was cheap and easy to obtain?
31
Cotton fibers are produced from

bales of raw cotton that are Looms became more mechanized with cotton is often referred to as cotton wool be-
cleaned, carded, blended, and human hands barely touching the products cause it is fuzzy like wool. It is still dirty
spun. Once loaded onto a section and bed sheets have been made on such and includes twigs, leaves, some seeds, and
beam, the bobbins are coated looms since the later nineteenth century. Re- other debris from harvesting. Other materi-
with sizing to make weaving easi- cent innovations in the product include the als used in the weaving process include
er. Several section beams are
loaded onto a single large loom introduction of blended fibers, particularly *starches or sizing of some sort that is ap-
beam. As many as 6,000 yarns the blending of cotton with polyester (which plied to the cotton threads to make them eas-
are automatically tied onto old keeps the sheet relatively wrinkle-free). ier to weave. During the cleaning and
yarns by a machine called a knot- Other recent developments include the use bleaching process after the sheet has been
ter in just a few minutes. of bright colors and elaborate decoration. woven, caustic chemicals and bleaches in-
Furthermore, labor is cheaper outside the cluding chlorine and/or hydrogen peroxide
United States and a great many bed sheets solutions are used to remove all color before
are made in other countries and are imported dyeing. Dyeing includes chemically-derived
here for sale. Today, the southern states, dyes (meaning they are not natural and not
particularly the state of Georgia, includes a found in plants or trees but are created in
number of cotton processors and weavers. laboratories) are used for standard col-
Many of our American cotton bed sheets are oration and color-fastness.
produced in the South.
The Manufacturing
Rawv Materials Process
If cotton is to be spun into yarn in the bed Some manufacturers spin the bales of cot-
sheet manufactory, 480 lb (217.9 kg) bales ton delivered to the manufacturer. Others
are purchased from a cotton producer. This purchase the yarn already spun on spools.
32
Bed Sheet
This section will describe the process of single section beam, thus warping it. Later,
making 100% sheeting from bales of cotton several section beams will be loaded onto
delivered to the plant which are not yet the large warping beam, each contributing a
spun. portion of the warp.
Procuring the cotton Slashing
Bales of cotton weighing about 480 lb 7 Each section beam goes through a slash-
(217.9 kg) are purchased and shipped to
the sheeting manufacturer.
7er-a machine that coats the yam with
starch or sizing to protect the ends and
makes the yam easier to weave.
Blending
2 Bales are laid out side by side in a blend- Warping the beam
ing area. The bales are opened by a Uni-
flock machine that removes a portion of cot- Q Once coated with sizing, several section
ton from the top of each bale. Next, the
C beams are loaded onto a single large
machine beats the cotton together, removing loom beam. As many as 6,000 yams are au-
impurities and initiating the blending tomatically tied onto old yams by a machine
process. The fibers are then blown through called a knotter in just a few minutes. The
tubes to a mixing unit where the blending knots are pulled through the machine and
continues. the weaving can begin.
Carding Weaving
3 Once blended, the fibers move through 9 The weaving, in which the weft or filler
3tubes to a carding machine, which aligns threads interlock with the warp or verti-
and orients the fibers in the same direction. cal threads, is done on high-speed automatic
Cylinders with millions of teeth pull and air jet looms. The filler threads are trans-
straighten the fibers and continue to remove ported across the warp threads at a rate of
impurities. 500 insertions per minute, meaning that a
filler thread runs across the warp thread
Drawing, testing, and roving about every one-tenth of a second. It takes
about 90 insertions to weave an inch of
4 Here, the cotton fibers are further blend- sheeting. Thus, about 5.5 in (14 cm) of
q ed together and straightened as many sheeting is woven per minute-10 yd (9.14
strands of fibers are drawn together into one m) per hour are woven. Typically, 8,000 yd
strand by a roving frame. The frame twists (7,312 m) of sheeting is woven on a loom
the fibers slightly and winds a cotton roving and wound up in rolls and shipped for fur-
onto bobbins. ther processing.
Spinning
Cleaning and bleaching
The rovings are spun on a ring spinner,
5Jdrawing the cotton into a single small 0 The fabric, called greige, is gray in
strand and twisting it as it spins. The yam is color. It is further finished by singe-
then wound onto bobbins and the bobbins ing-a process in which bits of yam are
are placed onto winders that wind the thread burned off of the surface. Then, the sheeting
onto section beams that will eventually fit is ready to be bleached. This is done in three
onto a loom for weaving. steps. First, it is de-sized by bathing it in
water and soaps that removes contaminants.
Next, caustic chemicals are applied to get
Warping a section beam rid of dirt and remnants of debris found in
6 It takes between 2,000-5,000 warp cotton yarn. The caustic is washed out and
6(lengthwise yams) to make up a single concentrated bleaches (chlorine and/or hy-
width of sheet. Thus, the warping beam, drogen peroxide) are applied to dissipate the
which holds all of the yams, is very large gray color. Now whitened, the sheeting is
and cannot be loaded at once. So 500-600 rolled into a rope and put into a dryer which
ends of yam from spools are pulled onto a takes the moisture out prior to dyeing.
33
1111*
Weaving is done on high-speed

automatic air jet looms. Typically, Dyeing dard. There are nine grades used to classify
8,000 yd (7,312 m} of sheeting is cotton from middling to good. Cotton with
woven on a loom and wound up All sheeting is dyed. Even sheeting much debris and residue would be of a
in rolls and shipped for further sold as white must be dyed to become
lower grade than that with less impurities.
processing. Once woven, the a truly white sheet. In order to give the gray- The lower grade bales tend to slow down the
sheeting is bleached, rolled into a colored sheets color, pigments are applied to processing of the cotton into spool yarn and
rope and dried, dyed, and rolled. the sheeting in color vats that use large may never render a quality product. Thus,
Automatic cutting equipment cuts rollers to press the dyestuff into the materi- many plants will purchase bales based on
the roll into standard sheet lengths al. Once dyed, the sheeting is steamed to set
and the sheet hems are sewn. test data received from the U.S. Department
the color. Next, a resin is applied to the of Agriculture to ensure the bales are fairly
sheeting to control shrinkage. The sheeting clean. Many weaving facilities perform their
is rolled onto huge rolls and is ready to be own tests on bales to be purchased to assess
cut and sewn.
quality and cleanliness.
Cutting and sewing Rovings-the rope-like strand that is spun
Automatic cutting equipment pulls the into yarn-generally undergoes quality con-
cloth off the rolls as it automatically trol inspection prior to spinning. At major
cuts the sheeting to the requisite length. The
points in the production of yarn and sheet-
rolls are transferred to a sewing machine ing, statistical samples are taken and tested
that sews top and bottom hems. in the laboratory. Physical tests are run on
the completed products. Because the bleach-
ing and dyeing processes include a number
Packaging of chemicals that must be mixed exactly, the
The sewn sheet is either folded by chemical solutions are monitored. Further-
13hand or machine. Machine-folded more, employees within the plant carefully
sheets are ejected, shrink wrapped, and indi- monitor the process and visually inspect the
vidually packaged for sale. product at each manufacturing stage.
Quality Control Byproducts/Waste

Sheeting manufacturers carefully choose Cotton weavers have worked diligently in re-
cotton bales. Cotton is classified by length cent years to reduce polluting effluvia and
(staple) and by quality (grade). Shorter sta- cotton lint. Occasionally, fiber wastes result-
ples are used for batting, while longer sta- ing from spinning can be recycled and used
ples are used to make higher quality prod- for other cotton products. In the past, cotton
ucts. Egyptian cotton is made from longer lint generated inside factories was hazardous
staples. Medium staples is considered stan- to the employees; however, now the air-jet
34
Bed Sheet
looms generate little cotton dust. At the point Where to Learn More
in which greige goods are handled, there are
automatic sweeping and cleaning machines
to rid the rooms of ambient dust. Books
Walker, Sandra Rambo.Country Cloth to
Of greatest concern to the federal govern- Coverlets. Lewisburg, PA: Union County
ment are the chemicals used in the cleaning, Historical Society, 1981.
bleaching, and dyeing of the goods. Federal
regulations require that resulting liquids
emitted from the factory (which may con- Other
tain chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, and other
miscellaneous caustics) meet state and fed- National Council on Cotton.1996-1999.
eral clean water regulations, and mills are http://www.cotton.org/ (June 22, 1999).
required to have National Pollutant Dis-
charge Elirnination System permits. The Linen Association.1996. http://www.lin.asso.
larger mills have invested in building their fr/ (June 22, 1999).
own wastewater treatment plants. Emissions
are now governed by the Clean Air Act and
must be within acceptable guidelines. -Nancy EV Bryk
35
Billboard
The Federal Highway Background the majority of individuals who were illit-
erate. The oldest known billboard ad was
Administration estimates Billboard is the common term used to de- posted in the Egyptian city of Thebes over
scribe a type of outdoor advertising found 3,000 years ago and offered a reward for a
that in 1996 there were along major highways. This name is most runaway slave. Prior to the late 1700s, the
over 400,000 billboards frequently given to large steel-framed signs, predecessor to the modem day billboard-
which are mounted on poles 20-100 ft (6.1- billposting- was prevalent throughout Eu-
on federally controlled 30.5 m) above the ground. Most often, the rope, but only as an informal source of in-
sign is printed on large poster sheets, which formation. It wasn't until the invention of
roads, which generated are affixed to the face of the sign. These lithography in the late eighteenth century
revenues in excess of signs may also be equipped with a variety of that billboards as a medium expanded into
special lighting and display effects. This type an art form. The first art poster was created
$1.96 billion. of sign is one component of a unique adver- in 1871 by Englishman Frederick Walker,
tising medium that communicates to audi- who was commissioned to create the play-
ences on the go. Such promotions are also bill for the play "Lady in White" in Lon-
referred to as "out of home" advertising be- don. By the early 1900s, schools for poster
cause the intended audience is usually in art were being formed and artists like
transit, and is always away from their homes. Talouse Lautrec were making names for
As recently as 25 years ago, 90% of outdoor themselves.
advertising consisted of billboards. Today,
the industry has expanded to include smaller
The first large scale use of the billboard as
signs on bus shelters, kiosks, and malls. an advertising tool was as circus posters
There are over 500 companies nationwide
printed or secured on horse-drawn trucks
that specialize in this type of advertising (al- that would precede a show to town in order
though not all of them construct large road-
to increase interest and attendance. At this
side billboards.) The Federal Highway Ad- time, billboards were not standardized or
ministration estimates that in 1996 there
controlled by any laws. During 1872-1912,
were over 400,000 billboards on federally
controlled roads, which generated revenues organizations in the United States met to
create billboard standards. Originally, the
in excess of $1.96 billion. According to
Competitive Media Reporting the top 10 standard set was 24-sheet poster panels with
a total size of 19.5 x 8.7 ft (6 x 2.6 m) .
billboard revenue categories for 1996 includ-
ed: entertainment and amusements; tobacco; Today, that size remains the same, while
retail; business and consumer services; auto- technology has reduced 24 sheets to 10.
motive; travel, hotels and resorts; publishing
and media; beer and wine; insurance and real It was also during the early 1900s that elec-
estate; and drugs and remedies. tric billboards were used to light up cities.
Prior to the electric billboard, cities were
dark, foreboding places. The electric bill-
board brought the cities to life at night, cre-
History ating a more hospitable atmosphere that in-
Born out of necessity, billboards were duced people to stay on the streets. Hence,
probably first used to convey a message to the birth of nightlife.
36
Billboard
By the late 1920s, more people were pur- The location of the billboard also helps
chasing automobiles and traveling beyond determine the type of sign selected by the
the city. Billboard advertising expanded as advertiser. The term billboard is actually a
well, and for the first time, billboard adver- generic classification, referring to several
tising had to consider a wider range of demo- types of signs. The most common forms
graphic audiences. Billboard art and design are known as bulletins and poster panels.
changed with the times, reflecting new tech- Bulletins, the largest sign style, may be as
nologies and the mood of a generation. With large as 20 x 60 ft (6.1 x 18.3 m) and are
the use of photography and comics, bill- found in high-density traffic locations.
boards portrayed a world without problems They use computer or hand-painted mes-
during the depression of the 1930s. The sages as advertising artwork and are usu-
1950s gave rise to the hand-painted billboard ally purchased for multi-month contract
and use of sexual innuendo in campaigns. periods. Poster panels are somewhat
Billboards were extensively used in China to smaller and are designated by the number
promote Red Army politics. It was also dur- of sheets employed on the sign. Thirty-
ing this time that billboard companies uti- sheet poster panels are approximately 12 x
lized the boom truck with a crane to move 25 ft (3.6 x 7.6 m) and are found on pri-
billboards and place them in more prominent mary and secondary traffic ways. They are
positions. During the 1960s, celebrity en- lithograph- or silkscreen-printed and are
dorsements became essential and the advent usually displayed for 30 days. Eight
of the superstar was born. Focus shifted from sheets are somewhat smaller (6 x 12 ft
the family to the singles lifestyle and the [1.8 x 3.6 m]) and are designed more for
medium itself was emulated in the Pop Art pedestrian and some vehicular traffic.
movement. As interest in enviromnentalism They are placed in high-density urban
increased during the late 1960s and early neighborhoods and suburban shopping
1970s, billboard ads borrowed images from malls. The larger bulletin style is the most
nature. It was at this time that the Marlboro challenging type to construct.
man on horseback was born. In the 1970s
and 1980s, campaigns used sexually explicit Components
rather than implied themes. Objects were
omnipotent and were created larger than life Large billboards have three main compo-
with little or no accompanying text. nents: steel used to construct and support the
frame, artwork that conveys the advertising
message, and electrical equipment for light-
Design ing and other special effects.
Billboard design depends on such factors as
location of the sign, the advertising budget, Steel structure
and the type of product being promoted. The Modem billboards, also known as mono-
industry uses market research firms to aid in poles, are supported by steel poles ranging
the design process. These firms supply de- from 36-72 in (91.4-183 cm) in diameter
tailed information on the number of people in and up to 100 ft (30.5 m) tall. At the top of
vehicles in different metropolitan regions, the mounting pole is a frame constructed
even projecting traffic patterns 10-15 years from steel I-beams. This frame supports the
into the future. They can estimate the fre- artwork and lighting equipment. Standard
quency and number of exposures the adver- sizes for a large steel frame assembly are 20
tising will have upon its target audience. x 60 ft (6.1 x 18.3 m), 20 x 48 ft (6.1 x 14.6
Using data generated by Global Positioning m), or 10 x 36 ft (3 x 11 Im). When a compa-
Systems (GPS), billboard location data can ny is interested in constructing one of these
be merged with other geographic and demo- signs, they contact a steel erection firm with
graphic business information to create cus- expertise in billboard construction. Typical-
tomized marketing solutions for outdoor ad- ly, a customer will seek bids from three or
vertisers. Computerized data analysis is four competitive vendors. These bids esti-
available that incorporates census data, traffic mate the cost of designing the sign as well
origins, travel patterns, trading zones, com- as the materials, transportation, and labor
petitor locations, and other key facts to help used to construct it. Some smaller billboards
optimize the use and location of billboards. may be available from the steel company as
37
IPaper
Image drawn
on stone with
geasy medium
Lithographic
There are two types of billboards.

Hand-painted billboards are usu- stock items that are pre-made and stored in Electrical systems
ally used for small campaigns that their warehouse awaiting a customer's
want to create a special look. Most billboards are electrically lit and there-
order. Larger signs, or signs that have spe-
More often, billboards are pro- cial design requirements like the ability to fore require appropriate lighting and power
duced from poster panels that are .systems along with a significant number of
withstand severe weather or moving parts,
mass-produced copies of the orig- must be custom ordered. After the design is
high wattage bulbs. Activation of these light-
inal artwork. ing systems is no simple matter. While many
finalized, the erection company orders the
appropriate steel. Some common sizes and billboards are located in major metropolitan
areas, others can be found in remote areas
grades of steel are kept in stock and are
quickly accessible. Unusual steel compo- along interstates. In both cases, it is very im-
nents, such as those designed for use in high
practical to have to travel to each sign every
wind conditions, must be specially ordered night to turn on the lights. Therefore, auto-
from the steel fabricators. matic switches have been developed to turn
on the lights at specified times. Other systems
use photosensitive cells to turn on the lights
when dusk sets. Still other more advanced
Artwork
systems turn lights on and off electronically
The steel frame is covered with a backing with a signal from a satellite system.
material, known as a facing. The artwork is
affixed to the facing. The art is either pre-
printed on paper or vinyl sheets that are The Manufacturing
pasted onto the facing, or in some cases, the Process
art is painted directly onto a plywood or Billboard manufacture requires three sepa-
canvas facing. rate types of contractors. First, a steel erec-
38
Billboard
Poster panels are pasted onto the
billboard frame. Once the cam-
paign is finished, the poster panels
are covered with the next adver-
tisements image. Hand-painted
billboards are painted on plywood
panels that are secured to the
frame. Once the campaign is com-
plete, the plywood panels are
whitewashed in preparafion for
the next job.
tion firm is hired to install support pole and 3 Next, the frame is bolted into place on
frame. Next, a company specializing in 3top of the pole which may be as little as
graphics creates and mounts the artwork, 20 ft (6.1 m) or as much as 100 ft (30.5 m)
and finally electricians install the power and above the ground. The term haggle is used
lighting. to describe the distance from the sign face
to ground level. The frame is equipped with
catwalk-style walkways to allow access to
Pre-assembly of structural the surfaces where the advertising elements
components are mounted. These catwalks may run along
the front as well as the back of the sign with
The steel erection company orders all an access ladder located in the rear. The
Ithe support components required for the
walkways are also built with attachments
job. Upon receipt of the components, they for safety cables used by the workers. The
bolt and weld together as many pieces as entire installation process takes a crew of
possible before shipping them to the job three or four men approximately one week
site. Some of the longer steel pipes may be to complete.
connected together as telescoping sections.
Pre-assembly saves time on the job site and
improves ease of shipping. The pre-assem-
bled parts are then transported to the job Artwork fabrication
site by truck.
The artwork is added after the structural ele-
ments are in place. The method of applica-
tion depends on the design of the sign. Some
Steel erection advertisements are hand painted directly
2 The job site must be properly prepared onto plywood sections that are directly at-
prior to installation of the steel. A sub- tached to the billboard frame; others use
contractor is typically assigned to drill a lithographic prints prepared on large vinyl
hole in the ground in which to place the sup- sheets, which are pasted onto the sign face.
port pole. Approximately 20-30 ft (6.1-9.1 Usually, hand-painted billboards are used
m) deep, the hole is filled with concrete and for small campaigns that want to achieve a
the support pole is put into place. higher quality look.
39
A The pounce pattern technique is used to the artwork. In addition, steel components
q create a billboard-sized stencil of an can rust after extended exposure to the ele-
original artwork. Using this technique, the ments. Severe weather conditions can cause
artwork is projected onto a billboard-size damage to signs that require more serious
sheet that is placed over a grounded copper repairs.
mesh screen. Charcoal pencils with 500
volts of electricity passing through them In 1965, the Highway Beautification Act
transfer the enlarged image to the paper by was passed in the United States. It governs
creating pounce points. the amount, spacing, and quality of bill-
boards placed along highways. As a result,
5 Once attached to the plywood sections, many dilapidated frames were removed. In
the initial pattern of dots is defined fur- the late 1990s, cigarette manufacturers, who
ther by charcoal dust. The charcoal is spread traditionally used billboards to advertise
over the rough image, and it adheres to the their products, made an agreement with the
points that were made by the electrically federal government in order to prevent total
charged charcoal. regulation of the industry. One of their con-
cessions was to replace their ads with anti-
6 Artists work using a reducing glass to smoking campaigns.
6paint the enlarged version of the origi-
nal. Oftentimes, several artists work on one
billboard, each focusing on either the de- Byproducts/Waste
tailed images or the background. Mechani- The processes used in billboard manufacture
cal scaffolding increases the artists' maneu- generate little usable byproducts or waste
verability. material. However, after a billboard has out-
7 Poster panels are printed on lithographic lived its usefulness a steel firm may be re-
printers that mass produces the original quired to cut the sign down. In some cases,
the components may be recycled for use in
artwork onto sheets of poster paper.
other jobs.
8 Once the campaign is completed, hand-
Upainted panels are disassembled and The Future
whitewashed. Poster panels remain on the
billboard where they are covered by the next Billboard manufacture is becoming increas-
ad campaign. ingly sophisticated. More and more sign
companies are taking advantage of comput-
Electrical connection erized market research data to optimize the
placement of their billboards. This trend is
9 Typically, local electrical contractors are likely to continue as marketers continue to
hired to install the power and lighting ,.seek out the most effective advertising
systems. In many cases, both sides of the mediums. Bar coding technology is becom-
sign are used for artwork, so lighting assem- ing a popular way of tracking information
blies are required for both sides. In addition, related to billboards. Some companies even
the sign may require special wiring to oper- videotape their signs and put together a
ate moving parts or other special effects. All computer display for their clients so they
wiring must be done in accordance with rel- can just click on a location and see a picture
evant electrical codes. or video of the billboard that is there. Satel-
lite technology will also play a larger role in
Quality Control the billboard market of the future. Already
satellite systems are being used to control
There are no universal guidelines for bill- lighting and to track sign locations.
board construction. Each company has its
own proprietary standards. However, firms However, perhaps the most interesting inno-
engaged in this type of work expend signifi- vations in the industry are occurring in the
cant effort in repairing and maintaining the area of advertising artwork. For example,
quality of the signs. These efforts are neces- one new type of sign uses a multi-faceted
sary due to the effects of weathering which prismatic facing to actually deliver two dif-
causes deterioration of the sign components, ferent advertising messages. As the viewer
particularly the paper and vinyl used to post approaches the sign, they see one picture,
40
Billboard
but as they pass the sign, their angle of view
changes, revealing a different picture. This
type of clever innovation continues to make
billboards a popular and economically vi-
able method of advertising.
Where To Learn More

Books
Henderson, Sally and Robert Landau. Bill-
board Art. San Francisco: Chronicle Books,
1986.
Other
Erected Steel Products. Steve McDowell,
VP Operations. PO Box 360347, Birning-
ham, AL 35236. (205) 481-3700.
-Randy Schueller
4 1
Bioceramics
Bioceramics, made from a Background materials (such as tricalcium phosphate)
have been successfully used as resorbable
calcium phosphate Over the last several decades, bioceramics materials for low mechanical strength appli-
have helped improve the quality of life for cations, such as repairs of the jaw or head.
material containing tiny millions of people. These specially designed Resorbable bioactive glasses are also re-
pores, have been used to materials-polycrystalline aluminum oxide, placed rapidly with regenerated bone.
hydroxyapatite (a mineral of calcium phos-
coat metal joint implants phate that is also the major component of Bioactive materials form a biologically ac-
vertebrate bone), partially stabilized zirconi- tive layer on the surface of the implant,
or used as unloaded um oxide, bioactive glass or glass-ceramics, which result in the formation of a bond be-
and polyethylene-hydroxyapatite compos- tween the natural tissues and the material. A
space fillers for bone ites-have been successfully used for the re- wide range of bonding rates and thickness of
ingrowth. Ingrowth of pair, reconstruction, and replacement of dis- interfacial bonding layers are possible by
eased or damaged parts of the body, changing the composition of the bioactive
tissue into the pores especially bone. For instance, aluminum material.
oxide has been used in orthopedic surgery
occurs, with an increase for more than 20 years as the joint surface in Bioactive materials include glass and glass-
in interfacial area total hip prostheses because of its exception- ceramics based on silicon dioxide-phos-
ally low coefficient of friction and minimal phate systems containing apatite (a natural
between the implant and wear rates. calcium phosphate containing some fluorine
the tissues and a resulting or chlorine), dense synthetic hydroxyapatite,
Clinical success requires the simultaneous and polyethylene-hydroxyapatite compos-
increase in resistance to achievement of a stable interface with con- ites. Applications include orthopedic im-
nective tissue and a match of the mechanical plants (vertebral prostheses, intervertebral
movement of the device in behavior of the implant with the tissue to be spacers, bone grafting), middle-ear bone re-
replaced. Bioceramics, made from a calcium placements, and jawbone repair. Bioactive
the tissue. As in natural phosphate material containing tiny pores, glass and glass-ceramic implants have been
bone, proteins adsorb to have been used to coat metal joint implants used for more than 10 years in the middle-
or used as unloaded space fillers for bone in-
ear application. Bioactive glass particles
the calcium phosphate growth. Ingrowth of tissue into the pores oc- have also been used as fillers around teeth
curs, with an increase in interfacial area be-
surface to provide the that have had gum disease, preventing the
tween the implant and the tissues and a
teeth from falling out.
critical intervening layer resulting increase in resistance to movement
of the device in the tissue. As in natural
through which the bone bone, proteins adsorb to the calcium phos- Design
phate surface to provide the critical inter-
cells interact with the vening layer through which the bone cells The performance of the artificial bone de-
interact with the implanted biomaterial. pends on its composition and end use appli-
implanted biomaterial. cation. Careful selection of the right materi-
Resorbable biomaterials have also been deal with suitable properties is thus important.
signed to degrade gradually over time to be Computer-aided design software is also
replaced by the natural host tissue. Porous used for optimizing the shape and for simu-
or particulate calcium phosphate ceramic lating the mechanical behavior of the im-
42
Bioceramics
plant with the surrounding bone tissue. A tion mill uses tiny beads and rotating agita-
mathematical technique called finite ele- tors to accomplish the same thing.
ment analysis is used to determine the stress
distribution on both the implant and biologi- Forming
cal structure. Prototypes are then fabricated
that undergo testing of properties, as well as I After mixing, the ceramic material is of
clinical tests, before final production. Lplastic consistency and now ready for
forming into the desired shape. A variety of
methods can be used, including injection
Raw Materials molding, extrusion, or pressing. In injection
The major raw material is usually a ceramic molding, the mix is loaded into a heated
powder of specific composition and high cylinder, where it softens. A steel piston
purity. Additives include binders, lubricants, forces the hot mixture into a cooled metal
and other chemicals to assist in the shape mold. Extrusion compacts the material in a
forming process. The powder may also con- high-pressure cylinder and then forces the
tain a sintering aid, which helps the ceramic material out through a specially shaped die
material to densify properly during firing orifice. Pressing involves compaction of the
and sometimes at a lower temperature. If a material in steel dies or the material is
chemical-based process is used, organic pre- placed in a rubber mold inside a high-pres-
cursors and solvents are combined into a so- sure oil or water cylinder, with uniform
lution to make the final product. pressure applied. Another variation of press-
ing called hot pressing combines forming
and firing in one step using heated dies.
The Manufacturing
Process
Drying and firing
Depending on its composition, artificial
bone is made using two processes, the tradi- 3 After forming, the ceramic bone must
tional ceramic process and a chemical-based 3undergo several thermal treatments. The
method called sol gel. In the sol gel method, first dries the material to remove moisture
two approaches can be used. In one, a sus- using a drying oven or chamber. After dry-
pension of extremely small particles is aling, a kiln or furnace is used to heat the ma-
lowed to gel inside a mold, followed by terial at high temperatures in order to re-
aging at 77-176° F (25-80° C) for several move organics and densify the material. The
hours, drying, and several thermal treat- firing cycle will depend on the material
ments to chemically stabilize and densify composition and must be designed at the ap-
the material. The other approach uses a so- propriate heating rates to prevent cracking.
lution of chemical precursors as the starting
material followed by the same process. Finishing
Since the ceramic process is more common, 4 After firing, one or more finishing
it will be discussed in more detail here. < processes may be required depending on
application. To achieve the desired dimen-
Raw material preparation sional and surface finish specifications,
The ceramic powder is manufactured grinding and/or polishing is conducted.
elsewhere from mined or processed raw Grinding and polishing of the harder materi-
materials. Additional crushing and grinding als usually requires diamond tooling or
steps may be necessary to achieve the de- abrasives. Drilling may be needed to form
sired particle size. The ceramic powder plus holes of various shapes. If the application
additives are carefully weighed in the appro- requires joining of two or more components,
priate amounts and then mixed in some type a brazing or cementing method is used.
of mixing machine equipped with blades or
revolving rolls. Sometimes mixing and par-
ticle size reduction takes place at the same Quality Control
time, using a milling machine. A ball mill During the manufacture of the artificial
uses rotating cylinders filled with the mix- bone material or component, control of each
ture and spherical media to disperse the ma- processing step is required to control the
terial and reduce its particle size. An attri- properties that affect performance. The
43
Bioceramic applicafions. A. Cra-

nial repair. B. Eye lens. C. Ear im-
plants. D. Facial reconstruction. E.
Dental implants. F. Jaw augmenta-
tion. G. Periodontal pockets. H.
Percutaneous devices. 1. Spinal
surgery. J. Iliac crest repair. K.
Space fillers. L Orthopedic sup-
port purposes. M. Orthopedic
fillers N. Artificial tendons. 0.
Joints.
properties of interest for most implant applied in a simulated environment relevant to

cations are mechanical performance and the application). Some of these properties
surface chemical behavior. These in turn de- may be more important than others, depend-
pend on the chemical composition (type and ing on the type of artificial bone material
amount of impurities), the particle size, and its application.
shape and surface characteristics of the
starting powder, crystalline structure, mi- Since artificial bone can sometimes be con-
crostructure (grain size, type and content of sidered a medical device or at least part of
each phase), and surface behavior (mea- a medical device, it must meet national and
sured by comparing the chemical composi- international standards for such devices
tion of the surface before and after it is test- and materials, as well as regulations estab-
44
Bioceramics
The ceramic powder is manufac-

lished by the Food and Drug Administra- make other ceramic products of lower quali- tured elsewhere from mined or
tion (FDA). The American Society for ty. Byproducts that must be controlled processed raw materials. Addi-
Testing and Materials has developed a throughout the process include dust and or- tional crushing and grinding steps
number of specifications (over 130 stan- ganic emissions from firing. may be necessary to achieve the
dards total) for certain materials used as desired particle size. After mixing,
the ceramic material is ready for
surgical implants that cover chemical, forming into the desired shape.
physical and mechanical properties, as well The Future
Once formed, the ceramic bone
as characterization methods. The Interna- In the next century-as a better understand- must undergo several thermal
tional Organization for Standardization has ing of the interactions of artificial bone with treatments in order to remove or-
two committees that have developed stan- organic components is achieved on the mol- ganics and densify the material.
dards for surgical devices and biocompati- ecular level-it will be possible to tailor the One or more finishing processes
bility of materials. physical and chemical properties of the ma- may be required depending on
terial with the specific biological and meta- application. To achieve the desired
The FDA has the authority to regulate bolic requirements of bone tissues or disease dimensional and surface finish
medical devices during most phases of states. Since the population is continuing to specifications, grinding and/or
their development, testing, production, dis- grow older, artificial bone will play an even polishing is conducted. Drilling
tribution and use, with a focus on the pre- may be needed to form holes of
more important role in improving the health various shapes. If the application
and post-market phases to ensure safety of many people around the world.
and effectiveness. The level of regulation
requires joining of two or more
components, a brazing or cement-
or control is based on how the device is ing method is used.
classified (I, II, or III). The higher the Where to Learn More
class, the more regulation-Class III de-
vices must have an approved Pre-market Books
Approval Application. Fischman, Gary and Clare, Alexis, ed.
"Bioceramics: Materials and Applications."
All classes are subject to General Controls, In Ceramic Transactions. The American
which involves registering each manufactur- Ceramic Society, 1995.
ing location, listing marketed medical de-
vices, submitting a Premarket Notification Hench, Larry and June Wilson. An Intro-
for a new device, and manufacturing the de- duction to Bioceramics. World Scientific
vice according to the Good Manufacturing Publishing Col. Ltd., 1993.
Practices regulation. This regulation in-
cludes requirements for the quality assur- Ravaglioli, A. and A. Krajewski, ed. Bioce-
ance program used by the manufacturer. ramics and the Human Body. Elsevier Ap-
plied Science, 1992.
Byproducts/Waste
Since careful control of the manufacturing
Periodicals
process is so important, waste is minimal. Hench, Larry. "Bioceramics, 'A Clinical
Since contamination must be avoided, any Success."'Ceramic Bulletin. The American
waste produced can only be recycled if the Ceramic Society (July 1998): 67-74.
properties match the starting material.
Sometimes waste material can be used to -Laurel Sheppard
45
Bisque Porcelain Figurine
Bisque porcelain was Background In Europe, the production of bisque porce-
lain wares rose to prominence in the mid-
called fan ts'u or turned Bisque porcelain is unglazed, white ceramic 1700s. The French made busts and medal-
ware that is hard-fired, non-poreous, and
porcelain by the Chinese, lion-like portraits at the factories of Sevres,
translucent. Today's bisque porcelain indus- Mennency-Villeroy, and Vincennes. The
try has arisen out of hundreds of years of ex-
but elsewhere, it is also perimentation with clay products and untold
Frenchman Desoches and the German artist
Rombrich modeled portrait plaques from
called biscuit ware, parian sources of artistic inspiration. Manufactur-
life in bisque and represented Greek sub-
ers of bisque porcelain collectibles are unan-
ware, or unglazed ware. jects in frames of laurel leaves in the style of
imous in their approach to each product as a the Englishman, Josiah Wedgwood, who
work of art. Quality begins with the design succeeded in adding colors to clay that were
and is controlled throughout the process, retained through firing in his unglazed
which can take several months from the Jasperware. By the end of the century, a
time a collectible is first sketched by an number of sculptors were modeling fig-
artist until it reaches a collector's hands. In urines (usually of classical figures or ordi-
the factory alone, a single figurine may be nary characters including idealized children,
more than a week in production, with its
street sweepers, and peasant girls) in biscuit
manufacture scrutinized intensely every step ware. The popularity of bisque seems to
of the way. have been due to the vulgarity of glazed
porcelain. The colors made at this time were
raucous and garish, and the bisque effect
History was softer and warmer. By Victorian times,
The Chinese were the creators and first mas- bisque porcelain was used to make the heads
ters of the art of producing porcelain. Chi- and arms of dolls, and these dolls (both an-
nese mastery of the art form made them vir- tiques and modern forms) form another
tually the only porcelain producers for branch of the bisque collectibles industry.
hundreds of years. Bisque porcelain was Figurines made from both glazed and
called fan ts'u or turned porcelain by the unglazed porcelain have remained highly
Chinese, but elsewhere, it is also called bis- collectible since the eighteenth century
cuit ware, parian ware, or unglazed ware. throughout changes in fashion and style and
All porcelain is fired at least once. Original- with improvements in processing.
ly, the biscuit stage referred to porcelain
after its initial firing when it was so brittle it Raw Materials
could be broken by finger pressure and it re-
mained porous. Dipping it in glaze that was The raw materials required for making fig-
absorbed by the porous material preserved urines include plaster for molds, porcelain
the porcelain. The second fliing caused the clay, pumice and water for polishing the
glaze to melt or fuse with the clay and be- fired pieces, paints or pigments specially
come vitrified or glass-like. This differs created to suit the designer's intent, and
from modern production of bisque porce- packaging materials. Porcelain clay is a
lain, which is hard and durable without the mixture of kaolin, feldspar, and ground flint.
addition of glaze. Kaolin is a naturally-occurring, fine clay
46
that primarily consists of aluminum silicate. The plaster used to make the molds is
Feldspar is a crystalline mineral that also highly refined to produce extremely fine
contains aluminum silicate as well as potas- powder that will capture the most detail and
sium, sodium, calcium, or barium. Flint is make finished surfaces smooth. Water and
hard quartz. plaster powder is mixed. To eliminate bub-
bles from the soup, a vacuum blender is
used to draw off the entrained air.
Design
2 The liquefied plaster is poured into a
The creation of a porcelain figurine begins case mold to create the production mold.
with an artist's conception. Perhaps the The plaster solidifies in about 20 minutes,
best-known examples are the doe-eyed chil- but its solid appearance is deceptive because
dren (each with a teardrop near one eye) it still contains a lot of moisture.
drawn by artist Sam Butcher and featured in
the Precious Moments figurines. 3 The production molds are fire-dried for
about 48 hours at a temperature of about
After the artist has sketched or painted a de- 900 F (32.2° C). The dried plaster molds are
sign, master sculptors use moist clay to fastened tightly together with rubber straps
make models from the artwork. A rough and are ready for production.
model is made first, then the sculptor works
it by adding and subtracting subtle pieces of 4 The porcelain clay is prepared while the
clay until the model is complete. Ideally, the molds are dried. The clay is also mixed
sculpture has not only the correct shape but with water until a slurry called slip is
matches the original intent or feeling ex- formed. The slip resembles thick cream, and
pressed in the artwork. The completed its color is usually very different from the
sculpture is then reviewed and approved for finished color of the figurine because the
mass production. processes of firing the clay alter its color.
5 The mold filled with slip is allowed to
The Manufacturing 5rest while the plaster mold absorbs liquid
Process from the clay. After about 30 minutes, the
surfaces of the mold bear deposits of clay
that are thick enough to form the parts of the
Making molds figurines. The slip that remains in the middle
Casts of the original sculpture are used to of this part of the figurine is poured off.
make plaster molds for production of the 6 The mold rests again until the figurine
figurines. The details transferred from the cast can be safely removed from the
artist's original conception to the original mold by gentle tapping. At this stage, the
sculpture are sometimes tiny and complex, figurine is a collection of pieces of green-
so the original sculpture is subdivided into ware that have not yet been assembled or
multiple parts to make a set of molds for fired.
reproduction. Sometimes a dozen sets of
molds are required to produce a single fig- 7 The components of the figurine are still
urine. The process of making the molds is
very carefully done so the original sculp-
7somewhat pliable. They are assembled
by using more of the liquid slip like glue
ture is duplicated in the molded porcelain that is applied by brush. The object now re-
figurines. The mold-making process may sembles the finished product.
go through several steps, including the
making of sample molds and case molds,
before a production mold is finally pro-
Finishing the greenware
duced. The plaster production molds can 8 In the next process called finishing, all
be reused as many as 50 times, but each 8seams are gently removed, any traces of
use robs the mold of a tiny bit of detail. the mold are smoothed away, and artistic
Porcelain factories limit use of the molds detail is added to the greenware. Artisans
to preserve the quality from figurine to fig- complete the finishing work quickly be-
urine, so they are often destroyed after 30 cause the greenware begins to dry as soon as
or so castings. it is exposed to air.
47
The manufacture of bisque fig-

urines begins as an artist's con- 9 The figurines are then air-dried thor- stroyed. During firing, vitrification occurs,
ception that is modeled in clay. 9 oughly to allow moisture to evaporate changing the color and consistency of the
Once the model is perfected, casts before the pieces are fired. Any moisture re- clay. Physically, the figurine may have
are used to make plaster molds. maining in the porcelain will cause it to shrunk in size by as much as 15%.
Greenware is molded and then shatter in the kiln.
fired.
Polishing and painting
Firing 1 1 If the particular collectible is to have a
satiny smooth finish, the next step in
The bisque kiln is used to fire molded its production is polishing. The figurines are
l V wares. The collectibles are subjected placed in a tumbler much like the device
to a first firing in a gas-fired kiln in which used to polish precious stones. In this case,
they are baked at a temperature or about the tumbling action is very gentle as water
2,3000 F (1,2600 C) for 14 hours. Other and fine pumice polish the surfaces of the
types of bisque pottery may be fired for as figurines.
much as 70 hours to produce a hardened
piece with an unglazed finish. Finished 1 The polishing process has an added
porcelain is non-absorbent, translucent, vit- advantage in that the painters who
reous, and can be as hard as steel. During will work on the figurines next have beauti-
the first firing, the color of the greenware ful, primed surfaces for their artistry. The
also transforms to the finished color of the painters are highly skilled, not only in tech-
porcelain. Any impurities present in the clay nique but also in capturing the spirit of the
will appear during firing and cause discol- figurine. They hold as many as six brushes
oration, requiring that the pieces be de- at a time and apply specially formulated pig-
48
The unglazed pottery is polished,

ments to the figurines. Painting is a multi- tire batch of slip and fired figurines. Fig- painted, and fired for a second
step process in which various artists use dif- urines themselves typically pass six or more time.
ferent skills from fine line work to painting inspections before they are shipped. Air-
using airbrushes. The painted characters are dried greenware is inspected to verify detail-
inspected before decoration firing. ing, assembly, and smoothness of seams and
mold imprints. After firing, the pieces are
Second firing again inspected for flaws. Polishing can be a
damaging process especially when tiny
1 The second, or decoration, firing uses birds or butterflies are part of the figurine.
l3an electrically-heated tunnel kiln to Another detailed inspection occurs follow-
affix the pigments permanently to the porce- ing polishing. Pigments are then applied,
lain. Although it does not apply for most and the figures are scrutinized immediately
collectibles that are left unglazed, some after painting and again after decoration fir-
porcelain products are fired in third or even ing to ensure that color quality is true. If
fourth firings to harden glaze (in a gloss painted details are omitted, the figurine can
kiln) or harden added relief-type decora- be repainted and refired, but any detailing
tions. During decoration firing, the figurines errors result in destruction of the piece.
are fired for four hours at a temperature of
about 1,300° F (704.40 C).
Byproducts/Waste
Quality Control Byproducts do not result from manufacture
Attentive quality control is essential to the of bisque porcelain figurines, but a single
production of detailed collectibles. Materi- manufacturer may produce any number of
als, particularly the plaster and clay, are se- product lines using the same basic process-
lected, processed, mixed, and used with es. Figurines are far from the only products.
great care. A porcelain clay containing im- Bells, ornaments, photo frames, music
purities may color a fired ornament bright boxes, plates, and accent pieces for decorat-
pink instead of pure white, wasting the ening are often made in the same style as a
49
leading line of figurines and in the same ma- Where to Learn More
terials. Some waste is the result of stringent
quality control because figurines that are Books
even slightly flawed are destroyed. In- Cox, Warren E. The Book of Pottery and
evitably, there is also some breakage. As Porcelain. New York: Crown Publishers
new collectibles are added to a product line, Inc., 1970.
old products are suspended or retired. Molds
for retired collectibles are destroyed, and the Ketchum, William C. The Pottery & Porce-
item is never produced again. lain Collector's Handbook: A Guide To
Early American Ceramics From Maine To
The Future California. New York: Funk & Wagnalls,
1971.
Bisque porcelain collectibles are highly
prized as gifts, collectibles, and decor for Other
the home. Many lines of figurines inspire
extraordinary loyalty among their fans. For Ceramitech, Inc. http://www.ceramitech.
example, the Precious Moments Collectors' com/.
Club was established in 1981 and has be- Enesco Corporation. http://www.enesco.com.
come the largest such organization in the
world with over 400,000 members. The gift Intemational House. http://user.mc.net/-
and collectibles industry, which grossed intlhse/.
$9.1billion in 1997, prides itself on adding
individual and artistic touches of warmth to Lucy & Me Collecting Network. http://
a busy world. Ever-changing fashion and www.lucyandme.com/.
taste, combined with the loyalty of con- "The Making of A Precious Moments Fig-
firmed collectors, guarantee the future of urine." Itasca, IL: Enesco Corp., 1989.
bisque porcelain figurines, among many
other types of collectibles. -Gillian S. Holmes
50
Bow and Arrow
In simplest terms, a bow is a long, flexible layers of shredded sinew mixed with glue, Archaeologists believe
staff; a shorter string is attached to the staff's and strengthening the face of the bow (the
two ends, causing the staff to bend. An arrow side facing the archer) with a glued-on layer hunters used bows and
is a shaft with feather-type vanes near one of animal horn. Northern Europeans used a arrows as early as
end, which is notched, and a pointed head on different method to strengthen bows; by the
the other end. The notched end of the arrow beginning of the fourth century A.D., they 50,000 years ago.
is mounted against the bowstring, with the were bonding a back of sapwood to a face of
pointed head extending just beyond the bow. heartwood (dense wood taken from the non- Indigenous people used
With one hand braced against the bow and living core of a tree). such weapons in every
the other gripping the string, an archer pulls
back on the string, storing potential energy Arrows, which were normally made of part of the world except
in the bow. When the archer releases the wood shafts, were tipped with arrowheads
string, that potential energy is converted to shaped from hardwood, bone, horn, flint, Australia.
kinetic energy, which is imparted to the bronze, or (eventually) steel. In India,
arrow, propelling it forward suddenly and weapon makers experimented widely with
swiftly. Bows are used primarily for hunting iron and steel, and they produced an all-
and for target shooting. metal arrow during the third centuryB.c. Al-
though it is likely that they made metal
bows at that time as well, it was not until the
Background seventeenth century that steel bows truly be-
came popular in India.
Archaeologists believe hunters used bows
and arrows as early as 50,000 years ago. In- Archery (using a bow to shoot arrows) was a
digenous people used such weapons in dominant means of warfare (with standard
every part of the world except Australia. In bows proving to be generally superior to
addition to hunting and warfare, bows and mechanically assisted crossbows) until the
arrows were used for sport in ancient cul- late sixteenth century, when firearms be-
tures of Egypt, China, and India. came practical. Since then, hunting and tar-
get shooting have developed as the main ac-
Originally, bows were made of any springy tivities in archery.
material, including bamboo as well as vari-
ous types of wood, and the bowstrings were From 1929-1946, seven archers who were
made of animal gut. Native American and also scientists or engineers studied the per-
Asian bow makers independently made an formance of equipment designs and materi-
important innovation when they reinforced als using techniques like high-speed photog-
the weapon by gluing animal sinew (tendon) raphy. They published their findings in
to the back of the bow (the side facing the various journals, and in 1947, three of them
target). The composite bow (one made of edited a collection of these articles, calling
three or more layers of dissimilar sub- the book Archery: The Technical Side.
stances) was invented by several cultures in These experimental and mathematical
Central, North, and Southwest Asia as much analyses of bow dynamics laid the ground-
as 4,500 years ago. The technique included work for the first significant improvements
reinforcing the bow's back with up to three in archery equipment design since the Mid-
51
dle Ages. Among the innovations that ap- wire. Bowstrings for popular recurved bows
peared after World War II were the use of are usually made of Dacron, which stretches
new materials like plastics and fiberglass, very little and wears well. Nylon thread is
and modification of the bow's grip section wrapped around the bowstring to reinforce it
to resemble a pistol handle. at the ends and in the middle where the
arrow and the archer's fingers contact the
string during shooting.
Design
The most basic type of bow, called a long- Arrows have traditionally been made of
bow, is formed from an essentially straight solid shafts of wood such as ash, elm, wil-
shaft. Additional power and stability are low, oak, cedar, or Sitka spruce. Hollow
achieved by recurved bows, which have per- arrow shafts may be formed of modem ma-
manent curves that make the bow's back terials like aluminum, fiberglass, graphite,
concave at each end. Even more power can or carbon fiber. Feathers (commonly from
be achieved with a compound bow, a me- turkey wings) mounted on the shaft near one
chanically assisted device that attaches the end cause the arrow to spin during flight,
bowstring to a system of pulleys rather than steadying its path. Because of better durabil-
to the tips of the bow. ity and moisture resistance, vanes made of
plastic or molded rubber have become more
A recurved bow consists of three parts-two popular than natural feathers for this pur-
flexible limbs extending from opposite ends pose. A nock (a plastic piece that is grooved
of a rigid riser. The bow's total length may to fit around the bowstring) is attached to
be 50-70 in (125-175 cm). The riser, which the back end of the arrow. Arrowheads,
is about 20 in (50 cm) long, provides a com- which were historically made of flint, bone,
fortable handgrip and a ledge on which the horn, bronze, or hardwood, are now com-
arrow rests prior to release. The limbs may monly made of steel. They may have two to
be permanently attached to the riser, or they six protruding blades, or they may simply
may be removable, allowing the archer to bring the shaft to a rounded or pointed end.
take the bow apart for ease of transportation
and storage or to interchange limbs with dif-
ferent operating characteristics. The Manufacturing
Process
Rawv Materials
The bow
When made of a single piece of wood, a
bow can warp from moisture or become The following paragraphs describe the con-
brittle in cold weather. It can also perma- struction of a recurved bow with permanent-
nently deform into the curved shape attained , ly attached limbs.
when the bow is strung (the bowstring is at-
tached to both ends, bending the bow). Various materials are cut into rectangles
When this happens, the bow's springiness is for the layers of the limbs. Wood layers
decreased and it loses power. Making bows are dyed the desired color. Glue is applied,
from fiberglass solves some of these prob- and the layers are stacked in the proper se-
lems, but with reduced performance charac- quence.
teristics. The best results are obtained with
composite materials that are formed by glu- 2 The multi-layer limb section is mounted
ing together layers of various woods, fiber- 2on a form that will determine its final
glass, or carbon fiber. Among the woods curvature. While attached to the form, the
commonly used for bows are red elm, limb is cured in an oven at 1800 F (80° C)
maple, cedar, bamboo, and exotic woods for six hours.
such as bubinga.
3 The riser is made from a solid block of
Historically, bowstrings have been made 3aluminum or a block formed by laminat-
from sinew, twisted rawhide, gut, hemp, ing various layers of wood. After cutting the
flax, or silk. Today, strings for wooden block down to a basic outline of its final
longbows are often made of linen thread. shape, pins are inserted near the riser's ends
Compound bows may be strung with steel to allow attachment of the limbs.
52
Bow and Arrow
%I
Side window
Grip -
SPUCING
I WEAVING
- String
A typical bow. In order to form a

Holes are drilled in the limbs to match The bowyer begins to shape the riser by bowstring loop, the string con ei-
A the position of the pins in the riser, and 6cutting out sections to form a shelf on ther be spliced or woven.
the limbs are temporarily attached to the which the arrow can rest and to provide a
riser. After the joints are sanded smooth, the sighting window. Using a power saw, a
limbs are removed from the riser. sander, and a hand rasp (wood file), the
bowyer contours the riser into a shape that
will be comfortable to grip.
5 Using a template, the bowyer (bow
maker) marks the limbs for cutting.
Using a power saw and a sander, the crafts- 7 The limbs are attached to the finished
man tapers and shapes the ends of the limbs riser and glued into place. Final shaping
from their originally rectangular shape. The is done on the limb tips. The entire bow is
ends of the limbs are filed to make grooves sanded by hand and then finished with a
where the bowstring can be mounted. protective coating of clear epoxy.
53
During bow manufacture, the limb

is mounted on a form that will de-
termine its final curvature. While
attached to the form, the limb is
cured at a high temperature and
the riser is then attached to the
bow with pins.
FORMING
Riser window
The bowstring section in the center of the bowstring and a

5-in (13-cm) section near each end loop. A
Although manufactured bowstrings are reinforcement called a nocking point, which
available, some archery enthusiasts prefer to is made of rubber or plastic, is attached at
make their own. the point where arrows will be mounted
8 The number of strands of thread needed against the string.
8is determined. This depends on the
strength of the thread being used and the
draw weight (strength) of the bow. The bun- The arrow
dle of strands is divided into three equal .-The following steps describe how wooden
sets, and each set is coated with beeswax arrows are made.
(perhaps with added resin). The sets of
strands are then formed into a cord by twist- A "two by four" (2 in [5 cm] thick and
ing and weaving them together. I 4 in [10 cm] wide) of appropriate
9 When enough cord has been formed, a wood is selected, making sure the grain of
loop is formed by bringing the cord's the wood runs as close as possible to the
end around and splicing or weaving it into length of the board. A section is cut that is
the new section that is being corded. When about 3 in (7.5 cm) longer than the planned
the bowstring's desired length is nearly arrow length. Using a heavy knife or an axe,
achieved, the string is pre-stretched by the board is split down one side to form an
hanging it from the initial loop while attach- edge that truly runs along the grain of the
ing a weight to the free end. The length is wood.
then reevaluated, and cording continues
until the desired length is attained. Forming 12 Following the split edge, square
another loop finishes off the string. blanks are sawed that are slightly larg-
er than the desired shaft diameter. If neces-
"Serving" is applied by wrapping sary, the blanks can be straightened by heat-
V nylon thread around a 10-in (25-cm) ing them and bending them.
54
Bow and Arrow
The arrow is typically made of
wood and coated with
polyurethane and paint. Trimmed
feathers or plasfic vanes are glued
to the shaft between the cresfing
and the nock in a pattern that is
parallel to the shaft, spirallin a
straight-line diagonal to the shaft),
or helical (in a curve that begins
and ends parallel to the shaft). An
arrowhead is mounted on the
shaft. The shape of the head is de-
termined by the purpose for which
the arrow will be used-target
shooting or hunting specific types
of animals.
13 Each side of the blank is planed to en- 7An arrowhead is mounted on the
13sure its smoothness and straightness. 17shaft. The shape of the head is deter-
Then the four corners are planed off to form mined by the purpose for which the arrow
an octagonal rod. Again, the corners are will be used-target shooting or hunting
planed off. Finally, the shaft is sanded to specific types of animals.
form a round dowel.
i A nock, or slot, is cut into one end of The Future
1'4 the arrow shaft. Alternatively, the end Building on the analytical approach begun
of the shaft can be inserted into a plastic
nock. in the 1930s, modern researchers are refin-
ing mathematical models that describe the
15 The shaft is coated with polyurethane performance of bows, in order to evaluate
or varnish. Cresting (bands of color possible design changes. In addition to vary-
that identify the arrow's owner or manufac- ing the size and shape of bow components,
turer) is applied around the shaft. bowyers also experiment with new materi-
als. For example, at least one manufacturer
1 The arrow is fletched by gluing now offers limbs made with a core layer of
16trimmed feathers or plastic vanes to syntactic foam (a high-strength, low-density
the shaft between the cresting and the nock. material, composed of epoxy resin and mi-
These real or artificial feathers may be ap- croscopic glass beads that can be cast and
plied parallel to the shaft, spirally (in a machined).
straight-line diagonal to the shaft), or heli-
cally (in a curve that begins and ends paral- Some archers use attachments on their bows
lel to the shaft). Usually three feathers are to improve their performance, and manufac-
applied, one of which will face directly turers are developing increasingly sophisti-
away from the bow when the arrow is cated models of such accessories. For exam-
mounted for shooting. This is called the ple, an electronic sighting device is now
cock feather, and the other two are called available that not only helps archers fix their
shaft feathers. aim on a target, but also acts as a digital-dis-
55
play rangefinder. New designs are also Williams, John C. with Glenn Helgel.
being developed for stabilizers that are Archery for Beginners. Chicago: Contem-
mounted on rods extending outward from porary Books Inc., 1985.
the back of the bow. These stabilizers con-
sist of weights or hydraulic damping devices Other
(movable weights encased in a fluid-filled
cylinder) that help prevent twisting of the McNeur, Rob. Arrow Making FAQ. http:H/
bow during shooting by absorbing some of snt.student.utwente.nl/-sagi/artikel/faq/an-w-
the shock when the bowstring is released. make.shtml#question (December 7, 1998).
"Steps in Handcrafting Our Traditional
Where to Learn More Bows." Harrelson Traditional Archery Inc.
Books http://www.mindspring.com/-bowyer/ (Oc-
tober 25, 1998).
Paterson, W. F. Encyclopaedia of Archery.
New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984. -Loretta Hall
56
Brassiere
Background by steel rods. The corset design changed to In 1913, the modern
accommodate the reigning ideal figure,
Derived from the french word meaning pushing bust and hips around according to brassiere was born out of
upper arm, the brassiere is a mass-produced the fashionable silhouette.
support undergarment worn by women that necessity when New York
consists of two fabric cups attached to two In the late nineteenth century, several precur-
side panels, a back panel, and shoulder socialite Mary Phelps
sors to the modem bra were developed. In
straps (unless strapless) that fits snugly. 1875, a loose, unionsuit was manufactured by Jacobs' whalebone corset
They are sized according to a universal George Frost and George Phelps. During this
grading system first introduced by Ida period, corsets were lengthened to produce
poked up above her low
Rosenthal, the founder of Maidenform, in the fashionable figure type, the top of the
1928. Two measurements are crucial to de- cut gown.
corset dropped low, often not supporting or
termining bra size: the chest circumference covering the breasts. As added support, fabric
below the underarm and the fullest part of undergarments called bust bodices were worn
the breast. Cup size is calculated from the over the corset to cover and shape the breasts
difference between the two measurements. (by pushing them together but not separating
The greater the difference the larger the cup them), somewhat similar to the modem
size. Brassieres support breasts, separate brassiere. In 1889, a Frenchwoman named
them, and give them a shape or form. Mme. Herminie Cadolle devised the a gar-
These undergarments are made of many dif- ment called the Bien-Etre (meaning well-
ferent materials including cotton, rayon, being), which connected with sashes over the
silk, spandex, polyester, and lace. They are shoulders to the corset in back.
available in many styles from cups that
come without any padding (and are quite Early in the twentieth century, the need for a
sheer) to those that add significantly to the less obtrusive undergarment became neces-
size and shape of the cup. A woman can sary as the fashions changed. In 1913, the
alter her silhouette by simply purchasing a modem brassiere was born out of necessity
brassiere with cups that are designed to ren- when New York socialite Mary Phelps Ja-
der a specific shape. cobs' whalebone corset poked up above her
low cut gown. Fashioned from silk hanker-
chiefs and ribbons, the mechanism proved
History useful and Jacobs filed the first patent for a
Prior to the advent of the modem bra, a term brassiere and began producing brassieres
coined in 1937, corsets were the only sup- under the name Caresse Crosby. Jacobs sold
port garments available. Originally fash- the patent and business to Warner Brothers
ioned with whalebones, the one-piece corset Corset Company for $1,500.
was made popular by Catherine de Medici's
demand for slim-waisted court attendants
during her husband's-King Henri II- Ravv Materials
reign in France in the 1550s. The corset's The raw materials gathered for the produc-
popularity was withstanding and lasted over tion of brassieres vary tremendously depend-
350 years, with whalebone being replaced ing on the product. Some are all cotton,
57
some are all polyester, some are combina- important to note that more styles and proto-
tions of natural and synthetics, and so forth. types are created than the company intends
Most brassieres include an elastic material of to produce. After modifications, the appro-
some sort on the back panel that allows some priate prototypes are selected. Computer pro-
expansion and movement of back muscles. duction of pattern is useful to size the pattern
Spandex, a modem synthetic fiber extensive- in order to fit different sizes of women.
ly processed from Malaysian tree sap, must
be processed prior to the assembling of the Final selections are tested by laboratories to
brassiere because it is, in some products, the ensure quality, fit, sizing, etc. Then, the pro-
most important material in the brassiere. A totype is manufactured in the factory in
closure of some sort (most often metal hooks some quantity and tested once again by
and eyes) must be included on the brassiere everyone from designers to shop foremen to
unless it is an elastic sports brassiere which marketers. When all agree in the quality, fit,
can be put on over the head. Cups, padding, and market appeal, the brassiere is ready to
and straps vary not only from manufacturer be produced in quantity.
to manufacturer but by style.
The Manufacturing
Design Process
The design process for developing a new The methods for constructing brassieres
brassiere style is an important part of the vary from one company to the next. It is a
manufacturing process. Brassiere manufac- product that is still pieced out in some
turers, like other clothing manufacturers, plants, meaning that the sewing that con-
must supply not just a functional item but nects all the components may be contracted
one that appeals to a large enough segment out of the plant to smaller sewing opera-
of women that the products can be sold with tions. In addition, materials utilized in the
a profit. Before a new product or product construction of the brassiere affects the
line is designed, the marketing and sales de- manufacturing method. For example, if an
partments review data on the current line of undergarment company utilizes spandex
products. They examine comments from re- within the product, they may manufacture
tailers as to what they feel might sell well, the material on premises. If a company uses
female consumer attitudes in general and cotton, it may be supplied from a manufac-
trends in women's purchasing habits. They turer who makes the material based on their
may also talk to focus groups who offer specifications.
their opinions on products and needs.
By the time this review is complete, the Cutting out the components
marketers and designers have decided on the The components of the brassiere-the
next season's collection. Decisions are cup top and bottom (if seamed), the
based on how the new styles will be posi- straps, and the central, side and back pan-
tioned within the collection, special fea- els-must be cut out according to the pat-
tures, cut, sizing, production costs, market tern specifications residing in the computer-
pricing, quality specifications, and when the ized specifications. Many layers of fabric
new product will be launched publicly. are cut out at a time using either a bandsaw-
These general specifications are essential like shearing device or a more contemporary
for the designers and design engineers to use computer-controlled laser. The cups, panels,
as guidelines once they leave that meeting. and straps are cut; kept together in stacks via
style; and sent out to various locations to be
Prototype drawings are made, pattern pieces sewn.
are designed, and often the pattern pieces are
devised using computerized programs. Com-
ponents of the brassiere-cup top and bot- Sewing
tom and side, central and back panels-ren- 2 The stacks may be sent to different parts
der the shape. These components are cut out 2of the factory or even off premises to
of cardboard using a computerized cutter. piece workers who assemble the brassieres
This prototype is assembled and is subject to using industrial grade sewing machines.
important fine-tuning and modification. It is However, large operations send the pieces
58
Brassiere
The manufacture of brassieres in-

through on a line in which machines sew heat processed or ironed into the two halves volves first cutting many layers of
parts in quick succession. (Cups might be of the back panel. The label is usually ma- fabric at one time using either a
sewn onto a side panel, the parts move along chine-stitched into the back or side panel as bandsaw-like shearing device or a
and another piece is sewn on, etc.) In larger well at this time. more contemporary computer-
facilities, humans rarely sew anything onto controlled laser. Once cut, the
the brassiere unless it is a peculiar or unusu- pattern pieces are assembled at
Packaging the factory by workers, off site by
al design.
4 The completed brassieres are sent (either piece workers, or by automated
transported in a bin or on a line) to anoth- machinery. Hooks and eyes are
Closures and labels er location and sorted by style and folded (ei-
both sewn in by machine and heat
processed or ironed into the two
3 The brassiere, assembled a bit at a time ther by hand or machine depending on the halves of the back panel.
vas it moves through the machinery, is size of the operation). Boxes into which many
ready for the closures. Coated metal hooks brassieres come arrive at the manufacturer
and eyes are both sewn in by machine and completely flat. Machines must crease and
59
fold the packages that are fed into the ma- ed to be within 0.125 in (0.3175 cm) of the
chine and a rectangular box is created. A desired measurements (one French company
worker called a picker puts a brassiere into the requires that the brassiere must not deviate
box, the box is closed, and then sent down a from the standard pattern more than 1
chute. A laser reads that the box is fully mm[0.0394 in]). If not, the brassiere is re-
packed and ready to go to the holding area, jected as an inferior or second.
awaiting transportation to the wholesaler.
Byproducts/Waste
Quality Control Fabric wastes are the primary byproducts of
Quality is controlled in all phases of the de- this manufacturing process. They may be re-
sign and manufacture of the brassiere. First, cycled or discarded.
experienced designers and design engineers
understand the requirements of the wearer Where to Learn More
as well as the marketers and design with ac-
tivities and cleaning requirements in mind. Books
Second, a very important part is procuring
fabrics and components (underwire, hooks Ewing, Elizabeth. Dress and Undress: A
and eyes, or buckles) that are durable. Test- History of Women's Underwear. London:
ing of materials include assessing shrink-re- Anchor Press, Ltd: 1987.
sistance, color-fastness and durability,
shape-retention, stretch, manufacturing sta- Fontanel, Beatrice. Support and Seduction:
bility, and comfort. Companies work with A History of Corsets and Bras. Translated
suppliers in order to acquire new materials by Willard Wood. Harry N. Abrams, 1997.
that provide service as well as value. In fact,
some manufacturers have developed their Hawthorne, Rosemary. Bras: A Private
own fabrics or underwire because all other View. Souvenir Press Ltd., 1993.
similar support materials on the market were
inferior. Third, prototypes are extensively Periodicals
examined by many members of the compa- Dowling, Claudia Glenn. "Ooh-la-la! The
ny and problems are discovered and solved Bra."Life (June 1989): 88.
when many are involved in the assessment
of new products. An essential part of this is Wadyka, Sally. "Bosom Buddies"Vogue
when the prototype moves from a single ex- (August 1994): 122.
ample to early manufacturing. Those in-
volved in the manufacturing assist in solv-
ing the problems that can occur in the initial Other
stages of manufacturing. Finally, manufac- Bali Company. http://www.balinet.com/
turers must offer consumers brassieres that (June 7, 1999).
fit well. In prototyping and in manufactur-
ing, the brassieres are inspected and expect- -Nancy EV Bryk
60
Castanets
Castanets are pairs of shell-shaped clappers that is crisper in quality; the larger sizes, The word castanet comes
that are hinged together with string. A Span- usually used by men, produce a lower tone
ish dancer holds a pair in each hand, click- that is richer and more mellow in quality. from castana, the Spanish
ing the clappers together rapidly to produce word for chestnut.
rhythmic patterns of sound to accompany Mass-produced castanets made of poor-
the dance movements. Castanets are not quality wood or plastic cost less than $10 a
used in flamenco dancing, however, as the set. Custom-made sets that are handcrafted
rhythmic accompaniment is produced by from high-quality material, such as hard-
stomping the feet. woods and composites, to suit an individual
performer cost $100-400.
Background
The word castanet comes from castaina, the History
Spanish word for chestnut. Besides cas-
tainuelas, there are several other Spanish Musical instruments similar to castanets
words for castanets, including pulgaretes have been developed in many parts of the
(because some dancers attach them to their world. Ancient versions of small, wood or
thumb, or pulgar) and platillos (saucers). metal clappers were used by Egyptian,
Greek, Roman, Arab, Moorish, and Chinese
The classical technique for playing castanets dancers, for example. It is not known
is to let one clapper rest in the palm, with whether such instruments were brought to
the string looped around the thumb. Striking Iberia (the region now known as Spain and
the other clapper with the fingertips knocks Portugal), perhaps by the Greeks, or
it against its mate, producing a tone. Rapidly whether they developed independently in
striking the clapper with a succession of dif- that region. Archaeological evidence indi-
ferent fingers on the dominant hand pro- cates that Iberians made small clappers from
duces trills that embellish the sound and sticks, shells, flat stones, and bone.
provide counter rhythms. The pair in the
other hand (e.g., the left hand of a right-
handed person) is played with single strokes Raw Materials
to mark the basic rhythm of the music. An
alternative technique, used by folkloric Novelty castanets have been made from
dancers, consists of looping the string ivory, marble, crystal, gold, silver, bronze,
around one or more fingers in the middle of and aluminum, but few of these are musical-
the hand and flicking the wrist to throw the ly useful. The traditional material used for
two clappers toward the palm, where they good castanets has been very hard (but not
strike each other. brittle) wood such as granadillo, rosewood,
ebony, pomegranate, or oak. The best hard-
A pair of castanets should fit comfortably in woods come from equatorial forests, and
the dancer's hand, so the diameter is about they are becoming quite expensive; some
1.5-2.75 in (4-7 cm). The smaller sizes, usu- people prefer not to use them out of a sense
ally used by women, produce a higher tone of environmental consciousness.
61
Castanets are commonly shaped

like a clam shell that is circular or Most professional-quality castanets are cur- a pair of castanets is the size and depth of
slightly oval, with an extension on rently made from a synthetic, laminated ma- the hollows on the insides of the clappers.
one side for the hinge holes. terial such as Micarta. Called tela de musica Also important is a good area of contact at
(cloth of music) by castanet makers, this the tips of the castanets, where the two clap-
material is made by applying heat and pres- pers strike each other. Although some
sure to many layers of paper, cotton cloth, or dancers prefer the two pairs of a set of cas-
glass-fiber cloth that have been impregnated tanets to have the same tone, it is traditional
with a phenolic resin. For the purposes of for one pair to produce a tone one-third
castanet making, this material is quite simi- lower than the other. This bass pair, called
lar to high-quality ebony or granadillo. the macho or male pair, is played with the
left hand to mark the beat of the music. The
Cotton strings are generally used to hinge treble pair, called the hembra or female pair,
together the two clappers of a pair of cas- is played with the right hand in a way that
tanets. Nylon string can be used, especially embellishes the music.
by an orchestra musician; however, a dancer
who keeps his or her arms up in the air Several factors influence the degree of con-
while playing the castanets may find nylon trol a dancer has over the castanets when
strings too slippery. playing them in the classical manner. One is
the exterior slope of the clappers-a steeper
slope makes proper finger action easier.
Design Other factors are the angle of the string
Castanets are commonly shaped like a clam holes and the curvature of the wood between
shell that is circular or slightly oval, with an the holes, where the bases of the two clap-
extension on one side for the hinge holes. pers rotate against each other when being
Occasionally, however, castanets are made played.
in more novel shapes like squares, rectan-
gles, or triangles. Castanets are sometimes used as a percus-
sion instrument by orchestras rather than
Besides the overall size and the material dancers. In this case, castanets may be
from which they are made, another factor mounted on wooden handles rather than
that influences the tone and sound quality of being attached to the player's fingers or
62
Castanets
Castanets must be attached to the
thumb of each hand by a string
and the fingers must be lined up
at certain points on the castanets
in order to properly play the in-
strument.
Right hand Left hand
thumbs. The musician can pick them up The two halves are separated, somewhat
quickly by the handle and flick them in the 5like opening an oyster.
air or strike them against his or her knees.
Elastic cords are used to connect the clap- 6 Using hand tools and sandpaper, the out-
pers so they remain open while at rest. Sets side of each shell is smoothed to its final
of castanets can also be mounted on a base; shape.
the musician plays them by tapping on the
upper clappers, sending them down against
7 The hollow is cut out of the inside of
the lower clappers. 7each shell. Depending on the prefer-
ences of the castanet maker, various tools
may be used, such as a Carborundum wheel
The Manufacturing or a sanding ball.
Process
Additional shaping involves sloping the
Castanets may be either mass produced or 8faces of the clappers so that they contact
individually hand crafted. The following each other only at the base and the lips. The
steps describe the manual method, although base of the hinge area must also be rounded
a few comments compare this to mass pro- to allow the clappers to pivot properly.
duction techniques.
9 When the two shells are practically fin-
A block of material approximately the ished, the maker tests them for sound
size of the intended pair of castanets is quality. If necessary, they can be tuned by
sawed in half lengthwise to produce a blank making the hollow deeper or broader.
for each shell. After placing a sheet of paper
between centers of the halves, the pieces are In mass production, steps one through nine
glued back together. are largely automated. For example, a me-
chanical duplicator or a computer-pro-
2 Using either a standard pattern or one grammed cutting tool may be used to create
derived from a tracing of the intended uniform exterior and interior curvatures ac-
user's hand, an outline of the shell-shaped cording to a master design. Individual tun-
clapper is traced on the block. ing is not necessary.
Using a bandsaw, the clapper is cut to When the shaping has been finalized,
vthe desired shape. I V the castanets are polished with jewel-
er's rouge. Depending on the preferences of
4 Two holes are drilled to accommodate the maker and the user, wood castanets may
the cord that will join the finished clap- be treated with olive oil. Future oiling will
pers together. not be necessary, as the castanets will be
63
continually conditioned by the natural oils user is able to adjust the tightness of the
of the user's hands. cord for proper operation of the castanets.
1 1 If the set of castanets consists of a bass Where to Learn More

pair and a treble pair, it is customary to
mark the treble pair. The mark is character- Books
istic of the castanet maker-some use a
notch, and some use a particular color and Lalagia. Spanish Dancing: A Practical
shape of paint marking. Handbook. London: Dance Books, 1985.
La Meri [Russell Meriwether Hughes].
A pair of clappers is joined with a 12 Spanish Dancing. Pittsfield, MA: Eagle Print
I2in (30.48 cm) length of cord thick and Binding Co., 1967.
enough to barely fit through the holes. The
cord is threaded through the four holes so
that both ends of the cord are on the outside Other
of one of the clappers. Both ends of the cord LP Music Group. http:/www.bongo.com/
are knotted separately to prevent fraying. A (June 7, 1999).
slipknot is formed in one end of the cord,
and the other end is drawn through it. The -Loretta Hall
64
Ceramic Filter
Background one-third of all metal castings and con- The world market for
tributes over $7.3 billion to the U.S. econo-
During many industrial processes, a filtering my every year. This process involves inject- molten metal filters exceeds
step may be required to remove impurities ing molten metal into a steel die under high
and improve quality of the final product. $200 million per year.
pressure. The metal-either aluminum, zinc,
Depending on the process, the filter may be magnesium, and sometimes copper-is held
subjected to high temperatures and a corro- under pressure until it solidifies into the de-
sive environment. A filter material with sired shape. Parts range from automobile
good temperature and chemical resistance is engine and transmission parts; to intricate
therefore needed. components for computers and medical de-
vices; or to simple desk staplers.
Ceramic filters meet these requirements and
are finding use in a wide range of applica- The various casting processes differ primar-
tions. One major application is filtration of ily in the mold material (whether sand,
molten metal during casting of various com- metal, or other material) and the pouring
ponents. Another is diesel engine exhaust method (gravity, vacuum, low pressure, or
filters. The world market for molten metal high pressure). All of the processes share
filters exceeds $200 million per year. the requirement that the materials solidify in
a manner that would maximize the proper-
The metal casting industry is the sixth ties, while simultaneously preventing poten-
largest in North America, contributing over tial defects, such as shrinkage voids, gas
$20 billion to the U.S. economy. About 13 porosity, and trapped inclusions.
million tons of metal castings are shipped
every year, with 85% made from ferrous These inclusions can be removed by placing
(iron) metals. Castings are used in over 80% ceramic filters in the gating system leading
of all durable goods. to the mold. Such filters must resist attack at
high temperature by a variety of molten met-
In the casting process, a solid metal is melt- als. These metals can contain such reactive
ed, heated to proper temperature (and some- elements as aluminum, titanium, hafnium,
times treated to modify its chemical compo- and carbon. Using these filters can reduce
sition), and is then poured into a cavity or scrap rates by 40% and increase yields by
mold, which contains it in the proper shape 10% for manufacturing a wide range of parts
during solidification. Thus, in a single step, made out of iron alloys, stainless steel, super
simple or complex shapes can be made from alloys, aluminum, or other nonferrous alloys.
any metal that can be melted. Cast parts
range in size from a fraction of an inch and a Molten metal filters generally come in two
fraction of an ounce (such as the individual forms: a porous foam-like structure with in-
teeth on a zipper), to over 30 ft (9.14 m) and terconnected pores that vary in direction or
many tons (such as the huge propellers and cross section, or an extruded porous cellular
stem frames of ocean liners). or honeycomb structure with cells of various
shapes (square or triangular) and constant
Though there are a number of different cast- cross section. Though globally the most
ing processes, die casting is used for over popular type of filter is foam, cellular filters
65
are used in 75% of applications in North aluminum oxides), mullite (a combination

America. of aluminum and silicon oxides), silicon
carbide, and combinations thereof. Ceramic
Filters can have either open cells or closed fibers of various compositions may also be
cells. Open cell (reticulate) filters consist of added to improve certain properties. Other
a network of interconnected voids surround- additives include binders (alumina hydrate,
ed by a web of ceramic and are widely used sodium silicate), antifoaming agents (sili-
for molten metal filtration. Closed cell fil- cone or alcohol), and other chemicals to im-
ters (foams) consist of a similar network but prove slurry properties. Water is usually
the beams are bridged by thin faces which used to make the ceramic slurry.
isolate the individual cell. The open porosity
in an open cell structure is critical in filter
applications. The properties of a filter de- Design
pend on both the cellular geometry (density, For optimal filter performance, a filter must
cell size) and the properties of the material. be designed with the proper composition,
Advantages include high temperature stabil- pore size, and properties that match the spe-
ity and low weight. cific application. Size and shape must be tai-
The pore size of these filters are defined as lored to fit the mold system of the part being
cells or pores per linear inch (ppi). For hon- cast. Sufficient port area must be allowed so
eycomb filters, this ranges from 64-121 ppi the filter does not choke the gating system
or 240 ppi. For foam filters, pore size is during filtration. Filter area should be be-
much more difficult to measure but general- tween three to five times the total choke area
ly ranges from 10-30 ppi. that the filter is feeding.
Foam filters, which were first introduced The major performance criteria when de-
over 20 years ago for nonferrous casting, are signing a filter are flow rate, filtering effi-
also used in direct pour units for casting ciency, hot/cold strength, slag resistance,
steel. Inclusions that range from 0.125-2 in thermal shock resistance, quality level, and
(0.3175-5.1 cm). or more in length and up to cost. Each design is better at some than oth-
0.25 in (0.635 cm) in depth can be removed. ers, with significant design tradeoffs re-
These inclusions come from molding mate- quired in many cases.
rials, ladle refractories, and reoxidation dur-
ing the pouring process. The Manufacturing
Filtration occurs by mechanical interference, Process
with large inclusions separated at the filter There are several methods used to make
face and smaller inclusions trapped within the ceramic filters. The polymeric-sponge
filter. Foam filters are able to trap inclusions method, which will be described in more
significantly smaller than their open pore detail here, produces open-cell structures
areas and can also remove liquid inclusions. by impregnating a polymeric sponge with
a ceramic slurry, which is then burned out
Thermal shock behavior (the resistance to to leave a porous ceramic. The direct
sudden changes in temperature) for foam fil- foaming method can produce both open-
ters is dependent on their cell size, increas- cell and closed-cell structures, with the
ing with larger cells. Strength is initially re- foam structure more common. In this
tained after thermal shock and then method, a chemical mixture containing the
gradually decreases with increasing quench desired ceramic component and organic
temperature. A higher density may also im- materials is treated to evolve a gas. Bub-
prove thermal shock resistance. bles are then produced in the material,
causing it to foam. The resulting porous
ceramic material is then dried and fired.
Raw Materials For the honeycomb or cellular structure, a
The filter material is usually a metal oxide plastic-forming method called extrusion is
powder of various compositions. These in- used, where a mixture of ceramic powder
clude aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, plus additives is forced through a shaped
spinel (a combination of magnesium and die (like play dough). The cellular struc-
66
Ceramic Filter
Ceramic filters are manufactured

ture can also be produced using a pressing in size. The amount of water can range from in several different ways. The
method. 10-40% of the total slurry weight. polymeric-sponge method pro-
duces open-cell structures by im-
pregnating a polymeric sponge
Selecting the sponge Immersing the sponge with a ceramic slurry, which is
1 First, a polymeric sponge must be select- 3 Before immersion, the sponge is usually then burned out to leave a porous
ceramic. In order to create a hon-
ed with suitable properties. The pore size compressed to remove air, sometimes eycomb or cellular structure, a
of the sponge determines the pore size of the using a mechanical plunger several times. plastic-forming method called ex-
final ceramic after firing. It must also be Once it is immersed in the slurry, the trusion is used, where a mixture of
able to recover its original shape and con- sponge is allowed to expand and the slurry ceramic powder plus additives is
vert into a gas at a temperature below that fills the open cells. The compression/expan- forced through a shaped die (like
required to fire the ceramic. Polymers that sion step may be repeated to achieve the de- play dough).
can satisfy these requirements include sired density.
polyurethane, cellulose, polyvinyl chloride,
polystyrene, and latex. Typical polymeric Removing excess slurry
sponges range in size from 3.94-39.4 in (10-
100 cm) in width and 0.394-3.94 in (1-10 A After infiltration, between 25-75% of
cm) in thickness. 4 the slurry must be removed from the
sponge. This is done by compressing the
sponge between wooden boards, centrifug-
Preparing the slurry ing, or passing through preset rollers. The
2 After the sponge is selected, the slurry is gap between rollers determines the amount
made by mixing the ceramic powder and removed. Sometimes the impregnated foam
additives in water. The ceramic powder usu- goes through another shaping step since it is
ally consists of particles less than 45 microns still flexible.
67
Drying The Future

5 The infiltrated sponge is then dried The metal casting market is expected to de-
5using one of several methods-air dry- cline by 2.7% in 1999, mainly because of
ing, oven drying, or microwave heating. Air the weakening global economy, with total
drying takes from eight to 24 hours. Oven shipments expected to reach 14.5 million
drying takes place between 212-1,292° F tons. Sales will increase slightly to $28.8
(100-700° C) and is completed in 15 min- billion. Though casting shipments will con-
utes to six hours. tinue to decline slightly in 2000 and 2001,
over the long term, shipments are expected
to reach almost 18 million tons in 2008,
Burning out the sponge with sales of $45 billion. Shipments and
6 Another heating step is required to drive sales will see 10-year growth rates of 1.7%
6off the organics from the slurry and bum and 4.75%, respectively.
out the sponge. This takes place in air or
inert atmosphere between 662-1,472° F The increased use of lighter-weight metal
(350-800° C) for 15 minutes to six hours at components, such as aluminum die castings,
a slow and controlled heating rate to avoid has spurred growth in the automotive sector.
blowing apart the ceramic structure. The Today, there is an average of 150 lb
temperature depends on the temperature at (68.1kg) of aluminum castings per vehicle,
which the sponge material decomposes. an amount projected to grow to 200 lb (90.8
kg) per year by the year 2000.
Firing the ceramic Ceramic filters will continue to play an im-

portant role in producing quality castings
7 The ceramic structure must be heated to and will follow the growth of the casting
7temperatures between 1,832-3,092° F market. Dollar volume may decrease due to
(1,000- 1,700° C) to densify the material at continued price reductions. Quality and pro-
a controlled rate to avoid damage. The firing ductivity demands for metal castings are in-
cycle depends on the specific ceramic com- creasing the need for filters since they pro-
position and the desired final properties. For vide a fast and reliable way to obtain good
instance, an aluminum oxide material may castings. Thus, casting buyers are specifying
require firing at 2,4620 F (1,350° C) for five "filtered" more and more often.
hours.
Where to Learn More

Quality Control
Raw materials usually must meet require- Books
ments regarding composition, purity, parti-
cle size, and other properties. Properties Ishizaki, Kozo et al., ed.Porous Materials,
monitored and controlled during manufac- Ceramic Transactions. The American Ce-
turing are usually dimensional and then de- ramic Society, 1993.
sign specific. For foam filters, the weight of
the filter must be measured to determine Periodicals
coating efficiency. Extruded filters are mea-
sured for density. Both parameters relate to "Metal pouring/filtering."Foundry Manage-
strength properties. ment & Technology (January 1996): C2-C6.
Outen, John. "Reduce defects with direct

Byproducts/Waste pour technology." Foundry Management &
The manufacturing process is carefully Technology (August 1996): 108- 111.
controlled to minimize waste. In general,
excess slurry cannot be recycled since it Saggio-Woyansky, J., C. Scott, and W.
could change the purity and solid loadings Minnear. "Processing of Porous Cera-
of the original slurry, thereby affecting mics."American Ceramic Society Bulletin
final properties. (November 1992): 1674-1682.
68
Ceramic Filter
Other Kirgin, Kenneth. "1999 Contraction to cause
demand to dip to 14.5 million tons."Modem
American Foundryman's Society. 505 State Casting Online (January 1999). Http:Hl
Street Des Plaines, IL 60016-8399. (800)
537-4237. (847) 824-0181. Fax: (847) 824- www.moderncasting.com/archive/feature-
026_01.html/.
7848. http://www.afsinc.org/.
North American Die Casting Association.
Hamilton Porcelains Ltd. Hamilton Techni- 9701 West Higgins Road, Suite 880, Rose-
cal Ceramics. 25 Campbell Street, Box 594, mont, Illinois 60018-4721. (847) 292-3600.
Brantford, Ontario, Canada N3t 5N9. (519) Fax: 847-292-3620. twarog@diecasting.org.
753-8454. Fax: (519) 753-5014. http:// http://www.diecasting.org/.
www.hamiltonporcelains.com/.
-Laurel Sheppard
69
Cheese Curl
An estimated 82% of Background the ribbons home, added oil and flavor and
made the first cheese curls. The company
American family Cheese curls, sometimes referred to as corn ran another flaker just for the production of
curls or cheese puffs, have been a popular Korn Kurls. By 1950, the Adams Corpora-
households have eaten American snack food since the 1950s. These tion was mass-producing the Korn Kurl.
cheese curls. crispy cheese snacks are formed from corn- There were dozens of small snack compa-
meal, water, oil, and flavored coatings. nies that followed the Adams Corporation
Cheese curls are an extruded snack, mean- and produced cheese curls, with many de-
ing they are cooked, pressurized, and vising their special shape using innovative
pushed out of a die that forms the particular dies for their extruded snacks. Today, per-
snack shape. They are then baked (or fried, haps the most popular cheese snacks are
depending on the product) and flavored with produced by Frito-Lay although they did not
oil and seasonings. Today, we eat extruded offer any such snacks until 1980. This com-
corn snacks that are ball-shaped, curly, pany offers the product in a variety of
straight, or irregularly shaped depending on shapes and flavorings (including one that is
the shape of the die. Flavorings added after flavored with cayenne pepper). Despite their
baking or frying vary greatly and different minimal nutritional value (they are high in
brands have distinctive flavors. These calories and fat and offer little fiber or pro-
snacks are extremely popular snacks with tein), they are quite popular. It is estimated
children. The cheese curl industry packages that 82% of Americans with families have
them so that they are an easy choice to drop eaten cheese curls at some point.
into school lunches.
History Raw Materials

The invention of the cheese curl was quite The cheese extrusion itself is generally
serendipitous. During the 1930s, the Flakall made from two primary ingredients: corn-
Company that produced corn-based feed for meal and water. All other ingredients are
livestock sought a way to produce feed that sprayed or applied to the corn curl after it
did not contain sharp hulls and grain dust leaves the extruder and is dried. The coat-
and eventually produced a machine that ings vary greatly according to flavor and the
broke the grain into small pieces by flaking manufacturer. Soybean and/or cottonseed
it. The Flakall Company became successful and/or coconut oil may be sprayed on the
manufacturers of flaked feed. One day as extrusions. Then, powders such as cheddar
Edward Wilson was working as a flake op- cheese powders, acid whey powder, artifi-
erator at the Flakall Company, he noticed cial cheese flavor, salt, and other spices are
that workers poured moistened corn kernels often applied over the oil.
into the machine to reduce clogging. He
found that when the flaking machine ran The Manufacturing
continuously it made parts of it quite hot. Process
The moistened cornmeal came out of the
machine in puffy ribbons, hardened as it hit This section will focus on the production of
the air, and fell to the ground. Wilson took baked cheese curls. The process for making
70
Cheese Curl
The primary step in the manufac-
ture of cheese curls is the extrusion
of the cornmeal mixture. Using a
tapered screw, the extruder forces
the mixture against the inside of
the extrusion chamber, creating a
shearing effect when pressure is
increased. Steam jackets line the
extrusion chamber to assist in
cooking the meal mixture. When
the cornmeal reaches the die it is
hot, elastic, and viscous. The
moisture is liquid under high pres-
sure but changes to steam as it
reaches lower pressure on the
other side of the extrusion
process. The result is that the corn-
meal dough expands and puffs up
as it moves through the die.
Extruder
fried cheese curls differs only in that the Extruding the collettes
product is fried after drying. In general, the
manufacturing process for any extruded The cornmeal mixture is loaded into the
puff is relatively standard. It includes the 2top of the extruding machine. The batch
heating of kernels of grain and then sub- becomes rather gelatinous as it is exposed to
jecting the meal to extremely high temper- heat, moisture, and pressure. The mixture is
ature and pressure. Starch in the mixture is
then propelled through the extruder using an
auger or tapered screw. This screw forces
gelatinized prior to its extrusion, and as the
gelatinous mix is extruded, it is shaped and the mixture against the inside of the extru-
puffed. sion chamber, creating a shearing effect
when pressure is increased. Steam jackets
line the extrusion chamber to assist in cook-
Mixing ing the meal mixture. When the cornmeal
reaches the die it should be hot, elastic, and
Cornmeal is carefully chosen for use in viscous. The moisture is liquid under high
puffed corn curls. The cornmeal must be pressure but changes to steam as it reaches
of fine texture so that it produces a pleasant lower pressure on the other side of the extru-
feel as it is eaten. Also, cornmeal with a sion process. The result is that the cornmeal
low moisture content of 6-10% is used in dough expands and puffs up as it moves
this process. Too much moisture in the through the extrusion dies.
meal will render the product soggy. Corn-
meal inspected for moisture content is The shape of the die is a critical aspect of its
placed into a mixing bin and sprayed with a product because it gives the product its dis-
fine mist of water as it is stirred. Water tinctive shape. As the dough is pushed
poured directly into the meal will result in through the dies, it looks like puffy snakes.
gluten formation, uneven distribution of These extruded snakes called collettes are
moisture, and clumping of wet grain. When cut to the desired length by a rotating knife.
the desired consistency is achieved, the
mixture is immediately extruded. Holding Drying the collettes
the mixture too long often results in addi-
tional water absorption and the mixture The collettes still contain between 6-
cannot be used. If the cornmeal slurry can- 310% water at this point (depending on
not be used immediately, it must be stored the recipe and the manufacturer) and must
in an airtight container. be dried out. So, the collettes are convey-
71
The extruded cheese curls can be

seasoned using a flavor reel. In
this process, the oils, flavors,
spices, and color are mixed to-
gether in a tank and sprayed on
the curls as they are tumbled in a
barrel. Once flavored, the curls
are dried and packaged.
Seasoner
ored to a large oven called a dryer. They the surface of the collette in order for the
move continuously through the dryer until flavors and spices to stick to the snack. The
they emerge at the other end crisped up con- flavored snacks now sit on a conveyor and
siderably. The dryer generally is about 1400 dry before they are packaged.
F (59.9° C)-hot enough to get the moisture
out but not to darken the collette. The col- Packaging the cheese curls
lettes require about five minutes to dry out
and are reduced to between 1-2% moisture. 6 The cheese curls move along the convey-
Vor belt and are dried. A vibrating convey-
or belt moves the snacks along until they fall
Separating the fines into the weigher. The weighing machine
4 The fines or small particles that are pro- weighs out just the right amount of curls to
1
duced as the collettes are conveyed to go into a bag and puts them into a chute.
the dryers must be separated from the nice- (Cheese curl bags may be made of
ly-formed collettes. (The fines tend to ab- polypropylene which are resistant to mois-
sorb oil and flavorings and are undesirable ture and keep the product crisp.) Huge rolls
to include in a package of cheese curls. of flattened bags are loaded into the weigh-
Some modem dryers are self-cleaning and ing machine, formed, and prepared to re-
automatically deposit the fines in a cross ceive the corn curls that drop into the bags.
conveyor for removal from the machine. The bags are then heat sealed. Cartons of
bags are packed and shipped to a warehouse.
Flavoring the collettes
5 As the collettes move through the oven, Quality Control
they are sent to the flavor coating sta- One of the most important quality control
tion. They are still bland cornmeal crisps steps in the entire process is selecting corn-
and must receive a coating in order to be meal for use. First, it must be finely ground
palatable. They may be coated using one of because big grains or gritty meal result in an
two methods. In the first method, the extrud- undesirable feel as the finished product is
ed corn curls are first sprayed with veg- consumed. Cornmeal is tested for grit size
etable oil and then dusted with a variety of by weighing 1.75 oz (50 g) of a well-mixed,
dry flavors, seasonings, and color. In the representative sample of meal. Then, the test
second method, the oils, flavors, spices, and sample is transferred to the top sieve of a se-
color may be mixed together in a tank and ries of different grades of sieves. The grain
sprayed on the collettes as they are tumbled is poured on top and agitated as it is put
in what is called a flavor reel. In either through the sieves. The grain remaining on
process, it is essential that oil is placed on the sieves is considered too coarse to use;
72
Cheese Curl
this amount is weighed and the approximate seen many interesting variations and im-
usable grain is calculated and compared to provements in the past two decades in par-
specifications sent from the supplier. Next, ticular. Companies are constantly seeking
moisture content of the grain is assessed be- new flavors to spray onto the extruded corn-
cause too-wet or too-dry cornmeal will cre- meal collettes. Recently, very spicy coatings
ate inferior product. (Excessive moisture have been added to one company's product
will cause formation of small, heavy, hard and they are selling well. One company that
puffs, while too-dry cornmeal will create sells extruding machines and dies advertises
light, long, straight puffs. Puffs that are too that they look forward to working with food
dry will burn in the dryer.) Moisture content manufacturers in order to develop new,
is determined by weighing a 0.07-0.105 oz unique product. Furthermore, it is possible
(2-3 g) portion of cornmeal, placing it a un- to extrude other grains in the extruder and
covered in the self of an oven for exactly 60 perhaps the snack food industry will see
seconds, then re-weighing the samples and how well wheat or rye puffs may sell in the
calculating the amount of moisture loss. The near future.
meal must not lose more than 0.2% of
weight (moisture) of the cornmeal may be Where to Learn More
considered too wet for use at that point.
Books
The equipment used in the manufacture of
the extruded snacks is calibrated and Herbst, Sharon Tyler. "Cornmeal," In The
checked very carefully throughout the pro- Food Lover's Second Edition. Barron's Ed-
duction process. Industry and food technolo- ucational Services, Inc.
gy manuals indicate the proper rate of feed
into and through the extruder, the number of Snack Food Association. Corn Quality As-
revolutions per minute at which the extruder surance Manual. Alexandria, VA: Snack
must run, the temperature of the extruder, the Food Association, 1992.
pressure (measured in Atmospheres) that Snack Food Association. Corn Quality As-
must be maintained in the extruder, the surance Manual. Alexandria, VA: Snack
speed of the extruder, and the rotating speed Food Association, 1994.
of the knife that cuts the collettes. Human
operators constantly check the extruding dies
to ensure they have not plugged up. Ex- Other
tremely important is determining the amount Frito-Lay. 1998. http://www.fritolay.com/
of water that must be added to the cornmeal (June 7, 1999).
in order for it to become gelatinous. The
moisture content of the product as it enters Snack Food Association. http://www.snax.
the extruder, as well as when it exits (just becom/ (June 7, 1999).
fore the baking that crisps it up), is carefully
assessed. Machinery is programmed so that Wenger Extrusion Systems.1999. http://
the duration of the processes described www.wenger.com/ (June 7, 1999).
above are perfectly timed in order to ensure
each step is thoroughly completed. -Nancy EV Bryk
The Future
The puffed corn snack is a recently devel-
oped manufactured product. As such, it has
73
Chicken
In the 1980s, 50% of all Chicken in the United States is a cheap and only as an adjunct to the major farm produc-
readily available meat. It is packed in a vari- tion, distribution channels were limited.
chicken in the United ety of formats, from whole roasting chick- Whereas railroads were built to bring cattle
States was purported to ens to selections of one particular cut, such from the West to waiting urban markets, no
as thighs or wings. Highly automated, large- such effort was put into chicken production,
be infected with scale chicken farming and processing com- and chicken was available in cities more or
plexes run by large corporations fuel the less sporadically, with large seasonal jumps
salmonella. According to American chicken market. The development in prices and amount of supply.
the USDA, the industry of so-called factory farming sharply reduced
the price and increased the availability of Several inventors perfected chicken incuba-
altered its quality control chicken, when this method was introduced tors in the late nineteenth century. These
in thel920s. machines could keep hundreds of eggs at a
procedures, and brought time warm, and so made possible commer-
cial breeding of chicks. In the nineteenth
the incidence down to Background century, breeding of chickens was mostly a
16% in 1996, and to hobby, with many poultry enthusiasts rais-
The ancestor of today's domestic chicken is ing fabulously feathered chickens. Showy
below 10% in 1998. the wild red jungle fowl Gallus gallus, na- and colorful exotic breeds were the most
tive to India and Southeast Asia. The red popular; however, with the advent of me-
jungle fowl was first domesticated apparent- chanical incubators, poultry breeders began
ly for use in religious rituals involving cock- to breed birds with good egg-laying and
fighting. The domesticated bird spread west- meat production potential.
ward from India to Greece, and was later
introduced to Western Europe by invading The first person in the United States to raise
Roman armies. By the Roman era, chickens broiler chickens (chickens for meat) on a
were used as food, both for their meat and large scale strictly for profit was a Mrs.
for their eggs. Romans commonly carried Wilmer Steele, of Ocean View, Delaware.
them on their ships, as a convenient source In 1923, Mrs. Steele bought 500 chicks and
of fresh food. sold the surviving 387 of them when they
matured to 2 lb (0.9 kg). Her profit was
The first European settlers in North America enormous, and within just a few years,
brought chickens with them. But until the Delaware became the center of a thriving
twentieth century, there was no chicken in- chicken industry. In 1926, the state pro-
dustry as such in this country. Care of the duced around one million broiler chickens.
chicken flock was for the most part consid-
ered work for women and children. At that By 1934, it was raising about seven million
time, a typical hen laid only 30 eggs a year, chickens annually. In the 1930s, the Nation-
and farm wives sold their excess at market as al Poultry Improvement Plan, a federal-state
supplemental income. Chicken meat was cooperative mission, helped chicken farmers
usually only plentiful in the early summer, use scientific breeding principles to produce
when chickens that had hatched in the spring superior strains of birds. At this time, birds
were big enough to eat. Because chicken were first bred specifically for meat produc-
husbandry was primarily women's work, tion. The important qualities of broiler
74
Chicken
chickens were rapid growth, white feathers where broilers are raised, except it contains
(dark feathers left unsightly stubs), and many small houses set inside it, which look
meaty breasts and thighs. The advances in like miniature versions of the traditional
breeding made quite an impact: in 1900, a chicken coop. When the hens are ready to
typical chick took 16 weeks to reach 2 lb lay, they seek shelter in the coop. The eggs
(0.9 kg), which was considered frying are collected from the coops and taken to in-
weight. Today, a commercial broiler chick- cubate. The breeder hens live for about 45
en lives only about six weeks, and weighs weeks, after which they are no longer consid-
about 4 lb (1.8 kg) at slaughter. ered productive. These "spent" hens are
slaughtered and their meat is usually used for
Advances in nutrition were also important to pet food or bought by food companies that
the development of a commercial chicken in- use cooked, diced meat (such as in soups).
dustry. Chicken nutrition has actually been
studied more, and is better understood, than Incubation
human nutrition. The combined efforts of the
feed industry, the U.S. Department of Agri- 2 The eggs are placed in large walk-in incu-
culture, and agricultural scientists led to opti- 2bators. The eggs are kept warm and peri-
mum feed. The ratio of feed necessary per odically rotated by machine. They begin to
pound of chicken meat has fallen through hatch in about 20 days. Shortly before hatch-
this century, making chicken ever cheaper to ing, the eggs are transferred to drawers.
produce. By the 1950s, several large compa- Many processors now inoculate chicks for
nies had integrated feed production with diseases in ovo, that is, in the shell before
chicken farmiing and meat processing, so that they hatch. This is usually done three days
only a few large corporations controlled a before hatching. The chicks peck their way
high percentage of the chicken produced in out of their shells when they are ready. For
this country. These major producers each their first several days of life, the chicks are
slaughter millions of chickens a week. still absorbing nutrients from their yolk sacs,
so they do not need food at this time. Trays of
newly hatched chicks are wheeled on carts to
Commercial chicken an inoculation area, where they are sprayed
production with a mist of vaccine against common dis-
eases. Some producers "debeak" the chicks at
The production complex this point, which actually means clipping the
Chicken production is typically carried out at sharp tip off the beak. This prevents the birds
so-called complexes. Each complex contains from damaging each other by pecking. This
a feed mill, a hatchery, a processing plant, practice was discontinued at some large pro-
and chicken farms where the chicks are ducers in the late 1990s, as for the most part
raised, usually in a 30-40 mi (48.3-64.4 km) the growing chicks are not overly aggressive,
radius from the processing plant. Contract and debeaking was deemed costly and unnec-
farmers receive chicks from the hatchery, essary. Next, the chicks are shipped to the
and house them in climate-controlled chick- nearby "grow-out" farms.
en houses. The houses are typically 400 x 50
ft (122 x 15.24 m), and hold up to 20,000 Growing out
chickens. The interior is open, with no cages
or partitions. When the chickens are old 3 The chicks live in large houses which
enough for slaughter, they are collected and hold as many as 20,000 birds. These
shipped to the processing plant. grow-out houses are kept at about 850 F
(29.40 C) through heating and ventilation
The hatchery controls. The birds are not caged, and typi-
cally they are provided with approximately
Broiler chickens are bred especially for 0.8 sq ft per bird. The floor of the house is
meatiness, quick growth, and weight gain. covered with a dry bedding material such as
Most chickens used for meat in this country wood chips, rice hulls, or peanut shells. The
are a hybrid of Comish males and White birds are fed a diet of chicken feed, which is
Rock females. The hatchery houses a flock of typically 70% corn, 20% soy, and 10% other
thousands of chickens. The hatchery building ingredients such as vitamins and minerals.
is a large open space similar to the house Broiler chickens in the United States are not
75
U.
HATCHERY GROWOUT
PROCESSING
Chicken processing begins at the

hatchery where hens lay eggs. The fed any steroids or hormones. Sick birds are (1.8 kg), and are ready for slaughter. Collect-
eggs are collected and incubated treated with antibiotics or other medications. ing of the chickens is usually done at night.
until they begin to hatch in about These birds then go through a withdrawal Though a variety of mechanical collectors
20 days. The chicks live in large,
growout houses where they are
period before slaughter, to make sure no have been developed, such as vacuum de-
fed a diet of chicken feed. After medication residue remains in their meat. vices and plow-like chicken pushers, the
growout, the birds are conveyored The birds are usually watered through nip- simplest and most effective way to get the
through a stun cabinet. The mild ple drinkers, so that they don't spill and wet chickens crated for transport to the process-
electrical current in the water stuns their bedding. ing plant is to have farm employees enter the
or paralyses the birds. Next, the house and gather the birds by hand. The
birds are conveyed to an automat- workers catch the birds and stuff them into
ic neck cutter. The carcasses hang Collecting cabinet-like boxes. The boxes are stacked,
until all the blood has drained and The chicks live in the growing-out hous- and a driver with a forklift picks them up and
then they are defeathered. Next, es for about six weeks. Broiler chickens loads them onto a waiting truck. The boxed
they are washed, cleaned, and have been bred for excessive weight gain, chickens are stacked in the truck and driven
immersed in cooled, chlorinated
water for 40-50 minutes.
especially in their breasts and thighs. At six to the processing plant. The processing cen-
weeks, the chicks usually weigh about 4 lb ter of the chicken complex is generally no
76
Chicken
more than 30-40 mi (48.3-64.4 km) from the diced for foods such as chicken pot pie or
grow-out farm, so that the birds do not have soups. Meat from backs, necks, and wings
to be driven an excessive distance. may be processed separately for sale in
other meat products such as hot dogs or cold
Slaughter cuts. In whatever format, the meat is pack-
aged by workers at the processing plant,
5 At the processing plant, workers take the loaded into cases, and stored in a tempera-
birds from their boxes and hang them by ture-controlled warehouse.
their feet on a conveyor belt. In a typical
process, the birds on the conveyor are first
passed through a vat of electrified salt water Quality Control
called a stun cabinet. About 20 birds occupy Quality control is a particularly important
the stun cabinet at one time, and they remain issue in poultry farming because the end
in the water for about seven seconds. The product is raw meat, which has the potential
mild electrical current in the water stuns or to carry disease-causing microorganisms.
paralyses the birds. Next, the birds are con- To prevent diseases in the chickens them-
veyed to an automatic neck cutter-rotating selves, the chicks are vaccinated for com-
blades that sever the two carotid arteries. mon avian diseases. Veterinarians visit the
The birds' carcasses hang until all the blood growing-out farms and tend to any sick
has drained. birds. Corporations that contract with the
growing-out farms also typically send a ser-
Defeathering and evisceration vice technician out on a weekly visit to each
farm to monitor conditions.
6 The carcasses are then briefly immersed
6in hot water to scald the skins. This Quality control at chicken-processing plants
makes removal of the feathers easier. The is done by the company and also by inspec-
carcasses move to automatic feather pickers, tors from the U.S. Department of Agricul-
which are moving rubber fingers that rub off ture. A USDA inspector is required to be in
most of the feathers. Then the carcasses are the plant whenever chickens are being
scalded a second time and run through an- slaughtered. The government inspector ex-
other feather picker. Lastly, a specialized amines the birds both before and after
machine removes the wing feathers. The de- slaughter for obvious signs of disease and
feathered carcasses next pass to a washer, for injury, such as broken wings. The meat
which scrubs the outside of the body. The from injured parts is not usable.
feet and head are cut off, and the carcass is
conveyed to the evisceration area. Next, the In a typical process, there are two critical
carcass is suspended in shackles by the feet control points where the company continual-
and neck, cut open, and the viscera (internal ly monitors conditions. There may be addi-
organs) are removed. When the carcass is tional control points as well. The first critical
empty, it is washed again inside and out by a control point is just before the cleaned car-
multiple-nozzled sprayer. cass goes to the chiller. An inspector pulls
carcasses at random and visually inspects
Chilling and cutting them under bright light. No fecal matter is
allowed on the carcass at this point. If any is
7The cleaned carcasses are sent down a found in the random check, the production
7chute and immersed in a "chiller" of line must be stopped and all the birds that
cooled, chlorinated water for 40-50 minutes. have gone through the chiller since the last
The entire slaughter process takes only inspection must be rewashed and chilled.
about an hour, and the bulk of that time is The second critical control point is when the
taken up by the chilling. The internal tem- birds come out of the chiller. The internal
perature of the chicken must be brought temperature of the carcass must be 400 F
down to 400 F (4.40 C) or lower before fur- (4.4° C) or lower at this stage. Inspectors
ther processing. The chilled carcasses are make random sample checks to verify inter-
then passed to a cutting room, where work- nal temperatures. Though these are the most
ers cut them into parts, unless they are to be important control points, each plant designs
packaged whole. Some carcasses may be its own quality control program, and inspec-
cooked and the cooked meat removed and tors may also periodically verify the temper-
77
ature of the scalding water, check the auto- en route to the processing plant. These birds
matic equipment, and whatever else the are disposed of in landfills. Sick or deformed
company deems necessary. chicks are culled-taken from the flock and
killed (usually by wringing the neck)-after
Until 1998, USDA inspectors at chicken hatching, and these bodies must also be dis-
processing plants were required to do only posed. Unused viscera and parts also pro-
what is called an organaleptic test of the duce waste in chicken processing.
chickens before and after slaughter. This
translates to looking and smelling; that is, A significant waste produced in chicken
inspectors verified that the birds were dis- farming is the feces of the birds. Because
ease-free and healthy by looking them over the flocks are so large, with 20,000 birds
and perhaps giving the carcass a quick sniff. typical for a broiler growing-out farm, the
amount of feces is enormous. Decomposing
In 1998, the USDA instituted a new quality poultry manure produces ammonia, an irri-
control program for all meat processors tating gas that can cause disease and dis-
known as Hazard Analysis Critical Control tress in poultry workers and in the chickens
Points, or HACCP. Under HACCP, in addi- themselves if chicken houses are not ade-
tion to the organaleptic method, inspectors quately cleaned and ventilated. Flies are at-
are also required to take periodic microbio- tracted to chicken manure, and large-scale
logical tests to look for dangerous bacteria. broiler farming may cause an unwelcome
The most problematic bacteria in chicken increase in the fly population in surround-
meat are salmonella. Though this organism is ing areas. The odor associated with large-
killed with proper cooking of the meat, it can scale chicken farming can also be a prob-
cause illness if the consumer does not handle lem for neighbors. Of more concem than
the meat properly. In the 1980s, 50% of all odor is the threat to water quality by run-off
chicken in the United States was purported to from chicken farming. Some chicken ma-
be infected with salmonella. The industry al- nure is used as fertilizer for crops, and
tered its quality control procedures, and when it rains, excessive nitrogen and phos-
brought the incidence down to 16% in 1996, phorus are washed into nearby bodies of
and to below 10% in 1998, according to the water. Outbreaks of a harmful bacteria in
USDA. Under HACCP, chicken must be ran- the Chesapeake Bay area in 1997 were
domly tested for salmonella at the production blamed on water conditions caused by run-
plant, and the rate of infection must be lower off from chicken farms. To control run-off,
than 20%. Also under HACCP, USDA in- chicken producers may opt to alter the feed
spectors have the authority to shut down they give their broilers, adding enzymes
plants that they deem dirty or unsafe. The that help breakdown some of the nutrients
plant is not allowed to re-open until it comes in the waste.
up with a plan for remedying the situation.
Some incidents that caused chicken process-
ing plants to be shut in 1998 included car- Where to Learn More
casses falling on the floor, rodent infestation
of the facility, and most commonly, failure to Books
prevent fecal contamination.
Davis, Karen. Prisoned Chickens, Poisoned
Eggs Summertown, Tennessee: Book Pub-
Byproducts/Waste lishing Company, 1996.
Many of the byproducts of chicken slaughter
can be used. Chicken feet are removed at the Smith, Page, and Daniel, Charles. The
processing plant because they are not consid- Chicken Book. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975.
ered edible in the United States. However,
chicken feet are a delicacy in Asia, and so Periodicals
large amounts of them are exported. The
feathers can be ground up and used as a pro- Gordon, John Steele. "The Chicken Story."
tein supplement in animal feed. Substandard American Heritage (September 1996).
meat is also commonly sold to pet food mak-
ers. However, many chickens die before "Poultry Growers Unite to Address Waste
slaughter, either at the growing-out farm or Issue." New York Times (August 25, 1998).
78
Chicken
Sharpe, Rochelle. "U.S. Shut 34 Meat and
Poultry Plants in Quarter Due to Sanitation or
Safety."Wall Street Journal (May 8, 1998).
-Angela Woodward
79
Child Safety Seat
In the United States, more Background seats, but their purpose was not to protect
the child in the event of an accident. In-
than 2,000 children under In the United States, more than 2,000 chil- stead, these seats confined the children,
dren under 14 years of age die each year in raised them above the level of the passen-
14 years of age die each vehicle crashes. Not only are vehicle crash- ger seat, and made them more visible to
es the leading killers of children, in 1997
year in vehicle crashes. they also injured nearly 320,000 youngsters.
adults from the front seat. The true safety
seat for children was invented in England
Most of the fatalities happen because the by Jean Ames in 1962. The Ames design
children aren't secured in specially designed had straps that held the padded seat against
car seats. Instead, they are strapped in the
the rear passenger seat. Within the seat,
wrong kinds of seats, such as adult seats that
the child was restrained by a Y-shaped
neither position the children's bodies prop- harness that slipped over its head and both
erly nor cushion them against impact, or shoulders and fastened between the legs.
they aren't wearing any restraints at all. Other designs to accommodate growing
Children aged four to 14 are least likely to children followed quickly over the next
be restrained properly. several years.
Most of the 50 states require that children
under the age of four be secured in child From 1956-1970, lap-type seat belts were
safety seats or seat belts. Many states also developed and became standard equipment
mandate booster seats (or seat belts) for for adults. Even though crash-test results
kids between four and 14 depending on proved that seat belts saved lives, in the
their age, weight, and height. Up to 95% of 1960s seat belts were met with resistance.
the safety seats that are installed in vehicles In 1966, Congress passed the Twin High-
may not be the right seat for the child, may way Acts that empowered the Department
be hooked so loosely with an incompatible of Transportation (DOT) to set standards
belt in the car that the seat rotates or pitches for vehicle design; the separate states have
forward, or may have harnesses incorrectly the authority to enforce driver laws, which
fastened in some way. Child seats are also vary among the states. Shoulder harnesses,
often incorrectly placed rear-facing in front self-applying belts, and front- and side-im-
of air bags. In 1997, six out of 10 children pact air bags increased the level of protec-
who were killed in vehicle crashes were un- tion for adults; these types of safety equip-
belted. Enormous energies and talents have ment became available from 1966-1995.
produced child safety seats that, when used During this period, child safety seats grew
properly, have vastly improved the likeli- to include rear-facing seats for infants
hood that a child can survive a serious vehi- under 22 lb (10 kg), convertible seats that
cle crash without injury. start as rear-facing infant seats and convert
to face forward for toddlers weighing less
than 40 lb (18.2 kgs), and booster seats
History that elevate a growing child weighing be-
Car seats for children have been manufac- tween 30-70 lb (13.6-31.8 kg) so the car's
tured since 1933. The Bunny Bear Compa- seat belt can be fastened around child and
ny made several designs of children's car booster seat. Child safety seats are in the
80
Child Safety Seat
news almost daily, yet more than 30 years Physical printing of labels and instructions
after their development, many of these is usually done by printers subcontracted by
news items focus on the inconvenience of car seat manufacturers.
the seats rather than the lives they save.
Assembly also includes small parts such as
rivets and fabric fasteners. These parts are
Raw Materials all manufactured and supplied by specialty
The child safety seat is made of polypropy- firms.
lene, a tough plastic that flexes under pres-
sure and doesn't crack easily the way some Design
other plastics do. The plastic is transported
to the factory in the form of pebble-sized A wide variety of design issues must be
pellets; a major car seat maker receives considered for each type of child safety
train cars full of the pellets for its produc- seat. The four most important design issues
tion. Coloring, which varies among the seat are safety (including meeting government
models, is added to the plastic. regulations), ease of use (and this includes
the child's comfort), style or appearance,
Several of the smaller components like and manufacturing feasibility. A strict set
buckle latch plates, harness adjusters, lock- of government regulations (Federal Motor
ing clips, and the buckles themselves are Vehicle Safety Standard [FMVSS] 213) es-
usually made by specialty manufacturers. tablishes the seat back height, buckle re-
Indiana Mills makes buckle and adjustment lease pressure, type of impact-absorbing
mechanisms for almost all American manu- foam, the wording of some labels, and
facturers of child safety seats. much more. The seat also must be able to
withstand a crash test of either two cars
Fabrics and vinyls are used to make safety each traveling at 30 mph (48 kph) hitting
seat covers and harnesses. Both covers and each other head-on or a car crashing into a
harnesses have to be able to withstand parked car at 60 mph (96 kph). After the
flammability tests, but they also have to be crash test, the seat must still meet certain
washable. Only mild soap and water can performance criteria like buckle release
be used because detergents or chemicals pressure.
break down the flame resistant fabric treat-
ments. The thread that sews these materi- Two major changes in regulations are radi-
als together has to meet the same require- cally altering safety seat design. The dis-
ments. Color, durability, and fashion are tance the child's head is allowed to move
other considerations in selecting the cover forward in a crash (called the "head excur-
fabrics. The harnesses meet the same sion") has been reduced from 32 in (81 cm)
strength requirements as those for adult to 28.5 in (72 cm). To meet this require-
seat belts. ment, most seats will probably need a tether
or strap on the top of the child seat that will
The seats are padded with foam. Types of be anchored behind the car seat. The shells
foams are heavily regulated to meet stan- of many designs of child safety seats will
dards for flame resistance and energy ab- also have to be reinforced to meet this stan-
sorption. Pads and covers are sewn by the dard (and vehicles will also require anchor
child safety seat manufacturer or by outside points for the tethers).
suppliers.
Another new regulation becomes effective
Printed paper components are among the in 2002. Special anchor attachments will be
most important. Labels are designed by the added to safety seats that will secure them
manufacturer in accordance with Federal to new anchors in the vehicles and reduce
standards. Locations of labels on the device, the problem of using the safety belt to se-
precise wording, and paper that withstands cure the child seat to the car seat. This
tears (so missing information is evident) are "universal attachment system" uses attach-
among the specifications. Instructions are ment belts in different locations on the
also prepared to meet exacting require- safety seat than current designs, so the
ments, and the child safety seat must include safety seat will require considerable re-
permanent storage for the instructions. designing and strengthening.
8 1
The manufacture of a child safety

seat takes one to three years from The child's comfort and ease of use of the Design must also consider constructability.
concept through production. The seat are much more subjective. Charts of av- The method of molding the seat, the materi-
plastic seat shell is injection-mold- erage child sizes within particular age and als used, the method of assembly, and other
ed from plastic pellets. All parts weight ranges help designers fit the seat to characteristics may simply not be compati-
are hand assembled at work sta- the child and make it comfortable. To un- ble with other desirable design features. The
tions. Crash testing is done to en- derstand the parents' perspective on using process of design conception through pro-
sure the effectiveness and quality the seats, manufacturers consult with focus duction startup takes from one to three
of the child safety seat design. groups; analyze sales trends as indicators of years, depending on the complexity of the
ease of operations, ease of inserting and redesign. Design time is expected to be slower
moving infants, and popularity of features as the first seats with the new anchorage
such as pillows and seat protectors; and lis- system are designed, constructed, and test-
ten to consumer feedback through vehicles ed, although it will quickly resume speed as
like consumer e-mail. designers become accustomed to working
with the new system.
Consumer opinion also includes fashion
and appearance of the safety seats. Pur-
chasers prefer infant seats with lighter col- The Manufacturing
ors of fabrics and child-like pattems. Seats Process
for older children tend to match trends in Manufacture of the child safety seat be-
vehicle design, including darker colors and gins with molding the shell. The plastic
more sophisticated pattems that are coordi- pellets are melted and injection-molded into
nated with vehicle interiors. forms for the shell. The molded forms are
82
Child Safety Seat
Effective in 2002, the "universal

trimmed and cleaned. As soon as they are lated to marketing or advertising, these are attachment system" will secure
cooled, they are delivered to the assembly added before the seats are packed in cartons. child safety seats to anchors locat-
line. Before packing, some seats may be selected ed in every automobile. The switch
for quality and performance reviews includ- from seat belt attachment to an
2 The parts made by outside suppliers are ing crash testing. anchoring system will reduce the
2distributed to work stations along the as- problems that occur with the use
of seat belts.
sembly line. These include the foam 6 In the packing department, the seats are
padding, cover, harness, buckle, labels, and packed in cartons that carry information
instruction. Usually, the assembly line does and designs developed by marketing and ad-
not use a conveyor belt; workers simply vertising. Generally, the cartons are stacked
complete their portion of the work and hand and wrapped in plastic so the cartons are
the seat to the next person along the line. kept clean until they are ordered and
This enables personnel to work at their own shipped. The wrapped batches of cartons are
pace and check their own work on the prod- stored on pallets and moved by forklift.
uct. Some are loaded directly into trucks for
shipment or taken to inventory.
3 The padded cover is placed on the shell
and attached. The buckle assembly is se- Quality Control
cured to the shell, and the harness is thread-
ed through the buckle, adjuster, and harness Manufacturers maintain a quality control
retainer. department and an established inspection
system. At one manufacturer, for example,
4 The labels are secured on the safety seat, every person on the assembly line is expect-
and instructions are packed in the stored and encouraged to report errors, and all
age compartment that is a mandatory part of seats are inspected on the line for visually
design of the seat. detectable problems. Individual parts are
typically compared to masters for correct-
5 If the product is also to be sold with ness, and each product has a bill of materials
5point-of-purchase pieces (hang tags) re- that lists the part numbers of every part in
83
the product. Product managers may also pull checks per second, and, when the driver hears
products off the line for review. the warning, the vehicle can be stopped and
the child can be resecured in the seat.
Crash testing is also done to test child safety
seat models. Cosco, Inc., is the only domes- The universal attachment system (mandatory
tic car seat manufacturer with its own dy- by 2002) will standardize the way in which
namic crash test sled for assuring quality child safety seats are attached in all vehicles.
and performance. Quality can be aided by Air bags remain a concern, but "smart" air
the sharing of safety-related information bags are in design that will recognize the
among manufacturers. The Juvenile Prod- sizes of vehicle occupants and whether they
ucts Manufacturers' Association car seat are correctly seated or are out of position.
committee assists with distributing informa- Ultimately, automated highway systems will
tion and collaborating on labeling and edu- reduce opportunities for driver error and
cation programs. Industry representatives other crash-causing circumstances on major
participate on committees, such as the Blue highways, but seat belts and child safety
Ribbon Panel and the Society of Automo- seats are likely to be necessary.
tive Engineering (SAE), that develop rec-
ommendations for car seat makers, vehicle
manufacturers, and govermment agencies. Where to Learn More
Periodicals
Byproducts/Waste "Crash-test favorites."Daily Review (Hay-
Manufacturers usually produce several ward, California), 9 May 1999, p. BAL-2.
lines of child safety seats. For example,
Cosco makes a car bed/car seat, three kinds Fix, Janet L. "U.S. to promote safe use of
of infant-only seats, four kinds of convert- child safety seats, seat belts."Knight-Rid-
ible seats, a line with three car seats in one der/Tribune News Service, 18 November
to adapt to a growing child, a high backed 1998.
booster seat, a travel vest, and an auto
booster. "How to keep traveling children safe."Child-
hood Education (Spring 1997): 174+.
Shells that are rejected by quality control or
that have been used in crash testing are re- Shelness, Annemarie and Charles, Sey-
ground and combined with new plastic for mour. "Children as Passengers in Automo-
remolding. Only a very small percentage of biles: The Neglected Minority on the Na-
reground plastic is allowed in remoldings. tion's Highways."Pediatrics Vol. 56, 1975,
Covers may not fit or may have been sewn pp. 271-284.
incorrectly; if so, they are returned to the
supplier and resewn. Metal parts like clips Stevens, Liz. "Car seats the bane of every
that may not have been plated properly can parent's existence."Daily Review (Hay-
be replated or recycled. Other parts like inward, California), 9 May 1999, p. BAL-2.
correctly made buckles are discarded. Very
little waste results. Other
The assembly process is also environmen- American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).
tally and worker friendly. Mold operators http://www.aap.org/family/mncrseat.htm/.
wear protective gloves. Power screwdrivers Cosco, Inc. http://www.coscoinc.com/.
and riveters are the only other equipment
used in the assembly. Family Health and Safety. http://www.
saferidenews.com/.
The Future
National Highway Traffic Safety Associa-
Computer systems like Cosco's Tattle Tales tion. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/
system will allow car seats to give verbal childps/.
wamings to caregivers if the child is climbing
out of the car seat or the buckle is unlocked, National Safe Kids Campaign Online.
for example. These systems perform several http://www.safekids.org/.
84
Child Safety Seat
Safety Belt Safe U.S.A. http://www.carseat.
org/.
Safe Within. http://safewithin.com/child-
safe/child.seat.cgi/.
Society of Automotive Engineers. http://
www.sae.org/.
-Gillian S. Holmes
85
Compost
By 1992, almost 1,500 Compost is a finely divided, loose material much of their time trying innovative farming
consisting of decomposed organic matter. It practices, including experiments with vari-
cities had yard waste is primarily used as a plant nutrient and soil ous composting methods and materials. As
composting facilities. conditioner to stimulate crop growth. Al- years of successive crops depleted the nutri-
though many people associate compost pro- ents in the soil on the East Coast, the practice
duction with small garden compost piles of composting became widespread. This
that are tended with a shovel, most compost trend continued until the early 1900s when it
is produced in large municipal, industrial, or was estimated that 90% of the fertilizer used
agricultural facilities using mechanized in the United States came from compost.
equipment.
That all changed in 1913, when a German
company began producing synthetic nitro-
Background gen compounds, including fertilizers. These
new chemical fertilizers could be produced
The expression "older than dirt" certainly less expensively than messy animal manure
applies to compost. Nature has been produc- compost, and the farmyard compost pile
ing compost for millions of years as part of quickly became a thing of the past. By 1950,
the cycle of life and death on Earth. The first it was estimated that only 1% of the fertiliz-
human use of animal manure, a raw form of er used in the United States was derived
compost, was in about 3,000B.C. in Egypt from compost.
when it was spread directly on the fields as a
fertilizer. Later, manure was mixed with One notable exception to this trend was the
dirty stable straw and other refuse and al- work started in 1942 by J.I. Rodale, a noted
lowed to sit in piles until it was needed. Rain pioneer in the development of the organic
kept the piles wet and aided the decomposi- method of farming. Rodale was one of the
tion process, producing a rich compost. first to see the hazards of relying on synthet-
ic fertilizers and the benefits of using com-
The Greeks and Romans knew the value of post derived from natural sources. Compost-
compost to boost crop production and even ing got a short-lived boost during the
used the warmth of decomposing compost environmentally conscious era of the 1960s,
to produce summer vegetables in winter. but it wasn't until the 1980s when it became
Christian monasteries kept the art of com- a big business. This surge wasn't the result
posting alive in Europe after the fall of the of a renewed awareness of the positive as-
Roman Empire, and by about 1200 compost pects of compost, but rather a growing con-
was again being used by many farmers. cern over the negative aspects of refuse. In
Shakespeare mentions it in several of his short, in our efforts to get rid of our refuse,
plays written in the early 1600s. we were polluting our air, poisoning our
rivers, and quite literally burying ourselves
In the United States, Presidents George in it with our landfills.
Washington and Thomas Jefferson were
prominent landowners during the late-1700s In order to divert some of the municipal
and early-1800s. When they were not in- refuse away from landfills, several cities es-
volved with affairs of state, they both spent tablished recycling centers in the early
86
Compost
1970s where people could bring cans, bot- riety of fungi, which help digest decay-re-
tles, and newspaper rather than throw them sistant cellulose; mold-like bacteria called
in the trash. This was followed by curbside actinomycetes, which attack raw plant tis-
recycling, where people could place these sues; and many others.
recyclable materials in separate containers
for pickup in front of their houses. Finally, The most common raw materials used to
many cities added additional curbside con- make compost are yard wastes such as grass
tainers for yard wastes to be composted. By clippings, leaves, weeds, and small prunings
1992, almost 1,500 cities had yard waste from shrubs and trees. Most home garden
composting facilities. compost piles and municipal compost facili-
ties use yard wastes exclusively because of
At the same time, tough new environmental the large volume of materials available.
laws mandated that industries could no
longer simply dump their waste products Industrial compost facilities tend to use
onto the surrounding land or discharge them waste materials generated within a particu-
into nearby rivers. To meet these laws, lar plant or region. For example, sugar beet
many industries began their own recycling pulp is mixed with other materials to make
and composting programs. Environmental compost in an area where sugar refineries
concerns also affected farmers, who were operate. Spent hops and grain from brew-
being blamed for the negative health effects eries also make excellent compost materials.
that chemical fertilizers and pesticides had Other materials include sawdust and wood
on humans and wildlife. As a result, many chips from lumber mills, fish waste from
farmers decided to cut back or eliminate canneries, and dried blood and pulverized
chemicals in favor of using compost. animal bones from slaughterhouses.
Today, most compost is processed in large Agricultural compost facilities use materials
facilities designed to handle a specific type of readily available on nearby fanns. These in-
raw material. Agricultural compost is usually clude animal manure, used stable straw,
produced and used on the same farm that spoiled fruits and vegetables, field refuse,
generated the raw materials. Industrial com- vineyard and orchard prunings, rotted hay,
post may be bagged and sold to individual and other agricultural waste products.
buyers, or the raw materials may be sold in
bulk to other composting facilities. Municipal Some of the more unusual raw materials
yard waste compost is usually produced in fa- used to make compost include seaweed,
cilities operated by the city or the refuse col- chicken feathers, peanut shells, and hair
lection company and is sold to local land- clippings.
scaping companies and garden centers.
The Manufacturing
Raw Materials Process
Technically, compost may be made from The production of compost is both a mechan-
any organic material. That is, it may be ical and a biological process. The raw materi-
made from any part of an organism, plant or als must first be separated, collected, and
animal, that contains carbon. Compost also shredded by mechanical means before the bi-
requires a source of nitrogen, oxygen, and ological decomposition process can begin. In
water, plus small amounts of a variety of el- some cases, the decomposition process itself
ements usually found in organic material, is aided by mechanical agitation or aeration
including phosphorus, copper, potassium, of the materials. After decomposition, the
calcium, and others. finished compost is mechanically screened
and bagged for distribution.
In order for the organic materials to com-
bine with the other materials and decompose There are several methods for producing
into compost, several living organisms and compost on a large scale. The methane di-
microorganisms are needed. These include gester method places the raw materials in a
sowbugs, which help digest the materials large, sealed container to exclude oxygen.
and transport bacteria; earthworms, which The resulting oxygen-starved decomposi-
aerate the materials with their tunnels; a vation not only produces compost, but also
87
methane gas, which can be used for cooking The remaining material is transported by a
or heating. The aerated pile method places conveyor belt to a holding pile.
the raw materials in piles or trenches con-
taining perforated pipes that circulate air. The larger pieces are sold to landscaping
The resulting oxygen-rich decomposition 4companies for use as mulch or ground-
produces a great amount of heat, which kills cover without further processing. The rest is
most harmful bacteria. The windrow method loaded into large dump trucks and transport-
places the raw materials in long piles, called ed to the composting area where it is
windrows, where they are allowed to de- dumped in long rows, called windrows.
compose naturally over a period of several Each row is about 6-10 ft (2-3 m) high and
weeks or months. It is the least expensive several hundred feet (m) long with a trian-
method of all. Here is a typical sequence of gular cross section. A flat space about 10 ft
operations used to convert municipal yard (3 m) wide is left between each row to allow
wastes into compost using the windrow vehicles to move along the length.
method.
Composting
Separating 5 The composting area may cover several
Yard wastes are deposited in separate acres (hectares). After a windrow is laid
containers by homeowners, and the con- in place, the material is dampened by a tank
tainers are placed at the curb for pickup on truck that moves along the row spraying
the regular refuse collection day. Homeown- water. The water aids in the composting
ers are instructed that only certain yard process and helps minimize wind-blown
wastes are acceptable for collection. These dust.
include grass clippings, leaves, weeds, and 6 Every few weeks, a special machine
small prunings from shrubs and trees. Short straddles each windrow and moves
pieces of tree limbs up to about 6 in (15 cm) along its length to tum and agitate the mate-
in diameter are also acceptable. Homeown- rial. This breaks down the material into even
ers are also instructed that certain other yard smaller pieces and exposes it to oxygen,
wastes are not acceptable. These include which aids in the decomposition process.
rocks, sod, animal excrement, and excessive After the windrow is tumed, it is sprayed
amounts of dirt. Palm fronds are prohibited with water again. This process continues for
because the frond spikes do not decompose two or three months. In hot, dry weather, the
and carry a poison. Food scraps, fruits, and windrows may have to be watered more
vegetables are also prohibited because they often. During decomposition, the intemal
can attract rodents, carry unwanted seeds, temperature of the pile may reach 1300 F
and contribute to odors. (540 C), which helps kill many of the weed
2 The yard wastes are collected by sepa- seeds that might be present.
2rate refuse trucks and are transported to Curing
the processing center where they are
dumped in piles. The piles are visually in- 7 The raw compost is scooped up with a
spected, and any oversized or unacceptable 7 front loader and moved to a large coni-
materials are manually removed. cal pile where it is allowed to finish the de-
composition process over a period of several
Grinding weeks. This process is called curing and it
allows the carbon and nitrogen in the com-
3 A large, wheeled machine called a front post to adjust to their final levels.
loader picks up material from the piles
and dumps it into a tub grinder. The tub Screening
grinder has a stationary vertical cylindrical
outer shell with a rotating cylindrical inner 8 After the compost has cured, it is
shell. As the material passes between the 8scooped up with a front loader and
two shells, it is ground into smaller pieces dumped into the hopper of a rotary screen.
and thoroughly mixed. The ground material This device consists of a large cylindrical
falls out the bottom and through a screen screen rotating on an axis that is slightly in-
where the larger pieces are screened out. clined above the horizontal. The openings in
88
Compost
SEPARATING
Yard waste Tub grinder

container c
I
Yard waste pickup Dumping at the composting facility Grinding
ing pile
COMPOSTING SCREENING
Windrow machine9 Curing pile
Water tank truck
I Windrow Rotating screen
I
HFK{1]~~
r-1r0i- Woc od
Watering the windrows Turning the windrows Curing chip!
Finished compost
Diogram depicting the commer-

the about 0.5 in (1 cm) in diame-
screen are as much as 100,000 tons (91,000 metric cial processing of yard waste into
ter. The compost is fed into the raised end of tons) of compost a year. compost.
the rotating screen from the hopper by a
conveyor belt. As the compost tumbles its
way down the length of the rotating screen, Quality Control
the smaller material falls through the screen Composting companies regularly have their
and is moved to a storage pile by a conveyor finished compost tested to ensure it is free of
belt. The larger material that cannot pass harmful materials and contains the proper
through the screen falls out the lower end of amounts of plant nutrients. The tests mea-
the cylinder and is either returned to the sure the size of the particles, moisture level,
compost piles for further decomposition or mineral content, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio,
is sold as wood chips. acidity, nutrient content, weed seed germi-
nation rate, and many other factors. For ex-
Distributing ample, waste particles should be between
0.5-2 in (1.2-5 cm) in diameter in order to
9 Much of the finished compost is loaded encourage the flow of oxygen within the
into large dump trucks and sold in bulk compost. Likewise, the level of moisture
to landscaping companies, municipalities, should be above 40% to facilitate the com-
nurseries, and other commercial customers. post process. Moisture levels that dip below
Some of it is sealed in 40 lb (18 kg) plastic 40% slow the process and present the risk of
bags for retail sale to homeowners. Using spontaneous combustion. Also, the ideal
the windrow method, a typical suburban ratio of carbon to nitrogen should average
yard waste processing facility can produce 30 parts carbon to one part nitrogen by
89
weight. The ideal balance maintains a Eventually composting may also provide a
healthy microbial population that speeds de- means for handling and neutralizing even
composition and minimizes odor. the harmful materials. For example, at sev-
eral older military ammunition factories and
storage facilities the surrounding soil is con-
Harmful Materials taminated with the explosive material trini-
Compost made from yard wastes, such as trotoluene, also known as TNT. Researchers
leaves and grass clippings, rarely contains are using a specially formulated compost
any harmful materials. Problems can occur, mix of vegetable wastes and buffalo manure
however, when compost is made from par- to neutralize the soil through a simple bio-
tially sorted municipal refuse, certain indus- logical composting process that converts the
trial wastes, or sewage sludge. In those cases, explosive organic components of TNT into
unacceptable levels of toxic metals, chemi- less harmful compounds.
cals, or harmful bacteria may be present.
To protect the public, the federal Environ- Where to Learn More
mental Protection Agency (EPA) sets ac-
ceptable levels for thousands of materials
that might be present in compost. Each state Books
may have its own standards as well. For mu- Christopher, Tom and Marty Asher.Com-
nicipal refuse, source separation-that is, post This Book! Sierra Club Books, 1994.
having homeowners sort their yard wastes
into separate containers rather than throw Hansen, Beth, editor.Easy Compost. Brook-
them away with the rest of their trash-is lyn Botanic Gardens, Inc., 1997.
felt to be one of the most effective way to
produce clean, safe compost.
Martin, Deborah L. and Grace Gershuny,
ed.The Rodale Book of Composting. Rodale
The Future Press, Inc., 1992.
By separating home yard wastes and turning
them into compost, it is estimated that mu-
nicipalities can reduce the amount of trash Periodicals
going to landfills by about 20%. While that Raloff, Janet. "Cleaning Up Compost: Mu-
is a significant reduction, it is expected that nicipal waste managers see hot prospects in
even more trash will have to be diverted rot"Science News (January 23, 1993): 56-58.
from landfills in the future. Materials such
as soiled food packaging, disposable diaper
padding, food scraps, natural fiber rags, Other
pieces of wood, and other organic materials The Compost Resource Page. http://www.
could all be composted. To do this, munici- oldgrowth.org/compost/ (June 7, 1999).
palities may have to establish municipal
solid waste (MSW) treatment facilities to
separate the compostible materials from the Composting Council. May 1999. http://
harmful materials, such as discarded batter- www.compostingcouncil.org/ (June 7, 1999).
ies, motor oil, asbestos, and many house-
hold chemicals. -Chris Cavette
90
Computer Mouse
Background (NASA), had also been seeking methods of Dr. Douglas Engelbart, a
moving cursors and pointing to objects on
Designers in the computer industry seek not the computer screen. They tried steering professor with the
only to "build the better mousetrap" but to wheels, knee switches, and light pens, but,
build the best mouse. The computer mouse is Stanford Research Institute
in tests of these devices versus Engelbart's
an accessory to the personal computer that mouse, it was the mouse that roared. in Menlo Park,
has become an essential part of operation of NASA's engineers were concerned, howev-
the computer. The small device fits neatly in er, about the spacewalks the mouse would California, developed the
the curve of the user's hand and enables the take from its work surface in the weightless-
user, through very limited movements of the ness of space.
first device that came to
hand and fingers to "point and click" instruc- be known as the mouse in
tions to the computer. A rolling ball on the
By 1973, the wheels on the mouse's under-
underside of the mouse gives directions on
carriage had been replaced by a single, free- 1964. One of Dr.
where to move to the cursor (pointer) on the
rolling ball; and two more buttons (for a Engelbart's co-workers
monitor or screen, and one to three buttons
total of three) had been added to the top.
(depending on design) allow the user to say thought the device with its
The creature was called both a mouse and a
yes by clicking the buttons on the right in-
pointing device, and Xerox combined it
struction for the computer's next operation.
with its Alto computer, one of the first per- long cable tail looked
sonal computers. The Alto had a graphical something like a mouse,
History user interface (GUI); that is, the user point-
Dr. Douglas Engelbart, a professor with the ed to icons, or picture symbols, and lists of and the name stuck.
Stanford Research Institute in Menlo Park, operations called menus and clicked on
California, developed the first device that them to cause the computer to open a file,
came to be known as the mouse in 1964. At print, and perform other functions. This
that time, the arrow keys on the keyboard method of operating the computer was later
were the only way of moving the cursor adapted by Macintosh and Windows operat-
around on a computer screen, and the keys ing systems.
were inefficient and awkward. Dr. Engelbart
made a small, brick-like mechanism with one The development of the personal computer
button on top and two wheels on the under- stimulated an explosion of applications for
side. The two wheels detected horizontal and the device that was small enough to be used
vertical movement, and the unit was some- at a number of work stations. Engineers
what difficult to maneuver. The unit was could develop computer-aided designs at
linked to the computer by a cable so the mo- their own desks, and the mouse was perfect
tion signals could be electrically transmitted for drawing and drafting. The mouse also
to the computer for viewing on the monitor. began to generate offspring, collectively
One of Dr. Engelbart's co-workers thought called input/output devices, such as the
the device with its long cable tail looked trackball, which is essentially a mouse lying
something like a mouse, and the name stuck. on its back so the user can roll the ball in-
stead of moving the entire unit over a sur-
Other scientists, notably those at the Nation- face. The military, air traffic controllers, and
al Aeronautics and Space Administration video game players now had a pet of their
91
own. Mechanical sensors in both types of cuit (IC) in the mouse. The pulses tell the IC
devices were replaced by optical-electronic that the ball has tracked left-right and up-
sensor systems patented by Mouse Systems; down, and the IC instructs the cursor to
these were more efficient and lower in cost. move accordingly on the screen.
An optical mouse with no moving parts was
developed for use on a special mouse pad The interface integrated circuit is mounted
with grid lines; light from inside the mouse on the printed circuit board (PCB) that is the
illuminates the grid, a photodetector counts skeleton to which all the internal workings
the number and orientation of the grid lines of the mouse are attached. The integrated
crossed, and the directional data are translat- circuit, or computer chip, collects the infor-
ed into cursor movements on screen. mation from the switches and the signals
from the phototransistors and sends a data
The mouse began to multiply rapidly. Apple stream to the computer.
Computers introduced the Macintosh in
1984, and its operating system used a mouse. Brain
Other operating systems like Commodore's
Amiga, Microsoft Windows, Visicorp's Vi- Each mouse design also has its own software
sion, and many more incorporated graphical called a driver. The driver is an external
user interfaces and mice. Improvements brain that enables the computer to under-
were added to make sensors less prone to stand the mouse's signals. The driver tells
collecting dust, to make scrolling easier the computer how to interpret the mouse's
through an added wheel on the top, and to IC data stream including speed, direction,
make the mouse cordless by using radio-fre- and clicked commands. Some mouse drivers
quency signals (borrowed from garage door allow the user to assign specific actions to
openers) or infrared signals (adapted from the buttons and to adjust the mouse's resolu-
television or remote controls). tion (the relative distances the mouse and the
cursor travel). Mice that are purchased as
part of computer packages have the drivers
Mouse Anatomy built in or preprogrammed in the computers.
Body
Raw Materials
The mouse's "skin" is the outer, hard plastic
body that the user guides across a flat sur- The mouse's outer shell and most of its in-
face. It's "tail" is the electrical cable leading ternal mechanical parts, including the shafts
out of one end of the mouse and finishing at and spoked wheels, are made of acryloni-
the connection with the Central Processing trile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic that is
Unit (CPU). At the tail end, one to three but- injection-molded. The ball is metal that is
tons are the external contacts to small elec- coated in rubber; it is made by a specialty
trical switches. The press of a button closes supplier. The electrical micro-switches
the switch with a click; electrically, the cir- (made of plastic and metal) are also off-the-
cuit is closed, and the computer has received shelf items supplied by subcontractors al-
a command. though mouse designers can specify force
requirements for the switches to make them
On the underside of the mouse, a plastic easier or firmer to click. Integrated circuits
hatch fits over a rubberized ball, exposing or chips can be standard items, although
part of the ball. Inside, the ball is held in each manufacturer may have proprietary
place by a support wheel and two shafts. As chips made for use in its complete line of
the ball rolls on a surface, one shaft turns products. Electrical cables and overmolds
with horizontal motion and the second re- (end connectors) are also supplied by out-
sponds to vertical motion. At one end of side sources.
each of the two shafts, a spoked wheel also
turns. As these spokes rotate, infrared light The printed circuit board (PCB) on which
signals from a light-emitting diode (LED) the electrical and mechanical components
flicker through the spokes and are intercept- are mounted is custom-made to suit the
ed by a light detector. The dark and light are mouse design. It is a flat, resin-coated sheet.
translated by phototransistors into electrical Electrical resistors, capacitors, oscillators,
pulses that go to the interface integrated cir- integrated circuits (ICs), and other compo-
92
Computer Mouse
nents are made of various types of metal, objectives and the design team is pleased
plastic, and silicon. with the results. Custom chips are designed,
produced on a trial basis, and tested; custom
electronics will help the design meet perfor-
Design mance objectives and give it unique, com-
Design of a new mouse begins with meet- petitive, and marketable characteristics.
ings among a product development manager,
designer, marketing representative, and con- The completed design diagrams are turned
sulting ergonomist (a specialist in human over to the project tooler who begins the
motion and the effects various movements process of modifying machines to produce
have on body parts). A list of human factors the mouse. Tooling diagrams are generated
guidelines is developed specifying size range for injection-molding the shell, for example.
of hands, touch sensitivity, amount of work, The size, shape, volume of the cavity, the
support of the hand in a neutral position, the number of gates through which the plastic
user's posture while operating the mouse, will be injected into the mold, and the flow
finger extension required to reach the but- of the plastic through the mold are all dia-
tons, use by both left- and right-handed indi- gramed and studied. After the final tooling
viduals, no prolonged static electricity, and plan is reviewed, tools are cut using the
other comfort and safety requirements; these computer-generated data. Sample plastic
can differ widely, depending on whether the shells are made as "try shots" to examine ac-
mouse is to be used in offices or with home tual flow lines and confirm that voids aren't
computers, for example. A design brief for induced. Changes are made until the process
the proposed mouse is written to describe the is perfect. Texture is added to the external
purpose of the product and what it achieves; appearance of the shell by acid etching or by
a look is also proposed in keeping with the sand blasting.
anticipated market.
The design team returns to the table with In the meantime, the engineering team has
foam models; scores of different shapes may set up the assembly line for the new mouse
be made for a single mouse design. User design and conducted trial assemblies. When
testing is done on these models; the engi- the design details are finalized, tools have
neers may do this preliminary testing them- been produced, and test results have met the
selves, or they may employ focus groups as design team's objectives and standards, the
typical users or observe one-on-one testing mouse is ready for mass production.
with sample users. When the selection of
models is narrowed down, wooden models
that are more refined and are painted are The Manufacturing
made of the winning designs. Input is gath- Process
ered again on the feel, shape, and look of the
models; the ergonomist also reviews the To make the computer mouse, several man-
likely designs and confirms that the human ufacturing processes are performed simulta-
factors guidelines have been achieved. neously to make different pieces of the unit.
These processes are described in the first
When the optimal model is chosen, the engi- three steps below. The pieces are then
neering team begins to design the internal brought together for final assembly, as de-
components. A three-dimensional rendering scribed in steps 4 through 7.
is computer-generated, and the same data
are used to machine-cut the shapes of the In one of the sets of manufacturing and
exterior shell with all its details. The me- assembling steps, the printed circuit
chanical and electronics engineers fit the board (PCB) is cut and prepared. It is a flat,
printed circuit board (and its electronics) resin-coated sheet that can be of surface-
and the encoder mechanism (the ball, shafts, mount design or through-hole design. The
wheels and LED source and detector) inside surface-mount version is assembled almost
the structure. The process of fitting the entirely by machine. A computer-controlled
workings to the shell is iterative; changes automatic sequencer places the electrical
are made, and the design-and-fit process is components in the proper order onto the
repeated until the mouse meets its design board in a prescribed pattern.
93
For through-hole PCB assembly, attach- sembly is inserted into the bottom of the
ment wires of the electronic components shell. The buttons are snapped into the top
are inserted in holes in the PCB. Each as- part of the housing, the cable is attached,
sembly line worker has a drawing for part and the top and bottom are screwed together
of the board and specific units to add. After using automated screwdrivers.
all the components are mounted on the
board, the bottom surface of the board is The final electronics and performance
passed through molten lead solder in a quality check is performed when assem-
wave soldering machine. This machine bly is essentially complete. Rubber or neo-
washes the board with flux to remove cont- prene feet with adhesive sheeting pre-ap-
aminants, then heats the board and the com- plied to one side are added to the underside
ponents it carries by infrared heat to lessen of the mouse.
the possibility of thermal shock. As the un-
derside of the board flows over the com- 6 While the tooling designs and physical
pletely smooth, thin liquid sheet of molten assembly described above have been in
solder, the solder moves up each wire by progress, a programming team has been de-
capillary action, seals the perforations, and veloping, testing, and reproducing the
fixes the components in place. The soldered mouse driver firmware. The firmware so-
boards are cooled. The PCB is visually in- called because it lies in the realm between
spected at this stage, and imperfect boards software and hardware consists of a combi-
are rejected before the encoder mechanism nation of codes in the integrated circuit and
is attached. the translation of the mouse's directional
movements and micro-switch signals that
2 The encoder mechanism (including the the receiving computer needs to understand
2rubber-covered ball, the support wheel, when the mouse is attached. When the dri-
both spoked wheels and their axles, the ver has been developed, the manufacturer's
LED, and its detector) is assembled as a own testers run it through rigorous trials,
separate unit. The plastic parts were also and both the Federal Communications Com-
manufactured by injection-molding in ac- mission (FCC) and the European Commis-
cordance with proprietary specifications sion (CE-an organization that govems
and trimmed of scrap plastic. After the radio emissions and electrostatic discharge)
mechanism is assembled, the unit is fas- also approve the electronics. Approved dri-
tened to the PCB using either clips or ver data is encoded and mass-produced on
screws. The board is now completely as- diskettes.
sembled and is subjected to an electronics
quality control test. 7 The FCC requires that signaling or com-
munications devices including the
3 The mouse's tail-its electrical cable- mouse bear labels identifying the company
vhas also been manufactured using a set and certain product specifications. The la-
of wires, shielding, and the rubber cover. bels are preprinted on durable paper with
The cable has two additional pieces of strong adhesive so they cannot easily be re-
molded rubber called overmolds. These are moved. A label is pasted on the mouse bot-
strain relief devices that prevent the cable tom, and the mouse is bagged in plastic. The
from detaching from the mouse or its con- device, its driver diskette, and an instruction
nector plug if the cable is tugged. Mouse booklet with registration and warrantee in-
makers typically design their own shapes for formation are boxed and prepared for ship-
overmolds. The near-mouse overmold is ment and sale.
hooked to the housing, and, at the opposite
end of the tail, the connector is soldered to Quality Control
the wires and the connector overmold is
popped into place. Use of computer-generated designs builds
quality and time savings into the product.
4 The pieces of the outer shell are visually Data can be stored and modified quickly, so
inspected after molding, trimming, and experiments with shapes, component lay-
surface (finish) treatment and prior to as- outs, and overall look can be attempted and
sembly. The outer shell is assembled in four iterative adjustments can be made. Comput-
steps. The completed PCB and encoder as- er-aided design data also speeds review of
94
Computer Mouse
Beneath the outer, hard plastic

parts specifications, the tooling process, and Byproducts/Waste body that the user maneuvers
design of assembly procedures so the oppor- across a mouse pad is a rubber-
tunity for conflicts is small. Computer mice makers do not generate ized ball that turns as the mouse
byproducts from mouse manufacture, but moves. The ball is held in place by
At least three quality control steps are per- most offer a range of similar devices for dif- a support wheel and two shafts.
formed during assembly. An electronics ferent applications. Compatible or inter- As it rolls, one shaft turns with
check is carried out on the PCB after its changeable parts are incorporated in new horizontal motion and the second
designs or multiple designs whenever possi- responds to vertical motion. At
components are attached (and soldered into one end of each of the two shafts,
place if through-hole assembly methods are ble to avoid design, tooling, and assembly
modification costs. a spoked wheel also turns. As
used) and before any of the plastic mecha- these spokes rotate, infrared light
nism is attached. The plastic parts (the en- signals from a light-emitting diode
coder mechanism and the outer shell) are vi- Waste is minimal. The mouse's ABS plastic (LED) flicker through the spokes
sually inspected when they are complete but skin is highly recyclable and can be ground, and are intercepted by a light de-
before they are connected to the board and molded, and reground many times. Other tector. The dark and light are
electronics; this prevents disassembly or plastic and metal scrap is produced in translated by phototransistors into
wasting electronics due to a defective shell, minute quantities and can be recycled or dis- electrical pulses that go to the in-
for example. Finally, the completely assem- posed. terface integrated circuit (IC) in
bled device is subjected to another electron- the mouse. The pulses tell the IC
that the ball has tracked left-right
ics and performance check; 100% of the The Future and up-down, transmits the com-
mice manufactured by Kensington Technol- mand through the cable to the
ogy Group are plugged into operating com- Devices that are modifications of mice are Central Processing Unit (CPU),
puters and tested before they are packaged. currently on the market. The Internet mouse and instructs the cursor to move
As noted above, both the FCC and CE regu- inserts a scrolling wheel between the two accordingly on the screen.
late aspects of mouse operations, so they buttons to make scrolling of web pages easi-
also test and approve driver data. er; a still more sophisticated version adds
95
buttons that can be programmed by the user Where to Learn More

to perform Internet functions, like moving
back or forward, returning to the home page, Books
or starting a new search. One mouse version
has returned to the floor where two foot pads Ed., Time-Life Books.Input/Output: Un-
derstanding Computers. Alexandria, VA:
or pedals replace the ball and buttons; one Time-Life Books, 1990.
pedal is pushed to relocate the cursor and the
second clicks. Cordless mice that communi-
cate with radio signals are available, and the Periodicals
mouse has been disposed of altogether by the Alexander, Howard. "Behold the Lowly
touchpad. The user runs a finger across the Mouse: Clever Technology Close at
touchpad to reposition the cursor, and web Hand."New York Times (October 1, 1998):
pages can be scrolled and advanced by other, D9.
specific moves. Many of these adaptations
are designed to eliminate repetitive stress ail- "The Mouse." Newsweek (Winter 1997): 30.
ments and save forearm strain.
Randall, Neil. PC Magazine (January 5,
The mouse's inventor, Dr. Engelbart, never 1997): 217.
believed the mouse would reach thirty- Terrell, Kenneth. "A new clique of mice:
something or retain its nontechnical name. designers turn the computer mouse on its
In fact, both the mouse and its trackball head; some cut its tail."U.S. News & World
offspring are increasingly popular as Report (March 23, 1998): 60+.
shapes become more comfortable, less
cleaning and maintenance are required, and
reliability and longevity improve. Future Other
developments in mice will follow the evo- Kensington Technology Group. http://
lution of the Internet and include more op- www.kensington.com/ (June 7, 1999).
tions for programmability, such as switch-
ing hands to double the number of Logitech. http://www.logitech.com/ (June
available functions. The mouse may be- 7, 1999).
come extinct someday, and the most likely
candidate to replace it is a device that Microsoft Corporation. http://www.micro
tracks the eye movement of the computer soft.com/ (June 7, 1999).
user and follows it with appropriate cursor
motions and function signals. -Gillian S. Holmes
96
Concrete Dam
Background Concrete dams are used more often than Over 40,000 dams
fill dams to produce hydroelectric power
Concrete dams are built in four basic because gates (also called sluices) or other higher than 45 ft (15 m)
shapes. The concrete gravity dam has kinds of outlet structures can be built into
weight as its strength. A cross section of this and classified as large
the concrete to allow for water to be re-
dam looks like a triangle, and the wide base leased from the reservoir in a controlled dams exist, and more
is about three-fourths of the height of the manner. When water for power, drinking
dam. Water in the reservoir upstream of the water, or irrigation is needed downstream, than half of these have
dam pushes horizontally against the dam, the gates can be opened to release the
and the weight of the gravity dam pushes amount needed over a specified time.
been built since 1960.
downward to counteract the water pressure. Water can be kept flowing in the river
The concrete buttress dam also uses its downstream so fish and other wildlife can
weight to resist the water force. However, it survive. Both concrete and fill dams are
is narrower and has buttresses at the base or required to have emergency spillways so
toe of the dam on the downstream side. that flood waters can be safely released
These buttresses may be narrow walls ex- downstream before the water flows over
tending out from the face of the dam, much the top or crest of the dam and potentially
like the "flying buttresses" supporting erodes it. Spillways channel the water
cathedral walls or a single buttress rather downstream and well below the base or toe
like a short dam may be built along the of the dam so the dam and its foundation
width of the toe of the dam. are not eroded.
The arch dam is one of the most elegant of Most dams built in the twentieth century and
civil engineering structures. In cross section, those being designed today have several
the dam is narrow in width, but, when purposes. Over 40,000 dams higher than 45
viewed from above, it is curved so the arch ft (15 m) and classified as large dams exist,
faces the water and the bowl of the curve and more than half of these have been built
looks downstream. This design uses the since 1960. Of these dams, 16% of them are
properties of concrete as its strength. Con- in the United States and 52% are in China;
crete is not strong in tension (when it is 83% are fill dams used primarily for water
pulled or stretched), but it is very strong in storage, and the remaining 17% are concrete
compression (when it is pushed or weighed or masonry dams with multiple purposes.
down). The arch dam uses the weight of the Dams that generate hydroelectric power
water behind it to push against the concrete produce 20% of the electricity in the world.
and close any joints; the force of the water is
part of the design of the dam. The arch- History
gravity dam is a combination of the arch
type and gravity type, as the name suggests; Fill dams may be a far older construction
it is a wider arch shape. Multiple-arch dams technique than concrete or masonry dams,
combine the technology of arch and buttress but the oldest surviving dam is Sadd el Ka-
designs with a number of single arches sup- fara about 20 mi (32 km) south of Cairo,
ported by buttresses. Egypt. This dam is actually a composite
97
consisting of two masonry walls with the

space between filled with gravel; it was built
between 2,950 and 2,750B.C.
The ancient Romans developed superior

techniques for building with masonry, but,
curiously, they did not often use their ma-
sonry skills in dam construction. An excep-
tion was the Proserpina Dam in Mérida,
Spain, that is still standing today. Develop-
ments by the Romans were not overlooked
by others. In about 550A.D., the Byzantines
on the eastern fringes of the Roman Empire
used the shape of the Roman masonry arch
to build what history believes was the
world's first arch-gravity dam. Dam build-
ing came to America with the conquista-
dors. In Mexico, they saw dry land in need
of irrigation and imitated the dams built by
the Romans, Muslims, and Spanish Chris-
tians in their homeland; the Catholic Church
financed construction, and many of the mis-
sionaries were skilled engineers.
Dam building was rare in Europe until the

Industrial Revolution. The northern climates
produced more rainfall, so water power was
naturally occurring and water supply was
plentiful. In the eighteenth century, howev-
er, the rise of industry necessitated constant,
reliable supplies of water power delivered at
greater force, so masonry and concrete dam
construction became popular in Europe. The
Industrial Revolution also powered develop-
ments in science and engineering, and the
civil engineering specialty, which includes
designing and building structures to better
the quality of life, came into existence in the
1850s. Early civil engineers began to study
Sir Isaac Newton's physics and other scien-
tific theories and apply them to practical
structures including dams.
R a w Materials
The key raw materials for concrete dams are
the concrete itself and steel reinforcement.
A number of other materials and compo-
nents made by specialty contractors may be
used in dam building and include steel gates
and tunnel liners, rubber waterstops, plastic
joint-filling compounds to prohibit the
movement of water, electrical controls and
wiring, siphons, valves, power generators, a
wide assortment of instruments, and even
Teflon sheeting to line water outlet struc-
98
Concrete Dam
tures to prevent turbulence and cavitation where the arch of the structural shape pro-
(damage due to swirling water). vides strength. But an arch can also be built
across a wider canyon where other effects
Concrete itself is made of cement, water, and like friction on the base of the dam add
materials collectively called aggregate that strength and resistance to movement. Simi-
consist of sand or gravel. Cement has unique larly, a gravity dam is the typical choice for
properties that must be considered in select- a shallow, wide canyon, but if it is built with
ing the cement, designing the dam, and tim- some curvature, arching action will also
ing construction. Mixing of cement and strengthen a gravity dam in a narrower and
water causes a chemical reaction that makes higher gorge. Where the riverbed is excep-
concrete hard but that also releases heat. tionally wide, the dam may be designed to
This causes a distinct rise in the temperature have several spans, each with different engi-
inside a mass of concrete, and, when the con- neering properties depending on the varia-
crete begins to cool, it shrinks and cracks, tion of foundation materials. The separate
potentially causing leaks. To limit these ef- spans are usually supported on the down-
fects, concrete can be placed when the air stream (air) side by buttresses or the extend-
temperature is low, low-heat cement can be ed curves of multiple arches. Sometimes,
used, and water can be circulated through the spans of multiple span dams are con-
pipes in the concrete. Furthermore, the constructed of concrete slabs or steel plates sup-
crete has to be placed in shallow lifts (i.e., ported on piers.
only a few feet or meters are added at a time)
and in narrow blocks; then it has to be al- Like fill dams, concrete dams go through ex-
lowed to cure over a specified minimum tensive rounds of preliminary design and
time so the heat dissipates. Depending on the feasibility studies to choose and explore the
design of the dam, engineers will choose the site, to evaluate the quantity of water re-
concrete mix (including the cement and type tained and its value (as a power source or
of aggregate) very carefully; a thin arch dam source of supply) versus the cost of the pro-
is designed with a different concrete mix ject over the anticipated years of operation,
than a massive gravity dam. to consider a wide range of other effects such
as changes to the environment, and to choose
a dam of the optimal size and configuration.
Design Hundreds of factors enter into these studies,
Design of a concrete dam depends on the and the process is usually iterative. A design
purpose of the dam and the configuration of is chosen and tested against all these factors
the site where it will be built. Dams are of until it fails to satisfy one or more factors,
two general types. Overflow dams block and the next variation in design is chosen
flow in a stream and harness the water for and studied until it fails-or passes.
generating power or to improve navigation
and provide irrigation water. The compo- The design process for a concrete dam typi-
nents of an overflow dam are designed so the cally involves professionals from a more ex-
water can be released and the level of the tensive range of disciplines than design of a
water in the reservoir regulated by a series of fill dam. The technical professionals who
sluice gates, spillways, or outlet tunnels. contribute their expertise to design of a con-
Non-overflow dams store water for drinking crete dam may include geologists, seismolo-
water supply, irrigation, or power; they also gists, environmental scientists, geotechnical
have a spillway, but its use is restricted for (soil) engineers, civil engineers, structural
emergencies to lower the water level quickly engineers, computer analysts (specialists in
during floods. Methods for releasing the software applications that examine the
stored water are much more limited than in dam's strength and safety), hydrologists and
overflow dams, and the dam itself may not hydraulic engineers, mechanical engineers,
contain any outlet structures. Instead, water and electrical engineers if the dam is to be
may be pumped out for irrigation, for exam- used for power generation. Still more spe-
ple, from part of the reservoir. cialists may study aspects like corrosion of
concrete and steel structures. The teamwork
Some sites are best suited to particular types required for dam design and construction is
of dams. An arch dam is most appropriate critical not only because of the enormous
for construction in a high, narrow gorge costs of these projects but because the safety
99
An example of a typical concrete

arch gravity dam plan. of persons and property downstream de- abutments is prone to fracturing because of
mands perfection. the load imposed by the dam and its reser-
voir, earthquake activity, or the properties
of the rock, it may be necessary to install
The Construction Process extensive systems of rock bolts or anchor
Before construction can begin on any bolts that are grouted into the rock through
dam, the water in the streambed must be potential fracture zones. On the abutments
diverted or stopped from flowing through above the dam, systems of rock bolts and
the site. As in the case of fill dams, a coffer- netting may be required to keep large rock
dam (a temporary structure to impound the fragments from falling onto the dam. In-
water)must be built or the water must be di- struments to monitor groundwater levels,
verted into another channel or area down- joint movement, potential seepage, slope
stream from the dam site. For large projects, movements, and seismic activity are in-
this construction may be done several sea- stalled beginning during the early stages of
sons before building of the dam begins. The foundation preparation through completion
flow of water is closed off at the very last of the dam.
moment.
A cutoff wall may be excavated deep into
2 The foundation area for any concrete rock or holes may be drilled in the founda-
2dam must be immaculate before the first tion for the installation of reinforcing steel,
concrete for the dam is placed. As for fill called rebars, that extend up into the dam
dams, this is a detailed process of excavat- and will be tied to the steel inside the first
ing, cleaning, and repairing the rock lifts of the dam. The idea is to build a reser-
throughout the foundation "footprint" and voir that, like a bowl, is equally sound
on both abutments (the sides of the canyon around its perimeter. The water is deepest
that form the ends of the dam). Sites imme- and heaviest at the dam (when the reservoir
diately downstream of the dam for any pow- is near capacity) so the dam and its founda-
erplant, stilling basin, or other structure tion cannot be a weak point in that perimeter.
must also be prepared.
3 Forms made of wood or steel are con-
At some sites, extensive work may be re- 3structed along the edges of each section
quired. If the rock in the foundation or of the dam. Rebar is placed inside the forms
1 00
Concrete Dam
and tied to any adjacent rebar that was pre- Cross section of a typical concrete
viously installed. The concrete is then arch gravity dam. The height is
poured or pumped in. The height of each lift 280 ft (85 m). The thickness grows
of concrete is typically only 5-10 ft (1.5 -3 from 16 ft (4.9 m) at the top to
m) and the length and width of each dam 184 ft (56 m) at the base.
section to be poured as a unit is only about
50 ft (15 m). Construction continues in this
way as the dam is raised section by section
and lift by lift. Some major dams are built in
sections called blocks with keys or inter-
locks that link adjacent blocks as well as
structural steel connections.
The process is much like constructing a
building except that the dam has far less in-
ternal space; surprisingly, however, major
concrete dams have observation galleries at
various levels so the condition of the inside
of the dam can be observed for seepage and
movement. Inlet and outlet tunnels or other
structures also pass through concrete dams,
making them very different from fill dams
that have as few structures penetrating the Away from the dam itself, the powerhouse,
mass of the dam as possible. instrument buildings, and even homes for
4 As soon as a significant portion of the resident operators of the dam are also fin-
dam is built, the process of filling the ished. Initial tests of all the facilities of the
dam are performed.
reservoir may begin. This is done in a highly
controlled manner to evaluate the stresses 6 The final details of constructions are
on the dam and observe its early perfor- Owrapped up as the dam is put into ser-
mance. A temporary emergency spillway is vice. The beginning of the dam's working
constructed if dam building takes more than life was also carefully scheduled as a design
one construction season; lengthy construc- item, so that water is available in the reser-
tion is usually done in phases called stages,
voir as soon as the supply system is ready to
but each stage is fully complete in itself and
pump and pipe it downstream, for example.
is an operational dam. The upstream coffer-
A program of operations, routine mainte-
dam may be left in place as a temporary pre- nance, rehabilitation, safety checks, instru-
caution, but it is not usually designed to ment monitoring, and detailed observation
hold more than minimal stream flows and will continue and is mandated by law as
rainfall and will be dismantled as soon as long as the dam exists.
practical. Depending on design, some dams
are not filled until construction is essentially
complete. Quality Control
5 The other structures that make the dam There is no dam construction without inten-
Joperational are added as soon as the ele- sive quality control. The process of building
vation of the their location is reached as the alone involves heavy equipment and danger-
dam rises. The final components are erosion ous conditions for construction workers as
protection on the upstream (water) side of well as the public. The population living
the dam (and sometimes downstream at the downstream of the dam has to be protected
bases of outlet structures), instruments along over the structure itself; the professionals
the crest (top) of the dam, and roads, side- who design and construct these projects are
walks, streetlights, and retaining walls. A absolutely committed to safety, and they are
major dam like Hoover Dam has a full- monitored by local, state, and federal agen-
fledged roadway along its crest; small dams cies like Divisions of Dam Safety, the U.S.
will have maintenance roads that allow sin- Corps of Engineers, and the Department of
gle-file access of vehicles only. Reclamation.
10 1
Byproducts/Waste needs for water, power, and flood control

and protecting the environment from human
There are no byproducts in dam design or eradication or encroachment must be care-
construction although a number of other as- fully weighed.
sociated or support facilities may be needed
to make the project work. Waste is also
minimal because materials are too expen- Where to Learn More
sive for waste to be allowed. Also, locations
are often remote, and the process of hauling Books
waste away from the site and disposing it is Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of
prohibitive. Soil and rock that may be exca- the Interior.Design of Sam ll Dams. Wash-
vated from the foundation area, down- ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Of-
stream sites, the abutments, or portions of fice, 1977.
the reservoir are usually used elsewhere on
the project site. Quantities of materials cut Jansen, Robert B.Dams and Public Safety.
away or placed as fill are carefully calculat- Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of the Interior,
ed to balance. Water and Power Resources Service, 1980.
Krynine, Dimitri P. and William L.
The Future Judd.Principles of Engineering Geology
The future of concrete dams is the subject of and Geotechnics. New York: McGraw-Hill
much debate. Each year, over 100,000 lives Book Co., Inc., 1957.
are lost in floods, and flood control is a
major reason for building dams, as well as Smith, Norman. A History of Dams. Secau-
protecting estuaries against flooding tides cus, New Jersey: The Citadel Press, 1972.
and improving navigation. Lives are also
benefited by dams because they provide Periodicals
water supplies for irrigating fields and for
Bequette, France. "Large Dams."UNESCO
drinking water, and hydroelectric power is a Courier (March 1997): 44.
non-polluting source of electricity. Reser-
voirs are also enjoyed for recreation, Cotrim, John, et al. "Itaipu: South Ameri-
tourism, and fisheries. ca's Power Play."Civil Engineering (De-
However, dams are also damaging to the en- cember 1984): 40.
vironment. They can change ecosystems, Fillon, Mike. "Taming the Yangtze: lauded
drown forests and wildlife (including endan- and lambasted, China's Three Gorges Dam
gered species), change water quality and may be the biggest civil-engineering project
sedimentation patterns, cause loss of agri- ever."Popular Mechanics (July 1996): 52.
cultural lands and fertile soil, regulate river
flows, spread disease (by creating large Moraes, Julival de, et al. "Itaipu: Part 1."
reservoirs that are home to disease-bearing [Itaipu Hydroelectric Project, Brazil/Pana-
insects), and perhaps even affect climate. ma] Construction News Magazine (March
There are also adverse social effects because 1982): 18.
human populations are displaced and not
satisfactorily resettled. Moraes, Julival de, et al. "Itaipu: Part
2."Construction News Magazine (April
For years before the start of construction in 1982): 22.
1994 of the Three Gorges Dam in China, en-
vironmentalists the world over organized "Power-poor nation taps jungle river for en-
protests to try to stop this huge project. They ergy." [Concrete gravity arch dam, Paute
have not succeeded, but controversy over River, Ecuador]Engineering News Record
this project is representative of the argu- (December 13, 1979): 26.
ments all proposed dams will face in the fu-
ture. The balance between meeting human -Gillian S. Holmes
1 02
Cork
An incredibly versatile natural material, insoles, roofing panels, gaskets, safety hel- Portugal's cork forests are
cork is harvested from living cork oak trees met liners, bottle stoppers, dartboards, bul-
somewhat like wool is gathered from sheep. letin boards, and cores for golf balls and the most productive.
The trees are unharmed by the process, and baseballs. Numerous artificial materials Accounting for 30% of the
they continue producing cork for an average have been developed to substitute for cork
of 150 years. in specific applications (e.g., a synthetic pea existing trees, they
in a referee's whistle, foam insoles for
shoes, or Styrofoam life preservers). How- produce half of the
Background ever, no general substitute has been devel- world's harvested cork.
Cork is composed of dead cells that accu- oped for cork that can be used in diverse ap-
mulate on the outer surface of the cork oak plications.
tree. Because of its honeycomb-like struc-
ture, cork consists largely of empty space;
its density (weight per unit volume) is one- History
fourth that of water. Unlike a honeycomb, Cork bottle stoppers have been found in
however, cork consists of irregularly shaped Egyptian tombs dating back thousands of
and spaced cells having an average of 14 years. Ancient Greeks used cork to make
sides. With 625 million of these empty cells fishing net floats, sandals, and bottle stop-
per cubic inch (40 million per cubic cen- pers. Two thousand years ago, Romans
timeter), cork is like many layers of micro- widely used cork in variety of ways, includ-
scopic Bubble Wrap, making it an effective ing life jackets for fishermen. For hundreds
cushioning material. Its low density makes of years, Mediterranean cottages have been
cork useful in products like life preservers built with cork roofs and floors to keep out
and buoys. The large amount of dead-air summer heat and winter cold-and to pro-
space makes cork an effective insulation vide a soft walking surface.
material for both temperature and noise.
Furthermore, it is fire retardant; flames will Glass bottles were invented in the fifteenth
only char the surface, and no toxic fumes century, but their use did not become wide-
are generated. Cutting the surface of cork spread until the seventeenth century. The
turns many of the microscopic cells into tiny popularity of cork as a stopper led to delib-
suction cups, creating an effective non-slip erate cultivation of cork trees, which prior to
surface. In addition to being flexible, cork is about 1760 had simply been harvested
highly resilient. After being crushed under a wherever they happened to grow. The revo-
pressure of 14,000 lbs/in2 (96,000 kPa), lutionary crown cap-a metal lid lined with
cork will regain 90% of its original size in a disk of natural cork commonly known as a
24 hours. Cork absorbs neither dust nor bottle cap-was invented in 1892.
moisture, and it resists both rot and insects.
Highly resistant to wear, it is used for pol- A great deal of the cork harvest was wasted
ishing diamonds. until around 1890, when a German company
developed a process for adding a clay binder
Among the many products made from cork to cork particles and producing sheets of ag-
are flooring materials (e.g., linoleum), shoe glomerated (composite) cork for use as insu-
1 03
veloped to produce cork compounds with a

variety of properties and uses.
Raw Materials
The raw material for cork products is har-
vested from the cork oak tree (either the
evergreen Quercus suber or the deciduous-
Quercus occidentalis). The trees typically
reach a height of 40-60 ft (12-18 m) and a
trunk circumference of 6-10 ft (2-3 m). Vir-
tually all of the world's commercial cork
trees grow in the western Mediterranean re-
gion and the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal's
cork forests are the most productive. Ac-
counting for 30% of the existing trees, they
produce half of the world's harvested cork.
A cork tree is ready for its first harvest when

it is about 20 years old. The first harvest is
of poor quality, and can only be used to
make agglomerated cork products. Subse-
quent harvests occur at nine-year intervals,
when the cork layer reaches a thickness of
1-2 in (2-5 cm). The harvest from a young
tree yields about 35 lb (16 kg) of cork, while
the yield for an older tree may be 500 lb
(225 kg). Each tree has a productive life of
about 150 years.
During the production of bottle stoppers,

chemical baths are used to condition the
corks. Among the more popular are a chlori-
nated lime bath followed by a neutralizing
bath of oxalic acid, a hypochlorite bath neu-
tralized by sodium oxalate, and a peroxide
bath neutralized with citric acid.
'* Production of compound agglomerated cork

involves adding a binder or adhesive agent
to cork granules. Different binders are cho-
sen, depending on the qualities desired in
the ultimate product (e.g., flexibility, soft-
ness, resistance to wear). Among those fre-
quently used are asphalt, rubber, gypsum,
glue, and plastic.
lation. The following year, an American

The M a n u f a c t u r i n g
named John Smith developed a technique
Process
for producing pure-cork agglomeration out
of waste material by subjecting cork parti- Using a specially designed hatchet, the
cles to heat and pressure without adding any 1 harvester slices through the cork layer on
binder. The next major development oc- the trunk of the tree, taking care not to cut
curred in 1909 when Charles McManus in- deep enough to damage the living portion of
vented a type of agglomerated cork that the trunk. Horizontal cuts are made at the
could be used to line crown caps. Since base of the trunk and just below the lowest
then, many other techniques have been de- branches. A few vertical cuts separate the
7 04
Cork
circumferential cork ring into sections of an Cork is composed of dead cells
appropriate size. Using the wedge-shaped that accumulate on the outer sur-
handle of the hatchet, the harvester strips face of the cork oak tree. Harvests
each panel of cork from the tree. On some occur at nine-year intervals, when
large trees, cork is also stripped from the the cork layer reaches a thickness
of 1-2 in 12-5 cm). The harvest
lower branches. from a young tree yields about 35
lb (16 kg) of cork, while the yield
2 The cork planks are stacked outdoors for an older tree may be 500 lb
and left to cure for a time ranging from a (225 kg).
few weeks to six months. The fresh air, sun,
and rain encourage chemical changes that
improve the quality of the cork. By the end
of the curing process, the planks have flat-
tened out and lost about 20% of their origi-
nal moisture content.
3 The planks are then treated with heat
3and water to remove dirt and water-solu-
ble components like tannin, and to make the
cork softer and more flexible. This process
typically involves lowering stacks of cork
planks into large copper vats filled with
boiling water containing a fungicide. Heavy
weights are placed on top of the cork to ries them past a rapidly rotating circular
keep it submerged for 30-75 minutes. knife. As they pass the blade, the corks are
also revolving on the conveyor, so they are
4 When the planks are removed from the trimmed to a taper.
vat, a hoe-shaped knife is used to scrape
off the poor-quality outer layer of cork, 8 Both cylindrical and tapered corks are
which amounts to about 2% of the volume 8washed, bleached, and sterilized in large
of the plank but 20% of its weight. The vats. Rotating wooden paddles continually
planks are stacked in a dark cellar and al- push the corks down into first a washing so-
lowed to dry and cure under controlled hu- lution and then a neutralizing solution.
midity for a few more weeks. 9 After being dried in a large centrifugal
The cork planks are trimmed to a uni- dryer, the corks may be marked with an
5form, rectangular shape and are sorted identifying label (with ink or a hot-metal
stamp). Some are also coated with a sealant
by quality. The finest quality material will
be used to make natural cork products like such as paraffin or silicone. Then, they are
wine bottle stoppers. Poorer quality material packed in airtight bags in quantities of 1,000
will be ground and used to make composi- or 1,500; the air is removed from the bags
tion or agglomerated cork. and replaced with sulfur dioxide (SO2) to
keep the corks sterile.
Boffle corks
6 Cork slabs of the desired thickness are
Agglomerated cork
6placed in a steam chamber for 20 min-
1
O Waste cork is passed through a ma-
utes to soften them. The slabs are then cut V chine that breaks it into small pieces.
into strips whose width corresponds to the The pieces are washed and dried, and then
intended length of the bottle stoppers. The sent through two successive grinders to fur-
strips are fed through a machine that punch- ther reduce the particle size. After another
es hollow metal tubes through them, remov- washing and drying process, the particles
ing cylinders of cork. are screened for uniform size.
7Although some beverage bottlers want 1 Pure agglomerated cork is formed by
7cylindrical corks, others want tapered packing cork particles into a mold and
ones. To achieve this shape, the cylinders covering it securely. Superheated steam
are arranged on a slanted conveyor that car- (6000 F or 3150 C) is passed through the
1 05
Cork intended to be used as botfle blade to shave it into a long, continuous

corks is first softened by steam sheet that is rewound into a roll.
and then cut into strips. Next, the
strips are fed through a machine
that punches hollow metal tubes Byproducts/Waste
through them, removing cylinders
of cork. Cork waste generated during the manufac-
turing process is ground and used to make
agglomerated cork products. Cork powder
that is generated by the grinding process is
collected and burned to help fuel the facto-
ry. Chemical components removed from
cork during its processing can be recovered
as useful byproducts and include tannin
(used for curing leather), hard wax (used in
products like paraffin, paint, and soap),
resinous gum (helps vanish adhere to copper
and aluminum), and phonic acid (used to
mold. Alternatively, the mold is baked at make plastics and musk-scented toiletries).
500° F (2600 C) for four to six hours. Either
process binds the cork particles into a solid
block by activating their natural resins. Where to Learn More
Books
12 Compound agglomerated, or compo-
sition, cork is made by uniformly Cooke, Giles B. Cork and the Cork Tree.
coating the cork granules with a thin layer of New York: Pergamon Press, 1961.
an additional adhesive agent. The coated
granules are pressed into a mold and slowly Other
heated (the temperature varies, depending "Transformation Procedures for Natural
on the adhesive used). When removed from
Cork." Natural Cork Quality Council. http://
the mold and cooled, the blocks are stacked
to allow air circulation and are allowed to corkqc.com/ctcor3.htm (February 1999).
season.
Oliveira, Manuel, and Leonel Oliveira.
"The Cork." http://www.portugal.org (Feb-
1 3 The agglomerated cork is cut for its ruary 1999).
intended use. For example, sheets may
be cut from rectangular blocks. Or if a tubu- "The Story of Cork." http://www.shofftackle.
lar mold was used, the resulting cork rod com/loadit.html (February 1999).
may be sliced into discs. A large, cylindrical
block might by revolved against a knife -Loretta Hall
106
Cough Drop
A cough drop is medicinal tablet designed to It works by blocking the sensory nerves that One of the first mass-
deliver active ingredients which suppress or are involved in triggering a cough. While
relieve the cough reflex. They are made just many expectorants are available, data about produced cough drops
like hard candies; ingredients are mixed to- their functionality is not. Some clinicians was the Smith Brothers
gether, they are cooked, cooled, and pack- even question whether expectorants are ef-
aged. First developed during the eighteenth fective. Antitussives, which are cough sup- cough drop. According to
century, cough drops have become a signifi- pressants, work in a variety of ways affect-
cant part of the $2 billion cough and cold ing either the lungs, muscles, or brain. the company, James Smith
market. was operating a
History restaurant when a
Bacckground Using syrups and herbal teas to control
Anyone who has gotten sick knows the sen- coughing has been known since antiquity.
journeyman introduced
sation of a cough. It is a natural reflex that An ancient Hebrew text suggests the use of him to a formula for a
helps protect the body from infections. It goat's milk for this reason. In the second
plays an important role in clearing the throat century, Galen was perhaps the first to re- cough candy. He mixed
and other air passages of secretions and irri- port an effective cough suppressant. Cough up a batch in his kitchen
tating particles. These particles include dust, drops originally developed from candy. The
food, liquids, and mucus. A cough occurs in first hard candies were produced during the and was able to quickly
three distinct steps. It typically begins with a fourth century. Since sugar was so expen-
deep breath which draws air into the lungs. sive, these products were typically a luxury sell them. Demand for his
The vocal cords spontaneously close there- item available only to the rich. Over the product grew and he
by sealing the windpipe. Next, the air is years, sugar crops were planted in North
compressed by the tightening of the expira- America and throughout the world. Sugar began advertising in
tory muscles. The vocal cords are suddenly refiners were established, and the price of
opened and the air trapped in the lungs is sugar was reduced, making it available to 1852.
rapidly expelled along with any foreign de- everyone by the eighteenth century.
bris in the windpipe.
While the active ingredients in a cough drop
Coughs associated with colds can be either were known for centuries, it was not until the
productive or nonproductive. A productive nineteenth century that the cough drop was
cough helps clear the respiratory passages of born. One of the first mass-produced cough
the lung. A nonproductive cough is brought drops was the Smith Brothers cough drop.
on by a minor irritation and has a limited ben- According to the company, James Smith was
efit. It is the nonproductive cough that cough operating a restaurant when a journeyman
drops are designed to sooth or suppress. introduced him to a formula for a cough
candy. He mixed up a batch in his kitchen
The are two types of active ingredients in a and was able to quickly sell them. Demand
nonprescription cough drop including ex- for his product grew and he began advertis-
pectorants and cough suppressants. An ex- ing in 1852. He enlisted the aid of his two
pectorant is a material that aids in the re- sons who helped mix batches and sell them
moval of phlegm from the respiratory tract. on the streets of Poughkeepsie, New York.
1 07
They inherited the business in 1866 when vors are derived from fruits, berries, and
James Smith died, and renamed the company honey. Acids such as citric, lactic, tartaric,
Smith Brothers. During this time, they sold and malic acid are also included to modify
their cough drops in large glass bowls. To the flavor.
prevent imitators, they developed a unique
package in 1872 that was filled at the facto- Various active ingredients can be included in
ry. In 1922, menthol cough drops were intro- a cough drop recipe. As mentioned previous-
duced. Over the years, a variety of manufac- ly, these can be either expectorants or anti-
turers have developed their own cough drop tussives. Some common ingredients are
formulas. Each one has tried to improve the volatile oils such as menthol or eucalyptus
flavor and efficacy of their product. oil. Volatile oils, or essential oils, are ob-
tained from parts of a plant through extrac-
tion or distillation processes. Menthol is typ-
Rawv Mcaterials ically isolated from the Mentha arvensis
Cough drops have two categories of ingredi- plant or distilled from peppermint oil. It may
ents. One type makes up most of the cough also be synthetically produced. Menthol has
drop while the other is the active, or func- a cooling effect in the mouth that helps to re-
tional, ingredients. The major portion of lieve irritation. It is also thought to work as
cough drops is made up of ingredients found an expectorant. Eucalyptus oil is isolated
in typical hard candy recipes. The essential from the eucalyptus plant. It is believed to
ingredients include sugar, corn syrup, acids, have a medicinal effect functioning as an ex-
colors, and flavors. Sugar is a disaccharide pectorant and a relief agent for minor mouth
compound called sucrose. It is obtained pri- and throat irritations. Recently, companies
marily from sugarcane or sugar beets by an have been including zinc in their cough
extraction process. In a cough drop recipe, drops. Certain evidence suggests that zinc
sugar crystals are usually used. Sugar is re- may be beneficial in fighting symptoms of a
sponsible for the physical structure of the cold. Vitamin C is another ingredient that
cough drop along with its sweet taste and has been included in some brands of cough
mouthfeel. drops. Other ingredients that may be found
are herbals such as echinacea or ginko bilo-
Corn syrup is a main component of cough ba. Peppermint oil, camphor, and sodium cit-
drops. It is a mixture of sugars that is com- rate have also been used.
posed of polysaccharides, dextrose, and
maltose. The main reason it is used is to Design
control the crystallization of sugar. It also
provides some sweetness and body to the Cough drops, or lozenges, are usually sold
cough drop. Additionally, it reduces the for- as small, hard candy pieces that slowly re-
mation of dust from sugar during the blend- lease their medicine as they melt in the
ing stage. mouth. Chemically speaking, they are a su-
persaturated solution of water molecules,
To increase the visual appeal of the cough sugar, and com syrup. They can be either
drop various dyes are added. In the United grained (opaque) or nongrained (clear).
States, these dyes are strictly regulated by While all cough drops are designed to sooth
the government. Some that are allowed in and relieve coughing, some have added in-
food products include red dye #40, yellow gredients to help fight colds, freshen breath,
dye #5, yellow dye #6, and blue dye #1. or clear nasal congestion. Certain cough
Natural colorants like caramel coloring are drops have reduced active ingredients and
also used. Using only these colorants, the are created specifically for children. There
most popular cough drop colors, red and are a wide variety of flavors, the most popu-
blue, can be produced. lar of which are cherry, honey, and menthol.
To cover the taste of the active ingredients, The Manufacturing
various flavoring ingredients are put into Process
cough drop recipes. Both artificial and nat-
ural flavors are used. Artificial flavors are The basic steps in producing a cough drop
mixtures of aromatic chemicals like methyl are mixing, cooking, cooling-working,
anthranilate and ethyl caporate. Natural fla- forming, cooling, and packaging. Most man-
1 08
Cough Drop
Much like the manufacture of

ufacturers have an automated production tle that is a vacuum chamber. It is then candy, the basic steps in produc-
line connected by a conveyor system. rapidly cooked and drawn off for working. ing a cough drop are mixing,
Continuous cookers use a scraped-surface cooking, cooling-working, form-
heat-exchanger which can cook the cough ing, cooling, and packaging.
Mixing
drop within a few seconds.
In this manufacturing step, the ingredi-
ents are combined in a large, stainless
steel container by compounding personnel. Cooling and working
Water is usually pumped directly in to the 3 After cooking, the cough drop mixture is
tank. The sugar, corn syrup, and certain conveyored to cooling slabs. It is cooled
other ingredients are then mixed until they to facilitate incorporation of ingredients
are ready to be cooked. such as color, flavors, and active ingredi-
ents. The cooling slabs are composed of
Cooking steel and have a built-in circulating water
system. Candy plows are also involved.
2 To produce the cough drop, the moisture They move the mixture around so some of
Llevel of the mixture must be reduced. the hotter areas come in contact with the
Some cough drops have a moisture content cooler surface of the slabs. As it cools, the
as low as 0.5%. There are three types of mixture becomes plasticized and it looks
cookers that are employed. Batch cooking like a workable mass similar to dough.
involves a direct-fire cooker. In this method,
the heat is applied to the mixture from 4 At this point, the rest of the cough drop
below and the moisture evaporates into the ingredients are added. They are poured
air. Quicker methods use either a semicon- onto the batch and machines pull and twist
tinuous cooker or a continuous cooker that the mass, working the ingredients through-
operates under low pressure conditions. In out. When everything is adequately com-
the semicontinuous process, the cough drop bined, the batch is split off and sent through a
mixture is first boiled under atmospheric sizing machine. These devices roll the batch
pressure and then pumped into a second ket- into a cylindrically shaped mass and reduce
1 09
the diameter to a suitable size. From here, the tored. The usual test methods involve com-
mass is fed into the forming machines. paring the final product to an established
standard. For example, to make sure the fla-
Forming vor is correct, a random sample may be
taken and compared to some set standard.
5 Various forming machines are available. Other qualities such as appearance, texture,
Typically, cough drops are tablet- and odor may be evaluated by sensory pan-
shaped products. The cylindrical mass runs els, a group of specialists that are trained to
through this machine and is cut into smaller determine small differences. In addition to
pieces. These pieces are then put into a die sensory tests, other instrumental measure-
and stamped to produce the desired shape. ments are taken.
The cough drops are then ejected from the
die and moved to the finishing phases of
production. The Future
Cough drop recipes have changed little
Cooling and packaging since they were first introduced. Most of the
6 The formed cough drops are rapidly advancements have come in the design of
Ucooled to ensure that they maintain their the cookers and other processing equipment.
shape. This is done on a conveyor belt that It is expected that future improvements
is equipped with rapidly blowing air jets. aimed at increasing the speed of production
From the cooling area, the cough drops are will continue to be found. Another area that
put into packaging. Many manufacturers will be expanded will be the addition of
wrap each cough drop in a wax paper pack- novel ingredients that may provide multiple
age to prevent them from absorbing mois- benefits to the consumer. For example,
ture from the air. A number of these are then some cough drop marketers have introduced
put into a larger bag for final sales. Other vitamin C-containing products. These cough
manufacturers do not individually wrap drops are intended not only to sooth a
their cough drops, but store them in a bulk cough, but also relieve some of the symp-
package. These are typically a wax-coated toms of a cold.
box that is sealed. To prevent them from
sticking together, bulk packaged cough Where to Learn More
drops are often coated.
Books
Quality Control Alikonis, J. Candy Technology. Westport,
As with all food and drug processing facili- CT: AVI Publishing Co., 1979.
ties, quality control begins by monitoring Covington, T. Handbook of Nonprescrip-
the characteristics of the incoming ingredi- tion Drugs. Washington, DC: American
ents. These ingredients are taken to a quali- Pharmaceutical Association, 1993.
ty control lab where they are tested to en-
sure they meet specifications. Tests include Mathlouthi, M. and P. Reiser, eds. Sucrose:
evaluation of the ingredient's physical Properties and Applications. London:
properties such as appearance, color, odor, Blackie and Sons, Ltd., 1995.
and flavor. Certain chemical properties of
the ingredients may also be evaluated. Each
manufacturer has their own tests that help Periodicals
certify that the incoming ingredients will Friedman, M. "As Temperatures Drop,
produce a consistent cough drop. In addi- Cough Remedies Flourish."Adweek (Febru-
tion to ingredient checks, the packaging is ary, 1989).
also inspected to ensure it meets the set
specifications. Slezak, M. "Warm Weather Cools Cough
and Cold Sales."Supermarket News (March
After production, the characteristics of the 6, 1995).
final product such as appearance, flavor,
texture, and odor are also carefully moni- -Perry Romanowski
1 10
Cranberries
Background used them to stave off scurvy because of At least 200 billion
their high vitamin C content.
The cranberry is a slender, trailing native cranberries are harvested
North American shrub (Vaccinium macro- Commercial cranberry production began in
carpon) that grows in moist, sandy soil. Cape Cod in 1815 and early commercial each year in the United
The fruit berry is small, red, quite tart, and producers picked cranberries by hand. Culti-
high in vitamin C. The berries are used ei- States.
vated throughout the nineteenth century in
ther fresh or in processed foods such as the East as well as the Midwest, individual
juices, jams, and jellies. Vines are planted growers often devised their own innovative
in sandy, peat-rich soil that is acidic and machinery to meet harvesting needs. Nearly
often flooded with water for more efficient all attempted to address the problem of labo-
harvesting. Cranberries grow wild in the rious picking. Individuals rigged up suction
northern climes of North America. The pickers that worked like vacuum cleaners,
cranberry is one of only three fruits native motorized pickers, homemade weed whack-
to North America, the blueberry (Vaccini- ers, and hand scoops for pulling cranberries
um angustifolium and V. corymbosum) and out of the water during wet harvesting. Stan-
the Concord grape (Vitaceae lubrusca) dardized water reels and dry-pickers are
being the other two. There are about 1,200 now commercially available and greatly in-
cranberry growers in North America and crease efficiency.
cultivation occurs only in Massachusetts,
Wisconsin, New Jersey, Oregon, and
Washington State. Today, at least 200 bil- Raw Materials
lion cranberries are harvested each year The raw material needs are modest. The
and the annual sales exceed $1.5 billion grower requires vines, which often flourish
dollars. Of that, Ocean Spray Cranberry without abating for over 75 years (many are
Growers Cooperative markets 90% of the a century old). The land must be peat-rich,
annual yield in the United States. sandy, and acidic The beds must be situated
near water that can be used to flood the
cranberry marshes. No additives are mixed
History with fresh cranberries prior to packaging.
Because cranberries are an indigenous
fruit, the Native Americans used them in a Processing Cranberries
number of ways-fresh, ground, and
mashed and baked with cornmeal. They
mixed dried cranberries with dried meats Preparing the cranberry beds
and melted fat to make pemmican-a sur- Cranberrry cultivation begins with the
vival food for winter. Cranberry poultices, preparation of individual cranberry beds.
medicinal teas, and dyes were also used. Cranberries are not planted in bogs or grown
European settlers thought the flower of the underwater. Cranberries are grown on dry
cranberry vine resembled the crane's land that is flooded at various points during
head-hence the name cranberry-and cultivation generally for ease of harvesting
used them extensively by 1700. Sailors (and sometimes to protect the crop from
1 1 1
X_4__L_
,<S ) -S VA,
1111
INI
j L-i
Dry harvesting
Dry harvesting is the method used

to harvest cranberries that will be frost). One cranberry bed can take up few Caring for the crop
sold fresh. It involves collecting the acres of land, a grower may have many beds
ripe cranberries from the vines by in close proximity. The top layer of soil is The cranberry vine begins to bloom in
using a mechanical picker that sheared off and used to build earthwork 3early June. Cranberry vines blossom and
combs through the vines with its dikes around the perimeter of each bed. flowers begin to open around mid-June. By
teeth. The machine deposits the Drainage ditches and canals are also con- the end of the month, all of the flowers are
berries in an attached burlap structed in order to manage and contain the in full bloom. The vines must be pollinated
sack. Once full, a sack is emptied by honeybees so they reach their full pro-
onto a metal screen that sifts de-
water. The cranberry bed is leveled with
laser-guided equipment. ductivity. In order to ensure pollination,
bris from the berries. The berries growers bring in about one to two beehives
are then crated and transported to
per acre. The result is a concentration of ap-
the processing plant, where Planting proximately nine million bees in a 100 acre
bruised and rotten berries are
sorted out and discarded. 2 Cranberries are grown on vines. New conglomeration of beds. The honeybees
plantings are developed from vine cut- continue to pollinate the flowers until early
tings taken from well-established beds. In July, when blooming is complete.
the spring cuttings are spread over the pre-
pared soil bed and embedded into the dirt
with a dull planting disk. By the end of sum- 4 Small berries appear in July and grow
mer, the vines have rooted. It takes three to larger until they are harvested in Octo-
five years for these cuttings to begin produc- ber. During the growing season the vines,
ing quantities of fruit for commercial pro- are irrigated and fertilized. Pest and weed
cessing, but once established, they will pro- populations are controlled in order to maxi-
duce high-quality fruit for decades. mize fruit production.
1 12
Cranberries
Wein
Wet harvesting
Wet harvesting methods are used

It is critical to protect the cranberry vines 7 Dry berries are taken to the plant to be when cranberries will be processed
from frost. Temperature alarm systems are sorted. Machines sort out unsuitable into jam, juice, and jellied sauce.
installed to alert the growers to low temper- berries by bouncing them over a 1 in (2.54 The cranberry beds are flooded the
atures. When frost is impending, the irriga- cm) high "bounce board." Firm, round night before harvesting. The next
tion system shoots sprays of water over the berries bounce over the board, while rotten day, a machine called a water reel
plants. Heat is released from the water be- or bruised berries remain trapped and are
is driven through the water, its
fore it freezes thus protecting the plants paddles churning up the water. The
discarded. Berries that clear the bounce ripe cranberries are agitated just
from damage. boards are carried away by conveyor belts enough to separated from the vine
and are packaged by machines that check and float to the surface of the
weight and package accordingly. water. The floating berries are cor-
Dry harvesting ralled together with an inflatable
boom and a large pipe siphons the
Dry harvesting is the best method for ob- Wet harvesting
taining a firm, fresh bagged cranberry. berries into a metal box called a
Wet harvesting is used when the final prod- hopper, which separates the debris
uct will be juices, jams, and jellied sauces. from the berries.
In dry harvesting, cranberry growers use
5a mechanical picker that resembles a Wet harvesting is a quicker processing
reel lawn mower. Cranberry cultivators train 8method than dry harvesting. Ninety-five
the vines so that the fruit all lies in one di- percent of a crop can be wet harvested in
rection, allowing the picker's metal teeth to 60% of the time it takes to dry harvest.
comb the berries off the vine. Berries are However, since wet harvested berries are
placed onto a bucket conveyor that carries more perishable than dry harvested berries,
them to a burlap sack in the back of the ma- they are only used for processed cranberry
chine. When the sack is full it is lifted off foods. Flooding occurs the night before har-
the conveyor and another is put in its place. vesting is to begin. The beds are flooded
with 18 in (45.72 cm) of water. The next
The sacks are emptied onto metal screens day, a machine called a water reel (nick-
6that are used to separate the berries from named egg beaters) is driven through the
leaves and debris. Next, the berries are crat- water, its paddles churning up the water.
ed. When the crates are stacked three high, The ripe cranberries are agitated just enough
they are bundled together with a nylon belt. to separated from the vine and float to the
Many cranberry growers use helicopters to surface of the water. The floating berries are
airlift crates to nearby flatbed trucks. Since corralled together with an inflatable boom.
harvesting occurs in the field, the use of heli- A large pipe is placed just beneath the sur-
copters eliminates the potential crushing of face of the water in the center of the aggre-
the cranberry vines. gation of gathered, floating cranberries. The
1 13
pipe sucks up the berries (along with impu- that can ruin a crop if left unchecked ( the
rities in the water such as leaves, water, fruitworm sucks out the meaty centers of
twigs) into a metal box called a hopper. berries, fills it full of its excrement and then
encases the plants or vines in its silky web).
9 The hopper separates the debris from the Ultraviolet light traps can be used to attract
berries, pumps the water back into the the fruitworm and then spray the concentra-
bog, and pumps the berries into a trail truck. tion of bugs with a USDA approved insecti-
The loading of cleaned berries continues cide. In fact, insecticides are used for many
until thousands of pounds of berries are different bugs but the industry tries to keep
loaded into the truck and taken to the plant their use to a minimum. Fruit fungi and dis-
for processed cranberry foods. eases are also issues for cultivators. The in-
dustry uses chemicals and carefully moni-
After harvest tors weeds, over fertilization, and handling
1 O From late December through March, in order to reduce these diseases.
the cranberry beds are flooded with Finally, the machinery used in the process-
water until they are completely frozen. The ing of cranberries is constructed so as not to
ice fonns a protective layer around the bruise or damage the berries. While these
plants, protecting them from dehydration are fairly firm berries, they can be bruised if
and the weather. The plants remain dormant overhandled.
until the following spring.
1 1 Every four years, a layer of sand is Byproducts/Waste
added to the top of the frozen beds. As
the ice begins to melt, the sand falls to the While some cranberry growers do not use
ground, creating a more established root pesticides on their crops most do use chem-
system and promoting growth. icals to keep pests away from the berries.
The United States Department of Agricul-
12 The beds are also periodically mowed ture (USDA) maintains strict controls on
to encourage shrub health and growth. acceptable pesticides that may be used on
Mowing occurs in spring and the plants do fresh fruit and the growers must heed these
not produce fruit the year of a mowing. guidelines. Washing and cleaning the fruit
minimizes chemical residue remaining on
the harvested fruit. Because the cranberry
Quality Control is harvested in or near water and some of
Quality control of agricultural products the chemicals specifically formulated to
such as cranberries includes a wide variety fight diseases and berry blight are moder-
of activities not always associated with ately toxic to fish, the cultivators must
what we might generally consider quality carefully monitor the effects of chemicals
control. However, first and foremost, it is on the local fish population.
important to propagate new vines from old
vines that have produced luscious, full, The Future
large berries. Second, the vines must be
planted in soil that is truly sandy and full of Cranberry products are very popular and
rich peat to ensure necessary nutrients are supply never has been equal to the demand.
provided. Then, the beds must be carefully Since there are only 1,200 growers in North
constructed so that the earthworks and America and appropriate land available for
dikes adequately control the water flooding. cranberry crops is limited because of envi-
Also, frost warning equipment which alerts ronmental factors such as wetland protection
that grower as temperatures drop danger- and limited water access, supply will not
ously low must be heeded and sprinkling grow significantly. Presently, 90% of cran-
equipment put into action or the entire crop berry consumption occurs in North America.
is at risk. That demand will keep pricing competitive.
As with other crops, pests are always a fac- Cranberry juice has been an effective home
tor in quality control. The grower must be treatment for urinary tract infections for some
vigilant about checking for pests such as time and new studies suggest that cranberries
cranberry tipworm or cranberry fruitworm are rich in cancer-fighting antioxidants.
1 14
Cranberries
Where to Learn More Cranberry cultivation in Massachusetts.
http://omega.cc.umb.edu/-conne/marsha/cc
Books intro.html.
Jaspersohn, William. Cranberries. Boston: Maine Cranberry Growers. http://www.ne-
Houghton Mifflin, 1991. maine.com/.
Periodicals Ocean Spray. http://www.oceanspray.com/.
"Berry Good for You."The University of Oregon State University. http://osu.orst.edu/.
California, Berkeley Wellness Letter (Feb-
ruary 1999): 2. Wisconsin State Cranberry Growers Asso-
ciation. http://wiscran.org/.
Mottau, Gary. "Water Berries."Horticulture
(October 1984): 34. -Nancy EV Bryk
Other
Cranberries in New Jersey. http:/Hwww.
burlco.lib.nu.us/.
1 15
Crane
As early as the first Background horizontal arm known as a jib was added to
the boom. The jib was attached to the boom
century, cranes were built A crane is a machine that is capable of raising in a way which allowed it to pivot, allowing
and lowering heavy objects and moving them for an increased range of motion. By the six-
that were powered by horizontally. Cranes are distinguished from teenth century, cranes were built with two
human beings or animals hoists, which can lift objects but that cannot treadmills, one on each side of a rotating
move them sideways. Cranes are also distin-
housing containing the boom.
operating a treadmill or guished from conveyors, that lift and move
bulk materials, such as grain and coal, in a
large wheel. Cranes continued to rely on human or ani-
continuous process. The word crane is taken
from the fact that these machines have a mal power until the middle of the nineteenth
century, when steam engines were devel-
shape similar to that of the tall, long-necked
bird of the same name. oped. By the end of the nineteenth century,
internal combustion engines and electric
Human beings have used a wide variety of motors were used to power cranes. By this
devices to lift heavy objects since ancient time, steel rather than wood was used to
times. One of the earliest versions of the build most cranes.
crane to be developed was the shaduf, first
used to move water in Egypt about four During the first half of the twentieth centu-
thousand years ago. The shaduf consists of a ry, European and American cranes devel-
long, pivoting beam balanced on a vertical oped in different ways. In Europe, where
support. A heavy weight is attached to one most cranes were used in cities with narrow
end of the beam and a bucket to the other. streets, cranes tended to be built in the form
The user pulls the bucket down to the water of tall, slender towers, with the boom and
supply, fills it, then allows the weight to pull the operator on top of the tower. Because
the bucket up. The beam is then rotated to quiet operation was important in crowded
the desired position and the bucket is emp- cities, these tower cranes were usually pow-
tied. The shaduf is still used in rural areas of ered by electric motors when they became
Egypt and India. widely available.
As early as the first century, cranes were In the United States, cranes were often used
built that were powered by human beings or in locations far away from residential areas.
animals operating a treadmill or large Cranes tended to be built with the boom
wheel. These early cranes consisted of a connected to a trolley, which could be
long wooden beam, known as a boom, con- moved easily from place to place. These
nected to a rotating base. The wheel or mobile cranes tended to be powered by in-
treadmill powered a drum, around which a ternal combustion engines. During the
rope was wound. The rope was connected to 1950s, the availability of stronger steels,
a pulley at the top of the boom and to a hook combined with an increased demand for
that lifted the weight. taller buildings, led to the development of
cranes with very long booms attached to
An important development in crane design small trucks, or to crawlers with caterpillar
occurred during the Middle Ages, when a treads. Mobile cranes and tower cranes of
1 16
Crane
many different kinds are used extensively in of an exaggeration to say that no two cranes
construction sites around the world. are exactly alike.
Cranes used for industrial purposes are gen-

Raw Materials erally designed to remain permanently in
one location. These cranes often perform
The most important substance used to man-
ufacture cranes is steel. Steel is an alloy of repetitive tasks that can be automated. An
iron and a small amount of carbon. For important type of industrial crane is the
structures that do not require very high bridge crane. Traveling on tracks attached to
two horizontal beams, known as a bridge, a
strength, a common form of steel known as
carbon steel is used. By definition, carbon trolley enables the movement of the bridge
crane. Usually, the bridge itself can be
steel contains less than 2% of elements other
moved along a pair of parallel rails, allow-
than iron and carbon. Carbon steel exists in
a wide variety of forms. The most important
ing the crane to reach a large, rectangular
area. A bridge crane may also be designed
factor in determining the properties of car-
so that one end of the bridge is supported by
bon steel is the amount of carbon present,
a central pivot while the other end moves on
which ranges from less than 0.015% to more
a circular rail, allowing a large, round area
than 0.5%.
to be reached.
For structures that require great strength, An overhead traveling crane is a kind of
particularly in cranes designed to lift very bridge crane in which the rails are located
heavy objects, a variety of substances high above the ground. Usually supported
known as high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) from the ceiling of a building, an overhead
steels are used. HSLA steels contain rela- traveling crane has the advantage of causing
tively low levels of carbon, typically about no obstruction in the work area.
0.05%. They also contain a small amount of
one or more other elements that add Cranes used in construction often perform a
strength. These elements include chromi- variety of tasks and must be controlled by
um, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, titani- highly skilled operators. Construction
um, and niobium. Besides being strong, cranes are divided into mobile cranes and
HSLA steels are resistant to atmospheric tower cranes. Mobile cranes are mounted on
corrosion and are better suited to welding trucks or crawlers in order to travel from
than carbon steels. place to place. An articulating crane is a mo-
bile crane in which there is a joint between
Depending on the exact design of the crane, two sections of the boom, allowing it to
a wide variety of other materials may be move in a way similar to a knuckle in a
used in manufacturing. Natural or synthetic human finger. Articulating cranes are gener-
rubber is used to make tires for mobile ally used to lift objects located a relatively
cranes. Certain structural components may short distance away, but with a wide range
be manufactured from various metals such of motion. A telescoping crane is a mobile
as bronze and aluminum. Electrical compo- crane in which two or more sections of the
nents may include copper for wires and boom can extend and retract, changing the
semiconducting elements such as silicon or length of the boom. Telescoping cranes are
germanium for electronic circuits. Other less versatile than articulating cranes, but
materials that may be used include ceramics are usually able to lift heavier objects locat-
and strong plastics. ed a greater distance away.
Tower cranes are used in the construction of
Design tall buildings. They are installed when con-
Very few machines exist in as wide a vari- struction begins and dismantled when the
ety of designs as cranes. Before the crane is building is completed. An extemal tower
constructed, the manufacturer must consid- crane is installed outside the building. As the
er the site where it will be used and the building increases in height, the crane is
weight it will need to lift. In addition, raised by lifting the upper part of the crane
cranes are often modified to suit the needs and adding a new section of tower beneath it.
of the user. For these reasons, it is not much An internal tower crane is installed within the
1 17
A mobile crane.
building. As the building increases in height, The molten steel is then poured into large,
the crane is raised by lifting the base of the thick-walled iron molds, where it cools into
crane to a higher level within the building. . ingots.
The Manufacturing 2 In order to form flat products such as

Process plates and sheets, or long products such
as bars and rods, ingots are shaped between
large rollers under enormous pressure. Hol-
Making steel components low tubes, such as those used to form the
Molten steel is made by melting iron ore latticed booms of large cranes, may be
and coke (a carbon-rich substance that remade by bending sheets of steel and weld-
sults when coal is heated in the absence of ing the long sides together. They may also
air) in a furnace, then removing most of the be made by piercing steel rods with a rotat-
carbon by blasting oxygen into the liquid. ing steel cone.
1 18
Crane
An external tower crane.
-Swing bearing
Brace -
3 The cables used to lift weights are made along the assembly line, the steel components
3from steel wires. To make wire, steel is are welded or bolted into place. The exact
first rolled into a long rod. The rod is then procedures followed during this process vary
drawn through a series of dies which reduce depending on the type of crane being assem-
its diameter to the desired size. Several wires bled. For a mobile crane, the components are
are then twisted together to form cable. then assembled to a standardized truck or
crawler of the appropriate type.
4 Steel arrives at the crane manufacturer
and is inspected. It is stored in a ware- 6 The assembled crane is tested and
house until it is needed. The many different
components that will later be assembled into
6shipped. Depending on the size and type
of crane, it may be broken down into sub-
cranes are made using a variety of metal- sections to be assembled on site. It may also
working equipment. Lathes, drills, and other be shipped whole on special large trucks.
precision machines are used to shape the
steel as required.
Quality Control
Assembling the crane Safety is the most important factor to be
5 A crane is put together from the neces- considered during crane manufacturing. The
sary components. As the crane moves steel used to make the crane is inspected to
1 19
An internal tower crane.
Cz-'r
Trolley
I.EL
Swing bearing /
-
Cab&-
Ihi
Wedges
Counterweight
__A__
ensure that it has no structural flaws that aware of changes in the environment in
would weaken the crane. Welds and bolts order to avoid accidents. For example,
joints are inspected as well. cranes should not be used during very windy
conditions.
The United States government sets specific
regulations through the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration that limit the The Future
weight that a specific crane is allowed to Manufacturers of cranes are constantly
lift. The Crane Manufacturers Association seeking new ways to incorporate new tech-
of America sets its own safety standards nology into their products. Future cranes
which exceed those required by the govern- will have improved safety and versatility
ment. Special devices within the crane pre- with computers and video screens that will
vent the user from attempting to lift a weight allow operators to move heavy objects with
heavier than that allowed. increased accuracy.
A completed crane is first tested without a Signs of the future can be seen in an unusual
weight to ensure that all of its components crane recently developed by James S. Albus,
operate properly. It is then tested with a of the National Institute of Standards and
weight to ensure that the crane is able to lift Technology in Gaithersburg, Maryland. The
heavy objects without losing stability. Stewart Platform Independent Drive Envi-
ronmental Robot (SPIDER) looks nothing
Safety ultimately depends on proper use of like an ordinary crane. Instead, the SPIDER
the crane. Crane operators must be specially is shaped like an octahedron (a diamond-
trained, must pass specific tests, and must be shaped solid consisting of eight triangles
examined for any visual or physical prob- joined together in the form of two four-sided
lems. The crane should be inspected each pyramids). Six pulleys support six cables
working shift, with a more thorough inspec- from the top level of the SPIDER. The ca-
tion of the motor and lifting apparatus on a bles manipulate the lower level of the SPI-
monthly basis. Crane operators must be DER, which is attached to tools or gripping
1 20
Crane
devices. The six cables can be operated to- Periodicals
gether or independently, allowing the lower
level to be moved in all directions. The SPI- "The Crane: A Versatile Truck-Mounted
DER can lift heavy objects to within 0.04 in Tool."Public Works (November 1988): 62-
(1 mm) of the desired location, and hold 63.
them within one-half of a degree of the de- Shapiro, Lawrence K. and Howard I. "Con-
sired angle. The SPIDER can lift up to six struction Cranes."Scientific American
times its own weight. (March 1988): 72-79.
Where to Learn More Other

Books "Cranes." April 21, 1998. http://www.marko
crane.com/crane.htm/ (June 29, 1999).
Jennings, Terry. Cranes, Dump Trucks,
Bulldozers, and Other Building Machines. -Rose Secrest
Kingfisher Books, 1993.
Shapiro, Howard I. Cranes and Derricks.
McGraw-Hill, 1980.
12 1
Crash Test Dummy
Crash test dummies were Background respond like breathing, flexible beings.
Crash test dummies were developed in 1949
developed in 1949 under Like a fashion mannequin, the dummy looks under contract to the U.S. Air Force for test-
like a human, but its more-than-skin-deep ing aircraft ejection seats that were mounted
contract to the U.S. Air beauties consist of high-tech instrumenta- on rocket-propelled sleds on rails. "Sierra
tion and a state-of-the-art physique. And
Force for testing aircraft like the ventriloquist's version, the crash
Sam" was the first dummy. The automotive
industry later used the same type of dummy
ejection seats that were test dummy can't speak except in a highly to develop lap seat belts and shoulder har-
effective series of television commercials nesses. Sierra Sam resembled the average
mounted on rocket- for seat belt safety. adult male with a statistically correct weight
propelled sleds on rails. Highway safety agencies around the world and articulated limbs; however, Sam's spine
rely on the crash-worthiness test in which an and neck were rigid. The acceleration of his
"Sierra Sam" was the first head as it followed the path of ejection could
automobile is rammed into a brick wall to
dummy. observe damage and generate data about the be measured, but this was far from sufficient
car's performance. The occupants of the test for evaluating potential head injuries.
vehicle are crash test dummies (properly
called "Anthropomorphic Test Devices") By 1952, Mark 1 was manufactured from a
that are fabricated to resemble and respond plaster cast of a live man, and this dummy
like human bodies and that are loaded with marked a huge improvement in the state of
sophisticated instrumentation. The instru- the art. His skull housed sensors for measur-
ments record information on acceleration, ing acceleration and the force of impact, and
speed, deceleration on impact, force of im- it was cast from two pieces of aluminum.
pact, and the various motions and deforma- Mark l's spine consisted of a series of ball-
tions of each dummy's torso and limbs. and-socket joints with spacers to simulate
These data are studied by safety engineers the range of motion of a real backbone. The
and related to behaviors of human occupants dummy also had a set of steel tubing ribs,
and their potential injuries. vinyl skin, and foam flesh, but stiff limbs.
Other dummies developed through 1956
The crash test method has major flaws de- were modified and instrumented to measure
spite its universal acceptance. The automo- a selected range of motions. Dummies of
bile (or other vehicle) is partially or fully sizes and weights other than average were
damaged, depending on the test objective. made for the first time, and these post-Mark
The dummies can be retrofitted and reused 1 dummies were used to test tractor safety,
many times, but their ability to respond with frogmen's suits for underwater escapes, and
all the complexities of human bodies is al- flight and safety aspects of space research
ways being perfected. for the National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration (NASA).
History Space programs motivated the next ad-
Prior to the late 1940s, automobiles were vances in dummy design. To evaluate the
tested using cadavers. Injuries could be ob- effects of rocket thrust on astronauts
served on real bodies, but cadavers did not strapped into the seats of space capsules, the
1 22
Crash Test Dummy
American and European space programs least they were represented and studied for
funded the invention of the Grumman- the first time.
Alderson Research Dummy (GARD). The
seated astronaut had to be perfectly aligned The problem of evaluating injuries to chil-
with the direction of rocket thrust, or both dren was complicated by the fact that many
the man and seat would twist out of place. children are injured in automobile accidents
GARD was an important technological step because they are standing or not sitting con-
because the processes of locating the center ventionally during those accidents. The range
of gravity and evaluating the moment of in- of motions and potential impacts are, there-
ertia (the tendency to rotate with accelera- fore, far more variable for unrestrained chil-
tion) were well instrumented in this durable dren. Redesign of the child dummies fol-
dummy. GARD is still used to test ejection lowed immediately, and modifications to
seats because the seats restrict motion child dummies continued to be the most in-
ranges in this mannequin keeping them sim- tensely pursued area of crash test design from
ple enough for engineers to measure rota- the 1970s through the 1990s. In the 1970s,
tions, acceleration history, and the stresses improved data gave the children more flexi-
between the man and the seat. ble skeletons and more supple limb joints
than adults, made them adaptable to various
Until 1966, the aviation industry, military positions in the car, and improved instrumen-
aeronautics, and the space program led the tation so the broader range of variables could
development of test dummies. The automo- be measured or interpreted. Development and
tive industry became the driving force in de- testing of child safety seats, booster seats,
veloping crash test dummies that year as au- and airbags necessitated special attention to-
tomobile fatalities emphasized the need for ward infant, toddler, and youngster dummies.
improvements in the dummy's rib cage,
spine, pelvis, and abdominal cavity to evalu- Improvements in computer analysis were
ate restraint systems. Mathematical models also revolutionizing crash tests by the mid
and experiments with separate ranges of the 1970s. Computer methods allowed measure-
body showed that motions could be simulat- ment of almost forty different parameters in
ed with spring connections. The springs the behavior of test dummies. Construction
move on impact, and they also rebound so materials were similarly improved to make
effects like whiplash can be studied. Tests realistic, fully articulated dummies possible.
of lap safety belts concentrated on injuries To replicate the behavior of human bones,
to the pelvis, but development of the shoul- the dummy's bones were manufactured of
der harness required the dummy to have a fiberglass with greater breaking strength so
breastbone (stemum), clavicles, and shoul- the dummy could be used again. These
der blades. The harnessed dummy was many adaptations led to more and more spe-
equipped with an instrumented visceral sac cialized dummies, however, so models like
that imitated the motions of internal organs. the Supermorphic Dummy were made ex-
Instrumentation was also installed in cavi- clusively for car crash tests-they were too
ties in the thighs, chest, and head so that fragile for ejection testing.
more complicated movements and force de-
flections could be studied. Specializations in aircraft testing dummies
included the Limb Restraint Evaluator (LRE)
By 1970, it was apparent that the adult-sized, Anthropomorphic Manikin, which was creat-
male dummy did not accurately represent the ed especially for testing restraint devices to
smaller proportions of children and females. prevent injuries due to flailing during ejec-
In fact some injuries to the smaller physiques tion from military jets. Other specialized
were being caused by belts and hamesses dummies tested experimental parachutes, he-
that were proven safe by the average licopter crashes, and racing cars. For exam-
dummy. A larger male model and the first ple, tests of crashes involving race cars (of
female dummy were produced in 1970 and the type raced at the Indianapolis 500-Mile
were named Sierra Stan and Sierra Susie. Race or on the Championship Auto Racing
That same year, they added to their family Team [CART] circuit) showed that the heavy
with Sierra Sammy (a six-year-old) and Sier- racing helmets worn by the drivers do protect
ra Toddler (a three-year-old). Neither child their heads from impact damage, but the hel-
was correct in weight distribution, but at met's weight increases the risk of neck in-
1 23
Infant
Child
The first crash test dummies manu-

factured during the 1 950s and juries because it forces the neck to elongate. pose, and body parts) as well as metal plat-
1 960s did not address the differ- Impact of an Indy car into a concrete wall re- ing materials. A wide variety of plastics are
ences between body types. Those duces the car's speed by 40 mi (64 km) per also incorporated in most designs, and the
first dummies were statistically cor- hour in 70 milliseconds, and the driver feels plastics include Delrin (a type of long-wear-
rect adult males, and as such, they an impact of 60 times the force of gravity. ing acetate resin), urethane and
did little to represent the typical in- The sensor "black box" in the dummy evalu- polyurethane foam, and vinyl. Most dum-
fant, child, and female body types. ates all of the forces at work 2,000 times per mies are clothed to simulate reality, and spe-
By 1970, the dummies' shortcom-
ings were apparent and various second while the crash is in progress. cific vendors supply clothing, paint, and ad-
body types were manufactured. hesives for marking critical targets or
Test dummy technology accelerated in devel- measurement points on the dummies. In
opment again with the design and testing of fact, not only are outside suppliers used for
the airbag. The dummy family was diversified many dummy constituents, but the federal
further to include still more body types. Fatal- testing agencies that approve dummy de-
ities from airbag deployment occurred most signs dictate specific vendors that must be
often among persons outside the statistical di- used for some materials.
mensions. These "small occupants out of po-
sition" or OOP occupants stimulated more
evolutionary changes in the mannequins. Dummy manufacturers supply little or no
Airbag deployment subjected the dummies to instrumentation. Designs provide space for
forces that exceeded their design capabilities. instrumentation to be secured, but instru-
Significant upgrades to the dummy family mentation is so specific to actual testing
had taken place by 1997 thanks to airbag test- conditions that the customers of the dummy
ing and development of side impact airbags. builders install their own. Some small po-
tentiometers are sometimes built into the
manufacturer's lines, but more sophisticated
Raw Materials instruments like accelerometers and load-
The body of the crash test dummy is made measuring sensors are selected by the cus-
of metal parts consisting of aluminum, tomer from their own instrument packages
bronze, or steel (depending on design, pur- or specialized vendors.
1 24
Crash Test Dummy
Design times, plated, and machined to trim, smooth,

and refine the completed pieces. Finally, the
The design of crash test dummies is an in- metal pieces are assembled using fasteners
tricate and isolated process limited to gov- that are also specified.
emnment agencies, dummy manufacturers,
and customers like automobile manufactur- 3 Plastics are similarly designed, tooled,
ers. The dummy makers are not responsible 3and molded by injection molding or
for creating their own designs. Instead, they other methods suited to the part and materi-
receive drawing packages, sets of construc- al. Plastics are also machined and assembled
tion specifications, and specifications for or fitted to the metal parts.
required testing from the National Traffic
Safety Administration (NTSA). European A After the metal and plastic body of the
agencies provide similar sets of documents A dummy has been assembled, the skin is
to dummy manufacturers. Based on their fitted to the dummy. Some skins consist of
experiences in building dummies, repairing vinyl that is molded on the dummy with
or retrofitting them, and observing their foam injected under the vinyl to give a
post-accident traumas, manufacturers of firmness and pliability to the skin that re-
dummies, as well as users, do have input sembles the real thing. Other skins consist
into design changes. The NTSA bases its of pieces of vinyl backed with foam layers.
designs on a multitude of data including ac- These pieces can be slipped on and off like
cident reports, location within a vehicle, clothes. The skin that covers the head is all
variations in physique and physical devel- one piece that fits over the aluminum skull.
opment, autopsies, and simulations. Biome- Colors are also very important to dummy
chanics experts analyze all the available skin. Many customers want flesh tones, but
data and create the specifications that are skin with red or yellow colorations is some-
sent to the manufacturers. times preferred when the dummy will be
used in testing that is filmed. The yellow
and red tones make precise measurement of
The Manufacturing movements on film easier.
Process
The manufacture of crash test dummies is The dummy is designed with openings
highly proprietary because of the complexi- for instrumentation and cabling. These
ties of design and the small number of quali- are in the larger parts of the body including
fied manufacturers in the world. All design the skull, chest, abdominal cavity, and the
and construction meets an extremely high set thighs. Clothing is sometimes fitted to the
of standards there are no "B-grade" crash dummies in the factory or provided to the
test dummies. customer so the dummy can be dressed after
the instrumentation has been inserted.
When the drawing and specifications
package for a new crash test dummy is Quality Control
received, the manufacturer begins by deter-
mining which parts and materials must be Quality control is rigidly specified by the
purchased from specific vendors, which NTSA (or other agencies) before manufac-
must be acquired from a range of approved ture is even considered. Dummy assemblers
vendors, and which are to be manufactured are well aware that their "family" will be
in house. As examples, clothing for the sacrificed for the safety of thousands of
dummies is fumished by a specific vendor; members of the public, so they feel an in-
but, for the foam used to support the vinyl tense responsibility toward quality issues.
skin, the naming of specific vendors is When parts of the body are complete and
avoided, and the manufacturer only has to when the entire body and head are assem-
meet certain equivalents. bled, the dummy goes through a rigorous
set of tests in the calibration laboratory,
2 Patterns and molds for metal pieces to where required tests are performed and
Lbe cut or cast are made from the design measurements are made to confirm that the
drawings, and necessary tooling is done to product conforms to every detail of the de-
prepare to make the metal pieces. They are sign drawings and specifications. Tests in-
cast, cut, heat treated as many as three clude a head drop test, thorax (chest) im-
1 25
The crash test dummy is made of

metal parts consisting of alu-
minum, bronze, or steel as well as
metal plating materials. A wide
variety of plasfics are also incor-
porated in most designs, and in-
clude Delrin (a type of long-wear-
ing acetate resin), urethane and
polyurethane foam, and vinyl.
Most dummies are clothed to sim-
ulate reality, and specific vendors
supply clothing, paint, and adhe-
sives for marking critical targets or
measurement points on the dum-
mies. In fact, not only are outside
suppliers used for many dummy
constituents, but the federal testing
agencies that approve dummy de-
signs dictate specific vendors that
must be used for some materials.
Adult
pact testing, and calibration of the skull, The Future

neck, knees, other major joints, and some- Computer technologies have made the crash
times other parts of the limbs depending on test dummy adaptable to the extremes of
the use of the dummy. Depending on the human activity through design improve-
type of physique the dummy is intended to ments, testing methods, miniaturization of
represent, the test results will vary. A instruments, and data analysis. Ultimately,
child's head mass, for example, is dramati- however, the computer may prove fatal to
cally smaller than an adult's, therefore the the dummy family. Computer simulations
head drop test will be quite different. A set are becoming so sophisticated that they can
of certifications-a kind of birth certifi- represent car crashes, damages to the vehi-
cate-stays with the dummy throughout its cle itself, and injuries to the occupants. Sim-
useful life to prove its calibration testing ulations are attractive to auto manufacturers
and for use in rebuilding, retrofitting, and because they eliminate some, if not all, de-
recalibrating it. structive testing, which costs approximately
$750,000 per test. Vehicle occupants can be
examined after simulated impact, and the
Byproducts/Waste details of injuries to the head and spine es-
There are no byproducts from dummy man- pecially can be analyzed. Up to three
ufacture. Waste is limited to metal and plas- months of design time can be removed from
tic that can be recycled. the design-production schedule for a new
1 26
Crash Test Dummy
car model, and new designs may be safer for Where to Learn More
a wider range of different-sized drivers and
passengers. Periodicals
Dummy manufacturers, on the other hand, McCraw, Jim. "What happens when an
insist their families are here to stay. More Indy car crashes."Popular Mechanics (June
modifications and complexities as well as 1995): 66.
technological applications have made crash
"Virtual crash-test dummy."Science News
test dummies reliable barometers for vehicle
performance. Government agencies recog- (March 2, 1996): 138.
nize this and are asking manufacturers to
produce dummies and sensors that focus on Other
very specific injuries. In 1995, this focus Applied Safety Technologies Corporation
turned to lower legs, movement of the feet, (ASTC).1999. http://www.astc.net. (June 29,
and damage to Achilles tendons caused by 1999).
frontal impacts. New sensors made the legs
of the Hybrid 350 (certified in 1997) resem- First Technology Safety Systems. June 14,
ble those of a bionic man. In 1999, emphasis 1999. http://www.ftss.com/ (June 29, 1999).
shifted to rear impact collisions and to de-
veloping state of the art vertebrae through Insurance Institute for Highway Safety.
cooperative research among agencies, uni- http://www.hwy.safety.org/ (June 29, 1999).
versities, and manufacturers. Interest is also
growing in skin simulants that will bruise National Highway Traffic Safety Adminis-
and abrade during accidents; data from these tration. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/ (June 29,
developments will also aid doctors in im- 1999).
proving treatments for skin injuries. Like its
human counterparts, the crash test dummy is Robert A. Denton, Inc. http://www.raden-
continuing to evolve for the purpose of sav- ton.com/ (June 29, 1999).
ing our lives and limbs. TNO Crash Dummies BV. http://www.
crashdummies.tno.nlI (June 29, 1999).
-Gillian S. Holmes
1 27
Cubic Zirconia
In 1919, Marcel Background duced in 1955) and yttrium aluminum gar-
net. However, strontium titanate was too
Tolkowsky, a third A gem or gemstone can be defined as a jewel soft for certain types of jewelry. Cubic zir-
or semiprecious stone cut and polished for conia became more popular since its appear-
generation Antwerp-born personal adornment. Gemstones produced in ance is very close to diamond as cut gems.
the United States and other producing coun-
diamond cutter and tries are of three types; natural, synthetic,
The gemstones simulants produced in the
student of mechanical and simulant. The natural gemstones are cut
United States include coral, cubic zirconia,
from minerals of crystalline form such as
engineering, determined beryl, corundum, and quartz. (Diamond is a lapis lazuli, malachite, and turquoise. Addi-
crystal of pure carbon.) Organic materials tionally, certain colors of synthetic sapphire
the proper proportions at such as amber, coral, fossil, ivory, mother of and spinel, used to represent other gem-
stones, would be classed as simulants. Col-
which a diamond should pearl, natural and cultured freshwater pearls,
ored and colorless varieties of CZ are the
and natural saltwater pearls are also consid-
be cut to obtain maximum ered natural gemstones. major types of simulants produced and have
been on the market for over 30 years. As
fire and brilliancy. This Laboratory grown synthetic gemstones have with genuine diamond, CZ is available in
essentially the same appearance, optical, both higher and lower grades, ranging from
ideal, known as the several tens of dollars per carat to $100 per
physical, and chemical properties as the nat-
Brilliant Cut, is an ural material that they represent. Synthetic carat for the higher grades.
gemstones produced in the United States in-
objective measurable clude alexandrite, coral, diamond, emerald, In the past decade, the use and consumer ac-
standard. Each brilliant garnet, quartz, ruby, sapphire, spinel, and ceptance of synthetic and simulant gem-
turquoise. There are also synthetic stones stones have grown. Much of this growth is
cut diamond has 58 that do not have a natural counterpart. the direct result of the recognition of these
gemstones for their own merits, not just as
facets, cut at precise Simulants are laboratory grown gem materi- inexpensive substitutes for natural gem-
mathematically als that have an appearance similar to that of stones. Annual production of U.S. synthetic
a natural gem material but have different op- and simulant gemstones is currently valued
determined angles to tical, physical, and chemical properties. at around $20 million, with production of
Cubic zirconia (CZ), a replacement for dia- natural gemstones at about two and a half
reflect and refract mond, falls into this category and was first times that.
maximum light rays. used for the production of jewelry stones in
1976. On the hardness scale for stones, the
genuine diamond is a 10 compared to a Ravw Materials
hardness ranging from 8.5-9 for CZ. CZ has
a refractive index (the ability to refract a ray Cubic zirconia is made from a mixture of
of light into colors of red, orange, green, high purity zirconium oxide powders stabi-
yellow, violet, and blue) of 2.15-2.18, com- lized with magnesium and calcium. The
pared to 2.42 for genuine diamond. amount of each ingredient is carefully con-
trolled, with certain additives sometimes
Predecessors to cubic zirconia as diamond being used to achieve a similar appearance
imitations included strontium titanate (intro- to genuine diamonds.
1 28
Cubic Zirconia
The Manufacturing with the molten material and continues to
Process grow until the melt is depleted.
Synthetic and simulant gemstone producers Typically, the seed is pulled from the melt at
use many different production methods, but a rate of 0.0394-3.94 in (1-100 mm) per
they can be grouped into one of three types hour. Crystals grown using this method can
of processes: melt growth, solution growth, be very large, more than 1.97 in (50 mm) in
or extremely high-temperature, high-pres- diameter and 3.281 ft (1 m) in length, and of
sure growth. Solution techniques for making very high purity. Each year producers using
synthetic gems include flux methods for this method grow millions of carats of crys-
emerald, ruby, sapphire, spinel, and alexan- tals. The skull melt method is used for cubic
drite. The other solution method is the hy- zirconia and will be described in more detail
drothermal method, often used for growing below.
beryl (emerald, aquamarine, and morganite)
and quartz. This method uses a large pres- Certain gemstones pose unique problems
sure vessel called an autoclave. when attempts are made to grow them. The
problems arise because certain materials are
Other techniques involve solid- or liquid- either so reactive that they cannot be melted
state reactions and phase transformations for even in unreactive platinum and iridium cru-
jade and lapis lazuli; vapor phase deposition cibles or they melt at higher temperatures
for ruby and sapphire; ceramics for than the crucible materials can withstand.
turquoise, lapis lazuli, and coral; and others Therefore, another melting system must be
for opal, or glass and plastics simulants or used, called the skull melting system. Cubic
imitations. The Vemeuil, Czochralski, and zirconia, because of its high melting point,
skull melting processes are the melt tech- must be grown using this method.
niques most often used for gem materials.
Melting
French chemist Edmond Fremy produced
1 The "skull" is a hollow-walled copper
the first commercial synthetic gemstones in
1877 by a melt growth method. These were cup. Water is circulated through the hol-
small ruby crystals and were grown by fus- low walls to cool the inside wall of the skull.
ing together a mixture containing aluminum The cup is filled with powdered ingredients
oxide in a clay crucible, the process taking and heated by radio frequency induction
about eight days. These were termed recon- until the powders melt. Because water cools
structed rubies. In 1885, larger synthetic ru- the walls of the skull, the powdered materi-
bies made their appearance using a flame fu- als next to the walls do not melt, and the
sion process and alumina powder. Later, molten material is contained within a shell
sapphire, spinel, rutile, and strontium ti- of unmelted material. Therefore, the reac-
tanate were grown with this technique, also tive or high-temperature melt is contained
known as the Vemeuil method. within itself.
I When the heat source is removed and
The Czochralski pulled-growth method, de- Lthe system is allowed to cool, crystals
veloped around 1917 by a scientist of the form by nucleation and grow until the entire
same name, is used for ruby, sapphire, melt solidifies. Crystals grown using this
spinel, yttrium-aluminum-gamet (YAG), system vary in size, depending on the num-
gadolinium-gallium-garnet (GGG), and ber of nucleations. In growing cubic zirco-
alexandrite. In the Czochralski method, nia, a single skull yields about 2.205 lb (1
powdered ingredients are melted in a plat- kg) of material per cycle.
inum, iridium, graphite, or ceramic crucible.
A seed crystal is attached to one end of a ro-
tating rod, the rod is lowered into the cru-
Cutting
cible until the seed just touches the melt, The cut in any stone, whether natural or imi-
and then the rod is slowly withdrawn. The tation, depends on the skill of the stone cut-
crystal grows as the seed pulls materials ter. The cutter must evaluate a gem crystal
from the melt, and the material cools and so- carefully to determine how much of the
lidifies. Yet, because of surface tension of crystal should be cut away to produce a
the melt, the growing crystal stays in contact stone or stones with good clarity. The cutter
1 29
must also determine which stone shapes will Quality Control

make maximum use of the crystal. The cut-
ter must make as much use of the crystal as The quality of a real or imitation stone is de-
he can, as diamond is too valuable to waste. termined by the four Cs: carat, color, clarity,
and cut. It is the combination of the grades
in all four that determine the final quality
Proportion plays an important part in the cut and hence value of both a genuine and an
of a diamond. An ideal stone is cut to math- imitation diamond. The carat weight 0.0175
ematical specifications to allow a maximum oz (0.5 g) of a genuine diamond is the
amount of light to be reflected through the weight of the stone in carat weight. Synthet-
stone. This type of cut is known as the Bril- ic stones are always heavier in carat weight
liant cut. Variations from these set propor- than genuine diamonds, as the material they
tions can reduce the brilliance of the stone. are made of is more dense.
When working with diamonds, a cutter
might find it more cost wise to vary from The color of a diamond can effect its value.
these angles in order to remove a flaw or in- Complete absence of color represents the
clusion, yet still retain maximum carat high end of the scale, and pale, unevenly
weight. As counterfeit diamond crystals are tinted stones comprise the lower end. Dia-
more moderate in cost and almost flawless monds with an unusually high degree of
in clarity, larger stones can be cut to correct color are known as fancies, and are graded
proportions. by the evenness, rarity, and tone of the
color. Both genuine and cubic zirconia dia-
3 There are several steps in cutting. First, monds are available in various colors rang-
the stone is marked to indicate cleavage ing from palest yellows to brilliant reds.
planes and then cleaved to give initial
shape to the stone. Since cubic zirconia The clarity is the clearness or transparency
readily splits in directions parallel to the of a stone. In genuine diamonds, clarity is
octahedral crystal face, it can be cleaved determined by nature, minute mineral
using special tools impregnated with dia- traces, and small crystals of imperfections
mond powder. An alternative to cleaving is that can cloud a stone. The clearer the stone,
sawing, which is used to remove flawed the more valuable it is. The clarity of a
areas (imitation stones won't have as counterfeit diamond can be controlled in the
many) using a small disk of phosphor- lab. However, bad melts can produce stones
bronze impregnated with diamond on its with small inclusions. Variations in the
edge. Precision programmable machines metal oxide mixtures can change the color
are now used to cut stones to a predeter- of the stone. Uneven coloration is as unde-
mined measurement (called calibration), so sirable in a counterfeit diamond as in a gen-
that every stone can be produced in the uine diamond.
same size, shape, and depth.
Of the four Cs, the cut is the most important
A The next step, called bruting or rounding in determining a diamond's brilliance. In
up, consists of rounding the corners of 1919, Marcel Tolkowsky, a third generation
the cleaved edges. This is accomplished Antwerp-born diamond cutter and student of
using a machine equipped with a diamond mechanical engineering, determined the
proper proportions at which a diamond
tool called a sharp.
should be cut to obtain maximum fire and
brilliancy. This ideal, known as the Brilliant
5 After bruting or rounding up, the stone Cut, is an objective measurable standard.
is faceted using a cutting wheel made of Each brilliant cut diamond has 58 facets, cut
cast iron. Polishing follows a secondary at precise mathematically determiined angles
faceting operation. to reflect and refract maximum light rays.
This guarantees that a diamond has been cut
6 The final step is a thorough cleaning by to its best possible proportions for optimal
boiling in acid to remove all traces of beauty rather than simply to maintain maxi-
oil, dirt, and diamond powder. After stones mum carat weight. In fact, diamond propor-
are inspected under a microscope, they are tion and finish grades are defined in terms of
packed in a foam package. the degree of departure from this standard.
1 30
Cubic Zirconia
In the skull melt method to grow
cubic zirconia, a hollow-walled
copper cup is filled with powdered
ingredients and heated by radio
frequency induction until the pow-
ders melt. Circulating water within
the hollow walls cool the inside
wall of the skull. Because water
cools the walls of the skull, the
powdered materials next to the
walls do not melt, and the molten
material is contained within a
shell of unmelted material. There-
.Crucible fore, the reactive or high-tempera-
ture melt is contained within itself.
When the heat source is removed
and the system is allowed to cool,
crystals form by nucleation and
Heater grow until the entire melt solidi-
fies. A single skull yields about
2.205 lb (1 kg) of cubic zirconia
per cycle.
Laser use
La
This standard is also applied to imitation di- a round stone because it takes more time to
amonds made from cubic zirconia. do the primary shaping.
Although the 58 facet brilliant cut is known Other testing methods are used to measure
as the standard measurement of quality in optical and physical properties. A binocular
the cutting industry, there are special in- microscope is used to look for defects such as
stances when deviations are necessary. Too inclusions. The refractive index is measured
much light refraction in a small area reduces using a refractometer. The specific gravity of
clarity, therefore extremely small stones a stone is determined by seeing whether it
may be cut with fewer facets. Larger stones will sink, float up, or remain stationary in a
may be cut with more facets for the opposite liquid with a known specific gravity.
reason. The size of the stone may so in-
crease the width of the facets that brilliance
is lost. It is not unusual to find diamonds The Future
one carat and up cut this way. With the in- According to industry experts, the market for
troduction of new cuts like the radiant, cubic zirconia jewelry is expected to main-
princess, and trillion, the demand for multi- tain a stable position as mass market retailers
faceted stones has increased. continue to offer it to their customers and
price continues to decline. Cubic zirconia is
There are a variety of shapes that can be cut. also becoming more profitable as a substitute
The round delivers maximum brilliance, dis- for genuine diamond in stud earrings, the di-
persion, fire, and is the most popular of all amond solitaire and the tennis bracelet. In
genuine and imitation diamond shapes. The other words, it is no longer being considered
oval has an oblong shape, a slightly elongat- just a cheap imitation, especially with im-
ed form. Facets around the top portion of the provements in brightness and reflection. An
stone are very similar to the facet arrange- overall growth rate of about 10% is thus pre-
ment on the round stone. For this reason, a dicted for the market. Though a new dia-
well-cut oval diamond gives off a sparkling mond simulant has recently been introduced
appearance, catching and reflecting light called synthetic moissanite (a crystallized
from all directions. The time (eight to 10 silicon carbide), the higher price and more
hours for one carat) required to cut an oval difficult process of this material will limit it
is roughly twice the time needed for cutting competing with cubic zirconia.
1 3 1

Books DeGrado, Inc. PO Box 1211. Mandeville,
LA 70470-1211.
Erem, Joel E. Gems and Jewelry. Geo-
science Press Inc., 1992. D. Swarovski & Co. http://www.swarov
ski.com.
Periodicals
Anonymous. "New Diamond Simulant to Janos Consultants. (212) 288-1155.
Debut."Jewelers Circular Keystone (De-
cember 1996): 32. U.S. Geological Survey. http://minerals.er.
usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/gem
Janowski, Ben. "The Diamond Alterna- stones/.
tive."Jewelers Circular Keystone (June
1997): 146-148. -Laurel Sheppard
1 32
Dog Biscuit
Dog biscuits are a hard, dry, dog food prod- moted. In the early 1970s, a number of manu- First developed
uct, typically composed of protein, carbohy- facturers came out with competing products.
drates, fat, and fiber. They are made in This competition has remained, resulting in accidentally during the
much the same way biscuits are made for hundreds of different dog biscuit products. 1 800s, the dog biscuit
human consumption. The raw materials are
combined in a large container, the biscuits
Design snack market has grown
are shaped, cooked, cooled, and packaged.
First developed accidentally during the It is estimated that over 50% of all dog own- to over $480 million in
1800s, the dog biscuit snack market has ers regularly give their dogs treats. While yearly sales.
grown to over $480 million in yearly sales. treats are not essential to a dog's diet, they
are typically given as a way to indulge or
train their pets. The classic dog biscuit is a
Background small, hard, bone-shaped product that is col-
Dog biscuits were invented accidentally in a ored to reflect its flavor. Traditional flavors
London butcher shop during the late 1800s. include beef, chicken, lamb, turkey, liver,
According to the story, the shop's owner cheese, and bacon. However, certain manu-
was trying to expand his business by creat- facturers have produced some interesting fla-
ing a new biscuit recipe for his customers. vors such as oatmeal, raisin, spinach, peanut
After baking a batch, he tasted them and butter, and coconut. In addition to flavor
thought they were terrible. He gave one to variations, dog biscuits also are sold in dif-
his dog, and the dog gobbled it right up. ferent sizes; small biscuits for small dogs,
This gave him the idea of making biscuits large biscuits for large dogs. The shapes
especially for dogs. He made his biscuits in have also changed from the conventional
the shape of a bone and they began to sell bone shape. In an effort to differentiate their
rapidly. In 1908, his recipe was bought by products, marketers have produced dog bis-
an American businessman who introduced it cuits with shapes as varied as animals, peo-
to the United States. The F.H. Bennett Bis- ple, bacon strips, and even fire hydrants.
cuit company was established, and they Since most treats are also sold as healthy
began selling the dog biscuit under the name food supplements, dog biscuits are typically
Malatoid. In 1911, the recipe was granted a fortified with vitamins and minerals essential
patent. The name was changed to Milkbone in a dog's diet. Low fat varieties are also
in 1915 to reflect the fact that cow's milk available for dogs that are overweight. The
was one of the main ingredients. packaging for dog biscuits used to be strictly
limited to cardboard boxes because this min-
The Milkbone dog biscuit brand was then ac- imized breaking. However, advances in
quired by Nabisco Biscuit Company and it packaging technology have resulted in the
dominated the dog biscuit market until the use of foil packaging and plastic containers.
late 1960s. In fact, during most of this time, it
was the only commercially available dog bis-
cuit. Initially, it was marketed as a treat for Raw Materials
dogs, but eventually the health aspects such The primary ingredients in a dog biscuit
as cleaner teeth and better breath were pro- recipe are carbohydrates, proteins, fats and
1 33
oils, and fiber. These are combined with Fibers

other ingredients that have a significant ef-
fect on the dog biscuit's final characteris- Fiber represents another important type of
tics. The ingredients used for dog biscuits nutritional ingredient found in dog biscuits.
are specially tailored for dogs, and are cho- Normally, fiber is present in a variety of the
sen to be nutritious, easily digested, palat- other ingredients. Extra fiber, such as wheat
able, and economically feasible. While the bran or corn bran, is added to improve
materials have a high nutritional content, droppings and water absorption. This ingre-
they are typically not as high quality as sim- dient is more important in calorie-con-
ilar ingredients used in human food. trolled recipes.
Carbohydrates Other additives

Flour is one of the most abundant ingredi- Other ingredients are added to dog biscuit
ents in most dog biscuit recipes and pro- recipes that do not have a direct influence on
vides the bulk of the carbohydrates. It is ob- the animal's nutrition. Antioxidants are
tained by grinding corn, wheat, or rice into a added to prevent the breakdown of vitamins
powder. This powder contains the three and other nutrients present in the biscuit, and
main parts of the seeds including the bran, to maintain freshness. Examples of these
germ, and endosperm. Of these, the en- materials include zinc oxide and manganous
dosperm is responsible for most of the im- oxide. Flavor enhancers have become anoth-
portant baking and shaping characteristics. er important additive. They are used to make
Chemically, flour is composed of starch and a biscuit more appealing to the pet. It has
protein. When mixed with water, it creates a been found that dogs tend to prefer meat and
mass called gluten that can be cut and fish flavors. Although dogs are essentially
formed into the dog biscuit form. color blind, artificial color additives are
added for the benefit of the pet's owner. Fi-
nally, preservatives such as BHA are added
Proteins to prevent microbial growth.
The proteins added to dog biscuits supply
the animal with essential amino acids, im- The Manufacturing
prove taste, and in some cases supply ener- Process
gy. They are derived from a variety of
sources including animal and plant. Typical The speed of dog biscuit manufacture varies
plant protein ingredients found in a dog bis- depending on the method used to produce
cuit are such things as corn gluten meal and them. The slowest methods involve manual
soybean meal. They are generally less ex- mixing and oven baking. Other manufactur-
pensive than animal proteins and are there- ers use a highly automated process that can
fore used in greater quantities. A drawback produce tons of product per hour. Both
to plant proteins is that they contain certain methods involve general steps include
indigestible oligosaccharides that can cause blending and conditioning of ingredients,
undesirable flatulence. Animal proteins are shaping, baking, cooling, and packaging.
added to improve the food characteristics of
the biscuits. This includes ingredients such Ingredient handling
as poultry byproduct meal, meat and bone
meal, and dried liver meal. Milk and egg are In the automated method, an extrusion
also used as a supply of protein. method is typically used. In the first step,
the dry ingredients are mixed together.
Fats and oils Water is then added to this blend to bring
the moisture content up to about 30%. This
Fats and oils are added to biscuit recipes to creates a paste-like dough that is next
provide flavor and nutritional energy. They pumped into a conditioner chamber and
also have a significant impact on the fin- heated. Within this chamber, other ingredi-
ished texture. They are derived from plants, ents such as animal byproducts or other
fish and animal sources. Much of the fats moist ingredients are added. From this
and oils used in pet food is obtained from chamber, the batch is moved into an extru-
the fast food industry. sion machine.
1 34
Dog Biscuit
Commercial dog biscuit manufac-
turing operations begin by mixing
the dry ingredients together in in-
dustrial-sized mixers. Water is
added to increase the moisture
content to 30%. Once all the addi-
tional ingredients are added and
the batch is heated, the paste-like
dough is transported to an extrud-
er. The extrusion machine is a
large, enclosed screw which has a
tapered end. The screw is turned,
pushing the dough through the ex-
trusion chamber. As it is moved
through, it heats up due to the fric-
tion generated. At the end of the
extrusion chamber are the form-
ing dies. These can have a variety
of shapes such as bones, stars,
circles, etc. As the batch is
pumped out, automatically cut into
individual biscuits, and laid on
drying sheets. The biscuits are
transferred to a metal conveyor
belt and moved through an oven.
Prior to packaging, the cooked
biscuits may be coated with flavor
or vitamins.
Shaping through, it heats up due to the friction gener-

ated. At the end of the extrusion chamber
2 The extrusion machine is a large, en- are the forming dies. These can have a vari-
closed screw that has a tapered end. The ety of shapes such as bones, stars, circles,
screw is turned, pushing the batch through etc. As the batch is pumped out, automati-
the extrusion chamber. As it is moved cally cut into individual biscuits, and laid on
1 35
drying sheets. The sudden release of pres- evaluates its characteristics and properties.
sure causes the entrapped moisture to create This involves studying things such as ap-
an expansion of the biscuit much like ex- pearance, color, odor, and flavor. The parti-
ploding popcorn. From here, the biscuits are cle size of the solids, pH, and viscosity may
transferred to a metal conveyor belt and also be tested. During production, each
moved through an oven. batch of dog biscuit is also carefully moni-
tored to make sure that the product being
Baking shipped to stores is of the same quality as
the one developed in the food laboratory.
3 The baking of the dog biscuits is done in The usual method for ensuring quality is to
3a tunnel oven. The oven is anywhere compare a random sample from the batch to
from 100-300 ft (30.48-91.44 m) long. As an established standard.
the biscuits travel through the oven, the bis-
cuit goes through a setting phase where it
takes on the shape of the final product. Next, The Future
it is dried out to about 10% moisture content. Since the 1800s, manufacturers have devel-
The amount of time baking time is controlled oped significant improvements in the pro-
by the speed of the moving conveyor belt. duction of dog biscuits. These improve-
ments are likely to continue in the future
Finishing steps resulting in faster and more efficient pro-
A The dog biscuits exit the ovens and trav- duction. Improvements will also be made
el through a series of conveyors to cool. with new packaging and innovative mer-
They may be flipped to ensure that cooling chandising techniques. The market for dog
is throughout. Depending on the recipe, ad- biscuits is expected to grow steadily, being
ditional coating ingredients may be added. considerably impacted by developments in
These can include fats, vitamins, and other the dog food market. Experts suggest that all
flavor enhancers. They are applied using de- natural, healthy treats are expected to have
positor machines that spray coat the bis- the greatest growth potential.
cuits. If necessary, excess topping can be re-
moved by forced air or shaker devices. Where to Learn More
Packaging Books
5 The final step in the manufacturing Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
process is packaging. Because certain Technology. John Wiley & Sons. New York:
dog biscuits are fragile, the packaging is 1992.
typically rigid. The biscuits are moved onto
weighing bins. When the weight of the bis-
cuits is heavy enough, they are dropped into Periodicals
boxes that are appropriately decorated to at- "Bone appetit! Kansas City's Three Dog
tract customers. These boxes are put into Bakery pampers the palates of man's best
larger case boxes, stacked on pallets, and friends."People Weekly, April 3, 1995.
shipped to stores.
Pavia, Audrey. "History of Dog Treats."Pet-
Quality Control Product News. July 1996.
At various points during manufacture, tests Other
are performed on the raw materials and fin-
ished product to ensure that they conform to United States Patent 5,501,868. 1996.
specifications. Before any ingredient is al-
lowed to be used, the quality control lab -Perry Romanowski
1 36
Doorknob
Background History There are 114 million
There are 114 million existing doorways in American doorknob designs and materials existing doorways in the
the United States, with about two million have changed throughout the years. In colo-
new ones added every year. Doors equipped nial times the first door hardware was made United States, with about
with suitable hardware are used to close off out of wood, and involved simple latches two million new ones
these openings and protect the interior of and strings. Round knobs first appeared
the building from the environment. Very around the time of independence. Decora- added every year.
early doors were merely hides or textiles. tive hardware, including knobs, emerged
Wooden doors were also popular in ancient after the Centennial Exposition of 1876. Be-
Egypt and Mesopotamia. Other materials fore this time, most door hardware was im-
used for doors include stone, metal, glass, ported; 95% in 1838.
and paper. Doors open by swinging, fold-
ing, sliding or rolling. Many swinging Glass knobs were rare until a faster and
doors are installed with a lever or doorknob cheaper manufacturing method was devel-
to open them with. oped based on pressing. Pressed glass knobs
were popular from 1826-1850, followed by
Door knobs have been used around the cut glass through 1910. Wooden knobs were
world for centuries, and were first manufac- introduced in the late 1800s and were
tured in the United States in the mid-nine- phased out after 1910. China or ceramic
teenth century. Though spherical or ball- knobs were mainly imported from France
shaped door knobs are considered the and England until the mid-1800s, when the
hardest to tum, this shape is still the most first U.S. patent was granted for making
common. Egg-shaped door knobs are the knobs out of potters clay.
easiest for most people to use. Doorknobs
have been made of many materials, includ- Before 1846, metal knobs were made from
ing wood, ceramic, glass, plastic and differ- two pieces brazed together or three pieces
ent types of metal. Brass is one of the most soldered together. Cast metal knobs were in-
popular materials because of its excellent re- troduced around 1846. In the late 1800s,
sistance to rust. composite metal knobs were introduced as a
less expensive knob. The main body was
The average doorknob is 2.25 in (5.715 cm) made out of iron or steel, covered entirely or
in diameter. The basic components are the in part with a veneer of bronze or brass.
knob rose, shank, spindle, and knob-top. During the last half of the nineteenth centu-
The knob-top is the upper and larger part ry, many patents were issued regarding the
that is grasped by the hand. The shank is the spindle methods of attaching metal knobs
projecting stem of a knob and contains a for lock use, as well as designs for oma-
hole or socket to receive the spindle. The menting these knobs. In 1870, a compres-
knob rose is a round plate or washer that sion casting method was introduced that ac-
forms a knob socket and is adapted for at- celerated omamentation of hardware.
tachment to the surface of a door. The knob
is attached to the spindle, a metal shaft that Many of the Victorian doorknobs were
tums the latch of the lock. made of cast bronze with omamental pat-
1 37
terns. During this period, a dozen major shape. If a metal casting process is used, a
companies and many smaller firms pro- pattern in wood or clay is made from which
duced hundreds of patterns of ornamented to make the mold.
hardware, in addition to cast and wrought
metal, glass, wood and pottery knobs. From
1830-1873, there were over 100 U.S. Raw Materials
patents granted for knobs. Collectors have Most doorknobs are made of metal, with the
catalogued over 1,000 antique doorknob de- most common type brass. The term brass
signs into 15 types based on shape, material, refers to a group of alloys that contain a
and design pattern. The best grade of knobs combination of varying amounts of copper
during this period were usually made from and zinc. The material is usually received as
cast bronze or brass. a rod or billet of suitable diameter and is
machine cut to the required length. The raw
Around 1900, cast metal and glass knobs material must conform to standards devel-
were introduced that incorporated ball bear- oped by the American Society of Testing
ings in the shanks of doorknobs. In opera- and Materials regarding physical, mechani-
tion, the knob shank rotated on sets of ball cal, chemical, thermal, and microstructural
bearings fitted in the hardened steel cones. properties for each specific process.
This reduced friction, assured closer adjust-
ment, and eliminated endplay of the knobs.
Other materials popular during the early The Manufacturing
1900s included bronze and porcelain. Process
Most doorknobs come with some type of Though there are several processes used for
locking device. Machine processes for steel metal doorknobs, including casting where a
locks were first introduced in 1896. Today, molten metal is poured into a mold, brass
the most common type of privacy lock is the doorknobs are typically forged. Forging is a
spring lock, which uses a simple round, push process in which heated metal is forced into
button located in the center of the knob to shaped dies under very high pressure. Forg-
control the bolt. It is easy to operate with a ing can produce products having superior
finger, closed fist, or elbow. Some locks strength, toughness, reliability, and quality
come with both a spring lock and a dead bolt, (up to 250% stronger than castings). Forging
which is operated by a key. Other locks have can also be more efficient and economical.
become more sophisticated, and use some
sort of electronic device, such as a program- Forging
mable computer chip that identifies users.
The billet must first be heated to 1,4000
F (759.90 C) in a gas-fired furnace to
Design soften the metal. The billet is then placed in
Door hardware selection is usually based on a specially designed set of steel dies that are
appearance, cost, and availability, rarely on shaped to conform to the profile of the
function. In order to assure the most usable product being made. A press applies high
hardware, designers must carefully consider pressure to force the heated billet into the
not only appearance but also the size, shape, die cavity, where the billet now takes the
and feel of each element of door hardware shape of the doorknob.
and how easy it is to use. Typical design
features of a doorknob include: no sharp 2 After the doorknob is ejected from the
edges or ridges; a shape that is easily press, it is cooled, trimmed to size, tem-
grasped or turned; a textured finish or non- pered, and cleaned to remove heat scale pro-
slip coating on knob to improve grip; and a duced during the process.
shaft long enough to fit hand behind knob.
If a new design is required, a two-dimen- Surface preparation
sional model is usually made using comput- 3 Next, the doorknob goes through a series
er-aided design software. A three dimen- of finishing steps. Separate coining,
sional prototype is then fabricated so that a milling, drilling, and tapping processes pro-
mold or die can be made of the desired duce a surface ready for the polishing opera-
1 38
Doorknob
The average doorknob is 2.25 in
(5.715 cm) in diameter. The basic
components are the knob rose,
shank, spindle, and knob-top. The
knob-top is the upper and larger
part that is grasped by the hand.
The shank is the projecting stem of
a knob and contains a hole or
socket to receive the spindle. The
knob rose is a round plate or
washer that forms a knob socket
and is adapted for attachment to
the surface of a door. The knob is
attached to the spindle, a metal
shaft that turns the latch of the lock.
tion. One or more buffing steps are used to and Materials. Various process parameters
achieve a brilliant finish. throughout the manufacturing process are
monitored and controlled to ensure the final
Coating product meets quality standards. The fin-
ished doorknob is inspected for dimensions,
For further protection, an organic or surface finish, and other properties. Some of
inorganic coating is applied using sev- these properties may have to conform to cer-
eral different processes. Organic coatings tain building codes.
include polyurethanes, acrylics, and epox-
ies. Because the solvents used in organic
coatings can produce hazardous materials Byproducts/Waste
and quality problems, manufacturers are Since forgings are designed to approximate
turning to inorganic coatings based on final part shape, little waste is produced
inert metals. These are applied using elec- compared to other processes. The forging
troplating or physical vapor deposition process also results in uniformity in compo-
(PVD). sition, dimensions, and structure from piece
to piece and lot to lot, which also minimizes
5 PVD applies a coating produced by rejects.
sputtering and thermal evaporators in an
airtight chamber. The chamber is evacuated
to high vacuum pressures (less than one mil- The Future
lionth of an atmospheric pressure) by a se- Security and access control systems for doors
ries of pumps. A thin coating is deposited will continue to become more sophisticated
one molecule at a time. For successful PVD, as the cost of electronics decreases. Though
the brass surface must first be extensively there will always be a demand for mechanical
cleaned in a series of washing and agitating hardware, electrical hardware may have
tanks, followed by electroplating with semi- faster growth. New building codes may be re-
precious materials. quired to accommodate this hardware.
Quality Control The common doorknob will continue to play

an important role in the building industry.
The raw material must be of suitable com- Restoration and renovation of older build-
position for the forging process, as estab- ings will continue to make antique door-
lished by the American Society for Testing knobs or their reproductions popular.
139

Books The Antique Doorknob Collectors of Amer-
ica. PO Box 31, Chatham, New Jersey.
Eastwood, Maud. Antique Builders Hard- (973) 635-6338. Fax: 973-635-6993.
ware, Knobs & Accessories. Woodinville,
WA: Antique Doorknob Publishing Co., Baldwin Hardware Corp. 841 Wyomissing
1992. Blvd., Reading, PA 19011. (800) 437-7448.
Eastwood, Maud.The Antique Door Knob. The Door and Hardware Institute. 14170
Woodinville, WA: Antique Doorknob Pub- Newbrok Drive, Chantilly, VA 20151-
lishing Co., 1976. 2232. (703) 222-2010. Fax: 703-222-2410.
Http://www.dhi.org/.
Periodicals
-Laurel Sheppard
The Doorknob Collector (January-February
and March-April 1999).
Heppes, Jerry. "The Future of the Indus-
try."Doors and Hardware (December
1998): 20-29.
140
Doughnut
Background tent (at least 3 g) and calorie content (a min- Americans consume 10
imum of 200), Americans alone consume 10
The doughnut is a fried ring or globule of billion doughnuts each year. billion doughnuts each
sweet dough that is either yeast leavened or
chemically leavened. The dough is mixed year.
and shaped, dropped into hot oil and fried, History
and glazed. Jam-filled doughnuts are called
bismarks. Batters vary and may be choco- The doughnut supposedly came to us from
late or lemon and include fruits such as the eighteenth century Dutch of New Ams-
blueberries, raisins, or nuts. Chemically- terdam and were referred to as olykoeks,
raised donuts are made with baking powder meaning oily cakes. In the nineteenth centu-
and are generally rather dense and cake-like. ry, Elizabeth Gregory fried flavored dough
They are easily and quickly made. Yeast- with walnuts for her son Hanson Gregory,
raised doughnuts, which is leavened by the hence the name doughnut. By the late nine-
creation of carbon dioxide resulting from teenth century, the doughnut had a hole.
fermentation of yeast, are lighter in texture
than chemically-raised doughnuts. They re- Doughnuts were a great favorite at lumber-
quire several hours to produce. ing camps of the Midwest and Northwest as
they were easy to make and full of calories
These sweet treats are easily made at home needed to provide quick energy for arduous
using basic ingredients and require no spe- logging jobs. "Doughboys" of World War I
cial equipment. Doughnuts are baked and ate thousands of doughnuts served up by the
sold on premises at small, privately run bak- Salvation Army on the French front. Soldiers
eries, grocery stores, and in franchise opera- reminisced that the doughnut was far more
tions that offer a standard product through than a hot snack. The doughnut represented
the use of a pre-packed mix and carefully- all the men were fighting for-the safety and
controlled production. Large commercial comfort of mother, hearth, and home.
bakeries make thousands of dozens of
doughnuts each day, packaging them for Soon after the doughboys retumed, dough-
distribution across vast regions. nut shops flourished. A Russian immigrant
named Levitt invented a doughnut machine
Doughnuts are a beloved American snack. in 1920 that automatically pushed dough
Children sing their praises in a song that be- into shaped rings. By 1925, the invention
gins "Oh I went downtown and walked eamed him $25 million a year and it was a
around the block/I walked right into the fixture in bakeries across the country. The
doughnut shop..." Clark Gable taught machine-made doughnut was a hit of the
Claudette Colbert how to dunk her doughnut 1934 World's Fair. Other machinery quickly
in the classic 1934 movie "It Happened One developed for everything from mixing to
Night." Many World War I and II veterans frying. Franchises soon followed. By 1937,
swear that doughnuts served in canteens got Krispy Kreme was founded on a "secret
them through the roughest of times. Dough- recipe" for yeast-raised doughnuts and
nut franchises have flourished in the United Dunkin' Donuts (currently the franchise that
States since the 1930s. Despite their fat con- sells the most doughnuts worldwide) was
14 1
founded in Massachusetts. Presently, Krispy on the premises and used as needed. The
Kreme totals 147 stores in 26 states, while bakery must shop for large quantities of per-
Dunkin' Donuts has 5,000 franchises in the ishable fresh ingredients such as eggs and
United States and is present in 37 countries. milk and keep them refrigerated.
Ravv Materials Measuring the ingredients

Ingredients vary depending on whether they 2 A batch is referred to by weight of dry
are yeast or chemically leavened. Further- 2ingredients put into the mixture. The
more, homemade doughnuts generally in- weight of the batch varies with doughnut
clude far few ingredients than mass- pro- type and amount to be made. The pre-pack-
duced or those made from mixes. aged mix is poured from a bag onto a scale
Chemically-raised doughnuts are made with and the precise amount measured.
ingredients such as flour, baking powder,
salt, liquid, and varying amounts of eggs, Mixing and kneading
milk, sugar, shortening and other flavorings. 3 The flour mixture is then poured into a
This type of doughnut uses baking powder large mixing bowl put onto an industrial
in the batter to leaven the dough. Yeast- mixer and the appropriate amount of wet in-
leavened doughnuts are made with ingredi- gredients are added depending on weight of
ents that include flour, shortening, milk, the batch and type of doughnut in produc-
sugar, salt, water, yeast, eggs or egg whites, tion. The wet yeast slurry (for leavening) is
and flavorings. mixed separately and carefully added to the
flour-water mixture at this time. The dough
Doughnuts produced in sanitary baking con- mixer then begins its work; a large dough
ditions in grocery stores, bakeries, or fran- hook first mixes and then simulates the
chises often come from pre-packaged mixes. human kneading process, pulling and
These vary but can include: flour (wheat and stretching, as it homogenizes the ingredients
soy flour), shortening, sugar, egg yolks, milk and develops the dough by forming the
solids, yeast dough conditioners, gum, and gluten into elongated and interlace fibers
artificial flavors. One franchise adds a yeast that form the basic structure of the dough-
brew. Mixes require the bakeries to add fresh nut. The mix runs on an automatic timer and
wet ingredients such as water, milk, and eggs the entire mixture, including the softened
in the mixing process. Doughnuts also re- yeast, is kneaded together for approximately
quire oil (usually vegetable oil) for frying. 13 minutes.
Glazes or frostings are often added after the
product is fried and are made with flour,
sugar, flavoring, and sometimes shortening. Resting the yeast
4 It is essential that yeast dough "rests" or
The Manufacturing simply sits for about 10 minutes after it is
Process mechanically kneaded. As the yeast grows, it
converts its food into carbon dioxide (this is
This process will describe the manufacture called fermentation) and causes the yeast
of doughnuts in a mechanized doughnut dough to rise. As the dough sits, it allows the
bakery that makes only yeast-raised dough- gas to develop and the dough starts to rise, in-
nuts. Because yeast requires time for knead- dicating the fermentation process of the yeast
ing, time to rest and additional time to rise reacting to sugar in the mix is beginning. If
or proof, it takes at least an hour to take dry this does not happen, the dough yields flat,
pre-packaged mix to completed product. tough doughnuts and the mix should be dis-
carded. At the end of this period, a good-
Acquiring the ingredients quality dough is spongy and soft.
Bakeries or franchises that do a brisk Shaping the doughnuts
business (making hundreds of dozens in a
day) acquire mixes in bags, often as large as 5 The dough is then hoisted by hand and
50 lb (22.7 kg). Chains have the ingredients 5loaded into the hopper of a machine
shipped to them from company warehouses called an extruder-a machine that forms
within the region and the mixes are stored the individual doughnuts using a pressure-
1 42
Doughnut
The premeasured flour mixture is
mixed with the appropriate
amount of wet ingredients The wet
yeast slurry (for leavening) is
mixed separately and carefully
added to the flour-water mixture.
Next, a large dough hook first
mixes and then simulates the
human kneading process, pulling
and stretching, as it homogenizes
the ingredients and develops the
dough by forming the gluten into
elongated and interlace fibers that
form the basic structure of the
doughnut. Once the yeast has had
time to rise, the dough is loaded
into a hopper that feeds the dough
through an extruder. A cover is
then placed on the machine and
the machine is pressurized, forcing
the dough into tubes that 'plop"
out a pre-determined amount of
cutter system. The batch of yeast dough is pushes the rings or circles onto small dough into the desired shape-
put into the top of the open machine. A shelves that move through the proof box for rings for convenfional doughnuts
cover is then placed on the machine and the about 30 minutes. The shelves are chain-dri- and circles for doughnuts that are
machine is pressurized, forcing the dough ven and move down, up, and over during to be filled with jam or creme.
into tubes that extrude a pre-determined this 30 minute period. After 30 minutes,
amount of dough into the desired shape- they are quite puffy.
rings for conventional doughnuts and cir-
cles for doughnuts that are to be filled with Frying
jam or creme. It takes about 15 minutes for
the extruder to push out about 30 dozen 7 Next, the raw doughnuts fall automati-
doughnuts. cally, one row at a time, into the at-
tached open fryer. It is important to drop
An automated doughnut stamper can also be just a certain amount of raw doughnuts into
used in conjunction with an extruder. In this the grease at a time. If too many are placed
case, the dough is extruded in a continuous, in the fryer at one time, the oil temperature
unshaped flow through a series of rollers is drastically lowered, fry time is longer, and
that flatten the dough. Once flattened to 0.5 the doughnuts absorb too much oil. The fry-
in (1.27 cm) thickness, the sheet of dough is ing oil is the most expensive ingredient in
stamped into doughnut shapes. the production process, and if the doughnuts
absorb too much oil, it reduces the profit
Proofing margin on the batch. As the doughnuts
move through the fryer, they are flipped
6 The extruder is attached directly to the over by a mechanism. After two minutes,
Vproofing box (a warm, oven-like ma- the doughnuts have moved completely
chine), which is a hot-air, temperature-con- through the fryer and are forced into the
trolled warm box set to approximately 125° mechanism that applies glaze.
F (51.60 C). Here, the thin doughnuts are
slowly allowed to rise or proof as the yeast Glazing and drying
ferments under controlled conditions. Proof-
ing renders the doughnuts light and airy. 8 As the doughnuts leave the fryer, they
(Yeast doughs must be allowed to rise slow- Omove under a shower of glaze. Here,
ly and at just the right temperature. If the glaze is forced through holes from a bridge
proofing box is too hot, the yeast bacteria running several inches above the hot dough-
will be killed and the doughnuts will not nuts. The glaze coats the top, sides, and part
rise. If too cold, the yeast remains inactive of the bottom of the doughnuts. The dough-
and cannot ferment thus preventing leaven- nuts are conveyored out of the production
ing. A machine attached to the extruder area to dry and cool.
1 43
The raw doughnuts are convey-

ored to the proofing box, a warm, Further finishing and sale ables must be purchased fresh and quickly
oven-like machine that slowly al- used. The yeast brew must be precisely
lows the doughnuts to rise or proof 9 Once conveyored to a finishing station, the mixed and used within 12 hours. It is essen-
as the yeast ferments under con- doughnuts may be sprinided with candies tial for employees to carefully monitor all
trolled conditions. Proofing ren- or nuts or are given a thicker frosting. The intervals of time for kneading, resting,
ders the doughnuts light and airy. disk-like doughnuts (those with no hole) are proofing, and frying.
After proofing, the raw doughnuts forced onto a machine that injects two dough-
fall automatically, one row at a nuts at a time with the desired, pre-measured
fime, into the attached open fryer. filling. The completed doughnuts are placed Temperatures for proofing, baking, and fry-
It takes two minutes for a doughnut on trays for movement to the counter or ing machinery, liquid ingredients, and the
to move through the fryer. Next, packed into boxes for custom orders. production room are carefully monitored
the doughnuts move under a and maintained. Particularly important is
shower of glaze. The doughnuts adding the right temperature of water to the
are conveyored out of the produc- yeast brew and pre-packaged mix so the
tion area to dry and cool. Qucality Control yeast is not inhibited or killed. The proofer
Packaged dry mix is made to specifications must be precisely set at the right tempera-
and checked at the processing plant. Perish- ture-not too hot but warm enough to acti-
1 44
Doughnut
vate the yeast-or the yeast will be killed cess dough, but that dough can be re-mixed
and the doughnuts will not rise. The fryer into the next batch.
temperature is carefully determined so that
the doughnuts will not absorb too much oil
and be greasy. Employees must watch the Where to Learn More
ambient room temperature very carefully. If
it is too hot in the room, it affects the rising Books
of the yeast and may require re-calibration Fischer, Paul. "It's Time to Praise the
of the temperature of other machinery. Doughnuts."Boston Magazine (May 1991):
66.
Finally, employees' senses tell them much
about the quality of the dough. They can tell Rombauer, Irma S. The Joy of Cooking.
by the feel of the dough after it is mixed if the New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Co., Inc.,
dough is spongy and the yeast is rising prop- 1953.
erly. Watching the doughnuts plump up in
the proofer indicates the temperature is just
right. They watch for the appropriate color of Periodicals
the frying doughnuts to ensure they're not Taylor, David A. "Ring King."Smithsonian
overcooked. Occasionally, the manager may Magazine (March 1998).
pull a doughnut off the drying conveyor and
pull it apart to see if it is too greasy. Other
Dunkin' Donuts. http:///www.dunkindonuts.
Byproducts/Waste com/.
Using the extruding device that simultane-
ously cuts the dough into individual dough- Krispy Kreme. http://krispykreme.com/.
nut shapes, alleviates much of the dough
waste. The stamping mechanism leaves ex- -Nancy EV Bryk
1 45
Eggs
Annual consumption Background food cakes, souffles, and meringues. In cake
batters that utilize the entire egg, the egg
during the late 1990s The unfertilized egg is considered an impor- acts as leavening as well as providing mois-
tant and inexpensive food source, particular- ture and firm texture. Soups and sauces use
averaged 245 eggs for ly high in protein, including 0.21 oz (6 g) of eggs as a thickening agent. Ice creams often
each of the 265 million complete protein per two-ounce egg. How- include eggs to prevent the formation of ice
ever, it also includes 0.42 oz (12 g) fat, both
crystals which can ruin the product. But the
people in the United saturated and unsaturated, which is nearly plain egg is eaten by millions each day for
all located in the yolk. Therefore, if the yolk its own unique flavor and nutritive value-
States. is separated from the albumen (white) of the they may be boiled, poached, fried, scram-
egg and the white only used, the egg con-
bled, or baked.
tains no fat and a fair amount of protein. The
egg also contains significant amounts of Fresh egg production is primary to the egg in-
iron, vitamins A and D, riboflavin, and thi- dustry, however, a significant amount of egg
amine. However, that nutritional value does production includes eggs purposely broken
vary somewhat depending on the diet of the and used for powdered eggs, frozen eggs, or
laying hen. Annual consumption during the purchased by food producers for inclusion in
late 1990s averaged 245 eggs for each of the food products. (In some fresh egg production
265 million people in the United States. plants, accidentally broken eggs are sold to
bakeries or other food production plants.)
While geese, squab, ducks, and turkeys sup-
ply edible eggs, the preponderance of eggs
eaten come from domesticated chickens History
bred for laying eggs. The females (mature
hens and younger pullets) are raised for The egg has been a protein source for cen-
meat and egg production and breeds have turies. Sometime in the second millennium
been developed to fulfill commercial needs. B.C. Indian wild red jungle fowl, the ances-
Each of the 235 million laying hens in the tor of the modem chicken (Gallus gallus)
United States produces about 300 eggs a was dispersed throughout Europe, China,
year. Farmers are careful to house and feed and the Middle East. Chickens were brought
the chickens to maximize laying and ensure to the New World on Columbus's second
the hen has a relatively long and healthy voyage in the late fifteenth century. These
life. Egg producers also have flocks of hens imported chickens laid eggs year-round and
at different ages, ensuring they have a were considered most valuable for their egg
steady supply of eggs ready for market to production rather than for meat. Soon fami-
provide year-round income. ly farms raised chickens for the family's
consumption of eggs and meat within the
Eggs are an important ingredient in many household-few families had laying flocks
recipes. Because the protein in the egg white of any size. However, by 1800 chickens
coagulates as it is heated, eggs are utilized began being raised for meat and egg produc-
in many recipes as a structural component. tion in increasing numbers in the United
Stiffly-beaten egg whites expand as they are States. Until World War II, egg production
heated and are used as leavening in angel- came from rather small flocks of less than
1 46
Eggs
400 laying hens. After the war, automation being ready for public consumption in just a
and advances in breeding, feeding, and de- few days.
veloping efficient henhouses gave rise to
modem high-volume chicken farms. Today, Laying the eggs
a single egg producer may well have a flock
of over 100,000 laying hens-and some Hens are kept in cages, usually in groups
have flocks of over one million. of three to five. After the egg is laid, the
cage is devised so the egg rolls out for easy
collection. Eggs are gathered twice a day,
Raw Materials generally by automated machinery but are
The egg itself is the ingredient in egg pro- occasionally still gathered by hand. Eggs are
duction. Soaps are used in egg production gathered as soon as hens lay them because
facilities to clean the shell. Some processors warmer temperatures encourage physical
coat the shell in a light film of oil. and chemical changes that affect freshness
adversely. Thus, many egg farmers refriger-
However, the hen from which the egg drops ate the eggs immediately after gathering be-
can be considered an important part of the fore they are packed for transport to the
raw material. Certain breeds lay the majority processor.
of eggs in the United States. A particularly
prolific laying hen is the Single Comb White Packing the eggs on the farm
Leghorn. This breed reaches maturity early 2 The eggs are then packed on skids that
and can begin laying at 19 weeks of age and 2are formed of layers of flats-eggs are
continue to lay eggs for about a year. In ad- packed on flats that include 2 .5 dozen eggs,
dition, the Leghorn utilizes feed efficiently,
with as many as six flats per layer (layers of
is fairly small, can adapt to a variety of cli- six flats are separated by a board). A single
mates and is able to lay a relatively large skid holds about 30 cases or 900 dozen
amount of white eggs, the type most in de-
eggs. These eggs are then sent to the pro-
mand. Plymouth Rock hens, Rhode Island
cessing plant via truck.
Reds and New Hampshire hens produce
brown eggs much favored in New England.
Washing the eggs
Feed for chickens is generally all-mash, con- 3 The skids are brought into the produc-
sisting of sorghum grains, corn, and either tion room and the individual flats are put
cottonseed meal or soybean oil depending on on the conveyor, one at a time. Individual
availability. Farmers carefully mix the mash eggs are grasped by small suction cups and
so that the chickens get just the right placed onto another conveyor belt. Now, the
amounts of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vita- eggs are moved into the grader where they
mins, and minerals. This is essential in that are cleaned with a USDA approved
the nutritional quality of the laid egg de- cleanser. They are rotated as brushes and
pends on the feed the chicken was given. All water jets move carefully across the eggs. A
additives to chicken feed must be approved fan then dries the eggs.
by the federal government (after research on
toxicity to animals and humans is deter-
mined). Hormones are not given to chickens,
Candling and grading
but they occasionally require antibiotics. On A The cleaned eggs are graded in a can-
average, a chicken requires about 4 lb (1.8 -1 dling booth which is a dark cubical or
kg) of feed to produce a dozen eggs; a room. A penetrating light is shined on the
Leghorn hen eats about 0.25 lb (0.1134 kg) eggs in order to grade them. The egg proces-
of chick mash a day. sor is able to grade the egg during candling.
The trained candler can see that an older egg
has thinner albumen; thus, the yolk casts a
Processing Eggs sharp shadow and immediately indicates an
Some egg farmers have their own egg pro- older egg. Eggs are graded as "A" (sold for
cessing facility on premises. Others contract household use or at retail markets), grade
with egg processing firms in the locale who "B" (used mostly for bakery operations), or
purchases eggs and processes them. Gener- grade "C" (sent to egg breakers who break
ally, an egg moves from the egg farm to the shell in order to convert it to other egg
1 47
Commercial egg processing is a

quick business that relies on speed products); higher grade eggs have a thick, (42 g). The packing machine then assem-
to market in order to provide fresh, upstanding albumen, an oval yolk, and a bles cartons based on the weight of indi-
quality product. Hens are kept in clean, smooth, unbroken shell. Eggs with vidual eggs; thus, the heaviest eggs are
cages that are devised so that cracks that are not leaking are removed from "found" and packed into the extra large
when an egg is laid it rolls into a
collection bin. The eggs are then the process at this point and are not pack- cartons, the next heaviest tier are packed
packed on skids which are formed aged for household use or retail sale. in to the large-size egg carton, etc. Packag-
of layers of flats. Skids are individ- ing varies, but is generally either recycled
ually placed on a conveyor belt. Weighing and packing the eggs cardboard or a colored polystyrene the egg
Each egg in the skid is grasped by producers purchase from a packaging man-
a small sucfion cup and placed 5 The grading process actually includes ufacturer.
onto another conveyor belt. The 5the weighing of the eggs as well. At the
eggs move into the grader where grading station, a machine weighs each in-
they are cleaned with a USDA ap- dividual egg and remembers what each
proved cleanser. They are rotated egg weighs. In the United States, eggs are Transportation to trucks
as brushes and water jets move sized (extra large, large, medium, small) 6 After packing, the cartons are placed on
carefully across the eggs. A fan on the basis of a minimum weight rather 6a conveyor and packed into flats by ma-
then dries the eggs. Once graded, than by size of egg. Extra large eggs must chine, put into trucks (generally refrigerated)
the eggs are placed in cartons,
packaged, and shipped to stores. weigh a minimum of 2.24 oz (64 g), large and sent to be sold. One large Pennsylvania
at least 1.96 oz (56 g), medium at least egg processing plant processes 45,000 dozen
1.72 oz (49 g), and small at least 1.47 oz eggs per day.
14 8
Eggs
Quality Control In a darkened room, eggs are
placed in a candling booth with
Quality control happens in all parts of the penetrafing lights shining up from
egg processing. First and foremost, the below. A trained candler can see
chicken farmer ensures that his hens are well that an older egg has thinner albu-
fed with a diet specifically formulated to men; thus, the yolk casts a sharp
provide the best grade of egg. Shell strength, shadow and immediately indicates
for example is determined by the presence of an older egg. Eggs are graded as
adequate amounts of vitamin D, calcium, "A" (sold for household use or at
and other minerals in the chick mash. Too retail markets), grade "B" (used
little vitamin A can result in blood spots (not mostly for bakery operations), or
grade "C' (sent to egg breakers
harmful to the consumer but render an egg who break the shell in order to
undesirable and unusable to the consumer). convert it to other egg products);
Laying hens also require a good supply of higher grade eggs have a thick,
clean fresh water. The henhouse is well insu- upstanding albumen, an oval yolk,
lated so that the farmer can control the tem- and a clean, smooth, unbroken
perature. Facilities are windowless so that dards. Extension services provide education- shell. Next, the eggs are individu-
light can be manipulated-egg production is al materials and new information about rais- ally weighed and assigned an ap-
spurred by maintaining a lighted environ- ing laying hens to farmers as needed. propriate size. In the United States,
ment 14-17 hours a day. The henhouse eggs are sized (extra large, large,
should be comfortable for the hens and well- medium, small) on the basis of a
ventilated. Birds are generally kept in cages
Byproducts/Waste minimum weight rather than by
size of egg. Extra large eggs must
because they are easier to clean and it is easi- Eggs with cracks are removed from the egg weigh a minimum of 2.24 oz (64
er to collect eggs from cages; however, some processing line. Broken eggs are thrown g), large at least 1.96 oz (56 g),
hens are allowed to roam free. into a bin and sold for utilization in dog medium at least 1.72 oz (49 g),
food. Eggs that have cracks but are not leak- and small at least 1.47 oz (42 g).
Effective candling is essential to quality con- ing are taken away for pasteurization and
trol as well. Candling reveals nearly every- transformation into liquid egg products
thing that is need to know about the quality of (sold in cartons of plastic containers or per-
the eggs-age, cracks, clarity (no blood haps even frozen). They may be sold to an-
spots). Furthermore, most egg processors can other processor who transforms them into
tell much about the quality of the egg just by powdered eggs, or they may be sold to local
looking at the shape and color of the shell. bakeries for use in goods there. Many egg
processors are aware of the ecological prob-
Salmonella is a hazard of the egg industry. lems created by the polystyrene cartons and
However, it is estimated that 90% of eggs egg processor encourage recycling of the
are free from salmonella at the time they are product packaging.
laid. Salmonella bacteria occurs after laying.
Proper washing and sanitizing of eggs with a
government-approved soap eliminates most Where to Learn More
Salmonella and spoilage organisms that are
deposited on the shell from the hen ovaries. Periodicals
Wexler, Mark. "Eggsquisite!" World Maga-
Egg farmers are also careful to refrigerate zine (March 1989): 70.
the eggs as soon as they are gathered just
prior to packing. The egg processors, too,
move eggs quickly through the processing Other
to packaging to ensure the eggs are clean American Egg Board. http://www.aeb.org/
and fresh for the consumer. (June 29, 1999).
Furthermore, government standards for the Manitoba Egg Producers. http://www.
grade and size of eggs are strictly adhered to. mbegg.mb.ca/ (June 29, 1999).
Flocks are periodically monitored for proper
feeding as well as acceptable facility stan- -Nancy EV Bryk
149
Electric Automobile
In an internal combustion- Background electric motor and battery to one of their
carriages in 1898. The combination was too
driven car, the engine, Unlike the gas-powered automobile, the heavy for the carriage to pull, but the Bai-
electric automobile did not easily develop leys persisted until 1908 when they pro-
coolant system, and other into a viable means of transportation. In the duced a practical model that could travel
specific powering devices early twentieth century, the electric car was about 50 mi (80 km) before the battery
vigorously pursued by researchers; howev- needed recharging.
total 25% of the weight of er the easily mass-produced gasoline-pow-
ered automobile squelched interest in the
the car. In electric cars, project. Research waned from 1920-1960 Much of the story of the electric car is really
until environmental issues of pollution and the story of the development of the battery.
the battery and electric diminishing natural resources reawakened The lead-acid battery was invented by H.
Tudor in 1890, and Thomas Alva Edison de-
propulsion system are the need of a more environmentally friend-
veloped the nickel-iron battery in 1910. Edi-
ly means of transportation. Technologies
typically 40% of the that support a reliable battery and the son's version increased the production of
electric cars and trucks, and the inventor
weight of the car. weight of the needed number of batteries
elevated the price of making an electric ve- himself was interested in the future of the
hicle. On the plus side, automotive elec- electric car. He combined efforts with the
tronics have become so sophisticated and Baileys when they fitted one of his new stor-
age batteries to one of their vehicles, and
small that they are ideal for electric vehicle
applications. they promoted it in a series of public
demonstrations. The Bailey Company con-
tinued to produce electric cars until 1915,
History and it was among over 100 electric automo-
The early development of the automobile bile companies that thrived early in the cen-
focused on electric power rather than gaso- tury in the United States alone. The Detroit
line power. In 1837, Robert Davidson of Electric Vehicle Manufacturing Company
was the last to survive, and it ceased opera-
Scotland appears to have been the builder
of the first electric car, but it wasn't until tion in 1941.
the 1890s that electric cars were manufac-
tured and sold in Europe and America. Electric automobiles were popular because
During the late 1890s, United States roads they were clean, quiet, and easy to operate;
were populated by more electric automo- however, two developments improved the
biles than those with intemal combustion gasoline-powered vehicle so much so that
engines. competition was nonexistent. In 1912,
Charles Kettering invented the electric
One of the most successful builders of elec- starter that eliminated the need for a hand
tric cars in the United States was William crank. At the same time, Henry Ford devel-
Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa, who began oped an assembly line process to manufac-
marketing his product in 1890. Other pio- ture his Model T car. The assembly was ef-
neers included S. R. and Edwin Bailey, a ficient and less costly than the manufacture
father-son team of carriage makers in of the electric vehicle. Thus, the price for a
Amesbury, Massachusetts, who fitted an gas-driven vehicle decreased enough to
1 50
Electric Automobile
make it feasible for every family to afford duce energy, the secondary-type batteries
an automobile. Only electric trolleys, deliv- found in electric vehicles are rechargeable
ery vehicles that made frequent stops, and a storage cells. Batteries are situated in T-
few other electric-powered vehicles sur- formation down the middle of the car with
vived past the 1920s. the top of the "T" at the rear to provide
better weight distribution and safety. Bat-
In the 1960s, interest in the electric car rose teries for electric cars have been made
again due to the escalating cost and dimin- using nickel-iron, nickel-zinc, zinc-chlo-
ishing supply of oil and concern about pol- ride, and lead-acid.
lution generated by internal combustion en-
gines. The resurgence of the electric car in Weight of the electric car has also been a re-
the last part of the twentieth century has, curring design difficulty. In electric cars, the
however, been fraught with technical prob- battery and electric propulsion system are
lems, serious questions regarding cost and typically 40% of the weight of the car,
performance, and waxing and waning pub- whereas in an internal combustion-driven
lic interest. Believers advocate electric cars car, the engine, coolant system, and other
for low electrical energy consumption and specific powering devices only amount to
cost, low maintenance requirements and 25% of the weight of the car.
costs, reliability, minimal emission of pol-
lutants (and consequent benefit to the envi-
ronment), ease of operation, and low noise Other technologies in development may
output. provide alternatives that are more accept-
able to the public and low (if not zero) emis-
Some of the revived interest has been dri- sions. Use of the fuel cell in a hybrid auto-
ven by regulations. California's legislature mobile is the most promising development
mandated that 2% of the new cars sold in on the horizon, as of 1999. The hybrid auto-
the state be powered by zero-emissions en- mobile has two power plants, one electric
gines by 1998. This requirement increases and one internal combustion engine. They
to 4% by 2003. Manufacturers invested in operate only under the most efficient condi-
electric cars on the assumption that public tions for each, with electric power for stop-
interest would follow the regulation and and-start driving at low speeds and gasoline
support protection of air quality and the en- propulsion for highway speeds and dis-
vironment. General Motors (GM) intro- tances. The electric motor conserves gaso-
duced the Impact in January 1990. Impact line and reduces pollution, and the gas-pow-
had a top speed of 110 mph (176 kph) and ered portion makes inconvenient recharging
could travel for 120 mi (193 km) at 55 mph stops less frequent.
(88 kph) before a recharging stop. Impact
was experimental, but, later in 1990, GM Fuel cells have a chemical source of hydro-
began transforming the test car into a pro- gen that provides electrons for generating
duction model. Batteries were the weakness electricity. Ethanol, methanol, and gasoline
of this electric car because they needed to are these chemical sources; if gasoline is
be replaced every two years, doubling the used, fuel cells consume if more efficiently
vehicle's cost compared to the operating than the internal combustion engine. Fuel
expenses of a gasoline-powered model. cell prototypes have been successfully test-
Recharging stations are not widely avail- ed, and the Japanese began manufacturing a
able, and these complications of inconve- hybrid vehicle in 1998. Another future hope
nience and cost have deterred potential buy- for electric automobiles is the lithium-ion
ers. In 1999, Honda announced that it battery that has an energy density three
would discontinue production of its electric times greater than that of a lead-acid bat-
car, which was introduced to the market in tery. Three times the storage should lead to
May 1997, citing lack of public support due three times the range, but cost of production
to these same deterrents. is still too high. Lithium batteries are now
proving to be the most promising, but limit-
Components ed supplies of raw materials to make all of
these varieties of batteries will hinder the
Unlike primary batteries that have a limit- likelihood that all vehicles can be converted
ed lifetime of chemical reactions that pro- to electrical power.
151
Raw Materials ergy drain that heating and air conditioning

impose on the batteries.
The electric car's skeleton is called a space
frame and is made of aluminum to be both
strong and lightweight. The wheels are also
made of aluminum instead of steel, again as Design
a weight-saving method. The aluminum Today's electric cars are described as "mod-
parts are poured at a foundry using specially em era production electric vehicles" to dis-
designed molds unique to the manufacturer. tinguish them from the series of false starts
Seat frames and the heart of the steering in trying to design an electric car based on
wheel are made of magnesium, a lightweight existing production models of gasoline-
metal. The body is made of an impact-resis- powered cars and from "kit" cars or private-
tant composite plastic that is recyclable. ly engineered electric cars that may be fun
and functional but not production-worthy.
Electric car batteries consist of plastic hous- From the 1960s-1980s, interest in the elec-
ings that contains metal anodes and cath- tric car was profound, but development was
odes and fluid called electrolyte. Currently, slow. The design roadblock of the high-en-
lead-acid batteries are still used most com- ergy demand from batteries could not be re-
monly, although other combinations of fluid solved by adapting designs. Finally, in the
and metals are available with nickel metal late 1980s, automotive engineers rethought
hydride (NiMH) batteries the next most the problem from the beginning and began
likely power source on the electric car hori- designing an electric car from the ground up
zon. Electric car batteries hold their fluid in with heavy consideration to aerodynamics,
absorbent pads that won't leak if ruptured or weight, and other energy efficiencies.
punctured during an accident. The batteries
are made by specialty suppliers. An electric The space frame, seat frames, wheels, and
car like the General Motors EV 1 contains 26 body were designed for high strength for
batteries in a T-shaped unit. safety and the lightest possible weight. This
meant new configurations that provide sup-
The motor or traction system has metal and port for the components and occupants with
plastic parts that do not need lubricants. It minimal mass and use of high-tech materials
also includes sophisticated electronics that including aluminum, magnesium, and ad-
regulate energy flow from the batteries and vanced composite plastics. Because there is
control its conversion to driving power. no exhaust system, the underside is made
Electronics are also key components for the aerodynamic with a full belly pan. All extra
control panel housed in the console; the on- details had to be eliminated while leaving the
board computer system operates doors, win- comforts drivers find desirable and adding
dows, a tire-pressure monitoring system, air new considerations unique to electric auto-
conditioning, starting the car, the CD player, mobiles. One eliminated detail was the spare
and other facilities common to all cars. tire. The detail of the rod-like radio antennae
was removed; it causes wind resistance that
Plastics, foam padding, vinyl, and fabrics robs energy and uses energy to power it up
form the dashboard cover, door liners, and and down. An added consideration was the
seats. The tires are rubber, but, unlike stan- pedestrian waming system; tests of proto-
dard tires, these are designed to inflate to types showed that electric cars run so quietly
higher pressures so the car rolls with less re- that pedestrians don't hear them approach.
sistance to conserve energy. The electric car Driver-activated flashing lights and beeps
tires also contain sealant to seal any leaks wam pedestrians that the car is approaching
automatically, also for electrical energy con- and work automatically when the car is in re-
servation. Self-sealing tires also eliminate verse. Windshields of solar glass were also
the need for a spare tire, another weight- and an important addition to regulate the interior
material-saving feature. temperature and minimize the need for air
conditioning and heating.
The windshield is solar glass that keeps the
interior from overheating in the sun and Among the many other design and engineer-
frost from forming in winter. Materials that ing features that must be considered in pro-
provide thermal conservation reduce the en- ducing electric cars are the following:
1 52
Electric Automobile
* Batteries that store energy and power the units called creform racks of flexible plastic
electric motor are a science of their own tubes and joints that are easy to fill and re-
in electric car design, and many options shape for different parts. On the high- tech
are being studied to find the most effi- side, each station is equipped with one
cient batteries that are also safe and cost torque wrench with multiple heads; when
effective. An electric motor that converts the assembler locks on the appropriate size
electrical energy from the battery and of head, computer controls for the machine
transmits it to the drive train. Both direct- select the correct torque setting for the fas-
current (DC) and altemating current (AC) teners that fit that head.
motors are used in these traction or
propulsion systems for electric cars, but Body shop
AC motors do not use brushes and re-
quire less maintenance. The body for the electric car is handcrafted
at six work stations.
* A controller that regulates energy flow
from the battery to the motor allows for Parts of the aluminum space frame are
adjustable speed. Resistors that are used put together in sections called subassem-
for this purpose in other electric devices blies that are constructed of prefabricated
are not practical for cars because they ab- pieces that are welded or glued together.
sorb too much of the energy themselves. The glue is an adhesive bonding material,
Instead, silicon-controlled rectifiers and it provides a connection that is more
(SCRs) are used. They allow full power durable and stiffer than welding. As the sub-
to go from the battery to the motor but in assemblies for the undercarriage of the car
pulses so the battery is not overworked are completed, they are bonded to each
and the motor is not underpowered. other until the entire underbody is finished.
* Any kind of brakes can be used on elec- 2 The subassemblies for the upper part of
tric automobiles, but regenerative braking the body are also bonded to make larger
systems are also preferred in electric cars sections. The completed sections are simi-
because they recapture some of the ener- larly welded or glued until the body frame is
gy lost during braking and channel it finished. The body is added to the under-
back to the battery system. body. The adhesive used throughout staged
assembly of the frame is then cured by con-
* Two varieties of chargers are needed. A veying the body through a two-stage oven.
full-size charger for installation in a 3 The roof is attached. Like other parts of
garage is needed to recharge the electric vthe exterior, it has already been painted.
car overnight, but a portable recharger
(called a convenience recharger) is stan- The underbody and the rest of the frame are
dard equipment for the trunk so the bat- coated with protective sealants, and the fin-
teries can be recharged in an emergency ished body is moved to the general assembly
or away from home or a charging station. area.
For safety, an inductive charger was cre-
ated for electric cars with a paddle that is General assembly
inserted in the front end of the car. It uses General assembly of the operating compo-
magnetic energy to recharge the batteries nents and interior of the electric car is com-
and limit the potential for electrocution. pleted at eight other work stations.
At the first assembly station, the first set
The Manufacturing of the electric car's complex electronics
Process are put in place. This includes the body
The manufacturing process required almost wiring and seating of the Power Electronics
as much design consideration as the vehicle Bay which holds the Propulsion Control
itself; and that design includes handcrafting Module, integrated drive unit, and a small
and simplification as well as some high-tech radiator. The integrated drive unit consists
approaches. The assemblers work in build- of the alternating current induction motor
station teams to foster team spirit and mutu- and a two-stage gear reduction and differen-
al support, and parts are stored in modular tial. These units are all preassembled in their
1 53
The manufacturing process used

to make an electric vehicle is as
intricate as the vehicle design. It
takes six work stations to create
the body of an electric vehicle.
Each station is equipped with one
torque wrench with multiple
heads; when the assembler locks
on the appropriate size of head,
computer controls for the machine
select the correct torque setting for
the fasteners that fit that head.
Manufacturing
own housings. The components of the con- dollies. Instead, it is driven to the remaining
trol console are also installed. work stations. The system is powered up
and checked before it is driven to the next
2 The interior is outfitted. Flooring, seats, team.
2carpeting, and the console and dash are
placed in the car. The process is simple be- The windshield is installed and other
cause the instrument panel and console
cover are made of molded, fiberglass rein-
5Jfluids are added and checked. The door
systems (complete with vinyl interiors,
forced urethane that has been coated with arm rests, electronics, and windows) are
more urethane of finish quality and with a also attached, and all the connections are
non-reflective surface. These two pieces are completed and checked. The exterior pan-
strong and don't need other supports, brack- els are added. Similar to the roof and
ets, or mounting plates. Assembly is straight doors, they have been prepared and paint-
forward, and performance is superior be- ed before being brought to the work sta-
cause fewer pieces reduce possibilities for tion. The final trim is attached to complete
rattles and squeaks. the upper exterior.
3 At the third work station, the air condi-
6 At the final work station, the alignment
3tioning, heating, and circulation system 6is
is inserted, and the system is filled. checked and adjusted, and the under-
body panel is bolted into place. The process
4 The battery pack is added. The T-shaped concludes with the last, comprehensive
unit is seated by lifting the heavy pack quality control check. Pressurized water is
using a special hoist up into the car. The sprayed on the vehicle for eight minutes,
pack is attached to the chassis, as are the and all the seals are checked for leaks. On a
axles complete with wheels and tires. With specialized test track, the car is checked for
both batteries and the propulsion unit in noises, squeaks, and rattles on a quality-
place, the car no longer has to be moved based test drive. A lengthy and thorough vi-
from station to station on specially designed sual inspection concludes the quality audit.
1 54
Electric Automobile
Unique to the electric vehicle is the
battery pack. The battery pack is
made up of rechargeable sec-
ondary-type batteries that act as
storage cells. Batteries are situated
in T-formation down the middle of
the car with the top of the "T" at
the rear to provide better weight
distribution and safety.
BaHery pack
Quality Control The Future

Industry has proven that work stations are a Electric cars are critically important to the
highly effective method of providing quality future of the automobile industry and to the
control throughout an assembly process. environment; however, the form the electric
Each work station has two team members to car will ultimately take and its acceptance
support each other and provide internal by the public are still uncertain. Consump-
checks on their part of the process. On a rela- tion of decreasing oil supplies, concerns
tively small assembly line like this one for over air and noise pollution, and pollution
the electric car (75 assemblers in a General caused (and energy consumed) by aban-
Motors plant), the workers all know each doned cars and the complications of recy-
other, so there is also a larger team spirit that cling gasoline-powered cars are all driving
boosts pride and cooperation. Consequently, forces that seem to be pushing toward the
the only major quality control operation con- success of the electric car.
cludes the assembly process and consists of a
comprehensive set of tests and inspections.
Where to Learn More
Unique to manufacture of the electric car, Books

the operation of the car has been tested dur- Hackleman, Michael. Electric Vehicles:
ing the final assembly steps. The car has no Design and Build Your Own. Mariposa,
exhaust system and emits no gases or pollu- CA: Earthmind/Peace Press, 1980.
tants, so, after the battery pack and propul-
sion unit have been installed, the car can be Shacket, Sheldon R. The Complete Book of
driven inside the plant. Proof that the prod- Electric Vehicles. Northbrook, IL: Domus
uct works several steps before it is finished Books, 1979.
is a reassuring quality check.
Whitener, Barbara. The Electric Car Book.
Louisville, KY: Love Street Books, 1981.
There are no byproducts from the manufac- Associated Press. "Fuel-cell vehicles to
ture of electric cars. Waste within the as- take road test."Daily Review (Hayward,
sembly factory also is minimal to nonexis- California), 21 April 1999, p. 3.
tent because parts, components, and
subassemblies were all made elsewhere. Associated Press. "Honda dumps electric
Trimmings and other waste are recaptured cars."Daily Review (Hayward, California),
by these suppliers, and most are recyclable. 30 April 1999.
1 55
General Motors. EVolution: The Official General Motors (GM) Satum EVI. http://
Publication of General Motors Advanced www.gmev.com.
Technology Vehicles, 1997.
Honda EV Plus. http://www.hondal999.
Hornblower, Margot. "Is this clean machine com/cars/ev.
for real?"Time (December 15, 1997): 62+.
-Gillian S. Holmes
Other
Electric Vehicle Association of the Americ-
as. http://www.evaa.org/.
1 56
Envelope
Background could only be revealed by breaking open the By the late 1 990s, nearly
outer layer of clay, ensuring the security of
An envelope is a flat, flexible container, the message. two hundred billion
made of paper or similar material, that has a
single opening and a flap that can be sealed envelopes were made in
over the opening. The envelope is usually
True envelopes did not exist until much
sealed by wetting an area of the flap. Some later, long after the invention of paper. The the United States each
oldest form of paper was papyrus, first man-
envelopes are sealed with a metal fastener. year.
Others are sealed with a piece of string that ufactured by the ancient Egyptians at least as
wraps around flat, circular pieces of card- early as 3000B.C. Papyrus was made from a
board attached to the envelope. A recent de- fibrous material found within the woody
velopment in envelopes is a thin strip of stems of an aquatic, grassy plant (Cyperus
plastic, which is removed to reveal an area papyrus). Long strips of this material were
placed side by side, then covered with anoth-
of the flap with an adhesive that does not
need moistening. er layer of strips at right angles to the first.
The sheet formed by the two layers was
Envelopes are almost always rectangular, dampened, pressed, dried, flattened, then
but they exist in a wide range of sizes. The dried again. The resulting papyrus, if proper-
two main styles used are banker envelopes, ly made, was pure white and free from spots
which have the opening on the long side, and stains. An excellent writing material, pa-
and pocket envelopes, which have the open- pyrus was used extensively by the ancient
ing on the short side. In the United States, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. It
standard sizes range from 3.5 x 6 in (89 continued to be used until paper made from
x152 mm) to 10 x 13 in (254 x 330 mm). In other plant sources reached the rest of the
Europe, sizes range from 3.2 x 4.5 in (81 x world from China. Some papyrus was used
114 mm) to 11 x 15.75 in (280 x 400 mm). in Europe as late as the twelfth century.
Sizes are somewhat different in the United
Kingdom, with the most common being Early forms of Chinese paper, made from
4.25 x 8.625 in (108 x 219 mm). reeds and rice, date back as far as 1200B.c.
A superior kind of paper, similar to modem
Some envelopes have one or more windows paper, was first made about the year 105.
cut into the front to allow addresses written Attributed to a court official named Ts'ai
on sheets inside to be seen. These windows Lun, this improved paper was made from a
may be covered with a transparent material. mixture of materials, including mulberry
and other woody fibers, hemp, rags, and
fishing nets. Papermaking spread slowly
History from East to West, reaching Central Asia by
The earliest ancestor of the envelope was 751 and Baghdad by 793. By the fourteenth
used by the ancient Babylonians five or six century, there were several paper mills
thousand years ago. Messages were written throughout Europe, particularly in Spain,
on clay tablets, which were baked to harden Italy, France, and Germany. The develop-
them. The tablets were then covered with ment of the printing press in the 1450s
more clay and baked again. The inner tablet greatly increased the demand for paper.
1 57
The early history of the paper envelope is more permanent. This glue is often derived
not known. Paper may have been used to from starches, which are obtained from
wrap messages at a very early date in China. corn, wheat, potatoes, rice, and other plants.
They did not appear in Europe until the sev-
enteenth century, when they began to be The fastener attached to some envelopes is
used in Spain and France. Until that time, made of aluminum or other metals. The
messages were simply folded and sealed. string attached to other envelopes is made
Even today, some stationery is designed to of cotton or other fibers. The material cov-
be folded and mailed without an envelope. ering the windows in some envelopes is
usually polystyrene. Polystyrene is a plas-
Cotton and linen rags were the main raw tic made from styrene, a derivative of pe-
materials used to make paper until the early troleum.
nineteenth century, when they were replaced
by wood. At about the same time, paper-
making by hand began to be replaced by pa- The Manufacturing
permaking machines. The emerging enve- Process
lope industry was noted by Karl Marx in his
book Das Kapital in 1867. Envelope manu- Making wood pulp
facturers continued to increase the speed of
production, from three thousand envelopes Mechanical methods can be used to trans-
per hour at the time of Marx to more than form wood into pulp, but this produces a
fifty thousand per hour in the late twentieth relatively weak paper that is used for news-
century. By the late 1990s, nearly two hun- papers and similar products. Paper intended
dred billion envelopes were made in the to be used for envelopes is made from pulp
United States each year. obtained by chemical means.
2 The most common chemical method

Ravw Materials used to make wood into pulp is known
Most envelopes are made from paper. Some as kraft pulping. Chips of wood are placed
large, strong envelopes are made from syn- in a large, sealed container known as a di-
thetic materials, such as polyethylene. Poly- gester. The digester contains a strongly al-
ethylene is a plastic made from ethylene, kaline solution of sodium hydroxide and
which is derived from petroleum. sodium sulfide. The mixture is heated to a
temperature between 320-356°F (160-
Paper used for most envelopes is made from 180°C) at a pressure of about 116 pounds
wood. Modem technology allows the wood per square inch (800 kilopascals) for about
to come from almost any kind of tree. Paper one-half to two hours.
used to make very high quality envelopes,
such as those used to enclose formal invita- 3 Various methods exist to bleach the re-
tions, may be made partly or completely "3sulting pulp. Bleaching removes lignin,
from cotton or linen. Some envelopes are a substance found in wood pulp that gives
made from manila, a fiber from the leaves of paper a brown color. In general, bleaching
a plant found in the Philippines that pro- involves mixing the pulp with a series of ox-
duces a strong, yellowish paper. Most so- idizing chemicals that react with the lignin.
called manila envelopes, however, are made After each mixture, the pulp is washed with
of paper derived from wood which only re- an alkaline solution that removes the treated
sembles true manila. lignin.
The glue applied to envelopes is of two 4 In order to improve the brightness, opac-
basic types. The glue applied to the flap that 1 ity, and smoothness of the paper, fillers
is sealed by the consumer is usually a gum. are added to the pulp. A typical filler is a
A typical natural gum is gum arabic, derived clay known as kaolin. Other chemicals often
from a substance produced by the acacia added to pulp include various starches or
tree. Synthetic gums are often derived from gums to make the paper stronger. Rosin (a
dextrans, which are produced by the fer- substance derived from pine trees) and alum
mentation of sugar. The glue that holds the (aluminum sulfate) are often added as siz-
rest of the envelope must be stronger and ers. Sizing makes the paper less absorbent,
1 58
Envelope
Most paper used in the manufac-

so that addresses written on the envelope in steam-heated rollers. As many as 40-70 ture of envelopes is derived from
ink will not run and blur. rollers may be needed to dry the sheet. wood. The wood is mechanically
or chemically processed to pro-
Making paper 7 The dried sheet moves between rollers duce pulp that is then poured on
known as calendars to make it smooth. mesh screening and squeezed
Pulp is added to water to form a very di- It is then wound on a large reel. Variations through rollers to remove the
J lute slurry in order to make paper with in the papermaking process produce paper moisture. The formed sheets of
an even density. The slurry is pumped onto in a wide variety of basis weights. The basis paper move through a series of
a moving mesh screen. This screen is made weight of paper is the weight, in pounds, of heated cylinders that dry the
up of very fine wires of metal or plastic. paper further. The sheets are then
a ream of 480 sheets cut to a size of 24 x 36 wound on reels.
Water drains through the small openings in in (610 x 914 mm). Envelope paper usually
the mesh, forming a sheet of wet material has a basis weight between 16 and 40, with
from the slurry. Rapidly spinning rollers a basis weight of 24 being typical. Al-
beneath the mesh create suction, a partial though many other kinds of paper are coat-
vacuum that removes more water from the ed after being made, envelope paper is usu-
mixture. ally uncoated.
h The sheet is moved on a belt made of
O felt containing wool and synthetic fibers. Making envelopes
The felt absorbs water and prevents the Rolls of paper, typically weighing 220
sheet from being damaged as it moves be- V lb (100 kg), arrive at the envelope fac-
tween rollers, which squeeze out more tory. The paper may need to be cut before
water. The sheet then moves to a belt made it enters the automated machine that makes
of felt containing cotton and other fibers. the envelopes, or it may be fed directly into
This lighter felt allows water vapor to es- the machine from the roll. If it is cut out-
cape as the sheet is moved around a series of side the machine, it is first cut by sharp
1 59
Rolls of paper, typically weighing

220 lb (100 kg), are either cut be- blades into sheets of the proper size. The Optional printing or fasteners are applied.
fore they enter the automated ma- sheets are then stacked into large piles for The completed envelopes are filled in
chine that makes the envelopes, or further cutting. Strong blades then cut the cardboard boxes and shipped to retailers.
fed directly into the machine from pile of sheets into blanks. A blank has the
the roll. Once cut, the sheets are shape of an envelope with its flaps opened
stacked and cut into blanks. A and laid flat. Blanks are generally shaped
blank has the shape of an enve- like diamonds and are cut from the sheets Quality Control
lope with its flaps opened and laid
flat. Blanks are generally shaped in such a way as to minimize waste. If the Modem envelope manufacturing is highly
like diamonds and are cut from roll is fed directly into the machine, it cuts automated, and almost always results in a
the sheets in such a way as to the paper into blanks very quickly with reliable product. Although constant testing
minimize waste. If the roll is fed sharp blades. is not necessary, certain factors are
directly into the machine, it cuts checked to ensure quality. Paper arriving
the paper into blanks very quickly 9 The machine performs all the opera- at the factory is inspected to be sure that it
with sharp blades. The machine tions needed to transform blanks into has the correct weight. A very small num-
also folds the blanks into en- envelopes at a very rapid pace. Windows ber of sample envelopes are checked to en-
velopes at a very rapid pace. are cut if needed. If a transparent covering sure that they have the correct shape and
Strong glue is also applied to the
places which will hold the enve- is needed for the windows, a strong glue is size, and that adhesives have been applied
lope together. A weaker glue is applied around them. The transparent main the correct places. Any printing that ap-
applied to the flap that will be terial is then cut and glued in place. pears on the envelope must be in the cor-
sealed by the consumer. The ma- Strong glue is also applied to the places rect position, of the correct color, and
chine then folds the blank to form that will hold the envelope together. A without printing errors. If any windows are
the envelope. The completed en- weaker glue is applied to the flap that will cut in the envelope, they must have the
velopes are filled in cardboard be sealed by the consumer. The machine correct dimensions and be in the correct
boxes and shipped to retailers. then folds the blank to form the envelope. position.
1 60
Envelope
The Future Ferguson, Kelly, ed. New Trends and De-

velopments in Papermaking. Miller Free-
Although major changes in envelope design man, 1994.
are not expected, innovations are likely in
the way paper is made. Manufacturers are
constantly looking for ways to make paper Periodicals
that are more efficient, less costly, and result Keman, Michael. "Pushing the Envel-
in less pollution. Genetic engineering may ope."Smithsonian (October 1997): 30-31.
result in trees that grow faster and produce
wood that is better adapted to producing Other
pulp. A recent trend that is likely to continue
is the increasing use of recycled paper as a Ohio Envelope Manufacturing Company.
raw material for making envelopes and http://www.ohioenvelope.com/ (September
other paper products. 30, 1998).
-Rose Secrest
Where to Learn More
Books
Biermann, Christopher J. Essentials of
Pulping and Papermaking. New York:
Academic Press, 1993.
16 1
Eraser
In 1770, the English Background Caoutchouc was first suggested for use as an
eraser in the Proceedings of the French
scientistJoseph Priestley An eraser is a object that is used to remove Academy in 1752, probably by Jean de
marks from paper. Most erasers are designed Magellan. In 1770, the English scientist
suggested that to remove pencil marks. Other erasers are Joseph Priestley suggested that caoutchouc
caoutchouc be named designed to be used on typewriter marks. be named rubber, because of its ability to
Some special pens contain erasable ink that rub away pencil marks. He also told readers
rubber, because of its can be removed by erasers. While some
of his book Familiar Introduction to the
erasers are sold separately in the form of
ability to rub away pencil Theory and Practice ofPerspective where to
wide, slender blocks, many more erasers are purchase "a cubical piece, of about half an
marks. In the United found permanently attached to pencils. Other inch, for three shillings." In the United
erasers are made to temporarily attach to
Kingdom, erasers are still known as rubbers.
Kingdom, erasers are still pencils. Some erasers are enclosed in wood-
en cases that resemble pencils. These
known as rubbers. Until the late nineteenth century, pencils
erasers, designed to be sharpened like pen-
and erasers were always separate. In 1858,
cils, often have a brush attached. This is used
Hyman Lipman of Philadelphia patented a
to brush away small pieces of the eraser left
behind after it removes a mark. This type of pencil with a groove in the tip, into which an
eraser was glued. By the early 1860s, the
eraser is usually used to remove typewriter
marks. Faber company made pencils with attached
erasers. In 1862, Joseph Rechendorfer of
New York City patented an improvement of
History Lipman's design and sued Faber. The Unit-
The first erasers were pieces of bread. There ed States Supreme Court determined that the
was no better substance for removing pencil idea of combining a pencil with an eraser
marks until rubber was available in the Old could not be patented. The reason for this
World. Rubber was known to the inhabi- decision was the fact that combining the
tants of Central and South America long be- pencil and the eraser did not change the
fore Europeans came to the New World. As function of either. This decision opened the
early as the eleventh century, it was used to way for numerous companies to make pen-
coat clothing and to make balls. It was also cils with erasers.
used to make footwear and bottles by pour-
ing the liquid form on earthen molds and al- In 1867, a hollow eraser, into which a pencil
lowing it to dry. could be inserted, was invented by J. B.
Blair of Philadelphia. Earlier versions are
In 1735, the French scientist Charles de la also known to have existed. In 1872, the
Condamine described a substance known as Eagle company made pencils with erasers
caoutchouc and sent samples to Europe. inserted directly into the wooden case of the
Caoutchouc was derived from a fluid pro- pencil. Other companies soon made similar
duced under the bark of a tree found in trop- pencils, which became known as penny pen-
ical areas of the New World. This milky liq- cils because they were inexpensive. The
uid, known as latex, is still used to make availability of pencils with attached erasers
natural rubber. in schoolrooms was at first controversial. It
1 62
Eraser
was believed that the ability to correct errors as the worker can easily reach. Later strips
easily would make students careless. De- will be cut below the first one. Each strip
spite this concern, pencils with erasers were reaches about halfway around the circum-
extremely popular. About 90% of modern ference of the tree and slants downward at
American pencils are made with attached an angle of about 30 degrees to allow the
erasers. Pencils without erasers are some- latex to drain into a container. If the latex is
what more common in Europe. allowed to coagulate naturally, each cut will
produce about 1 oz (28 g) of latex before the
latex stops flowing after a few hours. A
Rawv Materials chemical may be applied to the bark to pre-
The most important raw material in an eras- vent the latex from coagulating, allowing it
er is rubber. The rubber may be natural or to flow for several days.
synthetic. Natural rubber is obtained from
latex produced by the rubber tree (Hevea 2 The collected latex passes through a
brasilienesis). Synthetic rubber exists in a sieve to remove foreign objects. Water
wide variety of forms. The most common is added to the latex and the mixture is
synthetic rubber is derived from the chemi- pumped into large horizontal tanks contain-
cals styrene and butadiene. Styrene is a liq- ing aluminum partitions. Dilute acetic acid
uid derived from ethylbenzene. Ethylben- or formic acid is added to make rubber co-
zene is usually made from ethylene and agulate into slabs on the partitions. The
benzene, both of which are derived from pe- slabs are sprayed with water while they
troleum. Butadiene is a gas, derived either pass through a series of rollers. Excess
directly from petroleum or from substances water is removed by another series of
known as butanes and butenes, which are rollers. The slabs are packed in bales, usu-
derived from petroleum. ally weighing 225-250 lb (102-113 kg), in
the shape of cubes about 2 ft (60 cm) on
Other ingredients added to rubber include each side. The bales are coated with clay to
pigments that change the color of the eraser. prevent sticking, bound with metal straps,
White can be produced with zinc oxide and and shipped to manufacturers.
titanium oxide. Red can be produced by iron
oxide. Many other colors can be produced
with various organic dyes.
Making synthetic rubber
An important ingredient added to almost all 3 Depending on what kind of synthetic
rubber is sulfur. Sulfur allows rubber to be rubber is being made, a wide variety of
vulcanized. This process was invented by manufacturing processes may be used. The
Charles Goodyear in 1839. It uses heat and most common form of synthetic rubber,
sulfur to make rubber more durable and re- styrene-butadiene rubber, is usually made in
sistant to heat. an emulsion process.
Various other ingredients may be added to
rubber. These include vegetable oil, to make 4 Various chemicals are obtained from pe-
the rubber softer and easier to shape, and troleum by fractional distillation. This
pumice, a natural mineral which makes the process involves heating petroleum to about
eraser more abrasive. 600-700° F (315-370° C) and allowing the
vapor to pass through a tall vertical tower.
As the vapor rises through the tower, it
The Manufacturing cools. Chemicals with different boiling
Process points change from gas to liquid at different
Making natural rubber points inside the tower and are collected.
Chemicals with very high boiling points re-
1 Rubber tree plantations are found only in main in the liquid state when the petroleum
tropical regions with high levels of annu- is heated and can be removed from the bot-
al precipitation. Malaysia is the leading pro- tom of the tower. Chemicals with very low
ducer of rubber trees. A rubber tree is boiling points remain in the form of gases
tapped by cutting a thin strip of bark about and can be removed from the top of the
0.04 in (1 mm) deep off the tree as high up tower.
1 63
Erasers are made from either nat-

ural or synthetic rubber. Natural 5 Other chemicals are obtained by catalyt- 8 Other chemicals added to the mixture
rubber is produced from latex that 5ic cracking. This process involves heat- 8include stabilizers, which prevent the
is collected from rubber trees. ing petroleum to about 850-900° F (454- rubber from breaking down, and modi-
Water is removed from the latex, 5100 C) under pressure in the presence of a fiers, which change the properties of the
increasing the rubber content to catalyst. The catalyst causes chemical reac- rubber. Another chemical is added to stop
60%. Acid is added to the liquid tions to take place. The new mixture of the formation of rubber particles at an op-
concentrate in order to produce chemicals are then separated by fractional timum point. Unconverted styrene and bu-
solid sheets of dry rubber.
distillation. tadiene are removed and are reused. A co-
agulant is added to the emulsion, causing
the synthetic rubber to be deposited.
6 Styrene and butadiene are obtained by Styrene-butadiene rubber is generally
6subjecting certain chemicals derived shipped to manufacturers in bags made of
from petroleum to various chemical reac- polyethylene plastic, each holding 75 lb
tions. The styrene is a liquid under normal (34 kg) of rubber.
conditions, but the butadiene is a gas and
must be stored under pressure to keep it in a
liquid form. Making erasers
9 Rubber arrives at the eraser factory and
7 The two liquids are pumped into a con- is mixed with pigments, vegetable oil,
tainer and mixed with water, soap, and a pumice, sulfur, and other ingredients that
catalyst. The catalyst causes the styrene and modify the properties of the final product.
butadiene to react to form particles of syn- Synthetic rubber is easier to mix because it
thetic rubber. The soap causes these parti- usually arrives as a powder or a liquid. Nat-
cles to be dispersed in the water in a smooth ural rubber usually arrives in bales and must
emulsion. Constant agitation keeps the rub- be pulverized into powder or dissolved in a
ber particles from settling out. solvent before it can be mixed.
1 64
Eraser
Once the natural or synthetic rub-

O The mixture is heated, causing the sul- er material which covers the eraser. Three- ber is mixed with pigments, veg-
I V fur to vulcanize it, making it more sta- dimensional markings can be made by em- etable oil, pumice, sulfur, and
ble. To make plugs, which will be attached bossing-cutting into the eraser with a sharp other additional ingredients, the
to pencils, an extrusion process is usually die. The completed flats are packed into mixture is heated and the erasers
used. The mixture, in the form of a soft cardboard boxes and shipped to retailers. are formed. In order to make
solid, is forced through a die to form a long eraser plugs that will be attached
cylinder. The cylinder is repeatedly cut as it to the ends of pencils, the rubber
emerges, forming plugs. Quality Control mixture is extruded and cut into
plugs. To make flat, rectangular
The manufacturing of erasers is highly auto- erasers, the mixture is injected
To make flats, which are not attached mated, with reliable products made in the into molds and then cooled.
to pencils, an injection molding millions each year. Experienced eraser man-
process is usually used. The mixture, in the ufacturers have refined the techniques used
form of a warm liquid, is forced into molds to the point where extensive inspection is
and allowed to cool into a solid. The flats not necessary.
are then removed from the molds.
The raw materials shipped to the manufac-
12 Plugs are shipped directly to pencil turer are supplied by companies that are
manufacturers. They are attached to known to provide substances with the prop-
pencils by small, cylindrical, metal cases er characteristics. If a new substance is sup-
known as ferrules. Ferrules are made of plain plied, or if it comes from a new company,
aluminum for less expensive pencils, or the eraser manufacturer may inspect it to be
painted brass for more expensive pencils. sure it meets all specifications.
The ferrule is attached to the pencil with glue
or with small metal prongs. The plug is in- Only a very small percentage of erasers
serted into the ferrule and clamped around it. need to be inspected to ensure that they have
the proper physical properties. Flats must be
1 Flats may be marked with the name of the correct size to fit into boxes. Plugs must
13the manufacturer or other markings. have the correct dimensions to fit into fer-
This may be done by stamping-pressing an rules. The hardness of erasers is critical to
inked stamp on the eraser. It may also be how well they will work. Experienced in-
done by screen printing-moving an inked spectors can easily tell if an eraser is too
roller over a pattemed sheet of silk or anoth- hard or too soft.
1 65
The Future The thumb fits inside the curve during use in
a way which is designed to be comfortable
Erasers have remained mostly unchanged for and efficient. Although extremely expensive
many years. Improvements in eraser technol- compared to ordinary erasers, the Ergoraser
ogy are likely to be made in the way rubber promises to play an important role in the fu-
is produced. New chemical formulas are ture for those who demand the highest quali-
constantly being developed to produce syn- ty in simple objects.
thetic rubber in ways that are more efficient,
less costly, and which result in products with
more useful properties. Genetic engineering Where to Learn More
may result in rubber trees that produce more
latex, or trees that produce latex with physi- Books
cal properties that would make natural rub- Petroski, Henry.The Pencil. Knopf, 1990.
ber production more efficient.
A hint of the future of eraser design is seen Other
in the Ergoraser, a unique eraser from Lev- "Eraser Certification." http:Hlwww.wima.
enger, a company specializing in very high org/consumer/c-obcertprograms/eraser
quality writing supplies. The Ergoraser, de- prog.htmlV (February 17, 1998).
veloped after two years of research, is oval
and curved, much like the shape of a spoon. -Rose Secrest
1 66
Eyeglass Frame
Background and several Chinese and German scientists. Three eye sizes are
All can be thanked for their collective in-
American humorist Dorothy Parker (1893- vention of spectacles. standard for the range of
1967) once wrote caustically that "Men sel-
dom make passes at girls who wear glass- dimensions of corrective
The invention of devices to keep spectacles
es." Her comment tells as much about the lenses. Each style is
on the nose took several more centuries.
eyeglass fashions available in her youth as And, despite Ms. Parker's rhyme, style and
about the customs of flirtation. Ms. Parker a variety of lens shapes and frames have typically manufactured in
would be pleasantly surprised to visit any been important since the beginning of eye-
suburban shopping mall today and to see the four different colors, so a
wide variety of eyeglass frames now avail- glass frames. The earliest eyeglasses were
unframed lenses that were simply held by single style will result in
able. Frames have become hot fashion ac- hand in front of the face. Alternatively, two
cessories just like jewelry or shoes, and the lenses were mounted in a half frame that 12 combinations of color
wearer can change them to match moods or
could be held with one hand. Spectacles and dimension.
to convey an image.
also were attached to hats or tied around
the head with bands made of leather or rib-
History bon. Will Somers, a jester to the court of
The ancient Greeks made the first studies of Henry VIII, sported a suit of armor with
vision and the workings of the eye. They spectacles attached to the metal helmet
also attempted to understand magnification with rivets. The painter El Greco portrayed
and to use it to understand vision problems. Cardinal Nifo de Guevara wearing glasses
Alhazen, an Arabian scientist who lived with cords that looped over his ears. The
during the eleventh century, studied the re- seventeenth century design called the fore-
fraction (bending) of light and the connec- head frame consisted of a metal band that
tion between optic nerves and the brain. It encircled the head and had metal frames
was the thirteenth century Polish scientist, mounted to it.
Vitello, who first understood that the shapes
of lenses could be used to control the focus The most common frames held two lenses
of light rays. on a frame that rode on the lower part of the
nose. Lightweight materials were used to
In 1257, the English friar Roger Bacon ex- lessen the burden and pinching of these
plored so many aspects of science that he "nose frames." In the court of the Spanish
was imprisoned by the monks of his Fran- King Philip V and Queen Marie-Louise
ciscan order who were suspicious of his (about 1701), all 500 of the queen's ladies-
knowledge. While he was in prison, Friar in-waiting wore tortoise-shell frames be-
Bacon sent Pope Clement IV some magnify- cause of their light weight. This style salut-
ing lenses for reading; despite Bacon's coned both fashion and superstition; the frames
troversial standing, the monks who labored supposedly brought good luck because the
over detailed manuscripts and copy work tortoise is sacred in China. Attempts at styl-
quickly adopted the use of his spectacles. istic designs were varied and clever. The
Bacon's work occurred at the same time as bridge pieces that rest on the nose were dec-
that of Salvino d'Armato of Florence, Italy, orated in endless ways. Lenses were mount-
1 67
ed in fans, watch fobs, and on walking and can be manufactured as bifocals, trifo-
sticks. The status-conscious had their nose cals, and quadrifocals to correct a wider
frames made of gold or other precious mate- range of vision problems. Frames made of
rials or employed artists to decorate the plastic are also less expensive. A broad range
frames with coats of arms. of styles and colors can be made in plastic
and changed to suit wardrobes, fads, and
Other than nose glasses, lens wearers could moods. Sunglasses also became affordable,
choose the monocle (a single lens in a frame thanks to the plastics industry, but Holly-
or holder), the lorgnette (a pair of lenses wood was responsible for their popularity.
with a nose bridge and a single handle on Large, square-rimmed glasses like those
one side), a quizzer or quizzing glass (a worn by Clark Kent became popular among
monocle that was mirrored so the wearer men in the 1950s, and the ladies favored
could see to the rear as well), the perspec- "cat's-eye" glasses that angled up at the tem-
tive glass (a single lens worn on a ribbon ples. Granny glasses with fine metal frames
and used for distance vision), or scissors accompanied the flash of the "flower power"
glasses that had two eyepieces mounted on a generation in the 1960s and may have been
hinged handle that was held up in front of responsible for making antique eyeglasses
the nose. Finally, in 1728, Edward Scarlett popular collectibles. Although contact lenses
of London developed temples for frames. were also developed during this century and
These clamps gripped the temple area and have become very popular, the variety of
held nose glasses more securely to the face. available eyeglass frames has kept glasses
A loop at the end of each temple piece held fashionable.
ribbons that were tied around the head or
wig. By the 1880s, temples were curved to
extend and fit over the ears to hold specta- Raw Materials
cles in place. Eyeglasses frames are typically made of ei-
ther metal or a type of plastic called cellu-
In the Colonies, spectacles were imported lose-acetate. Cellulose acetate is derived
and were very expensive until American from cotton and is flexible and strong. It is
glass-making skills improved enough to de- produced in long narrow sheets that are
velop an eyeglass trade. Just as curved and slightly wider than eyeglass frames. The
fitted temples were developed and adopted sheets are up to 3 ft (0.91 m) long and 0.33
all over the world, fashion reverted to a style in (0.84 cm) thick.
called the oxford that consisted of nose
glasses improved by a more elastic and
wearable bridge. These glasses were also Design
called pince-nez and had nose pads fitted to Eyeglasses manufacturers may retain their
small springs on the flexible bridge. Presi- own staff of designers or use outside consul-
dents Teddy Roosevelt and Calvin Coolidge tants to design frames. The consultants often
wore oxfords. During the 1900s, simple include fashion designers, who create their
steel-framed glasses were the most com- own lines of eye wear that change along
mon, although less expensive frames were with trends in clothing design. The design-
available in a material called gutta-percha- ers' names are important in selling eyeglass-
a rubbery plastic-like substance. Tortoise- es and especially in interesting fashion-con-
shell and horn-rimmed glasses became pop- scious buyers in multiple pairs of glasses or
ular in the 1920s and 1930s, but many of sunglasses. There are definitely trends or
these frames were actually made of cellu- fashions in eyewear including light- or dark-
loid, an early plastic that could be dyed and colored frames, thick or delicate ones, and
molded to resemble animal horn or tortoise decorative shapes or ornament-bearing
shell. Steel-framed spectacles and sunglass- styles. Specialized frames for children and
es were issued to millions of servicemen half-frames for reading glasses are also de-
during World War II. signed with an eye to style.
The business of manufacturing eyeglass Designs also incorporate certain standards
frames and lenses made its most dramatic including bridge size and eye size. The
leap in the twentieth century with the rise of bridge size allows for different thicknesses
plastics. Plastic lenses are lighter in weight of the upper part of the nose where the nose
1 68
Eyeglass Frame
Blanks for plastic eyeglass frames

pads on the glass's rest. Three eye sizes are taken out of the frames. The lens blanks be- are die cut from sheets of cellu-
standard for the range of dimensions of cor- come scrap. lose-acetate.
rective lenses. Each style is typically manu-
factured in four different colors, so a single 2 The blank frame fronts are finished in a
style will result in 12 combinations of color series of operations. Grooves to hold the
and dimension. Frame designers and manu- lenses are cut using a router. The frame is
facturers typically produce a new style held tightly by a holding fixture made of
every few months and discontinue styles if aluminum and consisting of two pieces. The
they don't sell well. fixture is fastened around the frame and
pressed against the router blade. The
grooves are cut to 0.16 in (0.41cm) wide,
The Manufacturing which is an industry standard. If thick lenses
Process are needed, they are ground down along the
edges to fit the routered grooves.
Die-cutting plastic frames 3 The frames are then smoothed to remove
1 After the design is decided, a die is made 3rough edges by two different abrasive
out of steel and is fitted in a blanking ma- machines. One machine is specially shaped
chine that punches blanks out of the sheets to smooth the edge of the frame that rests on
of cellulose-acetate. The edges of the steel the cheek and the second smoothes the area
rule die are sharp, and the dies have protrud- around the nose. The frame is then secured
ing rods that are used to remove the punched in a vise-like device while the nose pads or
fronts where the lenses will be fitted. The attachments that hold the nose pads are
acetate sheets are brought from a cool stor- glued to the frames. Once the glue is al-
age area to the blanking room where they lowed to cure for 24 hours, the glued areas
are heated in small ovens to about 1800 F are also smoothed.
(680 C) to soften the plastic. The soft sheets
are fitted into a blanking machine, and, Producing the temples
under several tons of pressure, the die cuts
through the plastic to produce a blank. The 4 The two side arms that curve around the
machine is automated to lift the die and 4 ears are called temples. The temples are
move it to the next portion of plastic. The also punched out of sheets of acetate with
blanks are produced quickly while the plas- blanking dies. The standard temple length
tic is soft. The blanks are then removed ranges from 5-6 in (12.7-15.2 cm) and they
from the sheet, and the lens portions are are usually cut out of the same material or
169
Producing temples
Polishing
After the frames are smoothed,

the temples are attached to the complementary materials to match the to melt locally around the hinge to bond the
frames with a metal hinge. To fronts. The temples may be flat with angular hinge to the frame; this process is more se-
make the temples, plastic temple edges or rounded in shape, depending on the cure than gluing or other types of bonding or
strips are heated, and a narrow frame style. The temples are heated, and a mounting.
strip of steel called a core wire is
narrow strip of steel called a core wire is
also heated. When the right tem-
peratures are reached, a core also heated. When the right temperatures are Finishing the fronts
wire is inserted into the center of reached, a core wire is inserted into the cen-
the softened temple. ter of the softened temple. Inexpensive The fronts with hinges are then imprint-
glasses, like some non-prescription sun- Ved with the manufacturer's name or
glasses, may be made without core wires, logo, the name of the style of the frame, and
but they will also be less strong. the size of the frame. Before the temples are
attached to the frame, an angular fit is need-
To attach temples to their frame, small ed to make the frame front tilt inward to-
5slots are cut in the upper comers of the ward the wearer's face from top to bottom.
frame. A half of a metal hinge is put in each An automatic saw is used to cut the correct
slot, and the frame and partial hinges are angles in the upper edges of the front. Caps
placed in a capitron machine. The capitron are fitted over the hinges, while the front is
machine induces ultrasonic vibrations in the polished. By this stage, the fronts are still
metal hinges and creates heat of friction. flat with sharp edges except in the routered
The friction causes the plastic of the frame areas where the lenses fit. In the polishing
1 70
Eyeglass Frame
room, hundreds of fronts at a time are tum- vision, they must be comfortable for the
bled in a drum with pumice (soft stone that wearer, and they are an accessory to profes-
is ground to a powder and used as an abra- sional dress and personal style. Although
sive) and small maple pegs that look like processes for making frames are performed
miniature kitchen matches with rounded by machines, operators are responsible for
edges and tips. The pumice adheres to the each step and are quality control checkers
pegs, which grind against the fronts during a for their particular operations. The eyeglass-
24-hour-long process that smoothes the es industry has become highly competitive
rough edges. Crushed coconut shells are because of the aspects of fad and fashion in-
sometimes used by manufacturers in the volved, but operators are well aware that
polishing process. their products provide vision care. Fronts
and temples for eyeglasses can be rejected at
7The smoothed fronts now have to be any step in the process of manufacture.
7shaped to fit the curvature of the face.
They are .heated in an oven, mounted in a
curved forming die (similar to the blanking Byproducts/Waste
die used to make the fronts), and placed in a No byproducts result from the manufacture
press. Pressure is applied for about 30 sec- of eyeglass frames. Plastic waste is generat-
onds to produce a uniform curve in the ed during blanking, with the bulk of the
front. The warm front is dipped in a cold waste from the lens portion of the frame that
water bath to harden it to the curved shape. is cut out. This waste is carefully collected
and recycled.
8 The shaped fronts are returned to the
8polishing room where they pass through
a series of tumbling drums over a period of The Future
four days to add the finished sheen. Each
drum contains pumice that is finer than the The past 50 years of eyeglass history have
previous one; the final drum holds polishing soundly established the future of frames.
wax. All of the polished fronts are inspected Despite the popularity of contact lenses and
carefully for any scratches. They are placed the advent of laser surgery to correct vision
individually in envelopes and filed by size, problems, many people will find eyeglasses
style, and color. necessary or desirable for their personal
needs. Improved technology in the manufac-
ture of plastic lenses and frames and in the
Finishing the temples comfort of fitted frames have made eye-
9 Depending on the shape and style of the glasses more enjoyable to wear. The fashion
eyeglasses design and their temples, the industry also actively supports eyeglass
temples are then ground and shaped during frames as an added avenue for expressive
several operations. Grooves are cut into the designs and a popular method of stating per-
ends of the temples, and the matching sonal style.
halves of the hinges are riveted into the tem-
ples. The ends are cut to match the angles of Where to Learn More
the finished fronts. Like the fronts, the tem-
ples are then finished during multiple opera- Books
tions, and pairs of polished temples are
packed in envelopes by size, style, and Corson, Richard. Fashions in Eyeglasses.
color. Manufacturers store the envelopes Dufour Editions, Inc., 1967.
containing fronts and temples until op-
tometrists or optometric supply houses order Goldstein, Margaret J. Eyeglasses. Min-
them by size, style, and color. Sets of fronts neapolis: Carolrhoda Books, Inc., 1997.
and temples are then shipped.
Gottlieb, Leonard. Factory Made: How
Things are Manufactured. Boston:
Quality Control Houghton Mifflin Co., 1978.
Eyeglasses frames must be manufactured
with great attention to detail because they Kelley, Alberta. Lenses, Spectacles, Eye-
are critical in supporting lenses to improve glasses, and Contacts: The Story of Vision
171
Aids. New York: Elsevier/Nelson Books, Other

1978.
The Antique Spectacles Home Page. 9 Sep-
York, Alan. "Eyeglasses: Fads and Fash- tember 1998. http://web.ukonline.co.uk/chris
ions in Spectacles." In The Encyclopedia of topher.ridings/ (March 11, 1999).
Collectibles: Dogs to Fishing Tackle. An-
drea DiNoto, ed. Alexandria, VA: Time- University of Waterloo Museum of Visual
Life Books, 1978. Science and Optometry. 6 December 1996.
http://www.optometry.uwaterloo.ca/-muse-
Periodicals um/ (March 11, 1999).
Morais, Richard C. "Luxottica' s golden
spectacles,"Forbes (May 20, 1996): 98. -Gillian S. Holmes
1 72
Fill Dam
Background Fill embankments are usually less expen- The engineers of ancient
sive to construct than concrete dams. Soil
Dams are among the oldest structures built or rock are present at the site, and construc- India and Sri Lanka were
by humans for collective use. A dam is a bar- tion techniques, though complex, are also
rier that is constructed across a river or less costly than for concrete construction.
the most successful
stream so the water can be held back or im-
pounded to supply water for drinking or irri-
For these reasons of available materials, pioneers of fill dam
low cost, and stability with mass, fill dams
gation, to control flooding, and to generate are often built across broad water courses. design and construction,
power. The main kinds of dams are earth fill,
They also are more flexible than concrete and remains of earth
rock fill, concrete gravity, concrete arch, and structures and can deform without necessar-
arch gravity. The last three types are all ily failing if foundation materials under the dams can still be seen in
made of concrete, reinforced concrete, or dam compress with the weight of the dam
masonry. (The term masonry can mean con-
and the water. both countries.
crete, bricks, or blocks of excavated rock.)
Fill dams include all dams made of earth ma-
terials (soil and rock) that are compacted to-
gether. One type of fill dam called a tailings History
dam is constructed of fine waste that results Quite naturally, early dam builders began by
from processing rock during mining; at mine using plentiful materials like sand, timber
sites, this soil-like waste is compacted to and brush, and gravel. Their construction
form an embankment that holds water for the method consisted of carrying the materials
mining and milling processes or to retain the by the basketful and loosely dumping the
tailings themselves in water. fill, so many of these dams may have sur-
Of the main categories of dams listed above, vived only a few years. Scientists have not
all have been built since ancient times al- been able to pinpoint dates for the earliest
though many refinements were developed in dam construction, but they do know dams
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries with were needed where food was grown and in
improved engineering technology. Dams areas prone to flooding.
that leak have failed to do their job, either
because they simply can't hold water or be- Design of fill dams is based on experience;
cause the water seeping through them eats while failures are unfortunate and some-
materials away from the inside of the dam times catastrophic, they are also the best
causing it to fail structurally. In modem teachers, and many engineering advances
times, most fill dams are also built with have been founded on careful study of earli-
zones including a clay center or core, filter er failures. The engineers of ancient India
and drainage layers, coarser materials sand- and Sri Lanka were the most successful pio-
wiching the clay core, and rock on the up- neers of fill dam design and construction,
stream (water) face to prevent erosion. and remains of earth dams can still be seen
These zones can be seen clearly when a in both countries. In Sri Lanka, long em-
cross section is cut from the upstream to the bankments called tanks were built to store
downstream side of the dam. All fill dams irrigation water. The Kalabalala Tank was
depend on weight to remain stable. 37 mi (60 km) long around its perimeter.
1 73
The most famous earth fill dam recently rollers press thin layers of soil into place
constructed is the Aswan High Dam that after an optimal amount of water has been
was built across the Nile River in Egypt in added. The water and weight bond the soil
1970-1980. An earth fill dam was also the particles together and force smaller particles
victim of a spectacular failure in June 1976 into spaces between larger particles so voids
when the Teton Dam in Idaho eroded from are eliminated or made as small as possible
within due to incorrect design of the zones to restrict seepage.
inside the dam that allowed seepage, failure,
and flooding of the valley downstream. Al- Increasingly, fill dams also include geotex-
though earth dams tend to be short and tiles and geomembranes. Geotextiles are
broad, Nurek Dam in Tajikistan is 984 ft nonwoven fabrics that are strong and punc-
(300 m) high. ture-resistant. They can be placed between
lifts as the dam is raised to strength weak
materials. They are also used as filter fabrics
Rawv Materials to wrap coarser drain rock and limit the mi-
The materials used to construct fill dams in- gration of fine soil into the drainage materi-
clude soil and rock. Soil is classified by paral. Geomembranes are made of high-density
ticle size from the smallest, submicroscopic polyethylene (HDPE) plastic and are imper-
particles called clay; silt, which is also very meable. They can be used to line the up-
fine; sand ranging from fine to coarse, stream face of a fill dam or even to line the
where the fine grains are the smallest soil entire reservoir.
particles our eyes can see; and gravel.
Coarser fragments called cobbles and boul- Feasibility and
ders are also used in dam construction but Preliminary Design
usually as protective outer layers.
A specific need for a dam, whether it is
Specific soil types and size ranges are need- water supply, storage of tailings or other
ed to construct the zones within the dam, and materials, or flood control, stimulates the
explorations of the dam foundation area, the process of designing and building a fill dam.
reservoir where the water will be stored, and The need and the location are usually close-
surrounding areas are performed not only for ly connected, so several sites may be con-
design of the dam but to locate construction sidered. During feasibility studies, engineers
materials. The costs of fill construction rise identify these sites, make preliminary cost
dramatically with the distance materials are comparisons, decide on a probable design,
hauled. Samples of potential construction and chose the best site for exploration. Fea-
materials are tested in a soil laboratory for sibility certainly refers to the cost of build-
grain size, moisture content, dry density ing the dam, but it also includes the techni-
(weight), plasticity, and permeability. Clay is cal practicalities of site suitability, design,
not only very fine in size but has chemical construction, and long-term maintenance
characteristics that cause it to stick together. and safety.
The combination of fine size and plastic be-
havior also causes the clay to be less perme- After a feasible site is chosen, a preliminary
able to water. If clay is available near the design of the dam is developed. The loca-
site, the dam can be built with an imperme- tion of the dam is superimposed on a topo-
able core or central zone that prevents water graphical map so the dimensions of the top
from passing through the dam; otherwise, of the dam relative to the tops of the adja-
the dam must be designed so water can seep cent hills and the proposed water level can
slowly and safely through a different combi- be shown as well as the extent of the base of
nation of materials in its zones. the dam in the stream channel. The pro-
posed water level elevation shows the extent
Water is also a raw material. The various of the reservoir and determines-along with
soil types have compaction characteristics the shape of the basin-the quantity of
that can be determined in the laboratory and water that the reservoir will hold. Quantities
used during construction. Soil can be com- of water stored and materials used in con-
pacted to its best functional density by structing the dam help determine the value
adding moisture and weight and impact, of the project and its costs. Sometimes mul-
called compactive effort. Large vibrating tiple iterations of site selection, pre-design,
1 74
Fill Dam
and cost estimating are needed. Ideally, the a cut-off wall is cut down to rock or firm
foundation area under the dam will not re- soil. The cut-off wall can be constructed of
quire much excavation or grouting to pre- steel sheet piling or concrete, but, for most
vent seepage, and the materials inside the fill dams built since about 1960, the cut-off
reservoir area can be excavated and used to wall is simply an extension of the clay core.
build the dam so that more reservoir storage Where foundation rock or soil contains
is gained at the same time as soil or rock are voids or fractures, a series of holes may be
excavated to construct the embankment. drilled into the foundation, and concrete
grout is injected in the holes to seal the frac-
When the optimal site is chosen on paper, an tures and help cut off seepage.
exploration program is developed and per-
formed. During the exploration, test borings The zones of a fill dam may consist of a
are drilled along the line of the axis of the number of distinct layers from the center of
dam across its proposed width, along or near the dam and moving upstream toward the
the proposed upstream and downstream toes water and a different set of layers from the
of the dam, at the site of the proposed spill- center moving downstream. Materials for
way, and in the reservoir area. The borings the zones are selected for strength properties
are excavated deep into the foundation to and permeability characteristics, and the
evaluate its strength and permeability (po- placement of one zone next to another is
tential for seepage) properties. As the bor- carefully govemed by sets of calculations
ings are drilled through the overlying soil, it based on these properties. Filter and
is also sampled and tested in the laboratory drainage zones are included so that any
so it can be evaluated as potential dam con- water succeeding in reaching the inside of
struction material. Field tests of permeabili- the dam is channeled around the core and
ty are also performed at the site of the dam out through drainage layers at the base of
and in the reservoir area. If it is the source the dam.
for construction materials, test pits are also
dug in the reservoir area so that the volume The upstream (water) face of the dam is
of available soil (and related costs) can be sometimes protected with a concrete slab or
estimated. an asphalt face. More commonly, cobble-
and boulder-sized stones are placed on this
face near the water surface; this facing is
Design called riprap and prevents wave action at the
After the field exploration and laboratory water surface from eroding the dam con-
testing are complete, the engineering team struction materials. Other facilities for con-
begins final design of the dam based on the trolling the water level and any water move-
preliminary assumptions, the findings in the ment through or over the dam, like an
field, and any changes in design or econom- emergency spillway, are also designed
ics that are based on field findings. In de- specifically for the dam's location, uses,
signing a fill dam, engineers look at five type and materials of construction, and
critical considerations: the mass of the dam water inflows into the reservoir.
that will make it stable; design of a core and
other interior zones to prevent seepage The economics of dam construction are con-
through the dam; design of a cut- off wall or sidered throughout the design process. Con-
other seepage prevention under the dam; struction materials must be available at or
erosion protection on the upstream face; and near the site. Rock can be placed at steeper
economics. angles than soil, and it weighs more; so a
dam built mostly of rock can be smaller in
Fill dams are typically shaped like triangles design section. Excavating and moving rock
with the apex or point at the top or crest of can be more expensive than soil, however,
the dam and the broad base on the floor of so the design engineers must consider cost
the creek channel. The width of the base in factors. Other materials like asphalt, con-
cross section provides friction to prevent crete, steel, and cement for grouting are also
sliding, and the total mass of the dam makes expensive. The proper balance of safety and
it strong enough to resist the weight of water economy must be determined by the engi-
behind it. The foundation area is cleaned of neers. Large earthmoving machines have
soft, permeable, and compressible soil; and made construction of zoned, fill dams more
1 75
Cross section of a typical fill dam.

economical than construction of concrete irregularly) and permeable (allowing water
dams at many sites. to pass under the dam). The foundation area
also includes the abutments, which are the
hillsides forming the two ends of the dam.
The Construction Process Soil and soft or highly fractured rock are ex-
Fill dams are constructed in the dry sea- cavated, sorted by type, and stockpiled for
son when water levels in the river or later use in dam construction. The surface of
stream are lower, rainfall on sources of fill the foundation bedrock is cleaned to a sur-
prising degree; it is broomed and hosed with
material is less likely, and conditions are bet-
ter for operating large construction equip- water so that any voids or irregularities are
ment. Before construction actually begins, visible and cleaned of soft soil. The founda-
the site is surveyed to locate the dam align- tion is carefully inspected before any con-
ment on the existing ground, the areas that struction work; additional exploratory
will be excavated, and the borrow areas or drilling may be done if there are any ques-
sources for the soil or rock used in constructions about the foundation's condition. If the
tion. Construction management facilities are rock is fractured or contains voids or holes,
set up; usually, the construction manager (a these are sealed with cement grout that is in-
field engineer with years of similar experi- jected through small diameter drill holes in a
ence) will work out of a trailer on site. De- process called dental work.
pending on the site, it may be necessary to 3 The base of the dam must go down into
install instruments to monitor the effects of 3the ground before it rises above it. A
dam construction on adjacent hillsides or trench that is the full width of the dam
other features and to measure groundwater (across the channel) is cut into firm rock.
levels throughout construction in the founda- The trench is called a keyway or cutoff wall
tion and surroundings. And, of course, the and may have several benches or notches
flow of the stream that is being dammed into rock. It prevents the dam from sliding
through the site must be stopped. This can be along a smooth foundation and also creates
done by a variety of methods including di- a longer path for any seepage to try to flow
verting the stream, perhaps to flow through a under the dam. The impervious clay that
neighboring channel, or stopping it upstream will make up the core of the dam is placed
with a temporary dam or cofferdam. in the keyway and compacted and raised,
layer by layer, until the top of the keyway or
2 Before construction of the dam begins, base of the majority of the foundation is
the foundation area must be prepared. In reached.
rare cases, dams can be constructed directly
on the existing materials in the channel A The soil in the keyway and all the zones
floor; at most sites, these materials are com- of the dam are raised to the same levels
pressible (and would cause the dam to settle at the same time. Ramps may have to be cut
1 76
Fill Dam
Aeriol view of a planned fill dam.

into the keyway area for the construction ry (for large dams, an on-site soil lab is in-
equipment, and then they must be built up to stalled in a construction trailer) for a variety
the working surface of the rising top of the of classification tests. Meanwhile, the in-
dam. Whenever possible, roads are cut in spector uses a nuclear density gauge to test
from the two sides (abutments) of the dam the soil for density and moisture content
for the easiest access; eventually, an access when it has been placed and compacted.
road will be built on the crest of the dam and The nuclear density gauge uses a very tiny
extending onto these abutments. radioactive source to emit radioactive parti-
cles into the soil; the particles bounce back
Large earthmovers haul the specific type of onto a detector plate and indicate the mois-
soil needed to raise the zone of the dam they ture and density of the soil in place. The
are working on. The soil is spread in thin process is not harmful to the environment
layers, usually 6-8 in (15.2-20.3 cm) thick, or the operator (who wears a badge to mon-
sprayed with water to the correct moisture itor radioactive exposure) and provides data
content, and compacted with sheepsfoot without having to excavate and sample. If
rollers (compactive rollers with prongs re- the compaction requirements are not met,
sembling animal hooves mounted in rows that layer of soil is excavated, placed again,
around the roller that press and vibrate the and recompacted until its moisture and den-
soil firmly in place). If gravel is used in con- sity are suitable.
struction, a vibrating roller is used to vibrate
the grains together so their angles intermesh Construction of the fill dam proceeds layer
and leave no openings. by layer and zone by zone until the height of
each zone and, eventually, the crest of the
Throughout the compaction process, in- dam are reached. If the entire dam cannot be
spectors approve the soil that is hauled on built in one construction season, the dam is
site and hauled to the particular zone of the usually designed in phases or stages. Com-
dam. They reject material that is contami- pleting a construction stage (or the entire
nated with grasses, roots, trash, or other de- dam) is often a race against time, the weath-
bris; and they also reject soil that does not er, and the project budget.
appear to be the proper grain size for that
zone of the dam. For quality control, sam- 5 Some earth dams have instruments in-
ples are collected and tested in the laborato- stalled in them at the same time as fill
1 77
placement is done, and the instruments are period. Monitoring of the dam's perfor-
constructed to the surface in layers and mance, both by instruments and simple ob-
zones, just like the fill. The condition of servation, is performed routinely; and safety
the dam is monitored throughout its life- plans are filed with local emergency ser-
time, as required by federal, state, and vices so that sudden changes in instrument
local laws and by standards of engineering readings or the appearance of the dam or its
practice. Types of instruments vary de- reservoir triggers actions to alert and evacu-
pending on the location of the dam; almost ate persons living in the path of flood waters
all dams have settlement monuments that downstream. Repairs are also performed
are surveyed to measure any settlement in routinely.
the surface or zones of the dam, slope indi-
cators to show if the sloping faces inside
or on the surface of the dam are moving, Quality Control
and water-level indicators to monitor the Quality engineering is essential in the con-
water level in the dam's zones. Dams in struction of a fill dam because the materials
seismically active areas may also be used have lower strength properties than the
equipped with instruments to measure steel and concrete required for concrete
ground shaking. dams and because placement ultimately de-
termine strength, potential for problems like
Fill dams may have a variety of other fa- seepage and settlement, and finally perfor-
6cilities, depending on their, size, use, mance and safety. The geotechnical project
and location. An emergency spillway is re- engineer occupies the key role of making
quired at all dams to allow for flood waters sure the design and earth materials match to
to flow over an escape route, rather than make a safe product; but many other profes-
over the top of the dam. Other spillways for sionals including geologists, construction
production of hydroelectric power may be technicians, other engineers, and the repre-
designed and constructed at power-generat- sentatives of overseeing agencies are fully
ing dams, and inlet and outlet tunnels are committed to the same purpose.
needed to release water for irrigation and
drinking-water supplies at embankments
built for those purposes. At fill dams, it is Byproducts/Waste
usually desirable to place these other facili-
There are no byproducts in fill dam con-
ties in excavations through the foundation or
abutment rock; the process of compacting struction, although fill is sometimes generat-
earth against structures that actually pass ed for building access roads and other sup-
through the fill is tricky and allows for seep- port structures. Waste is also minimal to
nonexistent; excavation of excess soil and
age paths.
especially rock is very expensive as is haul-
7 Sometimes the reservoir area is also ing these materials so waste is engineered
7cleared when it is to be filled with water, out of the design.
particularly if lumber can be harvested. It is
not necessary (and it is much too expensive) The Future
to clear it of all shrubs and grass. The
process of filling the reservoir is relatively Primarily due to environmental concems,
slow, so most wildlife will move as the design and construction of any dam in the
water level rises; areas of concem include future will be a much-studied and controver-
habitats for rare or endangered species, and sial process. Fill dams, however, tend to be
drowning of these habitats has been a con- perceived as more environmentally friendly
cem in the construction of a number of because they are made of earth materials
dams. and blend into the scenery better than mono-
lithic concrete structures. Fill dams have
When the dam is complete, the water that proven useful and less expensive solutions
was diverted from the stream channel is al- to meeting human needs for water supply,
lowed to fill the reservoir. As the water and vast improvements in engineering tech-
rises, it is also rising in portions of the dam, nology have improved their safety record in
and instruments within the dam are moni- the late twentieth century. Although many
tored carefully during the reservoir-filling costs and agendas must be considered in
1 78
Fill Dam
building dams, fill dams have and will con- otechnics. New York: McGraw-Hill Book
tinue to prove themselves allies in the needs Co. Inc., 1957.
to provide drinking water, irrigation supply,
and flood control. Sherard, James, et al. Earth and Earth-Rock
Dams. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1963.
Where to Learn More
Smith, Norman. A History of Dams. Secau-
Books cus, New Jersey: The Citadel Press, 1972.
Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of
the Interior. Design of Small Dams. Wash- Periodicals
ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Of- Monastersky, Richard. "Dams on Demand."
fice, 1977. Science News (August 29, 1992):138.
Jansen, Robert B. Dams and Public Safety. -Gillian S. Holmes
Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of the Interior,
Water and Power Resources Service, 1980.
Krynine, Dimitri P. and William L. Judd.

Principles of Engineering Geology and Ge-
1 79
Fishing Fly
Fishing flies are tied in Background Instead, they look like minnows, other bait-
fish, or leeches. Long feathers or hair from
over 5,000 patterns and A fishing fly is a hook that has been dressed deers' tails (bucktails) suggest the shapes of
with pieces of feathers, fur, thread, and other these slender creatures.
sizes, and each has a materials to resemble a literal fly or some
specific name. other small insect or fish. Fishing flies are Fly-makers, usually called tiers, advocate
tied in over 5,000 patterns and sizes, and one of two schools. The traditionalists be-
each has a specific name. The "Cosmo Gor- long to the "match the hatch" school, and
don," for example, is a fishing fly that was they try to make flies that look as much like
made for salmon fishing in England around the real thing as possible. These tiers ob-
1900 and is named for the legendary angler. serve the exact shade of this season's hatch-
The "Seth Green American Trout Fly" is lings along the trout stream and dye their
named for a conservationist who, in the nine- flies to match. Other tiers simply believe the
teenth century, restocked the rivers in New school of attraction. The flies they make
England with shad. The "Green Peacock" may not look like any particular insect but
and the "Silver Grey" are named for their are designed to be flashy or to move inter-
general appearance and coloring. Still others, estingly to stimulate the fish's interest.
like the mayfly, caddisfly, or stonefly resem-
ble the insects for which they are named.
History
All varieties of sport fishing depend on the
attraction of the fish to the lures. Fishing Fishing flies are known to be at least 1,700
lures form a large category of artificial de- years old. In the third centuryA.D., Claudius
vices used to attract the fish's attention and Aelianus describes the Hippouros fly made
lure it to the hook. Within the range of fish- by Macedonian fly tiers of hooks, red wool,
ing lures, flies are the most beautiful. The and wax colored feathers from a rooster's
three broad varieties of flies imitating the wattle. The next writings about fly fishing
life cycles of flies and other insects; these didn't appear until 1496 when a nun named
are nymphs, wet flies, and dry flies. The Dame Juliana Berners wrote The Treatyse of
nymph stage is the larval form of the insect Fysshynge wyth an Angle. She chronicled
that lives on stream bottoms. Wet flies are dozens of patterns of trout flies, suggesting
fished from below the surface and may look that the years between Aelianus's observa-
like dead or drowned bugs or insects that are tions and hers were filled with productive
either hatching themselves or laying their fly tying. Wet and dry flies and nymphs
eggs. Dry flies look like insects floating on were all created and perfected in Europe and
the water surface; they can resemble two migrated to the New World with European
stages in the fly's life cycle; either its first colonists. However, streamers and bucktails
flying days after hatching from the nymph are American developments.
stage or the mature fly landing on the water
after having mated. Fishing flies have been an acknowledged art
form for about 200 years. Late in the nine-
Two other types of flies called streamers or teenth century, fishing became an absolute
bucktails don't imitate flying insects at all. craze in the British Isles, and dry flies were a
1 80
Fishing Fly
part of this rage. Purists began to imitate na- Flies that imitate nature can be miniature
ture's perfection, and some of the most beau- works of art that are tied, dyed, and painted
tiful and collectible specimens of artificial fly in meticulous detail, like the "Lew Oat-
date from this era. Emphasis shifted around man's Brook Trout" fly that has tiny yellow
the 1920s when wet flies became more popu- and red spots of paint touched along its
lar and were sometimes made with as many sides. Tiers in the realistic school rightly
as 20 different kinds of feathers. After World consider themselves artists. Tiers in the at-
War II, the availability of plastics and syn- traction school may go for simpler, more
thetics changed fly-tying interests again to- colorful materials including bits of plastic or
ward the attraction school of fly design, and metallic flash; they also tend to advocate
enthusiasm for saltwater fishing also stimu- flashier names for their creations. The
lated creation of new types of flies. "Mickey Finn" fly is devilishly detailed in
its construction and ridiculously garish and
Designs of flies have diversified as sports- yet this is among the most popular classic
men's interests in different fish have salmon flies.
changed and even as the environment has
caused shifts in the kinds of fish available. Designs of flies use bits of feather and fur
The different types of flies also require fish- tied to the hook to look like the segmented
ing at faster or slower speeds and copying bodies of insects. The basic segments of a
the darting, diving, or twitching motions of dry fly are the long and stiff tail, the body,
the real-life insect or the dead drift of the the hackle (a flayed section of feathers that
dry fly; skill at manipulating the line and looks like legs touching the water), and out-
knowledge of the behaviors of both bait and stretched wings. A class of dry fly called the
prey are definitely parts of the art, history, emerger fly rides on the water with its tail
and science of fly fishing. sunk below the surface; iridescent material
is used to design the tail to resemble an egg
Rawv Materials sack. On a wet fly, the hackle is sparse, and
the wing is folded back over the body.
There are four broad classes of materials Nymphs, streamers, and bucktails have soft
used in fly-tying. Metal parts include hooks tail and body material, which is sometimes
and lead wire to add weight; tiers purchase wrapped around lead to make them sink
these from suppliers. Synthetic materials in- more quickly. They also have long, soft
clude plastics, poly-yam with a silicon wings often made of marabou feathers that
dressing, foam, and gold and silver mylar. make the silhouettes like minnows.
Fabrics and threads are part of the tier's sup-
ply arsenal and are typically sewing thread,
embroidery floss, and crochet thread; wool The Manufacturing
and burlap; and synthetics like chenille. Process
Natural materials consist of many types of Essential tools of the fly tier are dextrous
fur (rabbit, fox, seal, and mink), hair (elk, fingers, patience, excellent eyesight, cre-
caribou, and deer), different types of fur or ativity, and ability to visualize the spacing
hair from various parts or the bodies of these of the fly's segments as he or she ties from
animals and especially their under fur, and the tail (hook bend) toward the head (hook
feathers (chicken, peacock, and marabou, eye). The tools of the workbench consist of
among many), again from different parts of a special, y-shaped bobbin for holding a
the bodies of these birds. Other incidental spool of thread, fine scissors, and a vise. A
materials like beeswax, dyes, head cement rotary vise is especially useful for turning
(to coat the several wraps of thread that rep- the fly during the process.
resent the head of the insect), and paint for
eyes are used in tiny amounts. 2 The tier assembles a collection of mate-
-rials specific to the type of fly, for exam-
Design ple, a "Royal Coachman," which is an at-
tractor dry fly with a red floss body,
At least 10,000 published fly patterns fill iridescent green collars made of peacock
tiers' catalogs, and their names range from herl (part of the peacock feather below the
pure poetry to those that sound like mem- eye that appears flat brown until light strikes
bers of the World Wrestling Federation. tiny, curled fibers on the edges of the feath-
18 1
er's barbules that are bright green), white fasten the quill tightly. When the fly is cast
hair for the wings, and brown feathers for on the water later, the tips of the stiff feather
the pseudo-insect's hackle or legs. A right- barbules of the hackle will touch the water,
handed tier will mount the hook (of the cor- support the fly by surface-water tension, and
rect size and weight) in the vise with the eye look from under the water surface to the un-
to the right and the bent hook to the left. The suspecting fish like insect legs. The head is
y-shaped bobbin has a spool of thread finished with three to five wraps of thread.
clasped between the two branches of the Sometimes the head is coated with head ce-
"Y," and the sewing floss is threaded ment to protect the threads.
through the long leg of the "Y." It is held in
tension in this devise but releases easily 6 The tier is ready for his next fly. If he or
when pulled as the bobbin unit is either cir- 6she chooses to make the leech-like
cled around the fly in a stationary vise or "Woolie Bugger" as his next specimen, the
held while the vise itself rotates. tier will again assemble the needed materi-
als. Unlike the "Royal Coachman," a dry fly
3 To create a secure working platform, the that perches on the water surface, the
vtier ties the thread near the eye of the "Woolie Bugger" is a bottom dwelling fly
hook and wraps thread around the hook all that looks like a succulent leech. To make
along its shank to the beginning of the bend the "Woolie Bugger" sink, the tier begins
in the hook and back toward the eye. To this fly by twisting two or three wraps of
make the tail, four to six feather barbules lead wire around the hook near the head end
(barbs that are the individual strands in a to make it heavier. A marabou feather is se-
bird's feather) are tied close to the curved lected to imitate the leech body; when dry,
end of the hook with several wraps of thread the marabou feather is soft and fluffy, but
that are drawn tight. Where the tail meets when saturated in the stream, it forms a
the main part of the body, a collar of pea- sleek leech. Alternatively, the tier may use
cock herl is tied on. Several wraps of thread chenille for the body and webby hackle ma-
fix this collar snugly to shank of the hook. terial to make the "Woolie Bugger." The
The body is made with wraps of red floss. thread wrap is applied to the weighted hook,
The red floss is extended toward the eye and construction of the fly proceeds similar-
until about 60% of the length of the hook ly to the method described above.
shank is covered. Another collar of peacock
herl is wrapped around the hook to the right Quality Control
of the wrapped body.
The tier's judgment, visual appreciation,
4 The wings are created from a tuft of and sense of touch are the controlling fea-
white hair from a calf s tail or other suit- tures in the quality of the handmade fly. The
able material. The hairs must be even at the ultimate quality control assessment will be
tips; the hairs are dropped in a hair stacker- rendered by a trout, bass, or salmon who
a tube-within-a-tube that is tapped so all the senses an invader in his territory or a tasty
hair tips are lined up. The tier pinches the treat to line its belly.
squared hairs between the fingers and ties
them to the hook with several thread wraps. Byproducts/Waste
The bundle of hair is split into two wings
and figure-eight wraps of thread hold the two There are no byproducts from the hand tying
wings apart and angled up from the body. of fishing flies. After materials are assem-
bled, many varieties of flies can be made
5 A tannish brown chicken feather from a from similar supplies. Waste consists mostly
Jchicken that has been specially bred to of fine bits of thread, fur, and feathers.
produce neck feathers with hard, uniform
barbules is selected for the hackle-the
bug's legs. The quill end of the feather is The Future
stripped of soft feather barbules near the Fly fishing is one of the most popular sports
base. The center quill is wrapped around the in the United States, and the momentum
fly to the right (eye end) of the wing attach- shows no sign of slowing. In their search for
ment. The curving of the quill causes the the "perfect" fly, many fish-seekers turn to
barbules to flay out. A few wraps of thread tying their own flies, especially as a winter
1 82
Fishing Fly
Fishing fly designs use bits of
feather and fur tied to the hook to
look like the segmented bodies of
insects. The basic segments of a
dry fly are the long and stiff tail,
the body, the hackle (a flayed sec-
tion of feathers that looks like legs
touching the water), and out-
stretched wings. On a wet fly, the
hackle is sparse, and the wing is
folded back over the body.
Nymphs, streamers, and bucktails
have soft tail and body material,
which is sometimes wrapped
around lead to make them sink
Wet fly more quickly. They also have
long, soft wings often made of
marabou feathers that make the
silhouettes like minnows. The tier
uses a special, y-shaped bobbin
for holding a spool of thread, fine
scissors, and a vise. A rotary vise
is especially useful for turning the
fly during the process. Different
materials are used depending on
the type of fly.
Dry fly
preoccupation to wile away the days until Where to Learn More

the streams thaw and the fish run.
Books
The future is also promising for fly tiers who Leonard, J. Edson. The Essential Fly Tier.
dream of seeing their names in print; shelves Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
of books on fly fishing and fly tying fill book 1976.
stores and also help fishing hobbyists pass
the dreary, fishing-free days. Historic inter- Neff, Sid. "Fishing Tackle: Beautiful Tools
est in hand-tied flies has also become a mini- of Sport." In The Encyclopedia of Col-
industry with museums and flies on Internet lectibles: Dogs to Fishing Tackle. Alexan-
auction sites. Collectors of fishing flies value dria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1978.
them by the person who tied the fly. The
products of master tiers are artworks without
signatures. Carrie Stevens of Maine (1882- Shaw, Helen. Fly-Tying. New York: Nick
1972) was acknowledged as a master tier, Lyons Books, 1987.
and she marked her flies with a tiny red band
on the head of the fly. Other tiers' works Toth, Mike. The Complete Idiot's Guide to
must be identified by original paper backings Fishing Basics. New York: Alpha Books,
or envelopes with the tier's name. Whether 1997.
parts of a prized collection or residents in a
tackle box, hand-tied fishing flies experience Whitlock, Dave. L. L. Bean Fly Fishing for
secure futures that would be the envy of their Bass Handbook. New York: Nick Lyons
natural counterparts. Books, 1988.
1 83
Zahner, Don, ed. Fly Fisherman's Complete Other

Guide to Fishing with the Fly Rod. New
York: Ziff-Davis Publishing Company, American Museum of Fly Fishing. 1998.
1978. http://www.amff.com/ (June 28, 1999).
Cabelas Inc. 1999. http://www.cabelas.com/
Periodicals (June 28, 1999).
Raymond, Steve. "The best of flies are The Virtual Flyshop.1994-1999. http://
those that can catch fish and the imagina- www.flyshop.com/ (June 28, 1999).
tion."Sports Illustrated (July 2, 1984): 76.
-Gillian S. Holmes
Wright, Leonard W. Jr. "The all-American
fly: why has this classic lure stood the test
of time? Because it works."Field & Stream
(November 1995): 62+.
1 84
Fishing Lure
Background squirrel's tail may add interest. Near the top Sport fishing is now a
eye, a flat metal oval, similar to a spoon, is
The way to a fish's stomach is through his attached with a fine wire. This oval is called a huge business, with over
eyeballs, and fishing lures are objects that spinner blade; in the water, it spins around
resemble any of the naturally occurring the body to provide fish-luring movement.
$620 million spent on
foods that fish might find attractive. The fishing lures in 1991.
purpose of the lure is to use movement,
color, and vibration to grab the fish's atten- Spinnerbaits are also known as hairpin lures
tion and cause him to bite the hook. Lures because they have wire spines that are bent
also seem to have the purpose of attracting to form a v-shape, much like a spread hair-
the fishermen's attention. Sport fishing is pin. A spinner is wired to an eye at one end
now a huge business, with over $620 mil- of the spinnerbait. At the other end, a hook
lion spent on fishing lures in 1991. is concealed in a skirt. The fishing line is
tied to the bend forming the two arms of the
Lures fall into several broad categories, lure. These lures are relatively large and
each with specific characteristics that catch have two points of action in the skirt and the
the fish's attention. All lures have to be kept spinner. Buzzbaits are close cousins of spin-
moving when they are in the water to be ef- nerbaits and have small propellers on one
fective in mimicking the actions of live bait. arm instead of the spinner. These propellers
attract the catch by vibration rather than
Spoons are among the simplest of lure flashing light.
shapes. As their name suggests, they are
rounded pieces of flat metal, just like the Plugs encompass a wide variety of lures.
bowl of a dinner-table spoon. They can be Originally, a plug was a piece of wood or
colored or polished on both sides and use cork shaped like a minnow with hooks on
flashes of reflected light to resemble min- the belly and tail. Now the term includes all
nows. A single hook can be fastened inside wood or plastic objects that are shaped like
the bowl of the spoon, or a three-pronged minnows, other baitfish, and other prey
(treble) hook can be attached to one end ranging from crayfish and salamanders to
through a small hole. A hole at the opposite small rodents. Plugs can be less than I in
end is used to attach the fishing line. The (2.54 cm) long and up to 8 in (20.32 cm)
weight of the metal makes it easy to cast, long. Poppers, also called topwater plugs,
troll, and retrieve. float on the water so they resemble frogs or
surface-splashing baitfish. Plugs called
Spinners are more complicated in appearance floater-diver plugs may have several sets of
with several parts. A wire shaft forms the treble hooks on their undersides as well as
spine of the spinner, and it has loops or eyes small metal or plastic scoops, termed lips,
at both ends, one for attaching the fishing line near the line end of the lure. This plug
and the other for the hook. The body of the floats on the water surface until the fisher-
spinner is fixed along the metal spine. It can man begins to reel in the lure, then it dives
be made of a row of colored beads or collec- below the water surface in imitation of the
tions of metal rings or cylinders that sparkle motion of a minnow. The lip causes the div-
and glimmer. A skirt of hair made from a ing action. A crankbait also has a lip that
1 85
causes it to dive when retrieved, but it has a twisted flax to make his fishing line. There
wider body and dives deeper (up to 20 ft is little documentation of advances in fish-
[6.1 m]) with a wobbling motion like the ing tackle throughout the European me-
wriggle of a baitfish. Jerkbaits or stickbaits dieval and Renaissance periods, but, in
float but don't have any motion-causing de- 1653, Izaak Walton wrote what is probably
vices like other plugs. The fisherman has to the most famous book ever to have been
manipulate the rod tip to make these plugs penned on fishing. His The Compleat An-
life-like. gler or The Contemplative Man's Recre-
ation described all of the sport fisherman's
Jigs seem too simple to be true. They are necessities including fishing line, hooks,
weighted hooks with a lead head right be- flies, and appropriate attitudes. He wrote
hind the hook's eye. The heads and hooks about fishing for trout in streams in the Eng-
come in many sizes, weights, and shapes lish countryside, and his poetic style created
with skirts mounted immediately behind the an ideal that is associated with sport fishing
heads to camouflage the business end of the today as well as describing the practical as-
hook. For jigs (also called leadheads) to be pects of line and rod.
effective, they need to dance on the stream
bottom like minnows or crawdads, and the By the 1830s and 1840s in both England
fisherman has to apply the right motion to and America, the making of fishing tackle
the rod. This action, called jigging, gives began to change from the monopoly of the
them their name. Jigs are often fished with individual craftsmen to commercial manu-
so-called "sweeteners" that are either live facturing ventures. From the early 1900s,
bait or plastic lures. the firm of Heddon and Pflueger in Michi-
gan led the production of commercially
Plastic lures are imitations of worms, bait made lures. These lures were often de-
fish, bottom-dwellers, and even snakes and signed from proven lures that were simply
amphibians. They are molded of soft plastic, pounded out of old kitchen spoons or whit-
often in lurid colors, although blacks and tled from pieces of wood. Rods and reels
blues seem to be preferred by fish. Again, were handmade by jewelers and watchmak-
the motion of the lure and its effectiveness ers from the early 1800s. This craft experi-
depend on the dramatics of the angler. enced many technical improvements as rod
and reel production became commercial
History throughout the 1870s and 1880s. Advances
in fishing line waited until after World War
The caves and remains of habitations of an- II when braided nylon followed by monofil-
cient man have been found to hold fish ament line improved the success rate in all
hooks carved out of bone and molded out of types of fishing. Aided by the availability
bronze. The ancient Greeks and Romans of more leisure time, fishing exploded as a
both advocated fishing for sport, as well as hobby and sport.
for food, but Chinese and Egyptian archaeo-
logical digs have shown that fishing rods,
hooks, and lines were known as early as Rawv Materials
2,OOOB.c., or far earlier than the Greek and
Roman civilizations. Bronze barbed hooks Materials for the manufacture of fishing
were used by the Egyptians; these hooks re- lures include metal, wood, cork, and plastic,
sulting from the alloy of tin and copper depending on the type of lure. Most lure-
made hard, strong hooks that also could be makers, whether commercial manufacturers
worked until they were very thin and less or amateurs do not make the individual
visible to the fish. The Chinese spun fine components themselves except for poured
fishing line from silk and used rice and lead pieces and some molded plastic. In-
small carp for bait. stead, specialty suppliers make the parts for
manufacturers and hobbyists to assemble.
Claudius Aelianus, a Roman who lived dur- Metal parts include hooks, wire, beads,
ing the third centuryA.D., wrote of fly-fish- blades, ball bearings, rings, loops, and spac-
ing for trout and other kinds of sport fishing. ers. Kinds of metal used are stainless steel
He made lures of feathers, lead, bronze, and or titanium, lead, and some brass. Pieces of
wild boar's bristles and used horsehair and cut, carved, and shaped wood and cork are
1 86
Fishing Lure
used for the bodies of plugs. Plastic bodies molding process, molded heads are made
are also popular, and many of the ornaments individually.
and attractions on lures are plastic, such as
skirts and weed guards. Plastic lures them- 2 When the lead has hardened and cooled,
selves can be molded by the hobbyist with 2the head is finished by hand painting or
simple hinged metal molds and plastic that spraying it, attaching prefabricated stick-on
is melted and poured. eyes, and finishing the heads with a clear
coating that protects them. Usually, epoxy
Design or polyurethane are applied.
While designs of lures fall into some broad At the end of the other leg of the lure, a
categories, as described above, they can also 3flat metal piece called a blade or spinner
be highly individual. is attached to the eye of wire leg. Several
other connectors go between the blade and
The Manufacturing the wire, and the number and selection of
Process pieces can vary considerably. For this ex-
ample, a ball bearing, small shaft, and split
The manufacturing processes for two kinds ring are attached to the loop in the wire and
of lures are detailed below. They are the crimped down. The blades also have their
"pulsator spinnerbait," a product of Nichols own personalities; the Colorado is round,
Lures Incorporated (one of few lure manu- the Indiana is tear-drop-shaped, and the
facturers remaining in the United States), willow looks like an elongated willow leaf.
and a simple jig. These are two of the most The action of the water against the blade
popular lures in use. The spinnerbait origi- causes it to spin in the water and flash in the
nated as a safety pin, and it can be fished on light. Spinners are die-cut from stainless
the surface, at depth, at speed, or on the bot- steel or titanium (for light weight), and
toms of streams. sometimes they are painted to add visual in-
terest for the fish.
Making a spinnerbait
Production of the spinnerbait begins Two of the most popular varieties of spin-
with an "R"-bend wire or twist wire. It nerbaits are the double willow or the tan-
looks like a hairpin or bobbypin with a dem. Both begin with a wire that has a
hook at the end of one leg and a dogleg longer blade end. The double willow has
bend in the other to form an overall shape two willow blades. The first one is hung
that looks something like an "R" at the from a cleavis, a horseshoe-shaped device
top. A twist wire is similar except that the with two eyes that is threaded onto the wire.
top of the bobbypin is twisted around to Beads, a shaft, and a split ring are connected
form an eyelet shape. The wire is connect- to the wire end, and the second willow blade
ed to the hook during construction of the is added to the ring. The tandem spinnerbait
lead head. The wire and a hook are linked is assembled similarly, except the front
at the hook eye and placed in a hinged blade is a Colorado, and the second spinner
mold. The mold has special channels to is a willow. Again, the combination of beads
hold the wire that emerges from one end and connectors can vary depending on the
of the mold and the hook that has its bend manufacturer's design.
protruding from the other side. The mold
is sized to suit the wire and the hook. At 4 The hook on the other leg of the wire is
the join between the wire and hook, the still exposed. To finish the spinnerbait, a
mold has a small cavity that will shape the skirt-keeper of plastic, rubber, or vinyl is
head. The mold is closed and held by an slipped over the hook. The skirt-keeper
insulated handle at melted lead is poured looks like a piece of tubing except it may
into a gated channel at the top of the have a tiny hook-like extension or a small
mold. Mass-producers of lures have cen- collar that will keep the skirt from sliding
trifugal molds in which a number of lures around on the hook. The skirt itself is also
can be made at once, and the centrifugal plastic, rubber, or vinyl that has die-cut slen-
action swirls the soft lead into all the der bands or threads that wave in the water.
nooks of the mold cavities. In the hand- Skirts come in slip-on varieties or can be
1 87
Materials used to manufacture

fishing lures include metal, wood, tied on. They are also available in many col- Quality Control
cork, and plastic, depending on ors, sizes, and varieties.
the type of lure. Most lure-makers, Quality control is important to the manufac-
whether commercial manufactur- turer in producing a consistently high-quali-
ers or amateurs, do not make the Making a jig ty product that has been proven in the field.
individual components themselves Reputation is a significant selling point in
except for poured lead pieces and The jig is also a lead head. A hook is this competitive business. Components are
some molded plastic. Lures fall 5placed in a lead mold; this mold is dif- chosen with care.
into several broad categories, ferent because the eye of the hook will ex-
each with specific characterisfics tend through the lead head. The lead is
that catch the fish's attention. They poured, cooled, and removed from the mold. Byproducts/Waste
include spoons, spinners, spinner-
baits, plugs, jigs, and plastic lures. Byproducts do not result from lure manufac-
The spinnerbait and jig are the 6 Like the spinnerbait head, the jig's head ture, but the endless combination of compo-
most popular designs. 6is painted and finished. A fiber weed nents and possibilities keeps the creative lure-
guard is placed next to the head to prevent maker busy in producing a range of products.
the jig from tangling in weeds or brush. A Smal amounts of lead and metal waste are
slip-on collar is fitted on the hook between generated and are disposed; the wasted lead is
the head and the bend in the hook, and a rat- not large enough in quantity to create a haz-
tle is attached. Rattles, again, come in many ard. Similarly, exposure to melted lead or
sizes and forms, and their purpose is to imi- fumes during the head-molding process is not
tate the sound of a crayfish or crawdad large enough to be measurable and does not
under the water. present a safety hazard, either to the assem-
bly-line worker or the home hobbyist.
7 A skirt-keeper and skirt are fastened on
the hook. The jig itself is finished, but
the jig can also be used as the hook end on a The Future
spinner rig to make a jig-spinner combina- Lures have a sparkling future, thanks to the
tion. growth in popularity of the sport of fishing,
1 88
Fishing Lure
which shows no signs of slowing down. The Mayes, Jim. How to Make and Repair Your
computer has ventured into lure design, and Own Fishing Tackle: An Illustrated Step-
some of the latest innovations include scent- by-Step Guide for the Fisherman and Hob-
bearing lures, laser-honed hooks, and exteri- byist. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company,
or finishes that are photographically im- 1986.
printed and amazingly realistic. The future
for lure manufacturers in the United States Toth, Mike. The Complete Idiot's Guide to
is not quite so bright. Although lures are Fishing Basics. New York: Alpha Books,
mass-produced, the work still involves hand 1997.
crafting and assembly. Manufacturers can-
not pay laborers the mandated hourly rates Periodicals
and still profit, so much of the work has re- Almy, Gerald. "Golden oldies: 15 tackle-
located to Central America, Southeast Asia, box classics."Sports Afield (February
Taiwan, Haiti, and Mexico. 1997): 106+.

Nichols Lures Inc. http://www.nichols
Books lures.com/ (June 28, 1999).
Livingston, A. D. Luremaking: The Art and Ray's Fishing Lures. April 15, 1999.
Science of Spinnerbaits, Buzzbaits, Jigs, http://www.raysfishing.com/ (June 28, 1999).
and Other Leadheads Camden, ME:
Ragged Mountain Press, 1994. -Gillian S. Holmes
1 89
Fishing Rod
Thirty-one million fishing Background In ancient Greece and Rome, fishing with a
rod was already a common activity. In
licenses were sold in the A fishing rod is a device used in sport fish- Homer's time, or around 900B.c., and in
ing that consists of a long pole with a line Plato's time, or around 400B.c., fishing with
United States in 1992, held in place alongside it with the use of a barbed hook, rod and line were known. The
compared to 20 million in guides. Usually the line is kept in storage on line was made from either horsehair or finely
a reel that the angler spins to both take up
woven flax. The rod is believed to have been
1959. and let out the line while casting. At the made from Arundo donax, a plant native to
loose end of the line is a hook to hold the the Mediterranean area and the largest of Eu-
bait, either live worms and insects or artifi- ropean reeds. It grows up to 20-30 ft (6.1-9.1
cial lures, as well as bobbers (or floats) and m) long, and it is knotted. A plant known as
sinkers that keep the bait at the proper level ferula might have been the source for smaller
in the water. rods, but comel wood, a slender hardwood,
or juniper might also have been used. The rod
History was jointed, either by tying the parts together
with string, or tiny pieces of metal known
Ever since humans began gathering foods,
today as ferrules could have been used. The
the living creatures in water have been con-
sidered possible sources of nutrition, and
bronze hook was not tied on; rather, the top
of the hook extended over the string in a
many ways were devised to catch a suffi-
cient number of fish in a simple fashion. sheath to keep fish from biting through the
Nets and weirs, which are dams often line. Sometimes a piece of lead was attached
to the hook to ensure depth, while fly fishing
woven from reeds and placed in streams,
were both used to gather a great number of
quickly developed when it was learned that
some kinds of fish would eat flies off the sur-
fish, which could then be sorted into edible
face of the water. The bait used in fly fishing
and undesirable fish.
was a piece of red wool with rooster feathers
The very earliest rods were made of wood, attached. The feathers presumably appeared
bone, or stone and were called gorges. as a waxy color to the fish, hence resembling
These gorges were only about 1 in (2.54 cm) fly's wings, and they helped keep the bait
long and were pointed at both ends. A bait afloat. Anglers had no running tackle-they
and line were attached to these gorges, had to pull the line in using force.
which soon were made of metal. Fishers
would use gorges to fish from boats. Longer Angling captured the imagination of Greek
rods began to be used soon after, at first just and Roman scholars. Plutarch wrote that a
a simple tree branch about a yard (0.9 m) good rod must be slender and springy, be-
long, and anglers could then fish from shore cause a heavy rod would cast a shadow and
with ease. Pictures of angling show it as an scare the fish. The line must not have knots
accepted sport in ancient Egypt around 2000 or be coarse, and it should be white so as to
B.C. A Chinese written account from around match the color of the water. Dionysius
the fourth century B.C. describes a bamboo wrote that an angler with two rods, four
rod, with a silk line, a needle used as a hook, hooks apiece, and an assistant could catch
and rice as bait. more fish than a net, if good bait is used.
1 90
Fishing Rod
Fishing rods changed only slightly for more The Manufacturing
than a thousand years. In England in 1496, a Process
nun named Dame Juliana Bemers wrote The
Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle. This Fishing rods consist of tubular sections,
book described artificial flies, some of which known as blanks, and various smaller com-
are still used today, and rods 18-22 ft (5.5- ponents attached to them. Blanks are some-
6.7 m) long with lines made of horsehair. times made of bamboo, but most blanks are
made from strong, flexible fibers, such as
During the middle of the seventeenth centu- fiberglass or carbon fiber.
ry, the fishing rod was greatly improved by
adding a wire loop or ring at the tip. This al- Making bamboo blanks
lowed the line to be let out and pulled in 1 Bamboo is shipped to the fishing rod
easily. Lines at least 26 yd (23.8 m) long manufacturer in the form of hollow canes
were mentioned by 1667. Such lengthy lines about 6-8 ft (1.8-2.4 m) long and about
led to the development of the reel. The first 1.25-2 in (3.2-5.1 cm) wide. The canes are
reels were wooden spools with a metal ring split in half lengthwise with a heavy knife or
which fitted over the fisher's thumb. By a cutting machine. The interior of the split
1770, fishing rods with guides along the cane contains thin partitions spaced about
length and reels were in common use. 15-18 in (38.1-45.7 cm) apart. These natural
Fishing rods were improved during this pe- partitions occur at the points where leaves
riod by replacing heavy European woods emerge from the bamboo plant. They are re-
with tough, elastic woods, such as lance- moved with a chisel or cutting tool. The
wood and greenheart, both from the New bamboo may then be heated briefly to hard-
World. Bamboo from the East was also en it. Some makers of bamboo blanks soak
used. By the late nineteenth century, hexag- the bamboo with a liquid plastic resin to
onal fishing rods were made by laminating strengthen it and to make it waterproof.
six triangular strips of bamboo. At the same 2 Precision cutting tools cut the bamboo
time, reels were greatly improved. Horse- into long strips. An accuracy of about
hair lines were replaced by silk coated with one one-thousandth of an inch (0.03 mm) in
oxidized linseed oil. the width of the strips is necessary to ensure
that the strips will fit together properly. Six
During the twentieth century, fishing rods strips are usually used to make a hexagonal
became shorter and lighter without losing blank. Some manufacturers use five strips to
strength. Bamboo was replaced by fiber- make a pentagonal blank. The strips are
glass or carbon fiber. Nylon became the glued together under heavy pressure. Strong
dominant material for use in fishing lines thread is wrapped around the strips to main-
after World War II, and plastic became used tain pressure at the points where they meet.
to make artificial flies. Fishing became an The glue is allowed to dry, the string is re-
increasingly popular sport in the late twenti- moved, and the blank is lightly sanded to re-
eth century. Thirty-one million fishing li- move excess glue and to provide a smooth
censes were sold in the United States in surface.
1992, compared to 20 million in 1959.
Making synthetic fiber blanks
Raw Materials 3 Fiberglass can be made from a variety
Although some fishing rods are still made of vof glasses. Sand (silicon dioxide) and
bamboo, most modem rods are made of limestone (calcium carbonate) are mixed
fiberglass or carbon fiber. The ferrules, with varying amounts of other ingredients,
which hold the portions of the rod together, which may include sodium carbonate,
are made of metal or fiberglass. The grips potassium carbonate, aluminum hydroxide,
on fishing rods are usually made of cork, but aluminum oxide, magnesium oxide, or
are sometimes made of plastic, wood, or boric oxide. These ingredients are added to
cloth. Reel seats are made of aluminum or waste glass of the same type, known as cul-
other metals or plastic. Guides are made of let. The cullet acts as a flux, causing the
chrome-plated brass or tungsten carbide and other ingredients to melt together at a lower
an alloy called nickel silver. temperature than they would without it. The
1 91
A typical fishing rod.

End ring-
Graduated guide
=1
Male ferrule-,
Female ferrule,
Handle butt grip
1 92
Fishing Rod
mixture is melted into a liquid in a furnace the polymer film to shrink, applying pres-
to form molten glass. The molten glass is sure to the fiber as the resin hardens. The
then forced through a steel device contain- mandrel is removed from the hardened fiber
ing numerous small holes known as spin- by using a pressurized ram to force it
nerets. The emerging glass cools into fibers, through a die. The polymer film is removed
which are spun into yarn. The yarn is then using a wire brush, a tumbler, high-pressure
woven into sheets. steam, splitting, or stripping. The blank is
lightly sanded to remove excess resin and to
4 Carbon fiber is derived from various provide a smooth surface. It is then coated
synthetic fibers. These fibers are poly- with layers of various protective materials.
mers, which consist of long chains of mole- The blank is buffed between each coating to
cules which contain numerous carbon atoms. give it a smooth finish.
Carbon fiber can be made from rayon, a syn-
thetic fiber derived from cellulose, a natural
polymer found in plants. It can also be made Assembling the fishing rod
from acrylic, a synthetic fiber derived from 8 Most fishing rods are made up of two or
an artificial polymer of acrylonitrile mole- Cthree blanks, allowing the rod to be dis-
cules, which are obtained indirectly from pe- assembled for ease in storage and trans-
troleum. The synthetic fiber is heated, forc- portation. Usually the blanks are attached
ing out atoms other than carbon, resulting in together with connectors known as ferrules.
long chains of carbon atoms. (If the fiber is Ferrules are made from metal or fiberglass,
heated too strongly, the carbon atoms will and are attached to the ends of the blanks
form sheets instead of chains, resulting in with strong cement.
graphite.) The carbon fiber is spun into yarn,
which is woven into sheets. 9 Grips for the handles of fishing rods are
made from natural cork, obtained from
5 The fiberglass or carbon fiber sheet is the outer bark of certain evergreen oak trees
dipped into a solution of liquid plastic found in Mediterranean regions. They may
resin, then squeezed between metal rollers also be made from synthetic foam rubber.
to leave a controlled amount of resin in the The grip is attached to the end of the blank
sheet. The sheet is then heated to remove with epoxy glue.
excess solvent and to partially harden the
resin until it is slightly sticky. A metal tem- l Guides are small rings which are at-
plate is laid on top of a stack of sheets. A V tached along the length of a fishing
sharp blade cuts around the template, pro- rod in order to control the line during cast-
ducing several cut sheets of the same shape. ing. They also distribute the stress of the
The exact shape varies with the type of rod line evenly on the rod. The guides are made
being made, but generally resembles a ta- by cutting and bending wires of steel or
pering rectangle. chrome-plated brass. They made also be
made from a combination of tungsten car-
6 One edge of the cut sheet is heated in bide and nickel silver. The guide is taped
order to attach it to a tapered steel rod into position on the blank. Nylon thread is
known as a mandrel. The sheet is oriented wrapped around the base of the guide to se-
so that the majority of the fibers line up cure it in place. The wound thread is then
along the length of the mandrel, with about coated with lacquer or varnish.
one-tenth to one-sixth of the fibers at right
angles to the rest. The mandrel is rolled be- A reel seat is the part of a fishing rod
tween two heated metal rollers, known as to which a steel reel, containing nylon
platens, that apply pressure as layers of fiber fishing line, can be attached. Reel seats are
are wrapped around the mandrel. A thin film made from aluminum, chrome-plated brass,
of a synthetic polymer, such as cellophane or plastic, then attached to blanks.
or polyester, is wrapped around the layers of
fiber. 12 The fishing rod is packaged and
shipped to retailers. The consumer as-
7The wrapped mandrel is heated in an sembles the fishing rod, attaches a reel, and
oven to about 300-350° F (150-180° C) threads the line from the reel through the
for about 30-60 minutes. The heat causes guides.
1 93
Modern fishing rods are made

using fiberglass or carbon fiber
sheets. Coated with liquid plastic
resin, the sheets are attached at
one end of a steel rod called a
mandrel. The mandrel is rolled be-
tween two heated metal rollers,
known as platens, that apply pres-
sure as layers of fiber are
wrapped around the mandrel. The
wrapped mandrel is heated, caus-
ing the resin to harden. Next, a
pressurized ram removes the
mandrel from the hardened fiber
blank. The blank is lightly sanded
to remove excess resin and to pro-
vide a smooth surface. It is then
coated with layers of various pro-
tective materials. The blank is
buffed between each coating to
give it a smooth finish.
Qucslity Control During the assembly process, all the parts

must fit together correctly. Ferrules must be
Testing of a fishing rod begins soon after a lined up correctly and must have the proper
new design is developed. A prototype of the dimensions to allow the fishing rod to be as-
new product is manufactured and used to
sembled easily without being too loose.
catch fish in a variety of outdoor conditions. Guides must be spaced the correct distance
The design is altered as necessary, and the apart. If they are too far apart, the line will
process is repeated until the new design
sag. If they are too close together, the line
meets its desired goals. will not move smoothly.
During the manufacture of the blank, the pres-
sure applied to the fiber sheet as it is wrapped
around the mandrel must be uniform, or the The Future
rod will be uneven. Protective finishings ap- Manufacturers of fishing rods are constandy
plied to the blank must be even and not too developing new products which enable con-
thick, or the rod will not function correctly. sumers to cast lines farther and more accu-
1 94
Fishing Rod
Most fishing rods are made up of
two or three blanks, allowing the
rod to be disassembled for ease in
storage and transportation. Usual-
ly the blanks are attached together
with connectors known as ferrules.
Ferrules are made from metal or
fiberglass, and are attached to the
ends of the blanks with strong ce-
ment. Guides are small rings
which are attached along the
length of a fishing rod in order to
control the line during casting. The
guides are made by cutting and
bending wires of steel or chrome-
plated brass. Nylon thread is
wrapped around the base of the
guide to secure it in place. The
wound thread is then coated with
lacquer or varnish.
rately. The future is likely to see this trend Where to Learn More
continue. Fishing rods are also likely to be-
come more and more specialized, with each Periodicals
rod designed to catch fish of a certain weight. Gorant, Jim. "The Guideless Rod."Popular
A recent development suggests that fishing Mechanics (October 1997): 40-42.
rods may be very different in the near fu- Merwin, John, and Ken Schultz. "A Centu-
ture. The Interline fishing rod, manufactured ry of Piscatorial Progress."Field and
by Daiwa, has no guides. Instead, the line Stream (October 1995): 38-41.
runs through the center of the rod and
emerges from its tip. This revolutionary de- Pfeiffer, C. Boyd. "Fishing Rod Re-
sign avoids the common problems of broken pair."Outdoor Life (June/July 1997): 128-
guides and lines tangled in guides. 129.
-Rose Secrest
1 95
Flute
Discovered in Slovenia Background (0.9 m) long and about 0.5 in (1.3 cm) wide,
with between two to six finger holes. Mod-
during 1995, a fragment A flute is a musical instrument that produces em versions of this flute are still used in the
sound when a stream of air is directed Middle East today.
of a cave bear thigh bone against the edge of a hole, causing the air
containing two holes is within the body of the instrument to vibrate. The ancient Greeks used panpipes, probably
Most flutes are tubular, but some are globu- indirectly influenced by more sophisticated
believed by some lar or other shapes. Some flutes are played Chinese versions. The transverse flute was
by blowing air into a mouthpiece, which di- used in Greece and Etruria by the second
scientists to be part of a rects the air against the edge of a hole else- centuryB.c. and later appeared in India,
flute used by where in the flute. These instruments, China, and Japan. Flutes almost disappeared
known as whistle flutes, include the tubular from Europe after the fall of the Roman Em-
Neanderthals more than recorder and the globular ocarina. Other pire, until the Crusades brought Europeans
flutes are played by blowing air directly into contact with the Arabs. Vertical flutes
43,000 years ago. against the edge of the hole. spread from the Middle East to Europe, and
are still used in the Balkans and the Basque
Some flutes are held vertically and are regions of Spain and France. Transverse
played by blowing air against the edge of a flutes spread from the Byzantine Empire to
hole in the end of the flute. These instru- Germany, then appeared in Spain and
ments include Japanese bamboo flutes and France by the fourteenth century.
the panpipe. The panpipe, also known as the
syrinx, consists of several vertical flutes of During the Renaissance, transverse flutes
various sizes joined together. consisted of wooden cylinders of various
sizes, typically made of boxwood, with a
Other flutes are held horizontally, and are cork stopper in one end and six finger holes.
played by blowing air against the edge of a During the late seventeenth century, the
hole in the side of the flute. These instru- Hotteterre family, noted French instrument
ments, known as transverse flutes, include makers, redesigned the transverse flute. In-
the modem flute used in orchestras. stead of a single cylinder, the flute consisted
of a head joint, a body, and a foot joint.
History Modem flutes are still made in these three
basic parts. The new flute also had a single
Flutes have existed since prehistoric times. key added, allowing more notes to be
A fragment of a cave bear thigh bone con- played. After 1720, the body was often di-
taining two holes, discovered in Slovenia in vided into two parts of varying lengths, al-
1995, is believed by some scientists to be lowing the flute to be adjusted to play in
part of a flute used by Neanderthals more various musical keys. By 1760, three more
than 43,000 years ago. Flutes were used by keys were added by London flutemakers,
the Sumerians and Egyptians thousands of followed by two additional keys by 1780
years ago. Some ancient Egyptian flutes and two more by 1800.
have survived, preserved in tombs by the
arid desert climate. This Egyptian instru- The transverse flute was completely re-
ment was a vertical flute, about one yard designed in the middle of the nineteenth
1 96
Flute
century by the German instrument maker the sound it makes, as well as changing the
Theobald Bohm. Bohm changed the posi- weight of the instrument. All these factors
tion of the holes and increased their size. may influence the design of a flute preferred
Because the new holes were impossible to by a particular musician.
reach with the fingers, new mechanisms
were added to cover and uncover them as A flute may be elaborately decorated. The
needed. The Bohm system is still used in physical appearance of a flute is an impor-
modern transverse flutes. tant consideration for professional musi-
cians who perform in public. The most de-
tailed designs are likely to found on the
Raw Materials professional quality flutes. The process of
Some modern flutes are made from wood forming these designs, known as chasing,
that produces a different sound from metal requires the skill of an experienced artist,
flutes. These wooden flutes generally have and makes the individual flute a truly unique
metal keys and mechanisms. instrument.
Most flutes are made of metal. Less expen- The Manufacturing

sive flutes, intended for students, may be Process
made from alloys of nickel and other metals.
More expensive flutes may be plated with Shaping the components
silver.
A flute is made of hundreds of components,
The pads attached to the surface of the keys ranging from the relatively large body to
in order to cover the holes are made of cork tiny pins and screws. Although some of the
and felt. The springs that provide tension to small components are interchangeable and
hold the keys firmly against the holes may can be purchased from outside manufactur-
be made of steel, bronze, or gold. The pins ers, the vast majority of the components
and screws that hold the mechanism togeth- must be individually shaped for each flute.
er are made of steel. The mouthpiece, con-
taining the hole into which air is blown, may Early flutes were made with hand-forged
keys. The modern method is usually die
be made of the same metal as the rest of the
casting. Molten metal is forced under pres-
flute, or it may be made of another metal, sure into steel dies. A group of connected
such as platinum. keys may be made in one piece. Alternately,
individual keys may be stamped out by a
Design heavy stamping machine, and then trimmed.
Every flute is an individually crafted work
of art. The flutemaker must consider the
Assembling the keys
needs of the musician who will use the flute. 2 The components that will make up the
Students need relatively inexpensive but re- Lkeys are immersed in a flux solution,
liable instruments. Professional musicians containing various chemicals that protect
must have instruments of very high quality, the metal and aid in the soldering process.
often with special changes made in the keys The components are then soldered together
to accommodate special needs. into keys. They are also soldered to other
components that will move the keys. The
The most individual portion of a flute is the keys are then cleaned in a solution that re-
head joint. Professional musicians often test moves grease and any excess flux. The
several head joints before selecting one clean keys are polished and inspected. Keys
which produces the sound they prefer. Head for inexpensive flutes may be placed in a
joints are often manufactured to meet the tumbling machine, where friction and agita-
special demands of individual musicians. tion of pellets in a revolving drum polish the
metal. More expensive keys will often be
The material from which a flute is made buffed individually.
greatly alters the sound which is produced.
Wooden flutes produce a dark sound. Silver The keys are fitted with pads made from
flutes produce a bright sound. The thickness 3layers of cork and felt. Cork is cut to the
of the metal used to make a flute also alters proper size and attached to the surface of the
1 97
Flutes are comprised of hundreds

of components, ranging from the key that will cover the tone hole. Felt is cut Finishing
relatively large body to tiny pins and attached to the cork, creating a protec-
and screws. The keys are die cast tive covering. 7 The mouthpiece is shaped and soldered
and fitted with pads made from to the head joint. The head joint, body,
layers of cork and felt. Tone holes and foot joint are fitted together and adjust-
are formed in the body of the flute
Forming the tone holes ed. The musician must be able to assemble
by either pulling and rolling or by Tone holes are formed in the body of the and disassemble the flute easily, but the fit-
cutting and soldering. In the flute. They are formed by a process of tings should be tight. The flute is tested for
pulling and rolling method, the pulling and rolling or by cutting and solder- sound quality. It is then disassembled,
holes are drilled in the tube, and a ing. Either process requires great precision cleaned, polished, and packed into a special
machine pulls the metal from the to ensure that the tone holes are located in protective case.
edges of the hole and rolls it the correct position and are of the correct
around the hole to form a raised
ring. If the tone holes are to be cut size.
and soldered, die cut metal rings Quality Control
are soldered to the drill holes. 4 In the pulling and rolling method, the
Constant inspection of each part of the flute
holes are drilled in the tube. Next, a spe- during the manufacturing process is critical
cial machine pulls the metal from the edges to ensure that the instrument will produce
of the hole and rolls it around the hole to the proper sound. As the instrument moves
form a raised ring. The tone hole is then from one position on the assembly line to
smoothed. the next, workmanship is reviewed.
5 If the tone holes are to be cut and sol-
5dered, metal rings are die cut from sheet The exact size, shape, and position of the
keys and tone holes must be accurate to en-
metal. The rings are then cleaned and pol-
ished. Holes are drilled in the tube and the sure that they will fit together correctly. The
rings are soldered around the holes to form completed instrument is played by an expe-
the tone holes. rienced musician to ensure that it produces
sound correctly. Because professional musi-
Mounting the keys cians often make special demands of flutes,
flutemakers will often make small adjust-
6 Rods that support the keys are soldered ments in flutes to satisfy them.
to the body of the flute. Next, the keys
are attached to the rods with pins and Much of the responsibility for maintaining
screws. Springs are attached to provide ten- the quality of a flute rests with the musician.
sion to hold the cork and felt pads firmly Routine maintenance often prevents flaws
against the tone holes until they are lifted from developing . Each time the flute is as-
when the keys are operated by the musician. sembled, the connecting surfaces of the
1 98
Flute
Most flutes are made of metal.
Less expensive flutes, intended for
students, may be made from al-
loys of nickel and other metals.
More expensive flutes may be
plated with silver. All flutes are in-
dividually assembled and play
tested prior to sale.
joints and body should be cleaned to prevent make small but critical changes in individ-
wear caused by dirt and corrosion. The inte- ual instruments to fit the needs of individual
rior of the flute should be swabbed each musicians.
time it is played to remove moisture, which
could cause the pads to swell so that they no
longer fit the tone holes. Careful lubrication Two seemingly opposite trends hint at the
of the keys with a special lubricant is neces- future of flutemaking. Many performers of
sary about every three to six months in order music from the Renaissance, Baroque, and
to keep them working smoothly. Classical periods prefer to use flutes that re-
semble the instruments used during those
times. Such instruments are believed to be
The Future more suited to older music than modem
flutes, which developed during the Roman-
Very few changes have been made in the tic period. On the other hand, many per-
basic design of the modem transverse flute formers of jazz, rock, and experimental
since the middle of the nineteenth century. music use electronic devices to alter the
Flutemakers will continue to find ways to sounds of flutes in new ways. Despite these
1 99
two trends, the instrument originally de-

signed by Theobald Bohm is likely to domi-
nate flutemaking for many years to come.
Where to Learn More

Books
Meylan, Raymond. The Flute. Amadeus
Press, 1987.
Periodicals
Wong, Kate. "Neanderthal Notes."Scientif-
icAmerican (September 1997): 28-29.
-Rose Secrest
200
Foam Rubber
Background Consumption of polyurethane in the United Consumption of
States during 1997 was estimated at around
Foam rubber is found in a wide range of ap- 4.8 billion lb (2.18 billion kg), up 13% over polyurethane in the
plications, from cushioning in automobile 1996 and representing about a third of glob-
seats and furniture to insulation in walls and United States during
al consumption. Canada consumed 460 mil-
appliances to soles and heels in footwear. lion lb (209 million kg). The construction, 1997 was estimated at
Foams are made by forming gas bubbles in a transportation, furniture, and carpet indus-
plastic mixture, with the use of a blowing tries are the largest users of polyurethane, around 4.8 billion lb
agent. Foam manufacture is either a contin- with construction and transportation leading
uous process for making laminate or slab- (2. 18 billion kg), up 13%
at 27% and 21%, respectively. Flexible
stock or a batch process for making various foam is the largest end market, accounting over 1996 and
shapes by cutting or molding. for 44% of the total volume in the United
States and 66% globally. Of the volume in representing about a third
There are two basic types of foam. Flexible
foams have an open cell structure and can be the United States, slab materials accounted of global consumption.
produced in both high and low densities. Ap- for 78% and molded products 22%. Rigid
plications include cushioning for furniture foam is the second-largest end product, ac-
and automobiles, mattresses and pillows, au- counting for 28% of the market in the Unit-
tomotive trim, and shoe soling. Rigid foams ed States and 25% globally.
are highly cross-linked polymers with a
closed cell structure that prevents gas move- Design
ment. Their main application is as insulation
for buildings, refrigerators and freezers and The molecular structure, amount, and reac-
refrigerated transport vehicles. tion temperature of each ingredient deter-
mine the characteristics and subsequent use
of the foam. Therefore, each formulation
History must be designed with the proper ingredi-
Originally, foam rubber was made from nat- ents to achieve the desired properties of the
ural latex, a white sap produced from rubber final material. For instance, a switch in
trees. As early as 500B.C., Mayans and blowing agent may require an increase in
Aztecs used this latex for waterproofing pur- this additive to maintain thermal properties.
poses and also heated it to make toy balls. Increasing the amount of blowing agent re-
During the early 1900s, the first patent for quires more water and a switch in surfac-
synthetic rubber was granted and several tants to maintain optimum bubble sizes and
decades later a process for foaming latex was formation rates during foaming. The density
invented. Another process was developed in of the foam is determined by the amount of
1937 for making foams from isocyanate- blowing. The stiffness and hardness of
based materials. After World War II, styrene- polyurethane can also be tailored by chang-
butadiene rubber replaced the natural foam. ing the level of flexible polyol in the chemi-
Today, polyurethane is the most commonly cal formulation. By mixing different combi-
used material for foam products. Foamed nations of the starting materials, the rates of
polyurethanes currently make up 90% by the reactions and overall rate of cure during
weight of the total market for polyurethanes. processing can be controlled.
20 1
Raw Materials The Manufacturing

Most foams consist of the following chemi-
Process
cals: 50% polyol, 40% polyisocyanates, and Polymerization rates for most industrial
10% water and other chemicals. Polyiso- polyurethanes range from several seconds to
cyanates and polyols are liquid polymers about five minutes. Slower reacting formu-
that, when combined with water, produce an lations can be mixed and molded by hand,
exothermic (heat generating) reaction form- but require long cycle times. Faster systems
ing the polyurethane. The two polyiso- provide shorter cycle times but must use
cyanates most commonly used are machines for mixing. Polyurethane formula-
diphenylethane diisocyanate (MDI) and tions are generally processed into a wide
toluene diisocyanate (TDI). Both are de- range of products by reactive molding,
rived from readily available petrochemicals spraying, or open-pouring techniques.
and are manufactured by well-established
chemical processes. Though MDI is chemi- Material preparation
cally more complex than TDI, this complex-
ity allows its composition to be tailored for The liquid chemicals are delivered either
each specific application. MDI is generally by railroad tanker cars or tank trucks and
used in rigid foams, whereas TDI is typical- pumped into large holding tanks. From there,
ly used for flexible foam applications. the chemicals are pumped into smaller heat-
Blends of MDI and TDI are also used. ed mixing tanks, and are kept separate if they
react with each other. For continuous manu-
Polyols are active hydrogen monomers facture of foam such as slabstock, more than
based on polyesters, polyethers, or hydro- two monomer streams are typically used.
carbon materials that contain at least two ac-
tive hydrogen atoms. The type of polyol Dispensing and mixing
used will determine whether the foam pro-
duced is flexible or rigid. Since most poly- 2 Continuous dispensing (also called open
ols immediately react with isocyanates pouring or free-rise) is used in the pro-
when added together, it is easy to combine duction of rigid and flexible low-density
the polymerization and shaping processes foams. A specific amount of each chemical,
into one step. During the polymerization measured by metered pumps, is fed from the
proccess, the polyol and polyisocyanate mixing tanks into a mixing head, where the
molecules link and interconnect together to blending of the chemicals take place. The
form a three dimensional material. reactive components are poured onto a mov-
ing surface or conveyor belt, where the
A wide range of additives are also used. foam rises and cures to form slabstock.
Catalysts (tin and amines) speed up the reac-
tion, allowing large volume production runs. Cutting and curing
Blowing agents that form gas bubbles in the 3 As the foam moves toward the end of
polymerizing mixture, are required to pro- the conveyor belt, it is automatically cut
duce foam. The amount of blowing can be by a horizontal bandsaw into smaller pieces,
tailored by adjusting the level of water. usually 12 ft (3.66 m) long sections. After
Flexible foams are typically made using the cutting, the foam sections are cured at room
carbon dioxide formed during the reaction temperature for 12 hours or more. They are
of water with isocyanate. Rigid foams use not stacked since they are not firm enough
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro- to withstand any weight. After curing, a sec-
fluorocarbons (HfCs), and pentanes as the ond automatic bandsaw cuts the sections
blowing agents. into the desired thickness. Other shapes can
also be cut.
Surfactants are used for controlling the size
of bubbles and include silicones, polyethers,
and similar materials. Other additives that Other forming processes
may be used include cross-linking agents, A A continuous lamination process is used
chain-extending agents, fillers, flame retar- - to form rigid foam laminate insulation
dants and coloring materials, depending on panels known as boardstock. For appliance
the application. insulation, liquid chemicals are injected be-
202
Foam Rubber
Chemicals are dispensed in a con-
tinuous fashion called open pour-
ing or free-rise. Once blended,
the reacfive components are
poured onto a conveyor belt,
where the foam rises and cures to
form slabstock. Next, the slabstock
is conveyored through a series of
automatic bandsaws that cut the
slabstock to premeasured widths
and thicknesses.
tween the inner and outer walls of the appli- fabric cover. This process reduces the num-
ance cabinet, where they undergo the foam- ber of steps in the manufacture of car seats.
ing process.
5 For flexible foam molding, dispensing Quality Control

machines are used to vary the output of In addition to monitoring the production
chemicals or the component ratios during process, the final product is inspected and
the pour. This allows the production of tested for various physical and mechanical
molded foams with dual hardness. Molded properties. An important property of foam
foam articles with solid surface skin are rubber is called the indentation load deflec-
made from liquid chemicals in a single step, tion, which measures the spring tension or
using carbon dioxide as the sole blowing load-bearing quality of the material. The de-
agent. Automotive cushions are made by flection is determined by the amount of
molding flexible foam behind a pre-shaped weight needed to compress a circle of foam
203
50 sq in x 4 in (127 sq cm x 10.16 cm) thick of new blowing agents. Hydrochlorofluoro-

by 25%. Most seat cushion foam has a rat- carbons are scheduled to be phased out in
ing of 35, which means it takes 35 lb (15.9 the United States under the Montreal Proto-
kg) of pressure to compress the circle of col by the year 2003. Several international
foam 1 in (2.54 cm). efforts may eliminate or even ban HCFCs
before this date.
Byproducts/Waste The market for flexible foam will continue
Since there is such a wide range of to expand into nontraditional areas, such as
polyurethane chemistries, it is difficult to re- shock absorption, acoustical applications,
cycle foam materials using just one method. and toys. This will require improvements in
The majority of recycling involves reusing material properties and processes, as well as
flexible slabstock foams for carpet backing. the development of new chemicals to meet
Over 100 million lb (45.4 million kg) of the demands of new applications for other
polyurethane carpet cushion is recycled types of foams. A new catalyst has already
every year into bonded carpet cushion. This been developed for semi-rigid foam sys-
involves shredding the scrap into flakes and tems, which lowers densities and fill
bonding the flakes together to form sheets. weights, as well as reduces demold times.
Other methods have recently been devel-
oped. One method involves pulverizing the Where To Learn More
foam into granules, dispersing these gran-
ules in a polyol blend, and molding them Books
into the same parts as the original. Ground Modern Plastics Encyclopedia. New York:
polyurethane can also be added to original McGraw-Hill, 1999.
systems as a filler in amounts of up to 10%.
Another method called press bonding bonds
granulated scrap using an isocyanate-based Periodicals
binder into large boards with densities rang- Myers, John. "PUR Recycling Advances on
ing from 400-900 kg/m3. the Economic and Technical Front."Mod-
em Plastics (October 1996): 2.
One manufacturer has patented a process
that breaks down polyurethane into polyol Pryweller, Joseph. "Recycler Seeks Revival
using industrial waste or scrapped automo- for Polyurethane."Automotive News (Octo-
tive parts; glycolysis processes are being ber 27, 1997): 28.
used that generate polyol for use in automo-
tive seating foam and cushions for furniture Westervelt, Robert. "Survey Reveals Pop in
and bedding. In this process, polyurethane is Polyurethane Markets."Chemical Week
pulverized into powder and then is heated in (August 6, 1997): 33.
a reactor at 3920 F (2000 C) with glycol,
which converts it into a raw material. Dur- Other
ing the reaction, chemical cleavage of the
polymer chains (urethane) takes place. BASF Group. http://www.basf.com/ (Feb-
ruary 4, 1999).
The Future Foamex International. 1000 Columbia Ave.
The foam rubber industry will continue to Linwood, PA 19061. (800) 776-3626. http:ll
investigate methods for reducing and recy- www.foamex.com/ (February 4, 1999).
cling scrap. One manufacturer is investigat-
ing a process for directly producing molded Imperial Chemical Industries PLC. http://
foam parts from shredded flexible www.ici.com/ (February 4, 1999).
polyurethane foam trimmings and produc-
tion scrap. Polyurethane Foam Association. http://
www.pfa.org/ (February 4, 1999).
The industry faces other environmental
challenges that will require the development -Laurel Sheppard
204
Frisbee
Background cupola (cabin in Morrison's terns) and re- The frisbee's origins
sembled the concept of flying saucers
Nearly 300 million frisbees have been sold (UFOs) depicted during this period com- actually go back to a
since their introduction 40 years ago, for plete with portholes. In 1954, Dartmouth
both organized sports and recreational play. bakery called the Frisbie
University held the first frisbee tournament,
According to Mattel, 90% of Americans involving a game called Guts. Pie Company of New
have played with this flying toy at one time
or another, translating to 15 million people The founders of Wham-O, a California toy Haven, Connecticut,
enjoying the sport every year. Now, older company, became interested in this flying
versions of this toy have become collectors' disc in 1955 and about a year later began established by William
items worth hundreds of dollars or more. production after acquiring the rights from Russell Frisbie after the
Morrison. The name was changed to frisbee
The frisbee's origins actually go back to a after the company heard about the pie tin Civil War. The bakery
bakery called the Frisbie Pie Company of game on the east coast called Frisbie-ing.
New Haven, Connecticut, established by (Wham-O first marketed the Pluto Platter in stayed in operation until
William Russell Frisbie after the Civil War. January of 1957, but didn't add the word
The bakery stayed in operation until 1958, 1958, and during this
frisbee until July 1957.) In 1959, the first
and during this period, the tossing of the professional model frisbee was produced. period, the tossing of the
company's pie tins, first by company drivers
and later by Ivy League college students It wasn't until the early 1960s when frisbees company's pie tins, first
(some say it was cookie tin lids), led to fris- became the rage and soon organizations be-
bie becoming a well known term describing came established to promote sporting by company drivers and
flying disc play in the Northeast. events, including the International Frisbee later by Ivy League
Association and the Olympic Frisbee Feder-
Several years after World War II, Walter ation. The first game of Ultimate Frisbee, a college students (some
Frederick Morrison-the son of the inventor sport of both distance and accuracy similar
of the automobile sealed-beam headlight- to football, was played in 1968 at a New Jer- say it was cookie tin lids),
and his partner Warren Franscioni, investi- sey high school. Now, it is played at nearly led to frisbie becoming a
gated perfecting the pie tin into a commer- 600 colleges and in 32 countries. In 1969,
cial product. First, they welded a steel ring the U.S. Army even invested $400,000 to well known term
inside the rim to improve the plate's stabili- see if flares placed on frisbees would stay
ty, but without success. Then, they switched aloft but without success. describing flying disc play
to plastic and the frisbee as we know it in the Northeast.
today was born. During the 1970s, several organizations
were formed to promote specific events, in-
The initial design, which incorporated six cluding disc golf, freestyle, and Guts. The
curved spoilers or vanes on the top, was Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA)
vastly improved in 1951 and thus became now has over 14,000 members in 20 coun-
the Pluto Platter, the first mass-produced tries playing on over 700 frisbee golf cours-
flying disc. This design, which incorporates es. Today, 40,000 athletes in 35 countries
a slope on the outer third of the disc, has re- compete in Ultimate Frisbee. The formation
mained part of the basic design to this day. of such associations led to world champi-
The Morrison Pluto Platter had the first true onships being held during the 1980s.
205
Today, organized competitions in nine dif- Once in the air, lift and angular momentum
ferent events (including disc golf and act on the frisbee, giving it a ballet-type per-
freestyle) take place each year around the formance. Lift is generated by the frisbee's
world, under the auspices of the World Fly- shaped surfaces as it passes through the air.
ing Disc Federation (WFDF). Established in Maintaining a positive angle of attack, the
1984, WFDF has member associations in 22 air moving over the top of the frisbee flows
countries and provisional members in an ad- faster than the air moving undemeath it.
ditional 28 countries. During Operation
Desert Shield in 1991, frisbee was used to Under the Bemoulli Principle, there is then
boost the morale of the 20,000 U.S. soldiers a lower air pressure on top of the frisbee
on duty in Saudi Arabia. than beneath it. The difference in pressure
causes the frisbee to rise or lift. This is the
same principle that allows planes to take off,
Design fly, and land. Another significant factor act-
Manufacturers of frisbees use computer ing upon the frisbee's lift is Newton's Third
aided design software to create a model. A Law. It states that for every action there is
prototype is then made to test the design. an equal and opposite reaction. The frisbee
Sometimes, a wind tunnel and other sophis- forces air down (action) and the air forces
ticated methods are used to test flying char- the frisbee upward (reaction). The air is de-
acteristics, depending on the type of frisbee. flected downward by the frisbee's tilt, or
Manufacturing tolerances within a few thou- angle of attack.
sandths of an inch are now incorporated into
the design. Spinning the frisbee when it is thrown, or
giving it angular momentum, provides it
Designers are always looking for new ways with stability. Angular momentum is a prop-
to manipulate the physical properties that erty of any spinning mass. Throwing a fris-
dictate flight characteristics by changing the bee without any spin allows it to tumble to
design or shape in order to improve lift, the ground. The momentum of the spin also
drag, spin, angular momentum, torque and gives it orientational stability, allowing the
other forces that affect how an object flies. frisbee to receive a steady lift from the air as
For instance, adding a small lip and concave it passes through it. The faster the frisbee
edge to a disc greatly increases its stability spins, the greater its stability.
in flight.
A major obstacle disk designers must over-
Raw Materials
come is this instability caused by gyro- Frisbees have been made out of a thermo-
scopic precession, the tendency of spinning plastic material called polyethylene since
objects to roll right or left in flight, depend- the early 1950s. Polyethylene is the largest
ing on the direction of their spin and where volume polymer consumed in the world.
they get their aerodynamic lift. The closer This material is derived from ethylene, a
the disk's center of gravity remains to its colorless, flammable gas. This gas is sub-
center of lift, the more stable and straight jected to elevated temperatures and pres-
the flight. sures in the presence of a catalyst, which
converts the gas into a polymer. Other in-
As a spinning disk flies, its center of lift is gredients that may be added include col-
near the front, or leading edge, of the disc orants, lubricants, and chemicals to improve
and tends to pitch the disc upward. Be- dimensional stability and crack resistance.
cause of the spin, much of the lifting force
on a point near the disc's edge does not
exert itself until about a quarter of a revo- The Manufacturing
lution later. Such gyroscopic precession Process
pushes the disc up on the side, causing a To make a frisbee, a high-speed process
sideways roll. This is why frisbees, which called injection molding is used, which is
typically are thrown backhand to spin based on the injection of a fluid plastic ma-
clockwise as viewed from the top, tend to terial into a closed mold, usually of the
roll left from the thrower's perspective in multi-cavity type. Once in the mold, the
flight. plastic is cooled to a shape reflecting the
206
Frisbee
Frisbees are produced in a high-

cavity. Since complex shapes can be made able for injection molding. For thermoplas- speed process called injection
using this process, minor trimming after re- tics, this usually means forming the material molding, which is based on the in-
moval from the mold is the only other fin- into dry, free-flowing pellets by a combina- jection of a fluid plastic material
ishing required. Because of these advan- tion of extrusion and drying steps, that usu- into a closed mold, usually of the
tages, this process is used to manufacture a ally take place at the plastic manufacturer. mulfi-cavity type. Once in the
wide range of products, from various toys to Once the compounding step is completed, mold, the plastic is cooled to a
automotive bumpers. the material is checked for moisture content shape reflecting the cavity.
and average molecular weight.
A molding machine equipped with a hopper,
heated extruder barrel, reciprocating screw, 2 The plastic pellets are then shipped to
nozzle, and mold clamp is typically used. the frisbee manufacturer in 50-100 lb
This machine heats the plastic until it is able (22.7- 45.4 kg) bags or in a 500-1,000 lb
to flow readily under pressure, pressurizes (227-454 kg) box. The plastic pellets are put
this melt to inject it into a closed mold, into a large drum, to which pigments and
holds the mold closed both during injection weight-enhancing additives are added. A
and solidification of the material, and opens bonding agent such as oil is used to adhere
the mold to allow removal of the solid part. the pigment to the pellets. The drum is vi-
brated to blend the materials together.
Raw material preparation
A separate compounding operation is
Feeding the material
used to convert the form of a resin, while 3 The unmelted pellets are placed into the
also introducing any additives, into one suit- 3hopper that feeds the material into the
207
barrel. The hopper may be equipped with a into the mold, through which a cooling fluid
drying system to remove extra moisture and such as water can be circulated. After solidi-
a magnet, to remove any iron contaminants. fication, the mold clamp, which holds the
Sometimes, all or some of the compounding halves of the mold closed against the injec-
operation takes place during this step. tion pressure of the melt, opens the mold to
allow retractable arms to remove the parts.
Transporting and melting During this step, the screw begins to rotate
and melt new material for the next shot.
During this step, the molding compound
moves from the feed section into the
heated extruder barrel that contains the reci- Decorating
procal screw. Here, the material is gradually 8 After the frisbee is removed from the
melted as it is conveyed down the barrel to 8mold, an imprint or decoration is applied
the front. Tapered screws provide pumping, with the name of the frisbee, manufacturer
compression, decompression, and mixing, and other information or designs. There are
resulting in a pressure gradient that degasses three methods used, with hot stamping the
the material with the help of vents in the most common. Other methods involve ap-
screw. Thermoplastic materials require plying ink by using a silk screen or letter
longer screws of compression ratios (open press machine. The letter press uses a differ-
volume in the feed zone divided by the vol- ent ink pad for each color.
ume at the end of the screw) in the range of
two to three or more. The proper compres- Packaging
sion ratio for an injection molding screw
will be slightly greater than the bulk density 9 After decorating, the frisbees are ready
of the as-received molding compound divid- for packaging. One method involves
ed by the density of the melt. placing each frisbee into a plastic bag to
which a cardboard header is automatically
5 At the end of the transport process, a attached with staples. Another method
volumetrically predetermined amount of places the frisbee onto a cardboard backing,
compound accumulates somewhere in front which is then shrink wrapped with a plastic
of the screw as the screw slides out of the film. Sometimes the frisbees are packaged
barrel. Called a shot, it is forced forward in boxes.
when the travel of the screw is reversed. To
prevent the molding compound from flow-
ing back down the screw during injection, a Quality Control
mechanical valve is placed at the tip of the The weight is one of the most important
screw. properties and is automatically controlled
during the injection molding process by the
Injection screw on the machine that pushes the prop-
6 Once there is enough material to fill the er amount of material into the mold. Anoth-
mold, the screw rotation stops and the er important property for golf frisbees is
machine is ready for injection. The melted flexibility, which is tested by putting a
plastic is injected into the mold through the weight on the edge of the disc and measur-
nozzle, under high pressure (typically, ing the degree it bends. The PDGA only
10,000-30,000 psi) using a system of run- needs to test one sample of a new golf disc
ners leading to the gate of the mold. Usually for flexibility.
more than one gate is used to deliver the
material into the mold, with each gate being Byproducts/Waste
fed by a channel or runner. For proper injec-
tion, the air within the mold must also be ad- There is usually little waste produced during
equately vented. the manufacturing process. Sometimes after
the frisbee is removed from the mold, it has
Cooling and removal excess material, called flash, around the
edge. This is trimmed off, sent to a regrind-
7 To speed up the solidification process, a ing machine and then mixed with the virgin
cooling method is incorporated into the material. Other frisbees may be rejected if
mold. This usually involves boring holes they are not the correct weight or have deco-
208
Frisbee
rating defects. After the decoration is re- Johnson, Dr. Stancil, ed. Frisbee. A Practi-
moved, by either cutting or by using a sol- tioner's Manual and Definitive Treatise.
vent depending on the application method, New York: Workman Publishing Company,
the rejects are also recycled in a similar way. 1975.
The Future Malafronte, Victor. The Complete Book of

Frisbee: The History of the Sport & the
The frisbee is expected to dominate the First Official Price Guide. American
twenty-first century as one of the great Trends Publishing Co., 1998.
sports and pastimes. Frisbee sports should
continue to grow, as well as collector groups Tips, Charles. Frisbee by the Masters. Ce-
interested in preserving its history. Though lestial Arts, 1977.
other flying toys have come onto the mar-
ket-such as boomerangs, cylinders, and
rings-the flying disc will continue to pro- Periodicals
vide more hours of entertainment to people Leary, Warren E., Lift. "Drag, Spin and
around the globe than probably anything Torque: Sending Toys Aloft."New York
else ever invented. Times (June 20, 1995).
Disc golf specifically is experiencing
Weismantel, Rick. "Part geometries, quality
record growth. In each of the last three years factors, and cycle times affect equipment
the number of courses in the United States choices."Modern Plastics (Mid-November
alone has increased by 10%. Such growth 1994): D-74-D-79.
should continue since there are still many
areas of the country that are not yet aware of
disc golf and the benefits it offers. Other
Also, frisbee may some day be an Olympic Innova-Champion Discs, Inc. 11090 Tacoma
sport. For a sport to be eligible for the Drive, Rancho Cucamonga, CA 91730. (909)
Olympics, it must be played for two years in 481-6266. http://www.innovadiscs.com/.
at least 50 countries. Ultimate Frisbee is al-
ready played in 35 countries and its populari- Professional Disc Golf Association. http://
ty is growing, along with other frisbee sports. www.pdga.com/.
Wham-O Inc. 3830 Del Amo Blvd., Suite

Where to Learn More 101, Torrance, CA. (415) 357-4200.
Books World Flying Disc Federation. Http://www.
Horowitz, Judy and Billy Bloom. Frisbee, wfdf.org/.
More Than Just A Game of Catch. Leisure
Press, 1983. -Laurel Sheppard
209
Frozen Vegetable
The modern frozen food Background freezing food, and he experimented with
many kinds of meats and vegetables. Birds-
industry was made Frozen foods are ubiquitous in American su- eye noted that freshly caught fish that froze
permarkets, and are increasingly a part of in seconds in the sub-zero arctic air tasted
possible by Clarence the food industry worldwide. Fruits and perfectly palatable when later thawed and
Birdseye's invention of vegetables are usually frozen within hours cooked. He experimented with quick-freez-
of being picked, and when thawed, they are ing other foods, including fruits and vegeta-
quick freezing in 1921. very close to fresh in taste and texture. The bles, and soon became convinced that he
frozen meal is increasingly popular in time- had a viable commerical venture. Birdseye
starved American households. If the meal returned from Canada in 1917 and devoted
can be heated in a microwave, total time himself to inventing a mechanical freezing
from freezer to table can be less than five device. He won his first patent in 1921, and
minutes. Besides offering fresh taste and established a frozen fish company in New
convenience, freezing is also a safe method York in 1923.
of preservation, as most pathogens are inac-
tivated at low temperatures.
His first frozen food business failed to spark
The frozen food industry dates back to the interest, and a second company he founded
early years of the twentieth century, when in Gloucester, Massachusetts also withered.
some foods were preserved by the so-called Yet Birdseye continued to develop new
cold-pack method. Food handlers would freezing technology, decreasing the time it
wash and sort fruits or vegetables, then pack took to freeze foods. In 1929, the General
them in large containers holding from 30- Foods Corporation bought out Birdseye's
400 lb (14-180 kg). The large containers enterprise, paying an enormous sum for his
were placed in a cold storage room for sev- patents. General Foods made an intensive
eral days until the mass was frozen solid. marketing push, installing freezers in gro-
Cold pack foods did not have the quality of cery stores and developing freezer rail cars
modem frozen foods because of the time it for long-distance distribution. Though
took for the food to freeze. In slow freezing, American families still scoffed at frozen
the water in the food crystallizes, forming foods, the company began to make inroads
large needles of ice. These shards of ice de- with commercial food preparers such as
stroy cells walls, and so when the food is hospitals and schools. American soldiers ate
thawed, it has deteriorated in taste and tex- frozen foods during World War II, and after
ture. The innovation that made the current the war, the industry took off. Home freez-
frozen food industry possible was the inven- ers grew larger, and more and more items,
tion of quick freezing by Clarence Birdseye. from vegetables to pizzas to entire meals,
became available in grocery stores.
Birdseye was born in Brooklyn, New York,
in 1886 and studied biology at Amherst Col- Birdseye first froze fish and vegetables by
lege before drifting to the Canadian Arctic immersing them in a circulating brine
to work as a fur trader and trapper. Living cooled to about -45° F (-42.80 C). Later he
with his family in a remote Labrador cot- developed a so-called belt froster. This
tage, Birdseye became fascinated with passed packages of food between two sub-
210
Frozen Vegetable
zero metal surfaces, and so cooled top and precise need of the frozen food manufactur-
bottom at the same time. This greatly deer. In this respect, ingredients in a frozen
creased the time it took to freeze foods. An- meal may differ from what a home cook
other innovation attributed to a General would buy at the supermarket. But in gener-
Foods scientist was the process of blanching al, frozen foods do not require a host of
vegetables before freezing. Blanching en- extra ingredients such as preservatives.
tailed immersing the vegetables in boiling Added ingredients are most frequently
water for a few minutes to halt the activity thickeners and stabilizers such as starch,
of certain enzymes. This preserved their fla- xanthan gum, and carrageenan. These help
vor much more effectively. Current methods retain the desired texture of the food after
of freezing typically use the air blast thawing. Recipes for foods destined for the
method, where ultra-cooled air is blown on freezer may also do better with the addition
the food in a narrow tunnel, or by the indi- of a sauce or glaze, because this protects the
rect method, where the food is passed along food from dehydration when it is passed
metal plates cooled by a refrigerated liquid. under the freezing air blast. Vegetables or
Food can also be frozen cryogenically. In fruits destined for freezing may also be
this method, the outer layers of the food are picked at a different time than they would be
taken to far below their actual freezing point if they were to be sold fresh, because they
by passing quickly through a tunnel cooled need to be at optimal tenderness.
by liquid nitrogen to as low as -80- -120° F
(-62.2- -84.4° C). After the food exits the The freezing equipment is typically made
cryogenic tunnel, heat from the core of the from stainless steel and other metals. The gas
food permeates to the outside, resulting in a used for freezing is most commonly ammo-
final stable frozen state. Some products also nia. Freon is used in some systems, though
use an immersion method. For foods with a because it breaks down the ozone layer, am-
viscous sauce or sticky surface, the surface monia is more environmentally sound. Cryo-
might be immersed in an ultra-cooled liquid genic freezing uses liquid nitrogen.
for only a few seconds, and then the food
can be frozen by air-blasting. The Manufacturing
Process
Optimal freezing methods vary considerably
with each food product. And not every food The actual process of freezing a food item
freezes well. Certain varieties of peas or varies somewhat depending on what is to be
strawberries for example have been found to frozen. Peas are the most common frozen
freeze best. This might be because of their vegetable, having virtually replaced fresh
firm texture or specific sugar content. So peas in the American supermarket. The pea
farmers will grow these special varieties process is typical for many vegetables. A
under contract with a frozen food company. typical process for a frozen entree follows.
Cultivating the peas

Raw Materials Peas are grown principally in Washing-
The raw materials for frozen foods include ton and Oregon and in the northern Mid-
whatever is to be frozen, e.g. fish, chicken, west, that is, Wisconsin and Minnesota.
green beans, pizza. In most cases, the food Food processors typically contract with
is specifically cultivated or adapted for farmers to grow their crops according to the
freezing. In the case of frozen desserts such specifications needed for freezing. The
as cakes and pies or entrees such as meat farmers sow a variety of pea that has been
loaf and gravy, the recipe must be tested and approved as a good freezer. Major varieties
altered so that it freezes well. Large compa- are Dark Skin Perfection and Thomas Lax-
nies will order optimum ingredients accord- ton. The harvesting schedule needs to be
ing to standards they have established dur- agreed on by both the farmer and the pro-
ing their product testing. For example the ducer. The producer may measure the ten-
noodles used in a frozen pasta entree may be derness of the peas, and will also evaluate
ordered in bulk from a distributor that how much volume the freezing plant can ac-
makes them in a certain specified width or commodate. Peas need to be frozen within
viscosity or flour content according to the hours of picking, and if a backlog develops
211
at the freezing plant, some of the peas may

deteriorate.
Picking and washing

The peas may be picked by hand or au-
2 tomatically. Then, a machine called a
viner removes them from their shells. If the
processing plant is adjacent to the fields, the
peas are carted there. If truck transport is
necessary, they are cooled with ice water
and then packed in ice for transport. At the
plant, the peas are dumped into beds and
sprayed with water to remove dust and dirt.
Blanching
The cleaned peas are next passed into a

3 vat of boiling water for a few minutes.
This kills enzymes that effect the taste of the
peas, but it does not cook them. After
blanching, the peas are cooled with water
and then passed to a specific gravity sorter.
Sorting
The peas are next sorted to remove any

4 old, starchy peas. They are immersed in
water with a specified salt content. Tender
peas float to the top of the brine tank, while
peas with a high starch content sink to the
bottom. The tender peas are then sprayed
with clean water to remove the salt, and they
pass to an inspection area.
Inspection
In the inspection area, workers glance

5 over the peas as they move along a belt.
Nimble workers pick out any discolored or
otherwise off peas, and also any rocks or
other field detritus that may have made it
this far.
Packaging and freezing
Packaging may precede freezing, or the

6 peas may be individually quick frozen
and then boxed, depending on the process-
ing plant. Freezing could be by any of the
standard methods. If they are frozen before
packing, the peas might pass through a blast
tunnel where ultra-cooled air freezes them.
Or they may be loaded on a belt that brings
them into contact with metal plates cooled
from below by chilled ammonia. If they are
packaged before freezing, the sealed boxes
may be loaded into trays. The trays are
2 12
Frozen Vegetable
Spray-washing Blanching Inspection
stacked in a multi-plate freezer, which From the oven to the freezer

brings the pea packages into contact with
chilled plates both above and below. Then o When everything is running smoothly at
workers load the frozen packages into ship- 9the pilot production stage, the manufac-
ping crates and move them to a cold storage turer begins to produce the frozen meal in
room to await shipping. quantity. The dish is cooked and assembled
on a tray. Usually a hot meal does not need a
cool-down period before moving to the
freezer. It may be frozen by one of three
Testing the frozen entr6e recipe standard methods. It can be "naked" air
blasted, that is, sent through an air-blast
7A large company that wishes to bring freezer tunnel in its pre-packaged state. It
7out a new frozen meal will first test the may be cryogenically frozen in the same
recipe extensively in a test kitchen. Ingredi- manner. Or it may be packaged, and then
ents from different distributors will be tried air-blasted.
out to find which ingredients retain their
qualities in the freezer, and which taste best.
The company will gamer consumer feed- Packaging
back by asking test customers to try the In all but the very smallest frozen
meal at home, heating it both in a conven- I food operations, once the meal has
tional oven and in a microwave oven. The passed through the freezer, all the packing
final recipe may be achieved after months of stages are fully automatic. The frozen meal
testing and evaluating. on its tray passes on a belt to mechanical
equipment that bags it, puts it in a carton,
and then stacks the cartons in a case. The
Pilot production cases are then put on pallets, and this stage
too is often completely automatic. If work-
8 Before moving to full-scale production, ers are palletizing the cartons, they are
8a major manufacturer will devote some dressed in cold-weather gear for protection.
time to pilot production of the new frozen The pallets are stored in a warehouse cooled
dish. Major frozen food producers may have to between 0- -20° F (-17.8 - -28.9° C).
a separate facility just for test runs, or the
manufacturing plant may have one produc-
tion line that it diverts. Here different cook- Distribution
ing processes may be tried, for example to 11 All further distribution of the frozen
determine exactly how long to cook separate IIfood should be carried out at 0° F (-
ingredients. All the bugs in the process 17.80 C) or cooler. In other words, trucks or
should be worked out at this stage. rail cars that carry the pallets should be kept
213
to this temperature, and so should ware- up to the manufacturer itself to maintain

houses, storerooms, and freezer cases where ideal conditions, and no government
the cases are later stored. agency is directly responsible for quality
control.
Quality Control
Frozen foods must be carefully inspected The Future
both before and after freezing to ensure
In the late 1990s, the frozen food industry
quality. When vegetables arrive at the pro-
was expanding both within the U.S. mar-
cessing plant, they are given a quick over-
all inspection for general quality. The peas ket and abroad. The industry's biggest
push was so-called home meal replace-
are inspected visually again as in step five,
ment, that is, whole frozen meals that took
above, to make sure that only the appropri-
ate quality peas go on to the packaging and the place of cooking from scratch. More
consumers were willing to trade the conve-
freezing step. Laboratory workers also test
the peas for bacteria and foreign matter, nience of a frozen meal for the satisfaction
pulling random samples from the produc- of making their own dinner from fresh
tion line at various points. The packaged, foods. This meant that the industry was
frozen vegetables are also tested randomly challenged to come up with more elaborate
by lab workers who cook and taste them. frozen dishes, which required more testing
The freezing equipment is also cleaned at and experimentation to pull off than the
specified intervals, so that it is completely relatively simple frozen vegetables or waf-
sterile. Manufacturers of freezing equip- fles. Food scientists are still working out
ment work with food producers to develop the chemistry and physics of frozen foods,
machines that are easy to clean and main- studying for example the relationship be-
tween low-molecular weight sugars and
tain. The equipment manufacturers may
also work with their customers to check high-molecular weight stabilizers in a
and repair the machinery so that it works recipe in order to better predict what foods
the way it is supposed to. For frozen meals, will freeze well.
if any meat is used, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture has oversight, and will send in- Cryongenic freezing is also a relatively new
spectors to make sure the manufacturer is freezing method that may be gaining adher-
maintaining its equipment properly and ents. As not all foods benefit from being
that the meat is kept at proper temperatures frozen this way, some equipment manufac-
throughout the production process. Howev- turers are designing multiple-use machines
er, if a frozen meal contains no meat, it is that combine freezing methods.
2 14
Frozen Vegetable
Where to Learn More Smith, Brian. "Cryogenic Food Freezing: A
Guide to the Efficient Use of Food Freezing
Periodicals Tunnels." Frozen Food Digest (July 1994).
Rice, Judy. "B-r-r-r-reakthroughs in Freez- "Stabilizing the Big Freeze." Prepared
ing Technology." Prepared Foods (Novem- Foods (January 1996).
ber 1996).
-Angela Woodward
215
Fruit Leather
Mass-produced fruit Background apricot. Antiquarian cookbooks refer to
fruit leathers as Persian or Middle Eastern,
leather is only about one Fruit leathers, sometimes referred to as fruit in fact. Armenian cookbooks refer to the
rolls or Fruit Roll-ups, are popular dried treat as bastegh and give recipes for mak-
third fruit puree and two food snacks. They are formed when fruit is ing them at home, discussing the "old
thirds additives and pureed (generally from a concentrate when ways" these fruit leathers were produced.
mass-produced) cooked, dried, and rolled The process recommends that the fruit treat
sweeteners. or cut out (for easy storage and packaging). be made in dry, sunny weather in that the
The sticky solution is then spread on a non- cooked and pureed fruit be poured onto
stick surface on which it is dried. When muslin sheets, hung outside to dry, sprayed
dried, the fruit leather is firm to the touch with water on the reverse side so that it
(hence the name fruit leather) but malleable could be peeled off the muslin, and left to
enough so that it can be rolled. The fruit dry again outside in the sun. Recipes rec-
leather can be easily cut in strips and ommend that the fruit leather be brought in
shapes, according to the brand or variety of at nightfall but returned to sunshine the
fruit leather. Fruit leather generally lasts next day if not firm to the touch. The fin-
quite a long time in this state and does not ished product was cut into desired shapes
require refrigeration. The popularity of the and placed into a glass jar for storage. Up-
fruit leather has increased significantly in dated recipes have the cook pour the slurry
the last 10 years because many view these onto waxy paper or plastic wrap and place
snacks are more healthful than other con- it in the sun under cheesecloth, still others
fections because it is produced from fruit to recommend the use of ovens or dehydrators
which vitamins (particularly vitamin C) has for quick, reliable drying.
been added.
Fruit leather is mass-manufactured by a Recipes for fruit leathers are often found in
number of different companies but can also organic and health-conscious recipe sources.
be made rather easily at home. Recipes These recipes call for using organically-
abound in cookbooks, including directions grown fruit and eschew the inclusion of arti-
for making fruit leathers with grapes, rasp- ficial ingredients, added vitamins or
berries, apples, and strawberries on the processed sugar, replacing it with honey (if
kitchen stove and using the oven or a food any sweetener is used at all). In fact, mass-
dehydrator to assist in the drying process. produced fruit leathers are only about one
third fruit puree and two thirds additives and
sweeteners.
History
It is difficult to know when or who first de- Major food manufacturers have been mak-
veloped fruit leathers. However, many being fruit leathers in this country for nearly
lieve that peoples of the Middle East were two decades. These fruit leathers are avail-
among the first to discover that fresh fruit able in a dizzying array of flavors (includ-
could be utilized and preserved year round ing watermelon) and have vitamins specifi-
if pureed, cooked, and dried. It is likely cally added to them to make them more
that an early flavor for fruit leathers was healthful. They are extremely popular with
216
Fruit Leather
children and are designed with their inter- batch. Flavor enhancers and colors are
ests in mind. These manufacturers have de- added at this time as well. Only one fruit fla-
veloped a range of bright colors for these vor is made at a time in a vat; thus, either
fruit snacks (including hot colors and neon many vats are working at one time or the
colors that are not natural fruit colors). In- vats are cleaned to receive a different-fla-
stead of cutting the leather into plain strips, vored puree. The fruit puree is cooked for
some manufacturers cut cartoon figures about five minutes.
onto the product to assist in the marketing
and sales of the product. Packages feature
prominent cartoon characters or movie Extruding the puree
characters, making the product more ap-
pealing to children. 2 The fruit slurry is then piped over to an-
-other large vat. The bottom of the vat is
piped to an extruder. The liquid fruit solu-
Rawv Materials tion is fed through a metal die that pushes
Mass-manufactured fruit leathers contain the hot fruit puree out of the vat, flattens it,
three primary ingredients: fruit puree, a food and extrudes it onto a thin, waxy paper.
additive called malto-dextrin and a sweeten- Some manufacturers offer different sizes or
er of some sort. In some national brands, the widths of the product. The shape of the ex-
fruit puree makes up only about one third of trusion die varies with the product being
the product. As important as the fruit puree manufactured at that time.
are the two other main ingredients, malto-
dextrin and sweeteners. Malto-dextrin is a
modified food starch that is added to a num- Drying
ber of manufactured products. It is a white
powder that mixes easily with any raw ma- 3 The fruit leather is still viscous at this
terial and is cold-water soluble. When solu- vtime and must be and malleable enough
ble, it turns transparent and is of low viscos- to be able to be rolled in the packaging. It is
ity. The malto-dextrin additive is extremely conveyored through a drying tunnel that
important in fruit leathers in that it provides quickly solidifies the product. The tunnel
the soft texture and malleability required for does not use hot air to dry (as recommended
the product. Sweeteners are the other signif- in home recipes or traditional recipes) but
icant additive to the product. Sweeteners cool air to drive off moisture and cool down
generally include corn syrup or sugar, and in the still-hot slurry. At the end of the tunnel,
some products, include both. Many manu- a mechanism rolls up the cooled fruit
factured fruit leathers include a great many leather into a spool or roll (depending on
other additives but vary according to brand. the product). Some products are wrapped
These often include: partially hydrogenated on the outside of the waxy paper with a
cottonseed oil, glycerin or diglyceride, arti- strap to keep the spools closed (particularly
ficial and natural colors and flavors, pectin, useful for long, thin spools). In addition,
gums, and added vitamins such as citric acid some fruit leathers have patterns or images
(vitamin C). (often cartoon characters or even letters or
numbers) cut into them with a die resem-
bling a cookie cutter plate. This occurs be-
The Manufacturing fore the leather is rolled.
Process
Fruit leather is an extruded snack, meaning
the fruit puree solution is forced through a Pouching
metal die and cut into desired shape.
A At the end of the conveyor belt, the
1
rolled leather is taken to a hopper. Indi-
Cooking vidual spools are dropped into a pouching
Fruit concentrate is generally purchased machine, in which the product is enclosed in
from a supplier. Once in house, the con- a wrapper either of metallic foil or plain
centrate is placed in a vat and augmented white paper (depending on the product). The
with water. Corn syrup, malto-dextrin, and pouch is automatically sealed as it goes
all of the various additives are added to the through the machine.
217
The manufacture of fruit leather

involves mixing fruit concentrate Packaging clude careful calibration of all additives, par-
with water, corn syrup, malto-dex- ticularly of those additives that affect hard-
trin, flavor enhancers, and color- 5 The pouches are then dropped into a
ening/malleability (malto-dextrin in particu-
ing. Next, the fruit puree is larger machine that automatically groups lar). Also, cooking and drying temperatures
cooked. Heating thickens the liq- and packages the product. This machine is
uid into a slurry that is then ex- are monitored closely to ensure moisture
programmed to fill cardboard packages by content. Scales are carefully calibrated so
truded. The solution is fed to a weight. The cardboard packaging is general-
metal die that pushes the hot fruit that each roll contains just the right amount
ly made out-of-house, and includes all im- of extruded product; similarly, the packaging
puree out of the vat, flattens it, portant information such as nutritional in-
and pushes it onto a thin, waxy machine is checked and re-checked so that
paper. The fruit leather is convey- formation. Packaging is often very brightly each cardboard package includes the correct
ored through a drying tunnel that colored and full of images of popular car- number of fruit leathers. Sample testing is
uses cool air to quickly solidify the toon characters and is an essential part of performed periodically as well.
product. product marketing.
Where to Learn More
Quality Control
Quality control begins with the acquisition Books
of high-quality fruit concentrate. Many Herbst, Sharon Tyler. The Food Lover's
purees are supplied by well-known fruit Companion. Barron's Educational Services,
processors. Other quality control methods in- Inc.
21 8
Fruit Leather
Periodicals Weddell, Leslie. "Home-made fruit leather
is ideal for lunches, hiking trails."Knight-
Atlas, Nava. "It's in the bag: nutritious Ridder/Tribune News Service (August 30,
school lunches and treats that score 1993).
A+."Vegetarian Times (September 1998):
48.
Other
Chandonnet, Ann. "Tlingit Food."Skipping Unofficial Summary. General Mills Cana-
Stones (November/December 1997): 23. da, Inc. v. The Deputy Minister of National
Revenue. Appeal No. Ap-97-012.
Creasy, Rosalind. "Tomato Leather."Or-
ganic Gardening (July/August 1989): 32. -Nancy EV Bryk
2 1 9
Galoshes
The name for galoshes Background across the Bering Strait to the Americas,
their creations traveled with them.
originated in the Middle The name for galoshes originated in the
Middle Ages when many styles of boots
Ages when many styles of The Inuits of Alaska and North America
from short to long were popular. The word
imitated nature to create the perfect, weath-
came from Gaulish shoes or gallicae, which
boots from short to long had leather uppers and soles carved of erproof boot. They observed the polar bears
dense, multilayered fur that kept the bear's
were popular. The word wood; when the Romans conquered the ter-
skin from freezing. The Inuits used the
ritory they called Gaul (France), they bor-
came from Gaulish shoes rowed the Gaulish boot style. Nobles wore complete paws and legs of these bears (with
claws still attached) to create seamless
red leather, which told observers of their
or gallicae, which had aristocracy, and the wooden soles were
boots. Similarly, the Ainu people of north-
ern Japan used the complete leg skins of
leather uppers and soles often ornately carved.
deer. Sealskin, caribou hide, and skins of
carved of wood; when the Galoshes and boots are very closely linked other "waterproof' animals were used to
in footwear history, and sometimes the make boots, but, again, these had to be cut
Romans conquered the words are used interchangeably. Properly, in pieces and sewn. Multiple layers of
however, a galosh is an overshoe that slips wrappings inside the boots insulated the
territory they called Gaul wearer from cold and seeping water but
over the wearer's indoor footwear but is
were awkward to wear and maintain. Many
(France), they borrowed made of waterproof material to protect the
northern peoples stuffed their boots with
more delicate materials of the shoe as well
the Gaulish boot style. as the wearer's foot from cold and damp. In grass for cushioning and insulation, but
the early days of boots, particularly those grass had to be cut and stored for this use
made for ladies, the boot was made of fabric during most of the year when it didn't
and capped or "galoshed" with leather. grow. Curiously, some cultures made boots
Laced closures tightened the galoshed boot from fish skin but found they were useless
around the ankle just as fasteners on modem in rainy weather.
galoshes secure them.
In the Middle Ages in both Europe and Asia,
people wore pedestal shoes outside to raise
History them above water or mud. The sole of the
Cave paintings show that the first boots were pedestal shoe was made of wood, and the
worn as early as 13,000 B.C. The first at- upper was like a shoe and made of fabric or
tempts at galoshes may have originated more leather. The front and back ends of the
than 4,500 years ago when separate leggings pedestal were tapered so the walker could
were wrapped around the legs above moc- move forward by rocking the tall shoes. Pat-
casins to protect the wearer from cold, rain, tens were similar overshoes with tall, shaped
and prickly plants. The moccasins were ex- wooden bases and mules or slippers into
tended to form boots. However, most boots which the wearer could slip her indoor
were made of pieces, and joins between the shoes. Shoemaker Nicholas Lestage un-
pieces allowed moisture and cold to creep in. knowingly borrowed a concept from the
The first boots were probably created in Alaskan Inuits when, in 1663, he made
northern Asia, and, as the wearers migrated seamless, calfskin boots for King Louis XIV
220
Galoshes
of France by taking the skin from a calf's leg season in the Amazon jungle suited the
and tanning and dressing it to form a seam- properties of rubber. By contrast, when the
less boot. He was forbidden by the king to first rubber coats were introduced in the
make his boots for others or to reveal his se- United States in 1823, they were rigid and
cret, which was kept for 100 years. rattled like metal. Rubber-soled shoes also
failed on their first introduction in 1832 be-
Galoshes and many garments were also cause they stuck to floors in the heat and
made by coating fabrics with waterproofing. cracked in winter.
Linseed oil was commonly used to coat fab-
ric to make oilskins. Other oil or tar mix- Goodyear persevered and patented the
tures and nitrocellulose (mixed with castor process of vulcanization in 1844. Vulcaniza-
oil and coloring) were used to impregnate or tion tempered the properties of rubber so
coat fabrics. The fabrics were then heated to that it was easily molded, durable, and
oxidize the film left on the cloth and make it tough. Among the thousands of products
stable. that Goodyear proposed to make from rub-
ber were rubber shoes for children, water-
Plants, not animals, are the source of waterproof boots, and rubber "chair" shoes for in-
proof materials in nature. Historical legend door wearers to eliminate static electricity,
has it that the Egyptians were the first to noise, and carpet wear. Rubberized elastic
make galoshes from rubber. They made webbing was also made possible thanks to
foot-shaped molds out of wood and poured Goodyear's studies of rubber, and insets of
liquid rubber over them. Interest in rubber such webbing were stitched in the sides of
generally languished for thousands of years. galoshes (circa 1890) to make them easy to
In 1823, Charles Macintosh discovered a pull on and off.
way of waterproofing garments by using liq-
uid rubber. He spread rubber that was mixed Thousands of rubber products appeared
with a solvent on a marble slab. The solvent during the next 30 years as industrializa-
evaporated and left a thin sheet of rubber tion merged with vulcanization to make
that was then stitched on a sheet of fabric rubber products easy to cut, punch, and
that was then cut and sewn into a garment. crimp by machine. Rubber-soled shoes an-
Unfortunately, garments made this way did swered the growing interest in sports and
not wear well and were the victims of tem- became the foundation for the huge sneaker
perature changes as well as sunlight and industry. Rubber boots diversified to suit
grease. many forms and functions from galoshes to
wellingtons, hip-boots, waders, and "body
It took one of America's greatest inventors boots." Styles with rubber heels were also
to identify the rubber plant as the source of made.
the "perfect" waterproof substance. Charles
Goodyear is remembered more often for An outdoorsman named Leon Leonwood
"footwear" for cars rather than people. Bean revolutionized the style of boots (and
Goodyear's dogged determination to find mail-order business) when, in 1911, he
uses for the substance called "india rubber" made a boot with waterproof leather uppers
occupied him for 20 years and exhausted his and rugged rubber-galoshes bottoms. The
income. Goodyear was fascinated by prop- leather portion decreased the weight of tra-
erties of rubber including its elasticity, dura- ditional boots, but the rubber bottoms gave
bility, lightweight, and the fact that it was them the durability to withstand tough con-
waterproof. ditions. Bean's boots remain popular today
and are available in a range of colors.
The qualities of rubber, however, depend
heavily on temperature; it becomes soft and Natural rubber was largely replaced by syn-
tacky in the heat and turns hard and brittle in thetic rubber due to World War II; by the
cold temperatures. The native tribes of the end of the war, 70% of all rubber was used
Amazon had protected their feet with rubber in the making of tires, and the majority of
for generations by simply dipping their feet the remaining 30% was used to manufacture
into liquid from the rubber tree and drying footwear. Rubberized footwear has also
the custom-made galoshes over the fire, but been adapted to the workplace where steel-
the moderate temperatures during the rainy toed rubber galoshes and boots protect toes
22 1
from heavy objects and the splash-resistant

qualities of rubber protect workers from
chemicals. Rubber also helps insulate
against the cold, protect against abrasions,
and guard against slippery surfaces.
Although galoshes have been considered

practical, their fashion appeal has been lim-
ited until recently. Thanks to suppliers of
outdoor wear like L.L. Bean and Land's
End, new styles of outdoor shoes have be-
come popular. The New England Overshoe
Company brought the overshoe into the
1990s through their N.E.O.S. galoshes,
which are sturdy, collapsible, practical, and
fashionable.
R a w Materials
Traditional galoshes are made of liquid rub-
ber or sheet rubber. Some styles are lined
with fabric and some have fasteners to tight-
en the relatively loose shape at the ankle.
New-style galoshes have rubber bottoms

called outsoles. The uppers are made of mi-
crofiber fabrics or nylon that have been
treated. Fasteners include elastic straps with
plastic buckles to tighten the galoshes over
casual or dress shoes and elastic fasteners at
the tops of the boots to keep water out
around the wearer's legs.
Design
Until recently, design of galoshes has been
limited to providing a waterproof covering
to fit over shoes. Because galoshes are in-
tended for limited use (as opposed to all day
wear) and because they must fold to be car-
ried in bags or briefcases, galoshes are usu-
ally thin or flimsy. Light treads are incorpo-
rated into the outsoles, and fasteners are
needed to fit the loose design to the ankle.
Some galoshes or rubber boots are made in
bright colors, others are clear so the wear-
er's shoes show through, and still others are
made in traditional shoe colors like black
and brown.
N.E.O.S. and other new-style overshoes are

lightweight and collapsible because of their
microfiber uppers. The outsoles are harder
rubber with deeper treads, made possible
by the compensating lighter uppers. The
ankle strap gives a stylish look, and colors
are traditional.
222
Galoshes
The Manufacturing Fabric and rubber galoshes
Process 1 Newer fashions in galoshes merge shoe
There are three different manufacturing and boot construction techniques. The
processes for galoshes and rubber boots. outsoles are formed from hard, vulcanized
Some are cut from sheets of rubber, others rubber with deep treads. The uppers are
are made in a process called slush molding, laser cut from microfiber or nylon fabric
and N.E.O.S. style overshoes are sewn from based on computer designed shapes. These
fabric with rubber outsoles attached. uppers may be lined with Polartec, thermal
insulation, fleece, foam, or similar weather-
proof and chill-proof insulating material that
Rubber boots made from sheets is cut to fit the galoshes. The outer fabric is
Larger forms of rubber boots are general- treated to be weatherproof before it is cut.
ly made from rubber that is poured in
sheet form and uncured or semi-cured to
give it workable properties. The nature of 2 The outsole is fitted to the last, and the
the rubber and the requirements for the cur- 2upper is fitted and sewn around the
ing process are part of a formula developed upper part of the last. This fitting is fully
by the manufacturer. computerized. Strong and temperature-toler-
ant adhesives are used to attach the outsole
2 The prepared rubber is rolled out and die to the fabric upper. Depending on the manu-
cut in pieces. The pieces are fitted facturer, waterproofing may be sprayed on
around aluminum lasts or forms made to suit the overshoe so that seams and joins have
the design of the boot and the foot and leg added protection against infiltrating water.
size. Sometimes these pieces are coated Other makers use waterproof, hot-melt tape
with talcum powder. The aluminum lasts that is placed over the seams and melted into
complete with the fitted rubber are heated place to prevent moisture and cold from en-
cured at a temperature of about 130°F tering these joins. Manufacturers may also
(54°C) to complete the process of forming opt for leather uppers that have been tanned
the rubber to fit the lasts and to meld the with waterproofing.
pieces together.
The talcum powder aids the process of 3 Heel cushions and steel shanks are other
3removing the rubber boot from the last. 3options in some models. Finally, the
The seams and other parts of the boot are straps, buckles, or other hardware are added.
trimmed, and any hardware is added.
Slush-molded boots and galoshes

Shorter rubber boots and galoshes includ-
Quality Control
1.ing very lightweight models like Totes ga- Construction of rubber boots, galoshes, and
loshes are made by slush molding. For this rubber sections of other overshoes is careful-
design, a last is made, and an outer metal ly monitored by technicians trained in the
mold is also made that is perfectly sized to processes of vulcanization, rubber curing,
the last except that it is slightly larger. and slush molding. Cutting of rubber and
fabric is sized and engineered by computer.
2 The cavity between the last and the mold Lasts for galoshes and rubber boots are usu-
is filled with liquid that consists of ally only made in full sizes and a limited
polyurethane and other synthetics and a range of widths, and the variety of designs is
small percentage of rubber, and the mold more restricted than designs of shoes for ex-
and its contents are spun to spread the liquid ample. These considerations help manufac-
uniformly throughout the cavity between the turers keep costs down; overshoes are, for
last and the mold. after all, a second set of footwear that are not
necessarily chosen for appearance. Techni-
The mold is removed, the formed boot is cians also monitor trimming and attachment
3taken off the last, and the boot is of fasteners or other accessories, whether
trimmed and decorated, like its larger cousin. these are done by hand or by machine.
223
Lightweight rubber boots and ga- are always on the alert for methods of mod-
loshes are manufactured using a ernizing reliable products and for recogniz-
process called slush molding. A ing ways of making them fashionable. The
last is made, and an outer metal portability and lightweight of Totes, the out-
mold is also made that is perfectly doorsy appeal of products made by L.L.
sized to the last except that it is Bean and others, and the trendy combina-
slightly larger.The cavity between
the last and the mold is filled with tion of fabric and sturdy rubber in the
liquid that consists of N.E.O.S design are examples of how pro-
polyurethane and other synthetics ducers have made reliable "old" galoshes
and a small percentage of rubber, new again.
and the mold and its contents are
spun to spread the liquid uniform-
ly throughout the cavity between Where to Learn More
the last and the mold. The mold is
removed, the formed boot is taken Books
off the last, and the boot is Lawlor, Laurie. Where Will This Shoe Take
trimmed and decorated. You? A Walk Through the History of
Footwear. New York: Walker and Compa-
ny, 1996.
Moilliet, J. L., ed. Waterproofing and
Water-Repellency. London: Elsevier Pub-
lishing Company, 1963.
O'Keefe, Linda. Shoes: A Celebration of
Pumps, Sandals, Slippers, & More. New
York: Workman Publishing, 1996.
Byproducts/Waste Yue, Charlotte and David. Shoes: Their
Byproducts are not usually made by manu- History in Words and Pictures. Boston:
facturers of galoshes although they are al- Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.
ways alert for marketing and fashion oppor-
tunities; for example, weather-proof clogs Periodicals
are made by some overshoe manufacturers to Canizares, George. "Galosh Revolution."
attract customers to a product that is easily US Airways Attache (December 1998): 30.
put on and taken off and for gardeners and
strollers who don't need the benefits of a full Other
boot or the shoe protection of galoshes.
,#Ben Meadows Company. http://www.ben
Rubber and fabric waste are minimized by meadows.com/.
computer-aided layouts and cutting. Waste
that does result must be disposed. MinAn Chemical Industrial Co., Ltd. http://
www.minan.com.tw/.
The Future New England Overshoe Company

(N.E.O.S). http://www.overshoe.com/.
Galoshes have always been useful, if not
prized for their beauty. Wily entrepreneurs -Gillian S. Holmes
224
Gelatin
Gelatin is a protein substance derived from watching his wife Rose make it in their Presently, 400 million
collagen, a natural protein present in the ten- kitchen. Knox packaged dried sheets of
dons, ligaments, and tissues of mammals. It gelatin and then hired salesmen to travel packages ofJello-O are
is produced by boiling the connective tis- door-to-door to show women how to add produced each year.
sues, bones and skins of animals, usually liquid to the sheets and use it to make as-
cows and pigs. Gelatin's ability to form pics, molds, and desserts. In 1896, Rose Over a million packages
strong, transparent gels and flexible films Knox published Dainty Desserts, a book of
that are easily digested, soluble in hot water, recipes using Knox gelatin. are purchased or eaten
and capable of forming a positive binding each day.
action have made it a valuable commodity The first patent for a gelatin dessert was is-
in food processing, pharmaceuticals, pho- sued in 1845 to industrialist and inventor
tography, and paper production. Peter Cooper. Cooper had already made a
name for himself as the inventor of the Tom
As a foodstuff, gelatin is the basis for jellied Thumb steam engine. He had also made a
desserts; used in the preservation of fruit fortune in the manufacture of glue, a process
and meat, and to make powdered milk, mer- similar to that for making gelatin.
inque, taffy, marshmallow, and fondant. It is
also used to clarify beer and wine. Gelatin's In 1897, Pearl B. Wait, a carpenter and
industrial applications include medicine cough medicine manufacturer, developed a
capsules, photographic plate coatings, and fruit-flavored gelatin. His wife, May Davis
dying and tanning supplies. Wait, named his product Jell-O. The new
product was not immediately popular and
Wait sold the rights to the process to Orator
Background Francis Woodward, owner of the Genesee
Until the mid-nineteenth century, making Food Company, for $450. Sales continued
gelatin was a laborious task. Calves' feet to limp along until 1902 when an aggressive
were loaded into a large kettle that was then advertising campaign in Ladies Home Jour-
placed over a fire. The feet were boiled for nal magazine generated enormous interest.
several hours after which the liquid was Sales jumped to $250,000.
strained and the bones were discarded. After
setting for 24 hours, a layer of fat would rise The use of gelatin in food preparation in-
to the top. This was skimmed off and dis- creased six-fold in the 40-year period from
carded. Sweeteners and or flavorings were 1936-1976. Today, 400 million packages of
added to the liquid and it was poured into Jello-O are produced each year. Over a mil-
molds and allowed again to set. lion packages are purchased or eaten each
day.
By the 1840s, however, some producers
were grinding the set gelatin into a fine In the field of photography, gelatin was in-
powder or cutting it into sheets. One of them troduced in the late 1870s as a substitute for
was Charles B. Knox, a salesman from wet collodion. It was used to coat dry photo-
Johnston, New York, who hit on the idea of graphic plates, marking the beginning of
making gelatin more convenient after modem photographic methods. Gelatin's
225
Gelatin is a protein substance that

is extracted from collagen, a nat-
ural protein present in skin,
bones, and animal tissue. As a
protein, it contains many amino
acids that lend itself to a diverse
amount of applications.
use in the manufacture of medicinal cap- Degreasing and roasting

sules occurred in the twentieth century.
The animal parts are passed under high-
pressure water sprays to wash away de-
bris. They are then degreased by soaking
Raw Materials them in hot water to reduce the fat content
Animal bones, skins, and tissue are obtained to about 2%. A conveyer belt moves the de-
from slaughterhouses. Gelatin processing greased bones and skins to an industrial
plants are usually located nearby so that dryer where they are roasted for approxi-
these animal byproducts can be quickly mately 30 minutes at about 2000 F (1000 C).
processed.
Acid and akaline treatment
Acids and alkalines such as caustic lime or 3 The animal parts are soaked in vats of
sodium carbonate are used to extract miner-
als and bacteria from the animal parts. They
3lime or some other type of acid or akali
for approximately five days. This process
are either produced in the food processing removes most of the minerals and bacteria
plant or purchased from outside vendors. and facilitates the release of collagen. The
acid wash is typically a 4% hydrochloric
Sweeteners, flavorings, and colorings are acid with a pH of less than 1.5. The alkaline
added in the preparation of food gelatin. wash is a potassium or sodium carbonate
These can be in liquid or powdered forms with a pH above 7.
and are purchased from outside vendors.
Boiling
A The pieces of bone, tissue, and skin are
The Manufacturing loaded into large aluminum extractors
Process and boiled in distilled water. A tube running
from the extractor allows workers to draw
Inspection and cutting off the liquid that now contains gelatin. The
liquid is sterilized by flash-heating it to
When the animal parts arrive at the food about 3750 F (1400 C) for approximately
processing plant, they are inspected for four seconds.
quality. Rotted parts are discarded. Then,
the bones, tissues, and skins are loaded
into chopping machines that cut the parts Evaporating and grinding
into small pieces of about Sin (12.7cm) in 5 From the extractor, the liquid is piped
diameter. through filters to separate out bits of
226
Gelatin
CH2 CHOH
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2
I
N-CH NH CH2 NH
I
N-CH
CO
/\/
NH CO
\/\__\/
CO CH-CO:NH CO CH=--CO
/ \CO
l
R
I
R
The chemical structure of gelatin is

bone, tissue or skin that are still attached. Valves are installed along pipelines to allow what makes gelatin water soluble;
From the filters, the liquid is piped into for continuous sampling of the product. form digestible gels and films that
evaporators, machines that separate the liq- are strong, flexible, and transpar-
uid from the solid gelatin. The liquid is Gelatin is processed to varying "bloom" val- ent; and form a positive binding
piped out and discarded. The gelatin is ues that measure the gel strength or firm- action that is useful in food pro-
passed through machines that press it into ness. The desired strength corresponds to cessing, pharmaceuticals, photog-
sheets. Depending on its final application, the manner in which the gelatin will be raphy, and paper production.
the gelatin sheets are passed through a used. The bloom value is technically mea-
grinder that reduces them to a fine powder. sured and monitored throughout the produc-
tion process.
Flavoring and coloring
6 If the gelatin is to be used by the food
The Future
industry, sweeteners, flavorings, and Since 1986 when the presence of bovine
colorings may be added at this point. Pre-set spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also
amounts of these additives are thoroughly known as mad cow disease, was reported
mixed into the powdered gelatin. in Great Britain, there has been much con-
cern about the processing of beef bones for
Packaging the production of gelatin. In 1989, the
United States Food and Drug Administra-
The packaging process is automated, with tion (FDA) banned the importation of cat-
preset amounts of gelatin poured into over- tle from the Department of Agriculture's
head funnels through which the gelatin list of of BSE-designated countries. How-
flows down into bags made of either ever, a 1994 FDA ruling allowed the con-
polypropylene or multi-ply paper. The bags tinued importation of bones and tissues for
are then vacuumed sealed. the production of pharmaceutical grade
gelatin.
Quality Control By 1997, however, the FDA held hearings
Gelatin manufacturers must adhere to strin- to reconsider its decision. After interviewing
gent national and international food process- gelatin processors, the agency found that
ing requirements. These regulations include while gelatin has not been implicated in the
but are not limited to cleanliness of the spread of BSE, officials are not convinced
plant, equipment and employees; and allow- that the manufacturing processing is extract-
able percentages of additives, flavorings, ing all possible agents that are responsible
and colorings. for the disease. It was generally agreed that
beef sources carry more of a risk than those
Automated and computerized technologies from pork, that bones carry a higher risk
allow the processors to preset and monitor than skins, and that alkaline processing is
ingredient amounts, time and temperature, more effective than the acid-extraction
acidity and alkalinity, and flow levels. method. These findings will certainly affect
227
the gelatin-processing industry in the next Other

century.
Leiner Davis Gelatin. http://www.gelatin.
com/ (June 29, 1999).
Where to Learn More
Kraft Foods. http://www.kraftfoods.com/
Books (June 29, 1999).
Harvey Lang, Jenifer, ed. Larousse Gas-
Sterling Gelatin. http://www.sterlinggelatin.
tronomique. New York: Crown Publishers,
1988, reprinted 1998. corn (June 29, 1999).
-Mary McNulty
Periodicals
Marwick, Charles. "BSE sets agenda for
imported gelatin." Journal of American
Medical Association (June 4, 1997): 1,659.
228
Glass Ornament
Background Queen Victoria's consort, Prince Albert, is Glass ornaments were a
generally credited with importing the
When Christmas trees were still a new cus- Christmas tree custom from his native Ger- European invention and
tom, inventive methods of decorating trees many in 1841. German immigrants, includ-
with as much light as possible were devel- cottage industry from the
ing Hessian soldiers, carried the heritage of
oped. Actual lights, from candles to elec- the Christmas tree to America. Christmas rise in popularity of the
tric bulbs, were used, of course; but, to markets in European towns and villages sold
magnify the sparkle and fascinate the gold leaf for gilding fruits and nuts, dried Christmas tree in the mid-
young, metallic tinsel and glass baubles be- fruits such as figs and prunes, strings of
came accessories for the well-dressed 1 800s to World War 11.
glass beads, tissue paper, all kinds of small
Christmas tree. Glass ornaments were a toys from hobby horses to drums and sol-
European invention and cottage industry diers, and tiny cakes and sparkling marzipan
from the rise in popularity of the Christmas confections specifically for decorating the
tree in the mid-1800s to World War II. Christmas tree. Miniature candles were also
When European supplies were extin- made just for trees, and metal clips were
guished by the war, the manufacture of made to hold the candles on the branches
glass ornaments became a mass production and collect the hot wax drips.
industry in the United States. More recent-
ly, exclusive designers have created a de- The annual Christmas markets demonstrated
mand for highly imaginative and colorfully the growing demand for tree ornaments, and
decorated ornaments.
families sought heirlooms that could be
passed to succeeding generations. In Victo-
History rian times, and in both Europe and the Unit-
Wreaths and garlands made of herbs and ed States, Christmas lights made of glass
evergreens have been part of celebrations began to replace the dangerous candles.
for thousands of years. Winter festivals in These lights were tiny lamps made of pieces
particular featured fragrant evergreens that of colored glass and hung with loops of
symbolized everlasting life. From the He- wire. Each lamp contained a wick and oil
brews, Greeks, Romans, and Druids, early that floated on water. Some lights were
Christians borrowed the symbolism of hand-blown glass, and others made of pat-
holly, mistletoe, boxwood, rosemary, lau- terned glass were popular because they re-
rel, and the Christmas tree. In Europe, live flected sparkling light.
trees were planted in tubs and brought in-
doors to inspire the residents. Indoor-and Glass ornaments replaced mostly edible dec-
unornamented-Christmas trees were docu- orations on trees in about 1850-1860. A "cot-
mented in Europe as early as 1521. Christ- tage industry" blossomed in the Thuringian
mas trees were becoming widely popular in mountains of Central Germany, where peas-
Europe by about 1755, and, also about this ant families manufactured hand-blown glass
time, they were customarily decorated with ornaments. Glass-making was a tradition in
candies, fruit, gilt nuts, dolls and other toys, the town of Lauscha, for example, that turned
and Christian symbols including figures of its manufactures to ornaments in the 1860s.
the Christ Child. In a typical glass-making family, the father
22 9
and adult men blew glass tubing that was by ribbon machines at the Corning Works.
heated over a Bunsen burner into ornament Today, ornaments are mass-produced by this
shapes. The other family members applied a same method or made by hand with blown
silver nitrate solution to the insides of the or- glass and specially designed molds as they
naments, so they would reflect light. Boards have been made for over 100 years.
with rows of nails in them were hung from
the cottage ceiling, and the coated ornaments Rcs Materials
(with stems of glass tubing still attached)
were inverted over the nails and dried over Raw materials for ornaments are the same
night. Each ornament was then dipped in whether they are hand- or machine-made.
brightly colored lacquer and decorated with Glass, in bulk form for ribbon machine man-
paint or fancy attachments like ribbon, spun ufacture, or in slender tubes in a range of
glass, or feathers. The glass stem was cut, gauges or sizes for blowing is the basic ma-
and a metal hanger was attached. terial. The inner reflective coating is called
silvering solution; its chemical makeup
Balls and ovals certainly predominated, but, varies among manufacturers and, in modern
by making plaster or metal molds into which production, is proprietary. Lacquers, paints,
the glass was blown, many fanciful shapes frosting powders, glitter, and a wide variety
were devised. Hunting horns, smokers' of attachments made of other materials (fab-
pipes, elaborate bells, delicate vases, and ric, ribbon, silk flowers, glass beads, etc.) are
birds with tails made out of spun glass were used to decorate the shapes. Metal catches
especially cherished. The colors of these are punched out of tin or aluminum by spe-
early ornaments imitated those of the col- cialty manufacturers, as are metal hooks that
ored sugars used to decorate confectionery are mounted inside the catches.
that had ornamented trees of previous gener-
ations. Entrepreneurs, like Frank W. Wool-
worth, and shop owners who reached cus- Design
tomers well beyond their storefronts via Mass-produced ornaments tend to be more
catalogs helped spread the sparkle of glass standard in shape than the ornaments pro-
ornaments in the United States. duced by exclusive designers. Balls and
ovals are the most common mass-produced
Germany was the exclusive producer of glass designs; but tree-toppers, tree shapes, bells,
ornaments until 1925. German ornaments teardrops, stars, and icicles are among the
first came to America as prized parts of the common shapes that can be molded and fin-
heritage of immigrants. Later, the ornaments ished on a large scale. For the artists who
were imported. In 1925, Japan was the next produce collectible designs, their ornament
country to produce significant quantities of shapes, sizes, and colors are as limitless as
ornaments; the cottage industry also suited their imaginations. World-renowned design-
Japanese families. Czechoslovakia and er Larry Fraga of Dresden Dove declares
Poland, both countries with strong glass- that the only requirement for designing or-
making traditions, entered the marketplace in naments is "to be a kid at heart." His bubble
the late 1920s. By 1935, the United States gum colors and humorous designs have
imported over 250 million handmade orna- vaulted him into the upper echelon of orna-
ments but still had no industry of its own. In ment artists who are hired to produce exclu-
1939, the commencement of World War II in sive ornaments for major department stores,
Europe shut off supplies of glass ornaments to appear at signing events, and to hand-
among many other European imports. Com- paint limited editions that command top dol-
ing Glass Works in New York entered the or- lar in an $800-million-per-year industry.
nament business. Corning was skilled in the
production of light bulbs, which used a rib-
bon machine to flow molten glass through an The Manufacturing
endless series of molds. The machine had Process
been developed in 1926, and, by adapting it Mass-produced ornaments
to the glass shapes needed for ornaments,
Corning could produce over 2,000 ornament In the factory, bulk quantities of glass are
balls a minute; and about 100 million orna- melted and flowed in a ribbon over a se-
ments per production year could be generated ries of molds.
230
Glass Ornament
Diagram of a typical automated

2 As each mold moves into position in signed packing materials are used to cushion glassblowing process.
2front of the stream of glass, compressed and display the ornaments for sale.
air is blown into the mold to force the glass
to uniformly take the shape of the mold. Handmade ornaments
Clear glass is used, and sizes range from
about 1.75-5 in (4.4-13cm) in diameter. 1 The modem glass blower begins produc-
tion of a handmade ornament with tubes
3 The ornaments move by conveyor to sta- of glass manufactured by suppliers. The
3tions where they coated on the inside craftsman can melt or cut the tubes into the
with silvering solution to provide the mir- desired quantity of glass needed for a specif-
ror-like reflective properties that will show ic ornament. By spinning the tube over a
through the exterior coatings. gas-powered torch, a portion of the glass is
softened and kept at a relatively uniform
4 Then, they are coated on the outside by temperature.
dipping them into a white undercoat or
base coat. 2)When the glass is ready to be molded,
Lthe operator depresses a foot pedal that
5 After the undercoat dries, the balls are opens the mold. The molds can be made of
transported by conveyor to the paint sta- plaster, cast iron, graphite, or porcelain.
tion where they are dipped in lacquer. Red They can have conventional or highly de-
and blue are the most common colors. tailed shapes etched into the molds by laser
beams. The soft glass is inserted in the mold
6 Decorations may be added by machine as the blower puffs on the glassblowing pipe
6or by hand and may include painted de- to expand the glass to fit the mold; the glass-
signs, frosting, glitter, or glued-on decora- worker has three seconds to complete this
tions. Glass manufacturers can also produce process because, as soon as the glass touch-
spun glass or fiberglass to decorate the orna- es the mold, it cools and forms. The finished
ments. Plain ornaments are also made for object has all the detail of the mold and is
those who like to decorate their own orna- called a hard casting. It also still has a length
ments at home. of tubing called a stem attached to the top,
like a rigid puppet on a stick.
7 Metal catches and hooks are prefabricat-
ed to the standard sizes of the ornament Mass-producers of ornaments claim that
tops and are attached by machine after the hand blown ornaments have an inherent dis-
ornaments are decorated; they are made of advantage in that the thickness of the glass
lightweight metal like aluminum or tin so may not be uniform, making it subject to
they are not too heavy for the ornament. breakage. In fact, the skilled artists in Ger-
many have so perfected the combination of
o The finished bulbs are then transferred glass and glassblowing skills that handmade
C to packing stations where specially de- ornaments may be more durable.
23 1
Bulk quanfities of glass are melted

and flowed in a ribbon over a se-
ries of molds.
Automated glassblowing process
3 In the next step, silvering solution is in- remaining stub. Tags and special packaging
3jected down the stem and swirled to coat to identify and protect the individual orna-
the inside of the ornament; the silvering so- ment are added before shipping.
lution can be omitted to produce a translu-
cent ornament that only takes the color of
the outer paint and has less of a reflective
Quality Control
quality. The silvered hard casting is dipped Quality control at the ornament factory is en-
in white undercoat and allowed to dry. sured by inspections and testing at various
stages of manufacture. Several instruments
4 Designer ornaments use a palette of col- monitor the operation of the ribbon glass ma-
ors and details to achieve their unique- chine, providing uniform temperature and
ness. The paints used for ornaments are viscosity (flow) of the molten glass. After
slow drying and tend to run together, so the the ornaments are molded, some are selected
ornaments must be painted in a hop-scotch for testing in a compression machine to veri-
fashion leaving adjacent areas untouched fy that the walls of the ornaments are uni-
until the painted areas are dry. The artist form and less subject to breakage. Quality in
then paints the alternating areas later. Deco- the application of coatings and decorations is
rations including glitter and ballo, a glitter- also checked by random inspection.
like substance that resembles fine sugar
crystals, are applied after paints have dried. For handmade ornaments, quality control is
in the hands of the designer who commis-
5 An ordinary glass cutter is then used to sioned production of the ornaments. The
cut the stem from the ornament, and the glassblowers and crafts persons who handle
metal cap or catch is snapped in place on the the ornaments during the process are paid on
232
Glass Ornament
a piece-part basis, so quantity tends to be and Italy making inroads in this field. De-
more important to the workers than quality. sign houses often host receptions where col-
If significant quantities of the ornaments are lectors can meet the designers for ornament
returned, however, the factory operator signings, and limited editions of designers'
stands to lose his profit. Thus, it is in his work guarantee their collectibility and
best interest to correct errors in the handling value. With a blending of rich traditions as
of the ornaments. background and artistic geniuses leading the
design front, glass ornaments are at the cut-
Byproducts/Waste ting edge of the holiday business.
There are no true byproducts from the man-
ufacture of glass Christmas ornaments, al- Where to Learn More
though the ornaments themselves may have Books
originated as byproducts of other types of
glass manufacture. Waste is minimal, al- Foley, Daniel J. The Christmas Tree.
though there is a considerable amount of Philadelphia: Chilton Company, 1960.
breakage. Stems, glass tubing pieces, and
broken ornaments can be recycled for use by The Merriment of Christmas: The Life Book
other types of glass factories. of Christmas. New York: Time Inc., 1963.
Rogers, Frances and Alice Beard. 5000
The Future Years of Glass. New York: Frederick A.
The design and production of glass orna- Stokes Co., 1937.
ments for Christmas trees has become a
huge industry, thanks to vivid new colors, Periodicals
creative and clever designs, a revival of in- Glitter. Bi-monthly newsletter, Raleigh,
terest in the uniqueness of hand blown and North Carolina.
decorated ornaments, and the explosion of
the holiday industry in general. Not only are
ornaments prized as family keepsakes and Other
heirlooms, but there are many collectors Old Europe Creations Ltd. http://www.pol-
who seek one-of-a-kind ornaments for year- ish-ornaments.com/.
round display.
Ornament Gallery. http://ornamentgallery.
Designs have gone beyond traditional com/.
Christmas themes and encompass other tra-
ditions and a considerable variety from en- Rblooms Collector's Corner. http://www.
dangered species, fictional characters, elab- rblooms.com/.
orate treetoppers, and rainbows to AIDS and
other awareness ribbons. Other countries Sacramento Valley Ornament Collectors'
with strong glass making traditions and in- http://www.calweb.com/-jtech/pages5.html.
ventive handicrafts have entered the boom-
ing market with Czechoslovakia, Russia, -Gillian S. Holmes
233
Glue
The earliest evidence of Background cals, compounds, or high-tech additives;
these are bone glue, hide or skin glue, and
use of glue can still be It is estimated that about 40 lb (18.2 kg) per fish glue. Technically, other sticky sub-
year of glue are used for every person in stances are adhesives, gums, or cements, al-
observed in the cave America, and it is easy to see how and why though consumers tend to use these terms
when one looks at the extent of uses. Furni-
paintings made by our ture, plumbing, shoes, books, buildings, and
interchangeably.
Neanderthal ancestors in automobiles all use glue in some part of Plants have also been used to produce glues
their construction. collectively called vegetable glues. These
Lascaux, France. materials are dispersible or soluble in water
Glues are part of a larger family called ad- and are usually made from the starches that
hesives. The two classes are distinguished compose many grains and vegetables. The
by the fact that glue comes from organic natural gums include agar, from colloids in
compounds while adhesives are chemical- marine plants, algin that is derived from sea-
based. Adhering materials called epoxies, weed, and gum arabic, an extract of the aca-
caulks, or sealants are also chemical com- cia tree (also known as the gum tree). The
pounds that have special additives to give substance called marine glue is used to
them properties suitable for particular jobs caulk seams, but it consists of tar or pitch
or applications.
and is not truly a glue.
Glue came into being when ancient tribes
discovered that the bones, hides, skin, History
sinew, and other connective tissues from an-
imals could be processed to remove colla- The earliest evidence of use of glue can still
gen, the protein in these tissues. The colla- be observed in the cave paintings made by
gen was sticky and was useful for holding our Neanderthal ancestors in Lascaux,
things together. Milk solids, known as ca- France. These early artists wanted their
sein, and blood albumin can also be used as work to last and mixed glue with the paint
a basis for glue. Dried serum from cows' they used to help the colors resist the mois-
blood yields albumin that coagulates ture of the cave walls. Egyptian artifacts
(clumps together) when it is heated and be- unearthed in their tombs show many uses of
comes insoluble in water. glues; perhaps the most striking are the ve-
neers and inlays in wood furniture, which
Fish glue was also made from the heads, was made using glue as early as 3,000 B.C.
bones, and skin of fish, but this glue tended to The Egyptians also used glue to produce
be too thin and less sticky. By experimenting, papyrus. Greek and Roman artists used
early man discovered that the air bladders of glues extensively; mosaic floors and tiled
various fish produced a much more satisfac- walls and baths are still intact after thou-
tory glue that was white and tasteless. It sands of years.
eventually was named isinglass or ichthocol.
Furniture-making relies heavily on glues.
There are three classes of substance that are Although there are many techniques for
called glues and that do not contain chemi- fastening pieces together, glue is often used
2 34
Glue
either permanently or to align pieces while

other connections are put in place. All of
the great cabinetmakers from the sixteenth
through the nineteenth centuries used glue
in furniture construction, including Chip-
pendale, Hepplewhite, Duncan Phyfe, the
Adams brothers, and Sheraton. The glues
used by these cabinet makers were made
from animal hides, hooves, and other parts
that had been reduced to jelly, then dried.
The jelly was ground into power or flakes.
It was remixed with water and heated gen-
tly in a glue pot. This product was brown,
brittle, hard, and not waterproof. Yet this
glue was the only glue available until
World War I. At that time, casein glues
made of milk and nitrocellulose glues were
first manufactured.
In the 1930s, advances in the chemical and

plastics industries led to development of a
wide range of materials called adhesives
and plastic or synthetic resin glues. World
War II led to a further flowering of this in-
dustry when neoprenes, epoxies, and acry-
lonitriles were invented. These were used
by the military and were not available for
commercial use until the late 1940s or
1950s. Since that time, highly specialized,
waterproof adhesives have been developed
for many industries and unique applications
including construction of the Space Shuttle.
Glues are still used in woodworking and the
manufacture of abrasives like sandpaper.
They are also used as a colloid in industrial
processes; colloids are added to liquids to
cause solid particles that are suspended in
the liquid to separate out so they can be re-
covered, either to clean the liquid or
process the solids.
R a w Materials
Glue manufacturers obtain bones andtis-
sues of animals from slaughterhouses, tan-
neries, and meat packing companies; it is
no coincidence that the world's largest
glue manufacturer is the dairy called Bor-
den Company. The animal remains that are
the raw materials for glue may include
ears, tails, scraps of hide or skin, scrapings
from the fleshy sides of hides, tendons,
bones, and feet. Similarly, manufacturers
of fish glue obtain bones, heads, scales,
and skins of fish from canneries and other
processing plants.
235
With only minor variations, the

same basic processes are used to The Mcanufacturing , it in open tanks or cooking it under pres-
make bone glue, hide or skin Process sure in autoclaves.
glue, and fish glue. The hides and
other scraps are washed so that 2 Cooking at the correct temperature and
dirt is removed, and they are Making hide or skin glue for the right length of time breaks down
soaked to soften them. This mater- With only minor variations, the same the collagen and converts it into glue. If the
ial is called stock, and it is cooked l basic processes are used to make bone
either by boiling it in open tanks temperature or timing is off, the quality of
or cooking it under pressure in glue, hide or skin glue, and fish glue. The the glue will be ruined. Large steam coils in
autoclaves. The resulting liquid, hides and other scraps are washed so that the open tanks heat the water and product to
called 'glue liquor' is extracted dirt is removed, and they are soaked to 160°F (70°C). Three or four treatments with
and reheated again to thicken the soften them. This material is called stock, clean water are performed at increasing tem-
glue. When cooled, this material and it is passed through a series of water peratures (or pressures if a pressurized sys-
looks like jelly and is solid. To re- baths in which more and more lime is tem is used). The resulting liquid, called
move the impurities and make the added to make the hides and skins swell "glue liquor" is extracted and reheated again
glue clear, chemicals like alum or and break them down. The swollen hides to thicken the glue.
acid followed by egg albumin are rinsed in a large washing machine to re-
may be added. These chemicals move the lime. The last traces of lime are 3 When cooled, this material looks like
cause the impurities to precipitate, eliminated by treating the stock with weak jelly and is solid; although it looks like
or fall out, of the glue. The glue is
made more concentrated in vacu- acids like acetic or hydrochloric acid. Fi- the kind of gelatin used in food, it contains
nally, the stock is cooked either by boiling impurities. To remove the impurities and
236
Glue
make the glue clear, chemicals like alum or Safety and sanitation are also major con-
acid followed by egg albumin may be cerns. Glue manufacturers tend to be located
added. These chemicals cause the impurities very close to supplies of hides and other raw
to precipitate, or fall out, of the glue. Me- materials to prevent disease, vermin, conta-
chanical methods can also be used to clean mination, and major costs like transporta-
the glue. These include passing the glue tion. Workers' safety is carefully monitored,
through a series of mechanical filters or as is the production of a pure glue.
through paper filters or ground bone called
bone char. Byproducts/Waste
A Different additives are mixed with the Glue itself is a byproduct of dairies, meat
1
glue liquor to make brown, clear, or white processing plants, and other facilities that
glue. Sulfurous acid, phosphoric acid, or alum generate the raw materials needed for glue
are among these additives. Zinc oxide is production.
added to produce white "school glue."
The Future
To this point, the glue is a weak, runny
5liquid. It is made more concentrated in Glues are essential to our future. More and
vacuum evaporators and dried in one of sev- more manufacturing processes are using
eral methods. The glue can be chilled into various forms of glue (and including adhe-
either sheets or blocks then suspended on sives) to replace stitching, stapling, and
nets to dry and become still more concen- more expensive (and less effective) forms of
trated. The glue can also be dropped as fastening. Experiments with medical glues
beads or "pearls" into a non-water bearing suggest that one-third of all wounds may be
liquor that further dries the concentrated "stitched" with glues in the next few years.
beads. The pearls, blocks, or sheets are then Glues have proven to be so versatile that sci-
mixed to the right consistency and pumped entists are constantly watching for new ap-
into bottles or jars for sale. plications that will make our lives simpler.
Making bone glue Where to Learn More

Manufacture of bone glue is somewhat more Books
complicated. Bones are processed most
often in pressure tanks, but additional pro- Giles, Carl and Barbara. Glue It! Blue
cessing is needed to remove the minerals. Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books Inc., 1984.
The bones are degreased with solvents, then Miller, Robert S. Adhesives and Glues: how
hydrochloric acid in an 8% solution is ap- to choose and use them. Columbus, OH:
plied to the bones. The acid removes calci- Franklin Chemical Industries, 1980.
um phosphate and other minerals and leaves
collagen in the same shape as the piece of Periodicals
bone. The acid is removed from the colla-
gen, and it is dried to produce commercial- Allen, Laura. "Sticky stitches." Science
grade ossein or bone protein (also termed World (October 6, 1997): 6.
acidulated bone) that is the basis for bone
glues. After the ossein is created, it can then "Sticky stuff." Science Weekly (January 10,
be processed in the open-tank method and 1996): 1.
the subsequent steps used to make glue from
hides, as described above. Other
Advanced Adhesive Technology, Inc. http://
aatglue.com/.
Quality Control
All processes in the manufacture of glue are American Chemical, Inc. http://www.glueit.
monitored carefully using instruments, com- com/.
puterized controls, and observation. Improp- The Gorilla Group. http://www.gorillaglue.
er temperatures or pressures will ruin large com/.
quantities of stock that must then be wasted;
manufacturers will not risk such errors. -Gillian S. Holmes
237
Golf Tee
It is estimated that the A golf tee is a small device used to prop up formed. The first toumrnament was played in
a golf ball. It is typically used on the first 1744. This toumament followed a set of 13
U.S. golf markets use shot of each new hole during a game of golf. rules that became standard in 1754. The one
about two billion wood Golf tees are made in a highly automated exception was that a ball could not be placed
fashion. The exact method depends on the on a tee to improve a watery lie.
golf tees per year. material; however, they are generally
formed or cut, then finished and packaged. In 1899, the first patent for a golf tee was is-
First patented in the late nineteenth century, sued to George Grant. Since this time a vari-
the design of a golf tee has changed only ety of innovations have been introduced.
slightly. It is estimated that the U.S. golf Some of these innovations relate to the tee's
markets use about two billion wood golf shape. For example, during the 1970s two
tees per year. With the expected increase in patents were granted for golf tees that had
golf popularity, this number is expected to unique designs which were supposed to help
rise significantly. improve the flight of the ball. Other patents
were issued for golf tees that stayed in the
ground more consistently after the ball was
History hit. In the 1980s, an angled golf tee was in-
While the basic design of the golf tee has troduced. The composite material of certain
changed little since the late nineteenth centu- golf tees has also changed. For instance, a
ry, it has evolved significantly throughout the 1991 patent describes a golf tee made out of
game's history. There are a variety of theories a biodegradable resin. Additional materials
which suggest how and were golf began. The introduced recently include clay tees, tees
earliest evidence is a game similar to golf made from corn, and tees composed of ani-
played by the ancient Chinese as early as 300 mal byproducts. Although more than 25
B.C. According to some, the modem game of patents have been issued for improved golf
golf finds its origins with a game played by tees in the last 20 years, the most popular
during Roman times. This game called Pa- tees still have the same basic shape as the
gancia involved hitting a leather ball stuffed ones first made a century ago.
with feathers. Others suggest that it was de-
rived from the French game chole played in
the 1300s or the English game cambuca. Both Raw Macterials
of these involved hitting a ball with a stick. Conventional golf tees are generally formed
The most direct ancestor to golf was a game from wood or plastic. The primary wood
called kolfspel played in Holland around used is cedar wood. One source is the red
1295. This game required a player to hit a ball cedar, an evergreen conifer grown in the
with a wooden club, or kolf, into a series of eastern United States. A variety of synthetic
targets. To get a clear shot, players were al- plastics have also been used to construct
lowed to elevate the ball on a tuitje, which golf tees. Plastics are high molecular weight
was a small pile of sand. This was the first polymers that are formed through various
type of golf tee known. The modem game of chemical reactions. Most plastic golf tees
golf developed in Scotland during the 1400s. are made using polypropylene or high densi-
By 1735, the first golf organization was ty polyethylene (HDPE).
238
Golf Tee
To make the primary raw materials easier jectory. Other tees have been invented to
to work with other materials are used. For increase ball distance and improve accura-
example, fillers are added to change the cy. Some golf tees have adhesives applied
plastic's properties. These fillers help con- to reduce rotational spin.
trol the flexibility of the plastic and make
them more lightweight. They can even help One problem with traditional golf tees is that
make the tees less prone to breaking. For after a player makes a shot, the tee takes
decorative purposes, colorants may be flight with the ball and is lost. For this rea-
added to the plastic to modify the tee's ap- son, golf tees that have a vented side wall are
pearance. Paint is used to coat wooden tees available. The venting is thought to mini-
making them more attractive and weather mize adverse effects of depressurization be-
resistant. Glue is also used for the produc- tween the golf tee and the accelerating golf
tion of wooden tees. Rubber has also been ball. The tee tends to remain stationary and
used to modify the characteristics of cer- the ball retains more of its momentum from
tain golf tees. the club. Another fix to this problem is found
in golf tees that have barbs on their tips so
A variety of biodegradable tees have been they resist movement when the ball is hit.
recently introduced. One type of biodegrad-
able tee is based on animal byproducts. By For plastic tees, the most critical part of the
combining materials derived from skin, manufacturing process is designing the
scales, bone, and soft tissue manufacturers mold. A mold is a cavity carved into steel.
have been able to produce an environmen- When molten plastic is introduced into the
tally benign product that degrades automati- mold, it takes on the mold's shape when it
cally. Another type of biodegradable tee is cools. During manufacture, the mold cavity
based on a corn derivative. When this tee is highly polished because any flaw on the
gets wet its molecular structure breaks down surface will be reproduced on the plastic.
and it gets slowly washed away. Still other For making golf tees, a two piece mold is
golf tees of this type are mixed with fertiliz- used. The pieces are joined together briefly
er and grass seed to improve their compati- to form the tee and then released. Special re-
bility with the course. lease agents are used to make the tee easier
to remove. Steel molds are highly precise
and can produce exact tees each time. When
Design molds are designed, however, they are made
A typical golf tee is a small, solid piece of slightly larger to compensate for the fact
wood or plastic with a wide, flattened head that the plastic shrinks as it cools
and a thin, pointed shaft. The head is
grooved slightly to accommodate a golf
ball. The pointed tip is designed to be in- The Manufacturing
serted perpendicularly into the ground. The Process
most common size for a golf tee is 2.125 in The process of making a golf tee can be bro-
(5.4 cm) long. Tees are available in a wide ken down into three basic segments. First
range of colors including white, yellow, or- the raw materials are prepared. Next, the
ange, light blue, pink, and green. Red, dark golf tee shape is formed. Finally, the golf
blue, black, silver, and natural are also tee is finished and put into packaging.
available.
Another type of golf tee is an angled golf Material preparation
tee. This tee is designed to be inserted into 1 To begin the process of producing golf
the ground at an angle. The ball receipt sur- tees, the incoming raw materials must be
face is varied and can be more recessed or prepared. For golf tees made of wood, this
more perpendicular to the longitudinal means that large logs are stripped of their
axis. This golf tee can help reduce the ef- bark and cut down to smaller wood blocks.
fects of undesirable rotation that arises For plastic tees, plastic pellets are mixed
from contact with the head of the golf club. with colorants and other strengthening in-
In this way, it can reduce hooking or slic- gredients. The raw materials for biodegrad-
ing of the ball. Some tees are shaped differ- able tees are mixed together in a large tank
ently to prevent disruption of the ball train the proper proportions. In all cases, after
239
Plastic golf tees are manufactured

using an injection molding ma- this step the starting raw materials are sent an injection molding machine. They are
chine. In this process, plastic pel- to the forming stage. passed through a hydraulically controlled
lets are loaded into a hopper and screw and melted. The screw is then turned
passed through a hydraulically and the plastic is physically injected into a
controlled screw and melted. The Forming the tee mold. Just prior to injection, the two halves
liquid plastic is forced into a golf 2 In the forming section, the raw materi- of the mold are brought together. They
tee mold and held under pressure
until it is set. As the plastic cools, it 2als are shaped into tees. This can be form a cavity which has the same shape as a
hardens into the shape of the done through injection molding or cutting. golf tee. The plastic is held in the mold
mold. The mold opens and ejects Injection molding is used for most non- under pressure and allowed to cool. While
the tee onto a conveyor belt. wood tees. In this manufacturing step the cooling, it hardens. The tee is pushed out
plastic pellets are loaded into the hopper of onto a conveyor belt after the mold is
24 0
Golf Tee
opened. The mold is then brought together the manufacturer can determiine the overall
and the process repeats. Extraneous plastic quality of the entire production run. The pri-
is trimmed from the molded tees. mary test method is visual inspection. Qual-
ity control workers check for things such as
3 Cutting is utilized for wood tees. The deformed, damage or improperly labeled
3wooden blocks run on a conveyor under tees. Additionally, more rigorous measure-
a machine which carves out tee slats. These ments can also be performed. Measuring
are shapes that look like one half of the tee equipment is used to check the length, width
if cut longitudinally from the head to the tip. and thickness of each part. Typically, de-
The tee slats are then glued together like a vices such as a vernier caliper, a microme-
sandwich to form a complete tee. ter, or a microscope are used. Each of these
differ in accuracy and application. If a tee is
Coating and packaging found to be out of the specification range, it
4 After the primaly tee shape has been is removed and set aside to be remelted or
A formed the tees are sent through other reformed into a new tee. The machinery is
processing steps before being packaged. recalibrated and tested in order to eliminate
Wooden tees may be cut and shaped further the defect.
to meet design characteristics. They are then
sanded smooth. Plastic tees can be shaken The Future
and cleaned to remove residual plastic pieces.
With the continued growth in popularity of
5 The tees are then put through the deco- the sport of golf it is anticipated that golf tee
5rating phase. Wood tees are coated with manufacturers will try to improve on their
a weather resistant paint. They may then be product. Many of them have already intro-
passed through a lettering machine that duced biodegradable products to help re-
paints on a company name or logo. Certain duce the number of trees destroyed yearly
higher priced tees have the lettering en- and relieve the litter caused by the increased
graved prior to painting. Plastic tees can number of broken tees left on the golf
have silk-screened lettering; however, this is course. One of the drawbacks to the current-
more expensive and is typically not done. ly available biodegradable products is that
they break more easily than wooden or plas-
6 The finished tees are then put into the tic tees. Manufacturers will no doubt ad-
Vfinal packaging. This can be a small dress this problem in the near future.
plastic bag or a large box. To ensure that the
correct number of tees are dropped into the
package, they are first weighed. The bag is Where to Learn More
sealed and placed into larger cases. These
cases are stacked on pallets and shipped to Books
distributors.
Purkey, Mike. "Good Form." Golf Maga-
zine (April 1998): 170.
Quality Control
The quality of the golf tees are checked dur- Zumerchick, J. editor. Encyclopedia of
ing each phase of manufacture. Since thou- Sports Science. Simon & Schuster MacMil-
sands of tees are made daily, a complete in- lan, 1997.
spection of each piece is not possible.
However, using statistical models as a Other
guide, production line inspectors randomly
pull samples of tees at fixed time intervals. United States Golf Association (USGA).
These samples are checked to ensure they 1996. http://www.usga.org/ (June 28, 1999).
meet size, shape, and consistency specifica-
tions. By following this sampling method, -Perry Romanowski
24 1
Green Tea
A total of about 100,000 Background 907), when a ritual was performed in Bud-
dhist temples. A brick of tea was ground to a
tons of green tea is In 1992, global production of all tea was al- powder, mixed in a kettle with hot water,
most 2.5 million tons. The majority of tea and ladled into ceramic bowls.
produced per year from production occurs in the subtropical areas of
60,000 hectares of tea Asia, including China, India, Sri Lanka, One of the first Japanese uses of the tea cer-
Japan, and Indonesia. More than 35 coun- emony in public was when Toyotomi
fields. Only green tea is tries now produce tea, with India, China, and Hideyoshi, then the most powerful warlord
Sri Lanka the leaders. Black tea is the most in Japan, held a tea party in his camp the
produced in Japan. produced, followed by oolong and jasmine evening before a large battle in order to
tea. Besides the distinction between varieties calm his warriors and inspire morale.
of tea, the major difference between the type Hideyoshi's own sado teacher, Senno
of teas is the processing method. Green tea Rikyo, is also credited with elevating tea
leaves are picked and immediately sent to be from a simple beverage to a highly respect-
dried or steamed to prevent fermentation, ed method of self-realization. Today, there
whereas black tea and other types are left to are tea schools in Japan to learn the proper
ferment after they are picked. methods of the tea ceremony or chanoyu.
The Urasenke School is the most active and
Green tea originated in China for medicinal has the largest following.
purposes, and its first recorded use was
4,000 years ago. By the third century, it be- The form of chanoyu that is practiced today
came a daily drink and cultivation and pro- was established in the second half of the
cessing began. Today, China has hundreds sixteenth century by Rikyu. Chanoyu in-
of different types of green teas. Other pro- volves more than merely enjoying a cup of
ducers of green tea include India, Indone- tea in a stylized manner. The ceremony de-
sia, Korea, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and veloped under the influence of Zen Bud-
Vietnam. dhism aims to purify the soul by becoming
one with nature. The true spirit of the tea
Green tea was first introduced in Japan dur- ceremony has been described by such terms
ing the Nara period (710-794), when numer- as calmness, rusticity, and gracefulness.
ous Japanese Buddhist monks visited China The rules of etiquette are carefully calculat-
and brought tea seeds back to Japan. The ed to achieve the highest possible economy
Japanese tea industry is said to have begun of movement.
in 1191, when the monk Eisai planted tea
seeds from China on temple land. He then For some 500 years after tea was introduced
encouraged the cultivation of tea in other to Japan, it was used in its powdered form
areas of Japan by extolling the health bene- only. It was not until the mid-sixteenth cen-
fits of tea drinking. tury that the processing method for conven-
tional green tea was invented. Prior to the
The making and serving tea as an art form Edo period (1600-1868), the consumption of
(sado, the way of tea) was introduced in tea was limited to the ruling class. Only
Japan during the eleventh century. The ori- after the beginning of the twentieth century,
gins go back to China's Tang dynasty (618- with the introduction of mass production
242
Green Tea
techniques, did tea achieve widespread pop- since these would destroy the true flavor and
ularity among the general population. aroma of the tea.
Today, tea leaves for green tea are grown in
the warmer southern regions of Japan, with Raw Materials
about half produced in Shizuoka Prefecture. Green tea is made from the top two leaves
Uji, a district near the ancient city of Kyoto and buds of a shrub, Camellia sinensis, of
(and the district from which the finest the family Theaceace and the order Theales.
Japanese tea comes from to this day) be- This order consists of 40 genera of trees or
came the first tea-growing region in Japan. shrubs that have evergreen leaves, flowers
Later, tea plantations were planted in with five sepal or leaf-like structures and
Shizuoka Prefecture and, finally to sur- petals. The genus Camellia consists of 80
rounding regions. A total of about 100,000 species of East Asian evergreen shrubs and
tons of green tea is produced per year from trees. Besides the leaves, other ingredients
60,000 hectares of tea fields. Only green tea may be added to create special scents or fla-
is produced in Japan. vors during the drying process, such as jas-
mine, flowers, or fruits.
Though traditionally green tea was produced
manually, the process has been fully mecha- The tea plant originates in an area between
nized in Japan. The various types of tea now India and China. There are three main vari-
produced differ according to cultivation eties of this plant-China, Assam, and Cam-
practices and processing methods. Sencha is bodia-and a number of hybrids in between.
a tea with three quality levels: high, medium, The China variety grows as high as 9 ft (2.7
and low. It is manufactured from the tender m) and has an economic life of at least 100
top two leaves and the shoots for the high years. The Assam variety is a tree that
and medium grades and from the third from grows as high as 60 ft (18.3 m), with an eco-
the top leaf for the low grade. nomic life of 40 years dependent upon regu-
lar pruning and plucking. The 16 ft (4.9 m)
Sencha, which comprises 80% of all green high Cambodia variety is naturally crossed
tea production, consists of tiny dark green with other varieties.
needle-shaped pieces. Almost immediately
after picking, the leaves are steamed for
about 30 seconds to seal in the flavor, fol- The M0anufacturing
lowed by drying, pressing, and rolling Process
steps.
Cultivation and harvesting
Gyokura is the highest grade of tea and is 1 A suitable climate for cultivation has a
made from the most tender leaves that are minimum annual rainfall of 45-50 in
grown under 90% shade using bamboo (114.3-127 cm). Tea soils must be acid since
blinds. Matcha is made from similar leaves tea plants will not grow in alkaline soils. A
and is processed into a powder form for ex- desirable pH value is 5.8-5.4 or less. Tea can
clusive use in the tea ceremony. Bancha is a be cultivated up to 7,218.2 ft (2,200 m) above
low-grade coarse tea made from older sea level and can grow between the equator
leaves picked after Sencha leaves are picked and the forty-fifth latitude. The plants are re-
or picked in the summer. It is generally produced through tile-laying or through seeds
composed of lower grade tea leaves, which from trees that have grown freely.
are divided into two kinds: large leaf, and
small leaf. 2 A crop of 1,500 lb (681 kg) of tea per
2acre requires up to two workers per acre
Houjicha is a wedge-shaped tea made from to pluck the tea shoots by hand and maintain
Bancha that is roasted at 3020 F (150° C) to the field. The tea plant is generally plucked
prevent fermentation and produces a light every five to 10 days, depending on where it
golden color when made. Kamairicha comes grows. The length of time needed for the
from northern Kyushu and is first roasted at plucked shoot to redevelop a new shoot ready
392-572°F (200-300°C) followed by cool- for plucking varies according to the plucking
ing at 212°F (100°C). Green tea is tradition- system and the climatic conditions. Intervals
ally served without sugar, milk, or lemon of between 70-90 days are common.
243
Harvesting an average tea planti-

ng of 1,500 lb (681 kg) of tea per
acre requires up to two workers
per acre to pluck the tea shoots by
hand and maintain the field. The
tea plant is generally plucked
every five to 10 days, and the
length of time needed for the
plucked shoot to redevelop a new
shoot ready for plucking varies
according to the plucking system
and the climatic conditions. Inter-
vals of between 70-90 days are
common. A bud and several
leaves are picked from each plant.
In Japan, the first crop is harvest-
ed in April and May, the second Harvesting
crop in June, the third crop in July
and the final crop in September.
3 In Japan, the tea harvesting begins sencha called fukamushi is steamed for 90-
varound the end of April, with the leaves 150 seconds to produce a flaky light yel-
picked by hand or machine. A bud and sev- lowish green tea. Steaming is conducted in
eral leaves are picked from each plant. The a bamboo tray over water or by a revolving
first crop is harvested in April and May, the or belt-conveyor type machine. After me-
second crop in June, the third crop in July chanical steaming, the leaves go into a
and the final crop in September. For cooling machine that blows the water from
gyokuro or matcha tea, the plants are shaded the leaves.
for two weeks after the first bud comes out
in spring before picking. The leaves are then Shaping
shipped to the factory for processing. Since
not all can be processed at once, the leaves 6 In most countries, rolling or shaping
are stored in a large bin that is kept at the green tea leaves is done by machinery.
proper temperature by blowing cool air into In China, high-end leaves are hand-rolled
the bottom. into various shapes, including curly, twisted,
pointed, round, and more. Rolling the tea
Drying creates a distinctive look, as well as regu-
lates the release of natural substances and
4 After the tea leaves are plucked, they flavor when it is steeped in the cup.
must be dried to prevent fermentation,
which stops any enzyme activity that causes 7 In Japan, a number of rolling and drying
oxidation. In China, green teas are often steps take place. A special machine is
pan-fired in very large woks, over a flame or used to accomplish the first rolling and dry-
using an electric wok. The tea leaves must ing steps simultaneously and takes about 48
be stirred constantly for even drying. With- minutes. The tea leaves are dried to im-
ering is also used, which spreads the tea prove their strength so they can be pressed
leaves on racks of bamboo or woven straw during the next drying process. Moisture
to dry in the sun or using warm air. Again, from both the surface and from the inside of
the leaves must be moved around to ensure the tea leaves is removed using this ma-
uniform drying. chine.
5 In Japan, steaming is normally used. 8 This machine consists of a spindle with
51Before the steaming process begins, the 8finger-shaped extensions that stir the
tea leaves are sorted and cleaned. The leaves while heated air (at 93.2-96.80 F [34-
steaming time determines the type of tea 360 C]) is blown into the machine. Though
that is produced. Sencha tea is normally the rolling temperature is automatically con-
steamed for 30-90 seconds. Another type of trolled by the computer, it is still important
244
Green Tea
Once harvested, the tea leaves

for the operator to touch the tea by hand to important to take out the leaves at the same are dried in order to prevent fer-
make sure it feels right. moisture level every time. mentafion. In China, pan firing is
used. In Japan, the leaves are
The tea leaves are removed from the steam dried. The dried leaves are
9 Since the moisture level still varies for then shaped or rolled in order to
different parts of a leaf or from one leaf previous machine, separated into small
portions and placed in pots. They are gradu- regulate the release of natural
to another at the end of the first step, another substances and flavor when it is
rolling process takes place to uniformly dis- ally rolled into tiny round or needle shapes steeped in the cup, as well as cre-
tribute the remaining moisture in the leaves. using a weight. This step takes 40 minutes ate a uniformly rounded leaf. In
This process rolls the leaves by pressing and removes most of the moisture. The total Japan, the tea is dried once more
under a rotating disk to bring the moisture process thus far takes about three hours to reduce its moisture content to
from the center of the leaves to the surface. compared to hand rolling and heating which about 5% before packaging.
The process is conducted at room tempera- can take up to 10 hours.
ture for 24 minutes.
Final drying
Next, the leaves go to another rolling/ 1 In Japan, green tea must be dried for
I drying machine, which uses a spin- I2about 30 minutes after the final rolling
ning pedal inside of a revolving drum to step for storage. The tea is spread on a cater-
convert the leaves into a round shape. This pillar-type device and dried slowly to about
process takes about 40 minutes. It is very 5% moisture content or less. At this stage
245
the half-processed tea, called aracha, is fits. Studies have shown that green tea can
shipped to tea merchants or wholesalers for prevent cancer since it contains catechin, the
final processing. Aracha is not uniform in major component of tea. A study in Japan
size and still contains stems and dust. showed that residents in areas devoted to
green tea production in the central and west-
Post-processing ern regions of Shizuoka Prefecture, who
drink the tea daily, have a significantly
After the tea is shipped to the whole- lower death rate for all types of cancer com-
13salers in Japan, it undergoes several pared to other regions.
other steps to produce the final product. A
special machine grades and cuts the tea by
particle size, shape, and cleanliness, de- These findings were supported by animal
pending on the final qualities desired. The experiments that showed green tea reduced
machine uses mechanical sieves or sifters the growth of tumors. Other research has
fitted with meshes of appropriate size, as shown that green tea consumption may in-
well as cutting devices to achieve a quality hibit nitrosamine formation-known car-
tea. Another drying step follows to pro- cinogens or cancer-causing chemicals.
duce the aromatic flavor, followed by
blending per customer's specifications, Green tea catechin has also been shown to
packing and finally shipping to retail limit the excessive rise in blood cholesterol
shops. In other countries, similar sorting, in both animals and humans, as well as pre-
weighing, and packaging steps occur after vent high blood pressure. Other benefits of
the shaping process. catechin include killing bacteria and in-
fluenza viruses, preventing halitosis, inhibit-
Quality Control ing increase of blood sugar, and fighting
cariogenic bacteria. Green tea (especially
The quality of green tea depends first on matcha) also contains important vitamins
using good tea leaves. The natural quality of (C, B complex, and E), fluoride (for pre-
the leaf, including color and aroma, must venting cavities), amino acids (for lowering
then be preserved during the manufacturing blood pressure), and polysaccharides (low-
process to produce a good green tea. In ers blood sugar). Green tea is a strong an-
Japan, this involves controlling the tempera- tioxidant as well and is even more powerful
ture to 93.2-96.80 F (34-36° C) during than vitamin E or vitamin C due to the pres-
rolling, drying, and storage. Since tea leaves ence of polyphenols, such as epigallocate-
can generate their own heat, cool air is chin gallate (EGCG).
blown into the bottom of the container to
keep the leaves at the proper temperature Extracts of green tea may also make strains
during storage. of drug-resistant bacteria that cause skin in-
The Japanese government also subjects all fections more sensitive to penicillin, British
exported tea to a strict inspection. Standard researchers report. The investigators also
samples, which are established at the be- found that diluted tea extract acted synergis-
ginning of the tea season each year, are tically with antibiotics, making them more
used to compare various properties of the potent against particular strains of this type
finished product with the samples. Leaves, of bacteria.
stems, moisture, content, flavor, taste, and
color are all rigidly examined. There is also In addition to preventing or curing these
a stringent chemical analysis to determine more common diseases, preliminary re-
tannin, caffeine, vitamin, and mineral con- search indicates the antiviral capability of
tents. Tea is exported only after passing green tea catechin may have some beneficial
these tests. effect in fighting AIDS. Laboratory tests
have verified that catechin can inhibit the
The Future activity of the AIDS virus. Instead of simply
being known as a popular Japanese bever-
Though the health benefits of green tea have age, green tea may thus become an impor-
been known for centuries, recent research is tant "new" medicine of the twenty-first cen-
providing concrete evidence of these bene- tury for the entire world.
246
Green Tea

Books Japan Tea Exporter's Association. 17 Kita-
bancho, Shizuoka, Japan 420-0005. +81 -
Mitscher, Lester A. and Victoria Dolby. 54-271-3428. Fax: +81-54-271-2177.
The Green Tea Book: China's Fountain of
Youth. Avery Publishing Group, 1997. Maruichi Green Tea Farm. http://www.
maruichi-jp.com (February 2, 1999).
Oguni, Dr. Itaro. Green Tea and Human
Health. University of Shizuoka, Japan Tea The Teaman's Tea Talk. http://www.tea
Exporters' Association. talk.com (June 30, 1998).
Okakura, Kakuzo. The Book of Tea. Dover
Publications Inc., 1964. The Teapot Salon. http://www.iris.orjp/-
hamadaen/ (1996).
Rosen, Diana. The Book of Green Tea.
Storey Books Inc., 1998. -Laurel Sheppard
247
Greeting Card
Over 1,500 greeting card Background History
manufacturers sell an Greeting cards are pieces of paper or card- Some speculate that ancient Egyptians may
board upon which photos, drawings, and a have recorded greetings upon papyrus and
estimated seven billion verse of cheer, greeting, celebration, con- sent them via messenger to the intended par-
dolence, etc. have been printed or en- ties, and it seems plausible that the ancient
cards each year. Each graved. Greeting cards are decorated with Greeks recorded sentimental verse on
household receives an a variety of images and include messages scrolls, as well. By the late Middle Ages,
to appeal to diverse audiences, sentiment, letters and messages of love, including ro-
average of 80 cards and occasion to be remembered. Greeting mantic verses sent near St. Valentine's Day,
cards are easily made at home using pen were exchanged throughout Europe. Person-
annually. and paper or software sold by greeting al messages of greeting and sentiment were
card and other companies. Recently, virtu- individually crafted until the mid-nineteenth
al cards that include images and verse can century. The first commercially-produced
be sent to someone by way of the Intemet greeting card was a Christmas card invented
and e-mail and may be printed out on in 1846 by British businessman Henry Cole
paper by the receiver. Despite the electron- who asked a printer to produce a printed
ic availability of these cards, the greeting Christmas greeting he could quickly send to
card industry continues to sell cards in re- friends. The idea caught on and mass-pro-
tail store in huge numbers. Over 1,500 duced Christmas cards were popular by the
greeting card manufacturers sell an esti- 1860s. Louis Prang, an American printer
mated seven billion cards each year. Each who invented a multi-color printing process
household receives an average of 80 cards called chromolithography, fashioned beauti-
annually. fully colored cards by the 1870s. Cards for
Easter, birthdays, baby arrivals, etc. soon
followed. The larger American card compa-
The market research associated with the nies were founded in the early years of the
development of a successful greeting card twentieth century and a number exist today
is just as important as attractive graphics and remain leaders in card sales. Innova-
or appropriate verse. Research has pushed tions in card production have primarily re-
large greeting card companies to expand volved around developing efficient printing
traditional product lines and offer cards methods, diversifying the product offering
for pets, step-siblings, divorce, weight by nurturing a large creative talent pool, and
loss encouragement, company lay-offs, devising more effective point-of-sale dis-
and more. Some smaller greeting card plays so consumers can easily see the prod-
companies specialize in the production of ucts in an attractive display.
cards that appeal only to one or two spe-
cific markets. Greeting card companies re-
quire a diverse talent pool in order to pro- Ravv materials
duce commercially-successful product,
and these forms employ everyone from Greeting cards are made of card stock that
cartoonists to market researchers to press- may be of wood pulp or part "rag" (textile
man who print the cards. waste)-sturdy, fairly expensive paper. In-
248
Greeting Card
creasingly, these card stocks are being made Marketing departments work closely with
with recycled materials. Many, but not all, of the Creative Department in order to collab-
the companies put a glossy aqueous coating oratively devise a new card. These larger
consisting of water and a water-based acrylic companies employ an in- house creative
coating on the stock after printing particular- staff that includes artists, graphic designers,
ly when a photograph is featured. Inks vary photographers, writers, editors, and copy-
as well. Many companies are moving toward writers. This staff provides the illustrations
the use of soy inks, containing water-based and verse featured in the product. The Cre-
solvents and are more easily cleaned, recy- ative Department "marries" the sketch to
cled, or disposed of than oil-based solvent the appropriate verse and creates a hand-
inks. Soy ink composition varies with the made card. Once the Marketers and Re-
printing process; cards are most often printed searchers are pleased with these mock-ups
using sheet-fed printing and the soy ink for are examined and rated by consumer panels
that includes between 20%-30% soybean oil, or focus groups. The prototypes deemed
resins, pigments, and waxes. most marketable are then moved into tech-
nical production.
The Manufcacturing
Process Graphic design and production
preparation
The manufacture of greeting cards varies
greatly depending on the size of the corpora- 3 When the designs are approved to for
tion. Successful greeting card companies put production, graphic artists and technical
a great deal of importance on business reproduction assistants are key to translating
search, marketing, and creative design be- original artwork and scrawled words into a
cause these help determine what cards will pleasing, coordinated product that can be
sell well. mass produced. Thus, graphic designers
might re-size artwork to make it fit a card,
add color underneath or on top, combine im-
Research and marketing ages with appropriate typefaces for the verse
Generally, before the artists and verse inside, etc. The graphic designers must un-
writers begin to put pen to paper, large derstand the capabilities of the printing ma-
companies support in-house researchers that chines and use only those numbers of colors
learn all they can about potential buyers. that can be successfully and economically
These researchers find out all they can about printed. Artwork, transparencies, etc. and
consumers' wants, needs, and concerns that verse are united in a mock-up that is ap-
can be addressed in a greeting card not al- proved for further development. When ap-
ready in production. The researchers use proved, all the specifications for the approved
statistical analysis, market research, and re- card-everything from the illustration on the
search on lifestyle changes. Once the Re- front to the verse inside to the UPC code and
search Department has an idea for a new price on the back-are scanned or input onto
card line, they utilize focus groups, surveys, a computer disk and sent to the printer.
and controlled store tests to gauge the poten-
tial of the new product. For example, re- Producing the printing plates
search may indicate that changes in the
American family calls for cards that ac- 4 The printing process in controlled digi-
knowledge step-siblings, or suggest that
1 tally. In the most modern printing facili-
soaring numbers of cat owners will lead to a ties, plates are created directly by exposure
successful line of cards offering sympathy to lasers. A computer disk has "recorded"
on the death of a pet. the image to be reproduced. A plate is run
through a machine in which a computer is
used to direct lasers to bum an image onto
Designing the card the metal plate. Each color requires its own
2 Smaller greeting card companies some- printing plate and the computer disk is pro-
-times contract designers to provide grammed so that it outputs plate specifica-
sketches and ideas they feel will be good tions for each individual color. It is most
sellers and fit their niche markets. Howev- economical to print no more than four colors
er, in larger companies, the Research and on a card; thus, in most cases a disk pro-
24 9
Large greeting card manufactur-

ers have creative departments that
design both the prose and artwork
of a card. After the artists and
writers produce their portion of
the greeting card, each element is
incorporated into a handmade
mock up of the final product.
Next, graphic designers translate
the mock up into a card that can
be mass produced. Oftentimes,
artwork is resized, color is adjust-
ed, and the fonts used for the
typeface is changed. When the
mock up receives final approval, it
is digitized and sent to the printer.
Computer/graphic design
Mock-up
duces four plates per card. The plates are plies a different color of the design) without
now ready to print. allowing time for drying the just-applied
inks. While on the press, an aqueous coating
Printing the cards (that provides shine) is applied to the just-
printed card by another plate. The cards then
5 It is important to note that before an en- air dry for approximately five to six days.
tire run of cards is processed, a couple of
examples are run off and submitted for Cutting apart and packaging
"proofing." The designers, marketers,
graphic artists, press operators, etc. examine 6 After the sheeted cards are completely
the card and check it carefully to ensure the 6dried, they are cut into individual cards
imprint is of acceptable quality. Minor color from the larger sheet by a die cutter. The
corrections or ink adjustments occur before sheets are inserted into the die cutter and an
the print run can proceed. When the proof apparatus that resembles a cookie cutter cuts
receives the sign-off, mass-printing begins. them apart in one stroke. The cards are now
a long strip that is yet unfolded.
Greeting cards, often printed in runs of
400,000 or more, are often printed using 7 The card is then sent to the folding ma-
sheet fed offset printing that permits the {chine where it is creased and folded au-
printer to print between 4,000-18,000 sheets tomatically. Cards are often packed by hand
per hour. When ink and a fountain solution and assembled with their envelopes in car-
(water with chemical additives) are applied ton quantities of 700.
to the laser-burned metal plate in the right
proportion, the image to be printed accepts Quality Control
ink but repels the fountain solution. The
non-image (white or background area) at- The production process is carefully moni-
tracts the fountain solution and repels the tored. There are at least two submissions of
ink and is left unprinted. From the plate, the proof copies to the product development
image is applied under pressure to a rubber teams-before the product is put into disk
canvas called a blanket. From the image is and then at first printing-to ensure the
then transferred onto a sheet of paper. The product is designed as was envisioned and
sheets of paper to be printed, about 20 x 35 can be printed to quality specifications.
in (50.8 x 88.9 cm), are put on the press me- Pressmen check color, inks, and completed
chanically. The press grabs a single sheet of sheets throughout the printing process. The
paper at a time, generally printing all of the die-cutter is able to watch the process and
black images and words first, then moving makes sure the cutting is done correctly so
quickly to the next metal plate (which ap- that straight clean cuts are made. Finally, the
250
Greeting Card
At the printer, greeting cards are

folding machine operator monitors the qual- ing nearly $4 billion last year. However, two printed on a sheet-fed offset print-
ity of the completed card. He or she is able very recent developments may affect the fu- ing machine. When ink and a
to now see the card completed and ready for ture of the greeting card industry tremendous- fountain solution are applied to a
sale; this person has the prerogative to pull ly-perhaps adversely. The first is the soft- metal plate that has had the greet-
inferior cards (poorly printed, badly cut or ware available that allows consumers to ing card pages laser burned onto
folded) out of the line and jettison it. create their own greeting cards (with the as- it, the image to be printed accepts
sistance of easy-to-use programs) using a per- ink but repels the fountain solu-
tion. The non-image (white or
sonal computer and a color printer. Some card
Byproducts/Waste manufacturers created this software for sale; background area) attracts the
fountain solution, repels the ink,
The use of soy ink has greatly decreased sol- so, they see profits when the software is pur- and is left unprinted. From the
vent disposal problems for the printer. Soy chased, but it may reduce sales of store- plate, the image is applied under
ink does not release a significant volume of bought cards. The second development is that pressure to a rubber canvas called
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the anyone with Internet connections may send a a blanket and it is transferred to
air when it dries. VOCs are chemical com- free cybercard that can be taken off of a web- the paper. The sheets of paper are
pounds that evaporate and react in sunlight site and sent via e-mail. They may be ob- mechanically fed into the printer.
tained through any one of dozens of websites, The press grabs a single sheet of
and form smog at lower atmospheric levels. paper at a time, generally printing
Soy ink is not 100% biodegradable, but it is require no postage stamp, and may be sent in
an instant. In addition, many such cybercards all of the black images and words
far more biodegradable than oil solvent- first. A different metal plate is
based inks. Furthermore, soy ink is more ef- feature sound, music, and animation. Even the used for each color of the design.
fectively removed from papers during recy- large card companies offer such cards and Inks are applied in sequence with-
cling, resulting in less paper damage and a they are often free-of-charge. It remains to be out allowing time for just-applied
brighter paper. The use of soy ink helps seen whether the new cybercard will affect inks to dry. A top gloss coating is
printers meet the federal Environmental over-the-counter sales of paper greeting cards. applied as a final step.
Protection Agency's clean-air standards.
Waste papers are generally recycled by the
printer as well. Where to Learn More
Periodicals
The Future Hirshey, Gerri. "They Feel For You: Hall-
The future of greeting cards seems strong, mark writers." The New York Times Maga-
with card sales for one company alone reach- zine (July 2,1995): 20.
25 1
Other
American Greetings. http://www.american-
greetings.com/ (June 28, 1999).
Greeting Card Association. http://www.
greetingcard.org/ (June 28, 1999).
Hallmark Card. http://www.hallmark.com/
(June 28, 1999).
-Nancy EV Bryk
252
Hang Glider
Background which he flew himself. He also kept detailed Seven fatalities from hang
records of his work, influencing later inven-
A hang glider is an unpowered heavier-than- tors. After making more than two thousand gliding were reported in
air flying device designed to carry a human successful flights, Lilienthal was killed in a
passenger who is suspended beneath its sail. crash in 1896.
1995, compared to 40 in
Unlike other gliders that resemble unpow- 1974.
ered airplanes, hang gliders look like large Inspired by Lilienthal, the American engi-
kites. Other gliders are usually towed by a neer Octave Chanute and his assistants
car a airplane or otherwise launched into the made about two thousand glider flights from
air from the ground. Hang gliders, on the sand dunes on the shores of Lake Michigan
other hand, are usually launched from a high at the turn of the century. Chanute's work
point and allowed to drift down to a lower had an important influence on Orville and
point. Wilbur Wright, who invented powered
flight soon after. The rapid development of
History powered flight in the twentieth century led
to a decreased interest in gliders until after
Human beings have attempted to fly using World War II. At this time, light, smooth
devices similar to hang gliders for at least wings made of fiberglass were developed
one thousand years. Oliver of Malmesbury, for gliders.
an English monk, is said to have leapt from
a tower with wings made of cloth in the year The most important innovation in the devel-
1020. He supposedly glided for about 600 ft opment of the hang glider was made by the
(180 m) before landing and breaking both American inventors Gertrude and Francis
legs. Similar brief flights are said to have Rogallo. In 1948, the Rogallos applied for a
been made in Constantinople in the eleventh patent for a flexible kite called a para-wing.
century and in Italy in 1498. The Italian Unlike other kites, the Rogallo design had no
artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci made rigid supports. Instead, it remained limp until
detailed sketches of various flying ma- it was given firm but temporary shape by the
chines, but these devices were never built. wind in flight. The development of Mylar, an
extremely light, strong plastic, improved the
The modem history of gliding begins with performance of the Rogallo kite.
the English inventor Sir George Cayley. By
1799, Cayley had established the basic de- In the late 1950s, the United States govern-
sign for gliders that is still used today. In ment took an interest in the Rogallo design
1804, he flew his first successful model for use in parachutes designed to return
glider. In 1853, Cayley achieved the first spacecraft to Earth. Experiments were also
successful human glider flight with a device made in building large powered Rogallo
that carried his coachman several hundred kites for military transportation. Inspired by
feet. reports of these experiments, the American
engineer Thomas Purcell build a 16 ft (4.9
The next important pioneer in glider re- m) wide Rogallo glider with an aluminum
search was the German inventor Otto Lilien- frame, wheels, a seat to hold a passenger,
thal. In the 1890s, Lilienthal built 18 gliders, and basic control rods in 1961. This was the
253
first true hang glider. Early hang gliders

were also built in the United States from
bamboo by Barry Hill Palmer in 1961 and in
Australia from aluminum by John Dicken-
son in 1963.
Although the United States government

abandoned using the Rogallo design for
spacecraft parachutes in 1967, hang gliders
using the same design became popular in the
1970s. In 1971, the United States Hang
Gliding Association was formed. While Cal-
ifornia is the favored spot for hang gliders of
the West, Dunlap, Tennessee, claims to be
the hang gliding capital of the eastern Unit-
ed States, thanks to its location high atop the
Cumberland Plateau. Over the next several
years, hang gliding became less of a danger-
ous fad and more of a serious sport. Seven
fatalities from hang gliding were reported in
1995, compared to 40 in 1974.
R a w Materials
A hang glider consists of a wing, a frame,
cables, and items to hold these parts in
place. The wing, also known as the sail, is
made from a strong, light plastic. Usually a
polyester cloth is used. Polyesters are poly-
mers—they are large molecules made by
linking many small molecules together.
Polyesters are usually derived from ethylene
glycol and terephthalic acid, or similar
chemicals. The most common polyester for
use in making hang gliders is polyethylene
terephthalate, known by the trade name
Dacron.
The frame of a hang glider, also known as

the airframe, is made from an alloy of alu-
minum and other metals, such as magne-
sium, zinc, and copper. The cables and the
parts that hold the hang glider together are
made of stainless steel. Stainless steel is an
alloy of iron, a small amount of carbon, and
12-18% chromium.
The Manufacturing
Process
Making polyester cloth
1 Like many plastics, polyesters are made

from chemicals derived from petroleum.
In general, these chemicals are obtained by
heating the petroleum with a catalyst, a
process known as cracking. The resulting
254
Hang Glider
A hang glider consists of a wing,

substances are then separated and subjected 4 The cut pieces of cloth, which may num- a frame, cables, and items to hold
to various chemical reactions to obtain the ber in the hundreds, are marked so that these parts in place. The wing,
desired chemicals. they can be properly aligned with each also known as the sail, is made
other. They are then sewn together on indus- from a strong, light plastic. The
2 Polyethylene terephthalate is made by trial sewing machines. The process is re- frame of a hang glider, also
combining ethylene glycol with tereph- peated with the pieces of cloth of varying known as the airframe, is made
thalic acid or with dimethyl terephthalate. It shapes and colors until the wing has been from an alloy of aluminum and
is then heated until it is a liquid. The molten other metals, such as magnesium,
formed. zinc, and copper.
polymer is sprayed through a device con-
taining many small holes, known as spin-
nerets. As the liquid plastic emerges, it cools Making the frame
into long, then, solid filaments. The fila- Aluminum alloy tubing, typically 1.5 in
ments are wound together into yarn. The 5(3.8 cm) in diameter and 10-20 ft (3-6
yarn is then stretched to about five times its m) long, arrives at the hang glider manufac-
original length at an elevated temperature to turer. The tubes are cut as needed by electric
increase its strength. The strengthened yarn saws. Electric drills are then used to form
is then woven into cloth and dyed with holes where the frame will be held together.
bright colors. This cloth is then put onto
large rolls and shipped to the hang glider Stainless steel cable arrives at the hang
manufacturer. U glider manufacturer in large spools that
typically hold 5,000 ft (1,524 m) of the
cable. The cable is cut as needed with large,
Making the wing sharp pliers.
3 Rolls of polyester cloth are typically 54
in (137 cm) wide and 100-300 yd (91.4- 7 The cable and tubing are assembled by
274.3 m) long. Cloth is cut from the roll as hand to form the frame. Stainless steel
needed and placed on an X-Y cutter. This nuts and bolts are used to hold the parts in
device is a flat table, typically 40 ft (12.2 m) place.
long and 5 ft (1.5 m) wide, with numerous
small holes in the surface. As the cloth is Assembling the hang glider
placed on the cutter, vacuum pressure pulls
it flat against the holes. A system of gears, 8 The sail and frame are attached together.
belts, and rails carries a sharp blade across 8After being fully assembled, inspected,
the table horizontally (the "X" direction) and tested, the hang glider is partly disas-
and vertically (the "Y" direction). A com- sembled for ease of storage and transport.
puter controls the movement of the blade so The disassembled hang glider is placed in a
that complex shapes can be cut to within one cylindrical container and shipped to the re-
one-thousandth of an inch (0.0025 cm). tailer or consumer.
255
The coble and tubing are assem-

bled by hand to form the frame.
Stainless steel nuts and bolts are
used to hold the parts in place.
Plastic end caps

///
Upper tube Machined
aluminum fitting
Control bar assembly
Quality Control end of the manufacturing process, the hang

glider is fully assembled for a final visual
Because hang gliding is a hazardous activ- inspection.
ity, ensuring that the equipment used is as
safe as possible is critical. Manufacturers Before being disassembled for shipping,
must meet the requirements for civil every hang glider is given a full flight test
and/or military aviation equipment estab- by an experienced pilot. The hang glider
lished by the federal government, under must have the proper "feel" and respond to
the supervision of the Federal Aviation the pilot's movements correctly. It must be
Administration (FAA). Before manufac- able to fly in a straight line at a steady
ture begins, the hang glider maker in- speed, with no sudden unexpected changes
spects all raw materials. The aluminum in motion.
tubing must be straight and free from
dents. The stainless steel cable must be
free of visible flaws. The polyester cloth The Future
must be properly woven and free of holes. Although fewer people are flying hang glid-
Tensile test machines measure fabric ers now than in the 1970s, the technology
strength and the amount of air that can has improved greatly. Today's hang gliders
pass through the fabric. are able to fly more safely, for longer dis-
tances, for longer periods of time, and from
The most important part of the manufactur- greater heights. No doubt all hang gliding
ing process is making the wing. At each step records will be broken in the near future.
in the procedure, the wing is given a full vi-
sual inspection to ensure that it is being
sewn together properly, with no weak Where to Learn More
seams. It is carefully inspected on a lighted
inspection table to make certain that the Books
seams are correctly folded and sewn and Whittall, N. Complete Hang Gliding Guide.
that there are no flaws in the cloth. At the Sterling Publishing Company, 1985.
2.56
Hang Glider
The cables and the parts that hold
the hang glider together are made
Nico press sleeves of stainless steel. Stainless steel is
an alloy of iron, a small amount of
carbon, and 12-14% chromium.
Turnbuckle
bolt
locking nut
Safety pin.
Shackle
,_1_ Tubing
Wolters, Richard A. The World of Silent Other

Flight. McGraw-Hill. 1979.
"A Brief History of Hang Gliding, Paraglid-
ing, and Wills Wing." June 19, 1999.
Periodicals http:llwww.willswing.com/articles/history.
Zimmerman, Robert. "How to Fly Without htm/ (June 28, 1999).
a Plane." Invention and Technology (Spring
1998): 22-30. -Rose Secrest
257
High Heel
Catherine de Medici Background in about 1400. These shoes were effectively
miniature stilts that were flat on the bottom
(1519-1589) is credited Shoe height has historically reflected nobili- and made of cork and covered with leather
ty, authority, and wealth. France's King
with wearing the first true or fabric. The wearer slipped her feet into the
Louis XIV (1638-1715) was only 5 ft 3 in
(1.6 m) tall until he donned specially-made tops that were open-backed slippers called
high heels and with taking mules or straps similar to sandals. Chopines
high-heeled shoes with curved heels con- were typically 7-8 in (18-20 cm) high, but, in
the style to France in structed of cork and covered with red-dyed the extreme, they were as much as 18 in (46
leather, with the red color symbolizing no-
1533 when she married bility. On special occasions, his 5 in (12.7 cm) tall. Chopines kept the wearer's skirts
out of the mud, assuming the lady could
the Duc d'Orl6ans, who cm) high heels were ornamented with hand- walk at all. When the style became fashion-
painted scenes of his military victories. able in sixteenth century Venice, chopine-
was to become France's Today, curved heels preserve his legacy and shod ladies walked with a servant on either
are known as Louis or French heels. Other
King Henry II. side of them so they wouldn't fall. The ladies
heel-wearers used their footwear to boast of loved the attention and the additional height,
their wealth; the heels were so high that ser-
but chopines were so restrictive that women
vants had to break them in, so to wear high
were also forced by their footwear to stay at
heels also proved one could afford servants
home. The 18 in (46 cm) extreme was
for this task.
reached in France and England where the
Today, heels are blessed for the elegance fashion spread from Italy.
they lend to the wearer's appearance and
cursed for the damage they inflict on ankles, Catherine de Medici (1519-1589) is credited
calves, and backs. with wearing the first true high heels and
with taking the style to France in 1533 when
she married the Duc d'Orleans, who was to
History become France's King Henry II. Italian de-
The need to gain height above the ground signers created the high heel by modifying
may have originally been inspired by the the chopine to eliminate its awkwardness
weather and street conditions rather than while still raising the height of the wearer. A
money or vanity. During medieval times, cork wedge was placed under the front of
special wooden soles called pattens were at- the shoe, with a high section under the heel.
tached to the bottoms of fragile, expensive These high heels served vanity another way
shoes made for wearing indoors so they by making the feet appear smaller and the
could be kept out of the mud and damp arch of the foot higher; both of these physi-
when converted for outdoor use. Pattens cal attributes were considered signs of noble
were elevated in the heels and under the ball birth. Catherine's Italian style was quickly
of the foot so the wearer could walk more adopted by the French court.
easily by rocking forward on them; these
shapes clearly foretold of high heels. The French Revolution caused a revolution in
footwear as well, and many shoe fashions
The entire shoe was elevated in the style vanished temporarily in the name of democra-
called the chopine that originated in Turkey cy. The red heels of the nobility disappeared
258
High Heel
completely, and showy buckles and rosettes Raw Materials
were replaced by ribbon or cord ties. Flat
shoes or very low-heeled shoes known as Raw materials for the manufacture of high
pumps replaced the arrogance of high heels, heels include plastic, leather, wood, fabric,
although high-heeled shoes and boots were animal hides, paper (for patterns and labels),
restored to respectability by the mid-1 800s. and various cements and glues, depending
on the component materials. Nails, screw
Until high heels were invented, shoe soles nails, and tacks are used to hold fabric or
for the left and right feet were identical and leather in place and to attach heels to the
were called straights; shoes were formed on shank of the shoe. Fabric and feathers, tree
a single mold, called a last, for both feet. branches and sequins, faux pearls, and gen-
Shoes were bought not as a pair but as two uine diamonds have all been used to deco-
single shoes of matching size and style. The rate high heels.
arch shape of high heels, however, required
different soles for the two feet, so, from Design
1818 onward, lasts were designed specifi-
cally for the left and right foot, and shoes High-heel designers may be employed by
were sold in pairs. Early pairs of shoes were the shoe manufacturer, or, more likely, are
termed crookeds, as opposed to the old- independent designers (sometimes connect-
fashioned straights. The high-heel portions ed to well-known fashion houses) who con-
were originally made of wood or cork and tract with the manufacturer to produce de-
were up to 6 in (15 cm) high. The French signs or lines of shoes bearing the designer's
called them chaussures a port or bridge name. Designers work very closely with the
shoes, because of the open arch, or chaus- master shoemaker who oversees the practi-
sures a cric, meaning clicking shoes for cality of all designs for the shoe manufactur-
their sound. Usually, heels on men's shoes er. The designer may have an image or style
were larger in shape and heavier. The ex- to convey and a particular choice of materi-
treme heights of narrow heels were popular als, and the master shoemaker tells the de-
among gentlemen as well as ladies, and signer what can be made or what production
eighteenth century Englishmen who wore 6 limitations are involved in the design. For
in (15 cm) high heels usually walked with example, the height of the heel may be re-
canes to be able to walk at all. stricted by the overall shape of the shoe or
the number of stitches needed to make the
After World War II, the high heel regained shoe may affect its finished appearance (or
its popularity primarily because of the may be impractical to manufacture). The de-
growth in consumer spending and the variety signer and master shoemaker exchange
and availability of designs produced. Stiletto ideas over the course of several months be-
heels, named for the narrow-bladed knives, fore they arrive at a satisfactory design.
soared into fashion in the 1950s. These 4 in
(10 cm) spiked heels narrowed to pinpoints; One shoe is then made as a prototype; it is
they were made possible by seating a thin dissected into its various pieces and parts,
metal rod in the broader part of the wood or and a pattern is made of paper. From the
plastic heel that was attached to the shoe. A paper original, a master template is made of
plastic tip was attached to the metal end, but fiberboard and piped in copper so it will
these tips often fell off causing floors to be wear well. The fiberboard master represents
gouged and carpets to be ripped. Some office the average size 8 shoe. From this master, a
buildings provided overshoes for women to pantograph (a drawing tool that makes an
wear over their stiletto heels to prevent this exact copy of an outline but in a smaller or
damage. In the 1960s, stiletto heels were at- larger size) is used to outline masters on
tached to 'wet-look' boots that enhanced the fiberboard for all other sizes in the range of-
effects of miniskirts. Today's designers ex- fered by the manufacturer in the new design.
periment with every material and type of or- Metal dies are made to stamp out pieces in
namentation to create and embellish high all these sizes, and the assembly line is set
heels. Heels have even been made of the up to manufacture the new design. Alterna-
lightweight aluminum used to manufacture tively, components of designs can be mea-
airplane fuselage to give them strength in sured and scaled by computer, and the data
slender shapes. are used to cut pieces with lasers controlled
259
The first step in high heel manu-

facture involves die cutting the by the computer. The completed designs pieces. Lasts need to be specific to the de-
shoe parts. Next, the components and templates are copyrighted and regis- sign of the shoe because the symmetry of
are drawn into a machine tered by the designer and manufacturer. the foot changes with the contour of the in-
equipped with a number of lasts- step and distribution of weight and the parts
a shoe mold. The parts of the high
heel are stitched or cemented to- The Manufacturing of the foot within the shoe. Creation of a
gether and then pressed. Lastly, Process pair of lasts is based on 35 different mea-
the heel is either screwed, nailed, surements of the foot and estimates of
or cemented to the shoe. Handmade high heels movement of the foot within the shoe. Shoe
designers often have thousands of pairs of
Although most shoes today are mass-pro- lasts in their vaults.
duced, handcrafted shoes are still made
on a limited scale especially for performers 2 The pieces for the shoe are cut based on
or in designs that are heavily omamented the design or style of the shoe. The
and expensive. The hand manufacture of counters are the sections covering the back
shoes is essentially the same as the process and sides of the shoe. The vamp covers the
dating back to ancient Rome. The length toes and top of the foot and is sewn onto the
and width of both of the wearer's feet are counters. This sewn upper is stretched and
measured. Lasts-standard models for feet fitted over the last; the shoemaker uses
of each size that are made for each design- stretching pliers to pull the parts of the shoe
are used by the shoemaker to shape the shoe into place, and these are tacked to the last.
260
High Heel
A typical high-heeled shoe.
-- Heel breast
HTop lif
Shank (arch support)
Toe box
Soaked leather uppers are left on the lasts Machine-made high heels
for two weeks to dry thoroughly to shape
before the soles and heels are attached. 5 The design developed by the master
Counters (stiffeners) are added to the backs shoemaker and designer can be mass-
of the shoes. produced from the components committed to
fiberboard masters or from computerized
data. If metal dies are used to cut the pieces,
) Leather for the soles is soaked in water leather (or other material) is fed into a 20-ton
3so that it is pliable. The sole is then cut, (18-metric-ton) press that has been equipped
placed on a lapstone, and pounded with a with one or more dies, and the pieces are
mallet. As the name suggests, the lapstone is punched out. The process is even more sim-
held flat in the shoemaker's lap so he can plified when a computer-controlled laser
pound the sole into a smooth shape, cut a beam is used to cut the pieces out.
groove into the edge of the sole to indent the
stitching, and mark holes to punch through 6 When all the components are cut out, the
the sole for stitching. The sole is glued to material is drawn into a machine
the bottom of the upper so it is properly equipped with a number of lasts. The ma-
placed for sewing. The upper and the sole chine pulls the piece of material tightly over
are stitched together using a double-stitch the last, and thermal cement is used to hold
method in which the shoemaker weaves two it together temporarily. Before synthetic ad-
needles through the same hole but with the hesives were widely available, tacks were
thread going in opposite directions. used exclusively. Now, only a few tacks
may be needed along with the adhesives.
4 Heels are attached to the sole by nails; High heels are made in three separate sec-
depending on the style, the heels may be tions-the sole, the upper, and the heel.
constructed of several layers. If it is covered When the components have been assembled
with leather or cloth, the covering is glued or stitched by computer-controlled ma-
or stitched onto the heel before it is attached chines into each of these three sections, the
to the shoe. The sole is trimmed and the sections are conveyed to another machine
tacks are removed so the shoe can be taken for assembly. Strong cement is used to bond
off the last. The outside of the shoe is them together, and they may be put in a
stained or polished, and any fine linings are press for approximately 15 seconds to press
attached inside the shoe. the cemented pieces firmly.
26 1
7 The heel itself may be attached to the may contain synthetic adhesives and other
7shank of the shoe using nails, screw materials that prevent recycling. Plastic
nails, tacks, cement, staples, or sets of mold- waste can be remolded.
ed prongs (or some combination), depend-
ing on the style of the shoe, the height of the Byproducts usually do not result from the
heel, the materials used in construction, and manufacture of high heels, but makers often
other factors including cost. Nine out of 10 market matching products like handbags. By
heels are made of plastic and covered with fitting pieces from several types and sizes of
material to match or compliment the shoe product onto a single piece of leather, for
uppers. Plastic is used because it is light- example, waste is further reduced.
weight and inexpensive.
The Future
8 After the sections are bonded to make
8the finished shoe, labels and stamped Although high heels may be considered a
modem fashion statement, their history
size notations are added to the insides of the
shoes. The completed pair of heels is stuffed proves that they have existed for centuries
and wrapped with tissue paper and put in an and will continue to do so. Wearers have
appropriately labeled box. Cartons of boxes followed King Louis XIV's example and
of the same style of shoe are packaged and have seen that heels can enhance height and
prepared for shipment to the retailer. flatter appearance. The heights and styles
may change from season to season, but the
high heel in some form is sure to be part of
Quality Control fashion's future.
Although the mass-production of high heels
is now done largely by machine, quality Where to Learn More
control personnel oversee all aspects of de-
sign and production. Materials are carefully Books
inspected when they are received so that im- Lawlor, Laurie. Where Will This Shoe Take
perfect leathers, badly dyed fabrics, and You? A Walk Through the History of
other faulty items can be returned to suppli- Footwear. New York: Walker and Compa-
ers immediately. Components that may be ny, 1996.
made by outside suppliers, such as wooden
heels, are also inspected and accepted or re- Nichelason, Margery G. Shoes. Minneapo-
jected. During an initial production trial, the lis: Carolrhoda Books Inc., 1996.
sections cut and assembled by computer are
compared to design details and examined O'Keefe, Linda. Shoes: A Celebration of
for flaws. When production is approved, Pumps, Sandals, Slippers & More. New
quality control engineers also monitor all York: Workman Publishing, 1996.
facets of production and spot-check compo- Wilson, Eunice. A History of Shoe Fash-
nents and completed sections and shoes. ions. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1968.
Testing laboratories are also used to evalu-
ate the quality of materials before they are Yue, Charlotte and David. Shoes: Their
incorporated in the construction of shoes History in Words and Pictures Boston:
and for testing the durability of finished Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.
models in the prototype stage. Depending
on the style, finished shoes may be polished Periodicals
or treated, and these steps are also carefully Iverson, Annemarie. 'Manolo Blahnik.'
inspected. Boxed shoes may be opened and Harper's Bazaar (July 1997): 110.
randomly checked before shipment.
Other
Byproducts/Waste Action Shoes of India. http://www.action-
The use of computer-aided design and pre- shoes.com/process.html.
cise machines such as lasers has greatly lim- Nine West. http://www.ninewest.com.
ited the waste from shoe production. The
waste that does result must be disposed and -Gillian S. Holmes
262
Holiday Lights
Background Candles were attached to the boughs of the The first electric lights for
trees with increasingly extravagant candle-
Festivals in a number of ancient civilizations holders, some with colored glass that made Christmas debuted only
were celebrated with lights; any and all of the lights appear colored. Of course, the
these may have been the inspiration for the three years after Thomas
practice of using candles was hazardous;
lights we use to decorate Christmas trees and many fire brigades were called to extinguish
the exteriors of homes. The Druids in both Alva Edison invented the
fires started by candles that had ignited the
France and England believed that oak trees trees or the long hair or dresses of the ladies. lightbulb in 1879.
were sacred, and they ornamented them with Candles on trees were lit for several minutes
candles and fruit in honor of their gods of only and sometimes only on Christmas Eve
light and harvest. The ancient Roman festi- or Christmas Day; the custom of lighting
val of Saturnalia included trees decorated trees for extended periods of time had to wait
with candles and small gifts. The worship of until the invention of the electric light bulb.
trees as the homes of spirits and gods may
have led to the Christmas tree tradition and
that tradition has long been accompanied by Candles were expensive in the mid-1800s,
the companion custom of decking the tree and tallow lights or nutshells with oil and
with brilliant lights evoking stars, jewels, floating wicks were also used. Various
sparkling ice, and holiday cheer. forms of brackets and hoops to hold candles,
drip dishes hung under the candles, and
twisted candles to channel melted wax were
History attempts to limit the fire hazard and the
From the beginnings of Christianity to about mess from dripping wax. In 1867, Charles
1500, trees were sometimes decorated out- Kirchhof of Newark, New Jersey, invented
doors, but they were not brought into the counter-weighted candle holder that had
homes. One legend has it that Martin Luther a weight for balance suspended under the
(1483-1546), the father of Protestantism, branch beneath the candle. The balance held
was walking through an evergreen forest on the candle upright, and it was also brightly
Christmas Eve. The beauty of the stars painted or decorated to add another spot of
sparkling through the trees touched him, and color to the tree. In 1879, the spring-clip
he took a small tree home and put candles candleholder was created by Frederick Arzt
on its branches to recreate the effect for his of New York. This clip was much lighter in
family. The Christmas tree became a custom weight than the counterbalance, and it was
in Germany, and German-born Prince Al- used until the 1920s when electric lights fi-
bert took this tradition with him to England nally extinguished the use of candles on
when he married Queen Victoria during the Christmas trees.
mid-nineteenth century. The first Christmas
tree in Windsor Castle was decorated with The first electric lights for Christmas de-
candles, gingerbread, candies, and fruit. buted only three years after Thomas Alva
Edison invented the lightbulb in 1879. Ed-
Similarly, German settlers brought the ward Johnson, a resident of New York and a
Christmas tree to America where the first colleague of Edison's, was the first to have
tree was displayed in Pennsylvania in 1851. an electrically lighted Christmas tree in his
263
home in 1882. The tiny bulbs were hand the void left by the Austrians. The Japanese
blown and the lights were hand-wired to techniques continued to improve and were
make this event possible, but it opened an quite sophisticated by 1930, but this trade
avenue for Edison's electric company that ended with World War II.
produced miniature, decorative bulbs for
chandeliers and other uses from its earliest NOMA started to make tiny lampshades
days. Electric lights appeared on the White with Disney figures on them to fit over stan-
House Christmas tree in 1895 when Grover dard miniature bulbs in 1936. The most
Cleveland was President. spectacular miniature bulb success was the
bubble light. Carl Otis invented it in the late
General Electric (GE) bought the rights to 1930s, but World War II also interrupted
light-bulb production from Edison in 1890, this development. Bubble lights were finally
but GE initially only made porcelain light introduced in 1945, peaked in popularity in
bulbs. To light a tree, the family had to hire a the mid-1950s, and declined by the mid
"wireman" who cut lengths of rubber-coated 1960s. So-called midget lights, midget twin-
wire, stripped the ends of the wires, fastened kle lights, or miniature Italian lights began
them to sockets with brass screws, fitted a arriving from Europe in the 1970s and be-
larger socket to a power outlet or light fix- came the best sellers of all time in the
ture, and completed assembly of a string of Christmas tree light business.
lights. This was too expensive and impracti-
cal for the average family. In 1903, the Ever-
Ready Company of New York recognized an Ravv Materials
opportunity and began manufacturing fes- Holiday lights are made of three sets of ma-
toons of 28 lights. By 1907, Ever-Ready was terials. The strings are composed of 22-
making standard sets of eight series-wired gauge copper wire that is coated in green or
lights; by connecting the sets or outfits, white polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic. Spe-
longer strings of lights could be made. cialized manufacturers supply the wire on
spools that hold 10,000 ft (3,048 m) of wire.
Ever-Ready did not have a patent on its se- Two plugs begin and end each set of lights,
ries-wired strings of lights, and this basic and they are made of injection-molded plas-
wiring system was adapted by many other tic. The lights are held in lamp holders that
small companies. These sets were not al- are also injection-molded plastic and con-
ways safe, and episodes of tree fires raised tain copper metal contacts.
public alarm. In 1921, Underwriters' Labo-
ratories (UL) established the first safety re- The second set of materials goes into the
quirements for Christmas lights. A number making of light bulbs. The bulbs are made
of light manufacturers merged in 1927 to of blown glass, metal filaments, metal con-
form the National Outfit Manufacturers As- tact wires, and plastic bases. Bulbs are made
sociation (NOMA), which went on to domi- in clear glass to produce white light, or they
nate the Christmas light business, with GE are painted to shine in assorted colors.
and Westinghouse as the leading bulb mak-
ers. Also in 1927, GE introduced parallel Finally, the finished sets of lights require
wiring that permitted light bulbs to keep packing materials. These include a molded
glowing when one on the string burned out. plastic tray, a folded cardboard display box,
and shipping cartons that hold multiple sets
Bulb shapes also evolved. In 1909, the of boxed lights. The shipping cartons are
Kremenetzky Electric Company of Vienna, made of corrugated cardboard. Each set is
Austria, began making miniature bulbs in also packed with adhesive-backed safety la-
the shapes of animals, birds, flowers, and bels and paper instruction and information
fruit. Companies in the United States, Japan, sheets. All of the paper goods are made by
and Germany also made figurative bulbs, outside suppliers and are produced from re-
but Kremenetzky consistently made the cyclable materials.
most beautiful glass that was hand-painted.
World War I ended the influx of Austrian
lights. GE made machine-blown shapes be- Design
ginning in 1919, and the Japanese light-bulb The basic design for holiday lights consists
industry, then in its infancy, began filling of a tried-and-true string of green plastic-
264
Holiday Lights
covered wires with clear or colored light plug can be added to it, and multiple strings
bulbs. Design aspects include the number of can be attached to each other. Each plug has
lights on the string (in multiples of 25 with a three-amp fuse in it; if too many sets are
25, 50, 100, or 125 bulbs) and whether the strung together, the fuse will blow before
string contains only clear bulbs, bulbs of a the sets overheat and cause a fire.
single color, or assorted colors of lights.
3 The second length of wire is assembled
Green wires were made originally to blend 3in 6 in (15.24 cm) long segments with
in with the green branches of evergreens, ei- the lamp holders as the links between each
ther as indoor Christmas trees or outdoor pair of segments. For example, a 100-light
shrubs. The tiny lights are used for many string will have 99 of the 6 in (15.24 cm)
other holidays and for garden displays, so long parts. Manufacturers call the entire as-
strings with white wires are made for other sembly of wire segments and lamp holders a
decorating uses. Plastic covers for the lights membrane. The membrane is made by hand
are also designed with Christmas and child- assembly. A worker takes one 6 in (15.24
hood themes as well as an extraordinary cm) segment and places an end in a machine
range for party decorating from aquarium that strips the wire by trimming away the
fish to chili peppers. plastic from the wire end. A copper metal
contact or flange is contact-welded to the
The newest designs to take the decorating wire end by the same machine.
market by storm are nets of lights that can
be spread over shrubs to save time in deco- 4 The tiny lamp holders have been made
rating, and icicle lights that look like long 1
of injection-molded plastic, again by the
white icicles hanging from house eaves. manufacturer or by a specialty supplier. The
Fiber-optic lights also became available in end of the wire with the metal flange is fit-
the 1990s; they are basic strings of wire and ted into the lamp holder. It is pushed into
light bulbs, but each bulb is the source of place, and the flange snaps into the lamp
light that passes through clusters of fiber- holder. Another 6 in (15.24 cm) wire is
optic wire held in plastic covers that clip hand-fitted into the other side of the lamp
onto the bulb. Usually, they resemble flow- holder; this time, the stripped end of the
ers or other designs that take advantage of wire without the copper flange is pushed
the cluster-like display of optic wires. snugly into the lamp holder. The flanged
end of that wire goes into another lamp
The Manufacturing holder and so on.
Process 5 When the 6 in (15.24 cm) segments have
_all been linked to lamp holders, the seg-
Manufacturing the wire string mented wire is paired with a continuous
A supplier of copper wire delivers large wire. The two segments at the ends of one
spools of wire to the holiday light manu- string are fitted into the load fitting (wall
facturer. The light maker may coat the wire plug) and the end connector like the ends of
in PVC plastic or purchase it already coated. the continuous wire. The double string is
The plastic resin used to form the wire coat- then taken to a twisting machine that twists
ing contains additives that make the plastic the two wires together so they will be easy
resistant to ultraviolet (UV) rays in sunlight to string on a tree or other application with-
and to hot or cold temperatures; the strings out gapping apart. Light bulbs will be added
can, therefore, be used in most climates to the string in the final assembly before
year-round and can be left in the sun without packaging.
breakdown of the plastic.
2 Each light set is made in series-parallel Manufacturing the light bulbs
construction with twin wires. One wire The light bulbs are made at a different
is cut to the full length of the light string. At 6Jfactory where they are manufactured by
one end, the molded load fitting or wall plug the billions. Each tiny bulb uses only 600
is molded to the wire; the end connector is milliamps of electricity, a very low electric
molded to the other end of the string. The current compared to other kinds of larger
end connector is made so another light set light bulbs. Glass modules specially
265
The light bulbs used in the manu-

facture of holiday lights are made processed to contain exact amounts of glass other module of glass drops into that slot to
at a circular table. The table ro- for the bulbs are vibrated into slots on a begin the process again.
tates, and, as it turns, each glass round table. The table rotates, and, as it
module is processed into a com- tums, each glass module is processed into a 9 The clear glass bulbs are complete, but
pleted bulb. First, the module is completed bulb. Different operations are colored bulbs have to be painted. Mag-
heated, then it is blown into the stationed around the table much like hour nets pick up bulbs to be painted by sticking
bulb shape. As it continues on its markers on a clock. First, the module is to the wires protruding from the bases of the
circular path, the filaments and el- heated, then it is blown into the bulb shape. bulbs. The magnetic line feeds the bulbs
ements are added to the inside of through a paint tunnel; all the bulbs on one
the bulb. The hot glass is pinched line are painted the same color. They are left
down to be sealed, but, just be- 7 As it continues on its circular path, the
fore it is sealed, a vacuum is ap- to dry then deposited in a bin for further
plied to the bulb to remove the filaments and elements are added to the processing.
oxygen. This step is precisely done inside of the bulb. The filament is a metal
so the vacuum inside the bulb will subassembly that has been prefabricated and On the assembly line, the plastic bases
be correct for the lighting filament that will glow and produce light when elec- V are added to the bulbs. The bases have
to function. tricity is applied to the bulb. One of the ele- been formed by injection molding to fit the
ments in the filament is a shunt at the base lamp holders for the particular manufactur-
of the filament; if the filament breaks, the er's range of lights. Assembly line workers
shunt drops into place and completes the feed the two wires sticking out of the bottom
electrical connection that previously was of the bulb into the plastic base and fold the
made by the working filament. The com- two wires by hand against the sides of the
pleted electrical connection keeps the string bases where they will make contact with the
of lights operating when that single filament metal flange in the lamp holder. The bins of
breaks and its bulb doesn't light. completed bulbs in the bases are transferred
to the factory where the assembled wire
strings await.
8 The hot glass is pinched down to be
8sealed, but, just before it is sealed, a vac- Assembly and packaging
uum is applied to the bulb to remove the
oxygen. This step is precisely done so the The bulbs are inserted into the lamp
vacuum inside the bulb will be correct for holders by hand. The finished strings
the lighting filament to function. The end is are folded into the correct pattern to fit the
sealed, and two wires are pressed into the plastic insert trays, and they are fitted into
hot glass. The finished, clear bulb is forced the trays. The trays are conveyed to the final
out of its slot on the table after it has com- testing line, and every set is plugged in to
pleted the full rotation of the table, and an- confirm that it lights.
266
Holiday Lights
Copper wire is used in the manu-
facture of holiday lights. Spools of
wire are coated with PVC plastic
that is resistant to sunlight and to
hot or cold temperatures. The se-
ries-parallel construction is made
with twin wires. One wire is cut to
the full length of the light string. At
one end, the wall plug is molded
to the wire; the end connector is
molded to the other end of the
string. The second length of wire is
assembled with the lamp holders
as the links between each pair of
segments. The wires are connect-
ed with a copper metal contact or
flange that is contact-welded
Iheated and melded) to the wire.
12 The tested sets in their trays are con- bulbs are forced out of the circular table
veyed to the packaging department. where they were formed and fitted with fila-
Caution labels are wrapped around the plug ments. Painted bulbs are inspected again
end of each string, the tray is put in the card- after the painting process. The completed
board display box, an instruction sheet with string is tested after all the bulbs have been
manufacturing and safety information is inserted in their holders and the string has
added to the box, and the box is sealed. The been packed in the insert tray. The test con-
individual boxes are packed in shipping car- sists of actually lighting the string. Under-
tons with many other sets for overseas ship- writers' Laboratories (UL) also establishes
ment to distribution centers. standards for the manufacture of holiday
lights and tests them for quality and safety.
Quality Control Byproducts/Waste

Top-quality UV additives, plastic resin, cop- Manufacturers of holiday lights make all
per wire, and glass are chosen to make lights kinds of sets including sets of clear and col-
that will last for many years of use. Manu- ored bulbs, sets with a variety of numbers of
facture of the wire string is monitored con- bulbs, fish-net style strings, icicle lights,
tinuously by the assembly line workers. The sets with bulb covers in an amazing array of
bulb-making process is inspected when the styles, and other holiday lighting products.
267
Waste consists of broken glass bulbs, plastic previously produced. Like many other prod-
stripping from the wires, broken plastic ucts, trends and popular demand will phase
packing trays, broken plastic lamp holders out existing products in popularity and in-
and trimmings from them, and bits of cop- troduce new ones to brighten parties, decor,
per wire. All amounts are small, and all ma- and holidays far into the future.
terials can be recycled.
Where to Learn More
The Future
Manufacturers of holiday-related products
Books
know that trends in these products typically Rogers, Barbara Radcliffe. The Whole
last three to five years. Tinsel and glass or- Christmas Catalogue. Los Angeles: Price
naments were out of style until the mid- Stem Sloan, 1988.
1990s when they experienced a renaissance.
Stringed lights have also gone through their Snyder, Phillip V. The Christmas Tree
own rebirth and are very popular for use in Book. New York: Penguin Books, 1977.
gardens and houses as year-round acces-
sories, not just holiday decorations. Ongo- Other
ing research and development is attempting
to produce brighter lights. High-tech titani- Brite Star Company, Inc. http://www.brite
um and tungsten filaments are in the devel- star.com/ .
opment stage, as of 1999, to make miniature
lights that are twice as bright as anything -Gillian S. Holmes
268
Honey
Honey is a sweet syrupy substance produced the opening of the logs to support the hon- An average bee colony
by honeybees from the nectar of flowers and eycombs. This not only allowed for the
used by humans as a sweetener and a comb to be removed from one end, but also produces 60-100 lb
spread. Honey is comprised of 17-20% kept the comb intact so that the colony (27.2-45.4 kg) of honey
water, 76-80% glucose, and fructose, pollen, could use it again.
wax, and mineral salts. Its composition and In Europe, beekeepers working toward a
each year. Colonies are
color is dependent upon the type of flower
similar goal, developed a device called a divided by a three-tier
that supplies the nectar. For example, alfalfa
and clover produce a white honey, heather a skep. It was essentially a basket placed up-
side-down over the beehive. The full honey- organization of labor:
reddish-brown, lavender an amber hue, and combs were removed from underneath. A
acacia and sainfoin a straw color. further innovation called for cutting a hole 50,000-70,000 workers,
in the top of the hive and placing a straw or one queen, and 2,000
Background wooden box over the hole. The box would
eventually fill with honey as well. It could drones.
Honey, golden and sweet, has always been then be removed without harming the comb.
held in high regard. The Bible refers to
heaven as the "Land of Milk and Honey." In In the mid-nineteenth century, an American
ancient times, honey was considered the named Moses Quimby improved upon the
food of the gods and the symbol of wealth beekeeping system by layering a number of
and happiness. It was used as a form of sus- boxes over the main chamber. But it was the
tenance and offered in sacrifice. In the Mid- Reverend Langstroth who was responsible
dle Ages, honey was the basis for the pro- for creating the basis for the method that is
duction of mead, an alcoholic beverage. currently used. Langstroth's moveable frame
Because of its antiseptic qualities, physi- hive allowed for easy extraction and reinser-
cians found it a perfect covering for wounds tion of the combs. It consisted of a base, a
before the advent of bandages. Even hive body fitted with frames that contained
Napoleon was enchanted by it, choosing the the brood chamber, one or more removable
honeybee for his personal crest. sections (called supers) that were also fitted
with frames for honey storage. The entire
Beekeeping is one of oldest forms of animal system is protected with waterproof covers.
husbandry. Early beekeepers encouraged the Another popular type of hive is the leaf hive.
establishment of bee colonies in cylinders of This is a wooden box divided by means of a
bark, reed, straw, and mud. However, when metal grid into an upper (honey) chamber
the honeycomb was removed from the and a lower (brood) chamber. Just above the
cylinders, the colony was destroyed. floor and above the grid are racks of horizon-
tal metal bars. Frames that hold the hanging
Honeybees were brought to North America honeycombs slide onto the racks.
in the mid-1600s. Although there were bees
on the continent, they were not honeybees. Rcaw Materials
Early settlers took note of the bees' pen-
chant for hollow logs. They developed a An average bee colony produces 60-100 lb
"bee gum," by placing sticks crosswise over (27.2-45.4 kg) of honey each year. Colonies
26 9
are divided by a three-tier organization of they have been separated from their queen,
labor: 50,000-70,000 workers, one queen, they move through a hatch that allows them
and 2,000 drones. Worker bees only live for to enter the brood chamber, but not reenter
three to six weeks, each one collecting about the honey chamber. The separator board is
one teaspoon of nectar. One pound (0.454 inserted approximately two to three hours
kg)of honey requires 4 lb (1.8 kg) of nectar, before the honeycomb is to be removed.
which requires two million flowers to collect.
The majority of the cells in the comb should
When the worker bees are about 20 days old, be capped. The beekeeper tests the comb by
they leave the hive to collect nectar, the sweet shaking it. If honey spurts out, the comb is
secretion produced by the glands of flowers. reinserted into the honey chamber for sever-
The bee penetrates the flower's petals and al more days. Approximately one-third of
sucks the nectar out with its tongue and de- the honey is left in the hive to feed the
posits the nectar into its honey sac or ab- colony.
domen. As the nectar journeys through the
bee's body, water is drawn out and into the Uncapping the honeycombs
bee's intestines. The bee's glandular system
emits enzymes that enrich the nectar. 2 Honeycombs that are at least two-thirds
2capped are placed into a transport box
Pollen attaches to the bee's legs and hairs and taken to a room that is completely free of
during the process. Some of it falls off into bees. Using a long-handled uncapping fork,
subsequent flowers; some mixes with the the beekeeper scrapes the caps from both
nectar. sides of the honeycomb onto a capping tray.
When the worker bee cannot hold anymore Extracting the honey from the
nectar, she returns to the hive. The combs
processed nectar, now on its way to becom-
ing honey, is deposited into empty honey- 3 The honeycombs are inserted into an ex-
comb cells. Other worker bees ingest the 3tractor, a large drum that employs cen-
honey, adding more enzymes and further trifugal force to draw out the honey. Be-
ripening the honey. When the honey is fully cause the full combs can weigh as much as 5
ripened, it is deposited into a honeycomb lb (2.27 kg), the extractor is started at a slow
cell one last time and capped with a thin speed to prevent the combs from breaking.
layer of beeswax.
As the extractor spins, the honey is pulled
out and up against the walls. It drips down
The Manufacturing to the cone-shaped bottom and out of the ex-
Process tractor through a spigot. Positioned under
the spigot is a honey bucket topped by two
Full honeycombs removed from sieves, one coarse and one fine, to hold back
hive wax particles and other debris. The honey is
poured into drums and taken to the commer-
To remove the honeycombs, the beekeep- cial distributor.
er dons a veiled helmet and protective
gloves. There are several methods for re-
moving the combs. The beekeeper may sim- Processing and bottling
ply sweep the bees off the combs and guide 4 At the commercial distributor, the honey
them back into the hive. Alternately, the 1 is poured into tanks and heated to 120OF
beekeeper injects a puff of smoke into the (48.9°C) to melt out the crystals. Then it is
hive. The bees, sensing the presence of fire, held at that temperature for 24 hours. Any
gorge themselves on honey in an attempt to extraneous bee parts or pollen rise to the top
take as much as they can with them before and are skimmed off.
fleeing. Somewhat tranquilized by engorge-
ment, the bees are less likely to sting when The majority of the honey is then flash-
the hive is opened. A third method employs Jheated to 165°F (73.80C), filtered
a separator board to close the honey cham- through paper, then flash cooled back down
ber off from the brood chamber. When the to 120°F (48.90C). This procedure is done
bees in the honey chamber discover that very quickly, in approximately seven sec-
270
Honey
There are several methods for re-
moving honey combs. The bee-
keeper can either sweep the bees
off the combs and guide them
back into the hive or inject a puff
of smoke into the hive. When the
bees sense the presence of fire,
they gorge on honey in an attempt
to take as much as they can with
them before fleeing. Somewhat
tranquilized by engorgement, the
bees are less likely to sting when
the hive is opened. Alternately, a
separator board can be placed
between the honey chamber and
the brood chamber. When the
bees in the honey chamber dis-
cover that they have been separat-
ed from their queen, they move
through a hatch that allows them
to enter the brood chamber, but
not reenter the honey chamber.
onds. Although these heating procedures re- etc.) They must also prevent overcrowding,
move some of the honey's healthful proper- which would lead to swarming and the de-
ties, consumers prefer the lighter, bright- col- velopment of new colonies. As a result, bees
ored honey that results. would spend more time hatching and caring
for new workers than making honey.
A small percentage, perhaps 5%, is left un-
filtered. It is merely strained. The honey is Byproducts/Waste
darker and cloudier, but there is some mar-
ket for this unprocessed honey. Four major byproducts of the honey-making
process: beeswax, pollen, royal jelly, and
6 The honey is then pumped into jars or propolis. Beeswax is produced in the bee's
cans for shipment to retail and industrial body as the nectar is transforming into
customers. honey. The bee expels the wax through
glands in its abdomen. The colony uses the
Quality Control wax to cap the filled honeycomb cells. It is
scrapped off the honeycomb by the bee-
The maximum USDA moisture content re- keeper and can be sold to commercial manu-
quirement for honey is 18.6%. Some distrib- facturers for use in the production of drugs,
utors will set their own requirements at a cosmetics, fumiture polish, art materials,
percent or more lower. To accomplish this, and candles.
they often blend the honey received from
various beekeepers to produce honey that is Pollen sticks on the worker bee's legs as she
consistent in moisture content, color, and collects flower nectar. Because pollen con-
flavor. tains large amounts of vitamin B12 and vita-
min E, and has a higher percentage of pro-
Beekeepers must provide proper mainte- tein than beef, it is considered highly
nance for their hives throughout the year in nutritious and is used to the dietary supple-
order to assure the quality and quantity of ment. To collect it, the beekeeper will force
honey. (pest prevention, health of the hive, the bees through a pollen trap-an opening
27 1
A typical hive used in beekeeping.
Frames -
Bottomboard
screened with five-mesh hardware cloth or a and upper respiratory disease, and to var-
0.1875-in (0.476-cm) diameter perforated nish violins.
metal plate. The single- or double-screened
opening allows the pollen to drop from the
bees' legs as they fly through. The pollen The Future
drops into a container and is immediately In the latter part of the twentieth century, the
dried and stored. honeybee industry has been hard hit by two
factors: parasitic mites and Africanized bees.
Royal jelly is a creamy liquid produced and Mites, primary the tracheal and varroa types,
secreted by the nurse bees to feed the queen. have destroyed thousands of bee colonies.
Nutrient rich with proteins, amino acids, The destruction of bee colonies not only af-
fatty acids, sugars, vitamins, and minerals, it fects honey sales, but the fruit and vegetable
is valued as a skin product and as a dietary farmers who depend on bees to pollinate
supplement. Proponents believe it prolongs their crops. It is estimated that the value of
youthfulness by improving the skin, increas- bee pollination reaches $10 billion annually.
es energy, andhelps to reduce anxiety, sleep- At the close of the century, researchers were
lessness, and memory loss. exploring ways to prevent the mite infesta-
tion without chemical intervention.
Propolis is plant resincollected by the bees
from the buds of plants and then mixed with Africanized bees were first detected in North
enzymes, wax and pollen. Bees use it as a America in the early 1990s. Their presence
disinfectant, to cover cracks in the hive, and has been detected in Texas, southern Califor-
to decrease the hive opening during the nia, New Mexico, and Arizona, but further
winter months. Commercially it is used as a migration has not been detected. As a sub-
disinfectant, to treat corns, receding gums, species of honeybee, Africanized bees can
272
Honey
only be distinguished from the European Where to Learn More

honeybee by its more aggressive stinging be-
havior. Hence, they have earned the appella- Books
tion "killer bees." Africanized honeybees Bonney, Richard E. Hive Management.
can mated with the European honeybee, cre- Pownal, VT: Garden Way Publishing, 1990.
ating a hybrid with the more aggressive
stinging behavior. By the early 1990s, al- Diemer, Irmgard. Bees and Beekeeping.
most 100% of honeybees in Mexico carried London: Merehurst Press, 1988.
the aggressive gene. In tropical climates, the
aggressiveness gene is a dominant trait. Sci- Melzer, Werner. Beekeeping: A Complete
entists have isolated five genes linked to the Owner's Guide. Hauppage, NY: Barron's
aggressiveness, one of which triggers sting- Educational Services, Inc. 1986.
ing behavior. The goal is to use such find-
ings to limit the spread of the Africanized Other
trait throughout the Western Hemisphere and
the U.S. honeybee population. Cyberbee. http://www.cyberbee.net/ (Janu-
ary 16, 1999).
Although it has long been known that the
antioxidants in honey prevent the growth International Bee Research Association. 10
of bacteria, the use of honey to retard food North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK.
spoilage has not garnered widespread sup- (+44)1222 372409. ibra@cardiff.ac.uk.
port. In the late 1990s, proponents began
to gather statistical evidence to support Sioux Honey Association. Sioux City, IA.
their case. (712)259-0638.
-Mary McNulty
273
Hourglass
Some hourglasses had Background mount that encircled the glass reservoir con-
taining the oil. As the level of oil fell in the
dials with pointers, so with Before the invention of mechanical clocks, reservoir, the passage of time was read from
timepieces used the sun's motion or simple the markings on the mount. Like the candle
each turning of the glass, measurement devices to track time. The sun- clock, the oil lamp clock also provided light,
dial may be the best known ancient keeper of
the number of turns could time, and it is still manufactured as a popular
but it was less prone to inaccuracies in mate-
rials or those caused by drafty rooms.
be shown with the pointer garden accessory-but for its visual interest,
not for practical time measurement. Stone- Water clocks were also used to mark the
to mark the cumulative henge, the giant monument built of upright passage of time by allowing water to drip
stones on the Salisbury Plain of Wiltshire,
passage of time. England, may have been used as a sundial and
from one container into another. The marks
of the sun's motion were made on the first
for other time and calendar purposes. Sundials container, and, as water dripped out of it and
have obvious disadvantages; they can't be into another basin, the drop in water level
used indoors, at night, or on cloudy days. showed the passage of the hours. The sec-
ond container was not always used to collect
Other simple measurement devices were
and recycle the water; some water clocks
used to mark the duration of time. Four
simply allowed the water to drip on the
basic types could be used indoors and re-
ground. When the eight-hour water clock
gardless of the weather or time of day. The
was empty, eight hours had passed. The
candle clock is a candle with lines drawn
water clock is also known as the clepsydra.
around it to mark units of time, usually
hours. By observing how much of the length
of a candle burned in one hour, a candle History
made of the same material was marked with
lines showing one-hour intervals. An eight- Hourglasses (also called sand glasses and
hour candle showed that four hours had sand clocks) may have been used by the an-
passed when it had burned down beyond cient Greeks and Romans, but history can
four marks. The clock candle had the disad- only document the fact that both cultures
vantages that any changes in the wick or had the technology to make the glass. The
wax would alter burning properties, and it first claims to sand glasses are credited to
was highly subject to drafts. The Chinese the Greeks in the third century B.C. History
also used a kind of candle clock with threads also suggests sand clocks were used in the
used to mark the time intervals. As the can- Senate of ancient Rome to time speeches,
dle burned, the threads with metal balls on and the hourglasses got smaller and smaller,
their ends fell so those in the room could possibly as an indication of the quality of
hear the passage of the hours as the balls the political speeches.
pinged on the tray holding the candle.
The hourglass first appeared in Europe in
The oil lamp clock that was used through the eighth century, and may have been made
the eighteenth century was a variation and by Luitprand, a monk at the cathedral in
improvement on the candle clock. The oil Chartres, France. By the early fourteenth
lamp clock had divisions marked on a metal century, the sand glass was used commonly
274
Hourglass
in Italy. It appears to have been widely used The earliest writings referring to sand glass-
throughout Western Europe from that time es are from 1345 when Thomas de Stet-
through 1500. The hourglass or sand clock sham, a clerk on a ship called La George in
follows exactly the same principle as the the service of King Edward III ( 1312-1377)
clepsydra. Two globes (also called phials or of England, ordered 16 hourglasses. In
ampules) of glass are connected by a narrow 1380, following the death of King Charles V
throat so that sand (with relatively uniform (1337-1380) of France, an inventory of his
grain size) flows from the upper globe to the possessions included a "large sea clock . . .
lower. Hourglasses were made in different in a large wooden brass-bound case."
sizes based on pre-tested measurements of
sand flow in different sizes of globes. A These two early associations of sand clocks
housing or frame that enclosed the globes with the sea show how navigation had be-
could be fitted to the two globes to form a come a time-dependent science. Compasses
top and bottom for the hourglass and was and charts, developed in the eleventh and
used to invert the hourglass and start the twelfth centuries, helped navigators deter-
flow of sand again. Some hourglasses or mine bearings and direction, but time mea-
sets of hourglasses were set in a pivoted surement was essential to estimating distance
mount so they could be turned easily. traveled. The sand glass may have been in-
275
vented-or perfected-for use at sea where watches were made. Mainspring-driven

equal units of time were measured to estimate clocks made curiosities out of clepsydras
distance; by contrast, on land, unequal time and sand glasses, but, interestingly, the most
measurements were more important because beautiful hourglasses were made after 1500
activities depended on the length of day. as decorative pieces. These are the hour-
glasses that are displayed in museums.
The great advances in maritime science oc-
curred in the twelfth century with the devel- By the 1400s, many private homes had sand
opment of the magnetic compass in Amalfi, clocks for household and kitchen use. Ser-
Italy. Other Italian port cities like Genoa monglasses were used in churches to track
and Venice contributed to the astronomical the length of the minister's sermon. Hour-
advances in navigation, and, by coincidence, glasses were also routinely used in the lecture
Venice was the world's greatest glass-blow- halls of Oxford University, craftsmen's shops
ing center. Furthermore, the fine marble (to regulate working hours), and in England's
dust from the quarries at Carrara was perfect House of Commons where bells to signal
for use as sand in navigational sand clocks. voting and lengths of speeches were timed
As well as measuring time as distance at based on sand clocks. During the height of
sea, hourglasses were used by the navies of the sand glass, doctors, apothecaries, and
several nations to "keep the watch" or mea- other medical practitioners carried miniature
sure the time the crew worked. The ship's or pocket sand glasses with durations of one-
boy was in charge of tuming the hourglass; half or one minute to use when timing pulses;
to get off work early, he would "swallow the the practice of carrying these continued until
sand" or turn the glass before it was empty. the nineteenth century. Today, miniature ver-
sions containing three minutes worth of sand
The most extraordinary hourglasses were are sold as egg timers and as travel souvenirs.
made as gifts for royalty. Charlemagne (742- Larger sand clocks are still made today of or-
814) of France possessed a 12-hour hourglass. namental materials and in interesting styles
In the sixteenth century, Holbein (1497-1543) for use as decoration. All of these measuring
the artist made spectacular hourglasses for devices (clock candles, water clocks, and
Henry VIm (1491-1547) of England. Other sand clocks) have the disadvantage that they
sand glasses contained multiple instruments. must be watched carefully.
For example, a sand glass made in Italy in the
seventeenth century contained four glasses.
One had one-quarter hour of sand; the second, Raw Materials
a half-hour of sand; the third, three-quarters of
an hour of sand; and the fourth contained the
Glass for hourglasses is the same material as
that used for other blown glass. It is manu-
full hour's measure of sand. Some glasses
also had dials with pointers, so, with each factured in tubes of varying lengths by spe-
cialized suppliers for firing and shaping by
turning of the glass, the number of turns could machine or by mouth-blowing. Pre-formed
be shown with the pointer to mark the cumu- light-bulb blanks can also be transformed
lative passage of time. into hourglasses by joining them together at
The upper and lower globes of each glass the bases of the bulbs. Similarly, jars can be
were blown separately with open apertures hooked together at their necks to make hour-
or throats. To join them so that sand could glasses; these can range in appearance from
flow from the upper globe to the lower, the rustic to modem depending on the "charac-
two halves of the glass were bound together ter" of the jars.
with cord that was then coated with wax.
The two-coned glass phial could not be The frames or housings for hourglasses are
blown as one piece until about 1800. open to the designer's whims. Raw materi-
als most often consist of pieces of fine wood
In about 1500, the first clocks began to ap- that can be crafted or carved to suit a partic-
pear with the invention of the coiled spring ular style, decor, design, or theme. Bamboo,
or mainspring. Some weight-powered resin, and various metals like brass, bronze,
clocks had been made before 1500, but their and pewter are also beautiful framing mate-
size limited their practicality. As the main- rials. Specialized hourglasses are made in
spring was improved, smaller, tabletop such small numbers that raw materials are
clocks were manufactured and the first purchased from outside sources for limited
276
Hourglass
The hourglass was widely used as
a timekeeping device up until the
sixteenth century in Western Eu-
rope. Its design was simple. Two
globes (also called phials or am-
pules) of glass were connected by
a narrow throat so that sand (with
relatively uniform grain size)
flowed from the upper globe to
the lower. Hourglasses were made
in different sizes based on pre-
tested measurements of sand flow
in different sizes of globes. A
frame that housed four hourglass-
es was made in Italy during the
seventeenth century. Each hour-
glass contained different amounts
of sand. One had one-quarter
hour of sand; the second, a half-
hour of sand; the third, three-
issue. Sometimes customers provide their ing. The hourglass maker must be crafts- quarters of an hour of sand; and
man, artist, and public relations expert in ad- the fourth contained the full hour's
own materials to hourglass makers. Egg- measure of sand.
timer hourglasses are also framed in wood vising clients of the practicalities in hour-
or plastic. For these small examples, manu- glass design and construction. Businesses
facturers purchase plastic chips from suppli- are commissioning hourglasses as gifts re-
ers and produce frames in their factories by lated to the year 2000, but they also want to
injection or extrusion molding. reflect the character of their business or in-
corporate materials associated with their
Sand is the most complex of the components products. After the design is finalized, actu-
of hourglasses. Not all types of sand can be al construction of the hourglass is relatively
used because the grains may be too angular straightforward.
and may not flow properly through the neck
of the hourglass. White quartz sand, the Sand-clock designs can also vary consider-
sand found on sparkling white beaches, is ably in size. The smallest known hourglass-
attractive but not the best for hourglasses are the size of a cufflink, and the largest
making because it is too angular and does are up to 3 ft (1 m) tall. The glasses can have
not flow smoothly. Marble dust, other rock various shapes from round to oblong and
dust and rock flour-powder from glass cut- can be engraved. Multiple (more than two)
ting-and round sand grains, like those of glass gloves can be linked together, and sev-
river sand, are best for sand clocks. During eral hourglasses can be mounted in the same
the Middle Ages, books for homemakers in- frame and turned on a turnstile.
cluded recipes not only for cooking but for
making glue, ink, soap, and also sand for According to one craftsman, hourglass de-
hourglasses. Perhaps the best sand isn't sand sign has no limits. He develops his own de-
at all; ballotini, tiny glass beads or shot (like signs, makes hourglasses based on designs
miniature marbles about 40-160 microns or requests provided by his customers, or
[0.00016-0.0063-in or 0.0004-0.0016-cm] creates designs to suit a particular market in-
in diameter) are used in hourglasses because terest. He has sculpted pairs of his own
their round edges flow smoothly through the hands as frames to hold the glasses, used un-
glass. In addition, ballotini can be made in usual materials like bamboo or marble to
different colors so the sand in the hourglass craft the frames, and called on other hour-
can be chosen to match room decor or some glasses, such as the gargoyle-framed hour-
other color preference. glass in the movie version of The Wizard of
Oz, for his inspirations. He has made hour-
glasses containing coal sand, mining slag,
Design sand from the Great Wall of China, and
Design and conceptualization are usually polyethylene resin sand. Shopping networks
the most complicated part of hourglass mak- on television are currently selling hourglass-
277
es that are futuristic in design in keeping Byproducts/Waste

with interest in the new millennium. Minor quantities of waste result from hour-
glass construction, depending on the types of
materials used. Wood that is carved to make
The Manufacturing the hourglass frame will create some waste,
Process for example. Glass that is too thin or flawed
can be melted and blown again. Excess quan-
1 After the design and materials are select-
tities of sand can be saved for future use.
ed, the body of the hourglass is blown on
a glass lathe to a size appropriate for the size
(time interval) of the hourglass. The Future
The hourglass would seem to have no fu-
2 The frame is made; depending on its de- ture. In fact, the beautiful shape of the glass
sign, it may be a single piece or multiple itself and its custom-made frame and col-
pieces including a bottom, top, and three or ored sand can be selected to suit decor, at-
four posts. This manufacture depends on the mosphere, or occasion. While future pro-
material. If the frame is made of resin, duction may be limited, the hourglass as an
molds may be constructed, the resin is object with ancient associations as well as
poured in and allowed to cure, the pieces are built-in elegance will always appeal to col-
sanded or otherwise smoothed and polished, lectors and those who appreciate the myster-
and they are fitted together. Frame pieces ies of art and time.
may be fitted to interlock; or they may be
glued, bonded, or welded, again depending Where to Learn More
on the materials involved.
Books
3 One of the most common misconcep- Branley, Franklyn M. Keeping Time: From
3tions about hourglasses is that there is a the Beginning and into the Twenty-first
formula for the quantity of sand contained in Century. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Com-
the glass. The sand quantity in a given hour- pany, 1993.
glass design or shape is not based on science
or a measurement formula. The types of Cowan, Harrison J. Time and Its Measure-
grains, the curves of the glass, and the shape ment: From the Stone Age to the Nuclear
and size of the opening impose too many Age. New York: The World Publishing
variables on the rate of flow of the sand Company, 1958.
through the glass, so the amount of sand can Guye, Samuel and Henri Michel. Time &
not be mathematically calculated. Before the Space: Measuring Instruments from the Fif-
top of the frame is sealed, sand is added and teenth to the Nineteenth Century. New
allowed to flow through the glass for its pre- York: Praeger Publishers, 1970.
scribed time interval. At the end of that time
period, sand remaining in the top of the Smith, Alan. Clocks and Watches: Ameri-
glass is poured off and the glass is sealed. can, European and Japanese Timepieces.
New York: Crescent Books, 1975.
Periodicals
Quality Control
Morris, Scot. "The floating hourglass."
Quality control is inherent in the manufac- Omni (September 1992): 86.
ture of hourglasses because the designer or
manufacturer does all aspects of the work. Peterson, Ivars. "Trickling sand: how an
The customer is also involved in conceptu- hourglass ticks." Science News (September
alizing the design and choosing materials 11, 1993): 167.
and colors. The end result is that customers
receive handmade products that suit their re- Other
quirements and evoke historic and artistic The Hourglass Connection. http://www.
associations; hourglasses are aesthetically hourglass.com/ (June 29, 1999).
pleasing ornaments, rather than accurate
timepieces. -Gillian S. Holmes
278
Incense Stick
When the Three Wise Men brought their family Christmas tree is just such a resin, Western incense is still
most precious gifts to Bethlehem, two of and its wonderful scent evokes the holidays.
them-frankincense and myrrh were resins The gum protects the tree or shrub by seal- used in churches today
used to make incense. The third gift was ing cuts in the bark and preventing infec- and comes almost
gold, but it was the least valuable of these tion. In dry climates, this resin hardens
substances at that time. This relationship quickly. It can be easily harvested by cutting exclusively from the gum
shows the importance that incense once held it from the tree with a knife. These pieces of
in our world. In modem times and in the resin, called grains, are easy to carry and re- resins in tree bark. Eastem
Western world, the vast fragrance industry lease their fragrance when they are sprin- incense is processed from
is dominated by perfumes, and incense man- kled on burning coal.
ufacture and use is comparatively small. other plants.
But, in fact, incense is the parent of per- Eastern incense is processed from other
fumes. Incense is also the ancestor of many plants. Sandalwood, patchouli, agarwood,
other products related to good smells. The and vetiver are harvested and ground using a
importance of clean-smelling personal hy- large mortar and pestle. Water is added to
giene, bathrooms with sweetened air, laun- make a paste, a little saltpeter (potassium ni-
dry evoking the great outdoors, and ro- trate) is mixed in to help the material burn
mance-inspiring aromas originated with the uniformly, and the mix is processed in some
powerful effects of incense in religious and form to be sold for burning. In India, this
public ceremonies. form is the agarbatti or incense stick, which
consists of the incense mix spread on a stick
of bamboo. The Chinese prefer the process
Background of extruding the incense mix through a kind
Incense comes from tree resins, as well as of sieve to form straight or curled strands,
some flowers, seeds, roots, and barks that like small noodles, that can then be dried
are aromatic. The ancient religions associat- and burned. Extruded pieces left to dry as
ed their gods with the natural environment, straight sticks of incense are called joss
and fragrant plant materials were believed sticks. Incense paste is also shaped into
to drive away demons and encourage the characters from the Chinese alphabet or into
gods to appear on earth; they also had the maze-like shapes that are formed in molds
practical aspect of banishing disagreeable and bum in patterns believed to bring good
odors. Fashion is intensely linked to scents, fortune. For all incense, burning releases the
and designers include signature scents to essential oils locked in the dried resin.
evoke the spirit of their clothes. That per-
fume originated from incense shows in the History
word itself; per and fumum mean through
and smoke in Latin. Incense has played an important role in
many of the world's great religions. The So-
There are two broad types of incense. West- mali coast and the coasts of the Arabian
ern incense is still used in churches today Peninsula produced resin-bearing trees and
and comes almost exclusively from the gum shrubs including frankincense, myrrh, and
resins in tree bark. The sticky gum on the the famous cedars of Lebanon. The cedar
279
wood was transported all over the Tigris and cense in Protestant church practices, al-
Euphrates valleys, and the name Lebanon though its use retumed to the Church of
originated from a local word for incense. England after the Oxford Movement in the
nineteenth century.
The ancient Egyptians staged elaborate ex-
peditions over upper Africa to import the Incense was always employed more exten-
resins for daily worship before the sun god sively in eastem religions. The Hindu, Bud-
Amon-Ra and for the rites that accompanied dhist, Taoist, and Shinto religions all bum
burials. The smoke from the incense was incense in festivals, processions, and many
thought to lift dead souls toward heaven. daily rituals in which it is thought to honor
The Egyptians also made cosmetics and per- ancestors. Incense bumers, which are con-
fumes of incense mixed with oils or tainers made of metal or pottery in which in-
unguents and blended spices and herbs. cense is bumed directly or placed on hot
coals, were first used in China as early as
The Babylonians employed incense during 2,000 B.C. and became an art form during
prayers and rituals to try to manifest the gods; China's Han dynasty (206 B.c.-220 A.D.).
their favorites were resins from cypress, fir, These vessels had pierced lids to allow the
and pine trees. They also relied on incense smoke and scent to escape, and the designs
during exorcisms and for healing. They from this period through the Ming dynasty
brought incense into Israel before the Baby- (1368-1644) became increasingly omate
lonian Exile (586-538 B.c.), and incense be- with smoke-breathing dragons and other
came a part of ancient Jewish worship both imaginative creations. The Chinese also ap-
before the Exile and after. True frankincense plied incense to a wide variety of uses in-
and myrrh from Arabia were widely used in cluding perfuming clothes, fumigating books
the temples in Jerusalem during the times of to destroy bookworms, and scenting inks and
Christ's teachings, although incense has fall- papers. Even the fan (an import into China
en out of use in modem Jewish practice. from Japan) was constructed with sandal-
wood forming the ribs so the motion of the
Both the ancient Greeks and Romans used fan would spread the fragrance of the wood.
incense to drive away demons and to gratify
the gods. The early Greeks practiced many In Japan, incense culture included special
rites of sacrifice and eventually began substi- racks to hold kimonos so the smoke from
tuting the buming of incense for live sacri- buming incense could infiltrate the folds of
fices. As a result of his conquests, Alexander these garments. Head rests were also steeped
the Great (356-323 B.c.) brought back many in incense fumes to indirectly perfume the
Persian plants, and the use of incense in civic hair. Clocks were made of incense sticks;
ceremonies became commonplace in Greek different scents from the sticks told those
life. Woods and resins were replaced by im- tracking the time of the changing hours.
ported incense as the Roman Empire ex-
panded. The Romans encountered fine
myrrh in Arabia, and the conquerors carried RawVMaterials
it as incense with them across Europe. Stick incense is made with "punk sticks"
and fragrance oils. All the components are
By the fourth century A.D., the early Chris- natural materials. The sticks themselves are
tians had incorporated incense buming into imported from China and are made of bam-
their practices, particularly the Eucharist boo. The upper portion of each stick is coat-
when the ascending smoke was thought to ed with paste made of sawdust from
carry prayers to heaven. Both the Westem machilus wood, a kind of hardwood. The
Catholic Church and the Eastem Orthodox sawdust is highly absorbent and retains fra-
Church used incense in services and proces- grance well. Charcoal is also used to make
sions, but incense has always been more in- the absorbent punk, and it is favored in in-
tensely applied in the Eastem services. The cense sticks made in India.
rite of swinging the censer was and is used
in many religions; the censer (also called a The fragrant oils are made of oil from natu-
thurible in the West and a k dan in Japan) is rally aromatic plants or from other perfumes
suspended on chains and carried by hand. or fragrances that are mixed in an oil base.
The Reformation ended the presence of in- Small quantities of paint are used to color-
280
Incense Stick
Stick incense is made with punk
sticks imported from China and
fragrance oils. Bundles of one
hundred punk sticks are painted
with a color unique to the intend-
ed fragrance. Next, fragrance oils
are mixed, and the punk-covered
ends of the bundles are dipped in
the fragrance. Once dry, the bun-
dles are each wrapped in wax
poper and sealed in plastic bags.
The bags are placed in bins. As
orders are received for the in-
cense sticks, they are individually
packaged, packed in 6oxes made
of recycled cardboard, and
shipped for sale.
28 1
code the ends of the incense sticks depend- packaged, packed in boxes made of recycled
ing on their fragrance. cardboard, and shipped for sale.
Design Byproducts/Waste
The design of incense is based almost solely No byproducts are made, although incense
on fragrance. Incense makers carefully mon- manufacturers may make a wide range of
itor trends in fragrances by obtaining sam- fragrances in stick, cone, or powder form.
ples from fragrance houses, discussing fash- Dust is the primary waste material and is
ions and interests with their customers, and contained by vacuuming and excellent ven-
even noting those fragrances that are used in tilation. All paper goods are recyclable.
detergents, fabric softeners, and room air
fresheners. When a fragrance seems like a There are no safety hazards to employees,
possibility for use in incense, the manufac- but there is a considerable risk to those with
turer makes test batches of oils and incense allergies. Potential employees are warned
sticks and gives employees and customers that the natural components of the sticks and
samples to bum at home. Positive feedback the fragrances may cause allergic reactions,
helps them select new incense fragrances. and some find they are unable to work in the
factory because of this consideration.
The Magnufacturing
Process The Future
1 At the incense factory, bundles of punk Customs in incense manufacture have
sticks arrive from a specialized supplier in changed little over the centuries except in
China. Each bundle consists of 100 sticks. the range of fragrances offered. In ancient
The ends of the sticks are cleaned by pound- times, only naturally fragrant resins or
ing the end of each bundle in front of a vacu- woods like sandalwood and patchouli were
um cleaner that sucks up the dust. The bun- used for incense. Modem fragrance produc-
dles are selected for a particular fragrance, tion allows virtually any scent to be dupli-
and the even ends of the sticks, still tightly cated, and fragrances are available now that
bundled, are painted with a color unique to couldn't be offered before. Examples in-
that fragrance. The number of bundles desig- clude green tea, candy cane, blueberry,
nated for a particular fragrance is based on pumpkin pie, and gingerbread incense.
the popularity of the fragrance. For example,
the factory may make 1,200 bundles (12,000 The custom of use of incense is also likely
sticks of incense) with vanilla fragrance that to change in the future and in Westem cul-
is very popular; and it may make only 300 ture. In India, two or three sticks of incense
bundles (3,000 sticks of incense) in the green may be burned every day in a typical home,
apple fragrance, which doesn't sell as well. while, in the United States, users of incense
After the ends are painted, the bundles are may only bum one stick a week. Incense-
left ovemight for the paint to dry. makers hope the variety, effectiveness, and
low cost of incense sticks will make them
2 The next day, fragrance oils are mixed, more popular than air fresheners and room
and the punk-covered ends of the bun- deodorizers made with artificial perfumes.
dles are dipped in the fragrance. They are Also, the popularity of meditation and aro-
again left on shelves to dry ovemight. A matherapy have spurred incense sales
typical incense maker may stock hundreds among clients who want their rare moments
of fragrances, some of which contain hun- of quiet and relaxation to be healing and
dreds of elements to make their perfume. beautifully scented.
Many Indian scents are complex combina-
tions of ingredients.
Where to Learn More
3 The dried bundles are each wrapped in
wax paper and sealed in 12 x 3 in (30.5 x Periodicals
7.6 cm) ziplocking plastic bags. The bags
are placed in bins. As orders are received for Casson, Lionel. "Points of origin." Smith-
the incense sticks, they are individually sonian (December 1986): 148+.
282
Incense Stick
Karban, Roger. "Use of incense has unsa-
vory past." National Catholic Reporter
(December 8, 1995): 2.
Morris, Edwin T. Fragrance: The Story of
Perfume from Cleopatra to Chanel. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1984.
Other
Wild Berry Incense, Inc. 1996. http://
www.wild-berry.com/ (June 29, 1999).
-Gillian S. Holmes
283
Jam and Jelly
In the United States, food Jams and jellies are spreads typically made man from western Pennsylvania, Chapman
from fruit, sugar, and pectin. Jelly is made walked through the Midwest planting apple
processing regulations with the juice of the fruit; jam uses the meat orchards. His purpose was to provide crops
require than jams and of the fruit as well. Some vegetable jellies for the coming pioneers.
are also produced.
jellies are made with 45 One of those pioneers was Jerome Smuck-
er of Ohio who used Chapman's apples to
parts fruit or juice to 55 Background open a cider mill in 1897. Within a few
It is difficult to pinpoint when people first years, he was also making apple butter.
parts sugar. Smucker blended the apple butter in a
made a fruit spread. Ancient civilizations
were known to set a variety of foods in the copper kettle over a wood stove. He and
sun to dry in order to preserve them for later his wife ladled the apple butter into
use. One of the first recorded mentions of stoneware crocks. She then sold it to other
jam making dates to the Crusades whose housewives near their home in Wayne
soldiers brought the process back from their County, Ohio.
journeys in the Middle East.
Fifty years earlier in Concord, Massachu-
Preserving foods was a home-based opera- setts, Ephraim Wales Bull finally achieved
tion until the nineteenth century. Even his goal of cultivating the perfect grape.
today, millions of people make fruit pre- His rich-tasting Concord grape became
serves in their own kitchens. Whether in enormously popular. In 1869, Dr. Thomas
the home kitchen or in a modern food pro- Branwell Welch used the Concord grape to
cessing plants, the procedure is essentially launch his grape juice company. When, in
the same. Fruits are chopped and cooked 1918, Welch's company made its first jam
with sugar and pectin until a gel is formed. product, Grapelade, the United States
The jam or jelly is then packed into steril- Army bought the entire inventory. The
ized jars. company's trademark Concord grape jelly
debuted in 1923.
Spoilage prevention is a major concern for
both the home and the commercial jam pro- After World War II, food scientists devel-
ducer. An important innovation in food oped the process of aseptic canning: heating
preservation occurred in 1810. Nicolas Ap- the food and the jar or can separately. For
pert, a French confectioner, determined sensitive foods such as fruits, this allowed
that by filling jars to the brim with food so for high-temperature flash cooking that pre-
that all air is expressed out and then plac- served taste and nutritional value.
ing the jars in boiling water would prevent
spoilage. When sugar prices soared in the early
1970s, high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) be-
In the early 1800s in the United States, the came a popular substitute. Several major
country was experiencing a surge westward. food processing companies, including
Of the many legendary characters to emerge Archer Daniels Midland, Amstar CPC Inter-
during this period was John Chapman, bet- national, Cargill, H.J. Heinz, and Anheuser
ter known as Johnny Appleseed. A nursery- Busch opened HCFS plants.
2 84
Jam and Jelly
Raw Materials pectin, 65% sugar, and an acid concentra-
tion of pH 3.1. Too much pectin will make
Jams and jellies are made from a variety of the spread too hard, too much sugar will
fruits, either singly or in combination. Most make it too sticky.
of the fruits are harvested in the fall. The
level of ripeness varies. Pears, peaches,
apricots, strawberries, and raspberries gel Inspection
best if picked slightly underripe. Plums and 1 When the fruit arrives at the plant, it is in-
cherries are best if picked when just ripe. spected for quality, using color, ripeness,
The fruit is purchased from farmers. Most and taste as guides. Fruit that passes inspec-
jam and jelly producers develop close rela- tion is loaded into a funnel-shaped hopper
tionships with their growers in order to en- that carries the fruit into pipes for cleaning
sure quality. The production plants are built and crushing.
close to the fruit farms so that the time
elapsed between harvest and preparation is Cleaning, crushing, and chopping
between 12-24 hours.
2 As the fruit travels through the pipes, a
Sugar or high fructose corn syrup, or a com- gentle water spray clears away surface
bination of the two are added to the fruit to dirt. Depending on whether the finished
sweeten it. Cane sugar chips are the ideal product is to be jam or jelly, paddles push
type of sugar used for preserving fruit. the fruit and or just its juice through small
Granulated and beet sugar tend to crystal- holes, leaving stems and any other excess
lize. Sugar is purchased from an outside debris behind. Some fruits, such as citrus
supplier. High fructose corn syrup is and apples may be manually peeled, cored,
processed by fermenting cornstarch. It is sliced and diced. Cherries may be soaked
purchased from an outside supplier and then pitted before being crushed.
The element that allows fruit to gel, pectin is Pasteurizing the fruit
present in varying degrees in all fruit. Ap-
ples, blackberries, cherries, citrus fruits, 3 The fruit and/or juice continues through
grapes, quinces, and cranberries have the another set of pipes to cooking vats.
best natural gelling properties. Strawberries Here, it is heated to just below the boiling
and apricots are low in pectin. Jams made point (2120 F [100° C]) and then immediate-
from such fruits are either blended with ly chilled to just below freezing (320 F [00
fruits high in pectin, or extra sugar is added C]). This process, pasteurization, prevents
to the mixture. Sometimes pectin is extract- spoilage. For jelly, the pulp is forced through
ed industrially from dried apples. another set of small openings that holds back
seeds and skin. It will often then be passed
Citric acid is added to obtain the correct bal- through a dejuicer or filter. The juice or fruit
ance needed to produce the jam or jelly. is transferred to large refrigerated tanks and
Lime and lemon juice are high in citric acid, then pumped to cooking kettles as needed.
therefore they are the most prevalent source
used. Citric acid can also be obtained by the Cooking the jam and jelly
fermentation of sugars. It is purchased from
outside suppliers. 5 Premeasured amounts of fruit and/or
5juice, sugar, and pectin are blended in in-
Other flavorings, such as vanilla, cinnamon, dustrial cooking kettles. The mixtures are
mint, alcoholic beverages such as rum or usually cooked and cooled three times. If ad-
Kirsch, can be added to the jam or jelly. ditional flavorings are to be included, they
These flavorings are purchased from outside are added at this point. When the mixture
suppliers. reaches the predetermined thickness and
sweetness, it is pumped to filling machines.
The Manufacturing
Process Filling the jars
The ingredients must be added in carefully Presterilized jars move along a conveyer
measured amounts. Ideally, they should be UJbelt as spouts positioned above pour pre-
combined in the following manner: 1% measured amounts of jam or jelly into them.
285
Metal caps are then vacuumed sealed on Labeling and packaging

top. The process of filling the jars and vacu-
um packing them forces all of the air out of 7 The sealed jars are conveyed to a ma-
the jars further insuring the sterility of the 7 chine that affix preprinted labels. Ac-
product. cording to law, these labels must list truthful
286
Jam and Jelly
and specific information about the contents. Other, more exotic types including garlic
The jars are then packed into cartons for jelly are also appearing on grocery shelves.
shipment. Depending on the size of the pro-
ducer's operation, labeling and packaging is Where to Learn More
either achieved mechanically or manually.
Books
Quality Control Coyle, L. Patrick. The World Encyclopedia
In the United States, food processing regu- of Food. New York: Facts on File, 1982.
lations require than jams and jellies are
made with 45 parts fruit or juice to 55 parts
Lang, Jenifer Harvey, ed. Larousse Gas-
tronomique. New York: Crown, reprinted
sugar. The federal Food and Drug Adminis-
tration (FDA) mandates that all heat- 1998.
processed canned foods must be free of live Trager, James. The Food Chronology. New
microorganisms. Therefore, processing York: Henry Holt, 1995.
plants keep detailed lists of cooking times
and temperatures, which are checked peri- Periodicals
odically by the FDA.
Anusasananan, Linda Lau. "Why?" Sunset
Requirements also exist for the cleanliness (June 1996): 142.
of the workplace and workers. Producers in-
stall numerous quality control checks at all Kawatski, Deanna. "Canning: a modest
points in the preparation process, testing for miracle." Mother Earth News (August-Sep-
taste, color and consistency. tember 1996): 52.
Other
The Future
J.M. Smucker Co. 1999. http:/Hwww.
Because it is a relatively simple process, the smucker.com/ (June 28, 1999).
production of jams and jellies is not expect-
ed to change dramatically. What is apparent Welch's Co. http://www.welchs.com/ (June
is that new flavors will be introduced. Cer- 28, 1999).
tain vegetable jellies such as pepper and
tomato have been marketed successfully. -Mary McNulty
Opposite:
When the fruit arrives at the plant,
it is inspected for quality, using
color, ripeness, and taste as
guides. Fruit that passes inspec-
tion is cleaned, crushed, and pas-
teurized. Next, the premeasured
mixture is cooked with added
sugar and pectin until it reaches
the appropriate thickness and
taste. Then it is vacuum-packed in
jars and labeled.
287
Jukebox
In its height of popularity Background electric amplifier. Without amplification, it
was impossible for a large group of listeners
in the mid- I 950s, A jukebox is a coin-operated machine that to enjoy the music played by the jukebox.
plays music from a record or compact disc When Automated Musical Instruments Inc.
approximately 750,000 (CD) once a selection is made. Originally (AMI) developed an amplifier in 1927, the
jukeboxes were in use called nickelodeons, the term jukebox did popularity of the jukebox surged. It was es-
not appear until the late 1930s and its ori- pecially popular in the illegal speakeasies of
across the United States. gins are in dispute. Some believe it is de- the Prohibition Era because it provided a
rived from the African word jook, meaning cheap form of entertainment. AMI sold
to dance. Others link it to the juke joints- 50,000 of its amplified machines in one
roadside bars located in the South and fre- year, bringing to life the age of the jukebox.
quented by African Americans-that were
popular at that time.
During the Depression, record sales plum-
In its height of popularity in the mid-1950s, meted from $75 million in 1929 to $5 mil-
approximately 750,000 jukeboxes were in lion in 1933. The growing popularity of the
use across the United States. That number jukebox and the purchases by store owners
dipped during the 1970s and 1980s, but with that went along with it resurrected the wan-
the advent of CD technology and a growing ing music business, and by 1938, the indus-
antiques market, the number of jukeboxes try had resurfaced at $25 million in sales.
presently in use is a solid 250,000. By 1940, there were 400,000 jukeboxes in
use in the United States.
History Three names were made during the 1940s
In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the and they remain synonymous with the juke-
phonograph, a coin-operated music machine box industry. Seeburg, Rock-Ola, and Wurl-
that played music from a wax cylinder. On itzer all manufactured jukeboxes at this
November 23, 1889, Louis Glass installed a time. Each company began by creating juke-
coin-operated phonograph in his Palais boxes in the likeness of the radio, but in the
Royale Saloon located in San Francisco. It 1940s, jukebox design came into its own
was called "nickel-in-a-slot" because that with the help of a few great designers em-
was the amount of money needed to make a ployed by the companies. Perhaps the best
selection. Later, the term was shortened to known is Paul Fuller, the designer behind
nickelodeon. In 1906, John Gabel invented the Wurlitzer models that pushed Wurlitzer
the "Automatic Entertainer," a music ma- to the top of the industry in the late-1940s
chine that replaced the wax cylinder with and 1950s. With the use of rotating lights,
78-rpm disc recordings and offered several art deco styled cabinets, and bubble tubes,
selections of records that could be played. Wurlitzer models were works of art. The
Gabel's Automatic Entertainer dominated most popular design was the Wurlitzer 1015
the market until the mid-1920s. that was introduced in 1946 and became the
biggest selling jukebox in history. In its
The jukebox remained something of a nov- original run, it sold a total of 56,246 boxes.
elty arcade item until the invention of the In 1948, Seeburg offered its own innovation
288
Jukebox
to the jukebox industry with the introduction from metal dies. The grills and trim are plat-
of its Select-O-Matic 100, the first jukebox ed with copper, nickel, and polished chrome.
to include 100 selections. This technology
allowed popular music to be played in the Design
same venue as regional country, folk, jazz,
and blues music-a variety that changed the Some jukeboxes are replicas of original de-
music industry and its development com- signs, others are original. In either case, a
pletely. By 1956, jukeboxes with 200 selec- designer creates a prototype, or sample, of
tions were being manufactured. the jukebox to be manufactured using
CAD/CAM software. The company pro-
Just as the proliferation of fast-food restau- duces a half dozen or so to place in restau-
rants such as McDonald's and chain restaurants or taverns. The prototypes are test-
rants such as Houlihan's spelled doom for marketed for several months before they are
mom-and-pop establishments, the taped approved for mass production.
music played in the new gathering places
signaled the end of the jukebox's glory. The The Manufacturing
introduction of cassette tapes and the declin- Process
ing production of 45-rpm records also added
to the decreased popularity of jukeboxes. By Although many of the components are ma-
the mid-1970s, the number of jukeboxes had chine-crafted, each jukebox is hand-assem-
fallen to 225,000. bled. Therefore, the assembly line moves
very slowly. The factory can produce ap-
The jukebox industry waned through the proximately 10 jukeboxes per day.
1980s until a growing antiques market and Plywood or solid wood sheets are cured
new technology revived the industry. Refur- and molded into the basic jukebox shape.
bished classic models are collectables, and a
Wurlitzer 1015 that first sold for $750 is Slots are cut into the sheets for the side
metal trim. The cabinets are varnished and
now approximately $12,000. CD technology
stained. After the varnish and stain has
has breathed new life into the primary mar- dried, the side metal trim is riveted onto the
ket, creating new models that house 100 cabinet.
CDs totaling 1,000 song selections. Since
the late 1980s, the number of jukeboxes has 2 All sheet metal parts are laser cut.
creeped back up to 250,000. A remake of
the Wurlitzer 1015 is even being manufac-
tured by Wurlitzer of Germany. Rock-Ola I) The florescent lighting fixtures and bub-
machines are also still produced as well. 3Jble tubes are installed in the cabinets. A
polarized light system allows the colors to
change.
Raw Materials
4 The electronic components are screwed
Each jukebox is comprised of 700-800 dif- - to the inside of the door. The door is then
ferent components, including wood cabi- attached to the cabinetry. The record/com-
netry; injection-molded plastic pieces; elec- pact disk storage and changer mechanisms
tronic stereo equipment such as amplifiers, are installed inside the cabinetry.
woofers and tweeters, turntable or disk play-
er; lighting; mirrors; records or compact 5 After the jukebox is completed, it is sent
disks; and the selection mechanism. In some 5to the testing room for 24-48 hours. In-
cases, the bulk of the components are pur- spectors check all of the components: light-
chased from outside suppliers. Other manu- ing, sound, selection, money changing, etc.,
facturers create everything in-house except to insure that they are working properly.
the records or compact disks.
The cabinets are constructed of multiple lay-

Quality Control
ers of wood, usually Italian poplar, Finland Quality control is key in the production of a
ply, walnut, olive ash, alder, maple, and jukebox. After each step in the production
Corinthian burl elm. Metal parts such as the process, qualified personnel check the in-
grills, trim, and money changers are cast tegrity of the work done. Final inspection of
289
A jukebox is made up of 700-800

different components, including
wood cabinetry; injection-molded
plastic pieces; electronic stereo
equipment such as amplifiers,
woofers and tweeters, turntable or
disk player; lighting; mirrors;
records or compact disks; and the
selection mechanism. In some
cases, the bulk of the components
are purchased from outside sup-
pliers. Other manufacturers create
everything in-house except the
records or compact disks. Al-
though many of the components
are machine-crafted, each juke-
box is hand-assembled at work-
stations.
290
Jukebox
the jukebox is made on all its components Botts, Rick. "The Jukebox." Popular Ma-
prior to shipment. chanics. (June 1995): 74.
The Future "Classic Jukebox Goes Mod." Design News

(March 9, 1987): 30.
Since the late 1980s, the demand for new
jukeboxes has remained steady. Collecting Gustaitis, Joseph. "The Jukebox: America's
refurbished jukeboxes has also gained in Music Machine." American History Illus-
popularity and is now a multimillion dollar trated (November/December 1989): 44.
secondary market. Aficionados created their
own organization-American Historic Juke-
box Society- and meet regularly at vintage Russell, Deborah. "Juke Biz Finds New
jukebox shows around the United States. No Life Via New Technology, Markets." Bill-
doubt the jukebox is as American as apple board (October 19, 1991): 10.
pie, and while there is nostalgia for a time
already past, there will also be a market for Webb, Marchus. "Classical Music: Antique
new and vintage jukeboxes. Apparatus hits it big with reproductions of
class jukeboxes." RePlay Magazine (Janu-
Where to Learn More ary 1989): 113.
Books Other
Bunch, William. Jukebox America. New Amusement & Music Operators Associa-
York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. tion (AMOA). 401 N. Michigan Avenue,
Chicago, IL 60611-4267. (312) 644-6610.
Periodicals Fax: (312) 321-6869.
Barol, Bill. "The Wurlitzer 1015." American
Heritage (September/October 1989):28. Rock-OlaManufacturing Corporation. 2335
208th St., Torrance, CA 90501. (310) 328-
Boehlert, Eric. "Put Another Nickel In." 1306. Fax: (310) 328-3736. http://www.rock-
Billboard (November 1, 1994): 92. ola.com/.
29 1
License Plate
License plate sizes were Background move to one plate only because of the cost
of manufacture.
not standardized until Metal plates attached to motor vehicles are
commonly called license plates, but this is License plates on passenger cars may in-
1957 when the a misnomer. The driver of the vehicle must
clude information about the county of the
dimensions of 6 in by 12 be licensed, and the vehicle is registered; owner's residence, the owner's occupation,
therefore, these plates are really registra- expiration codes related to vehicle registra-
in (15.24 cm by 30.48 tion plates. In some states, especially in tion, government department codes, and
the South, the plates are also called license special codes for officials and certain groups
cm) were selected. tags. The information printed on the plate, like disabled drivers. Commercial vehicles
either in the metal itself or on one or two like buses and trucks usually have plates of
attached stickers tells authorities about the a different color and with different codes
registration of the vehicle and about the than those for passenger vehicles; their li-
owner.
cense plates are also changed more fre-
The American states and Canadian quently.
provinces have separate departments or ad-
The reasons for these differences are taxes.
ministrations for motor vehicles and their
own systems for coloring, issuing, and num-
Owners of commercial vehicles pay several
different taxes, over and above the registra-
bering the plates. For law enforcement, dis-
tinctions are made in color combinations,
tion fees, depending on miles driven, fuel
use, and vehicle weight. Taxes are comput-
captions or words embossed on the plates,
and combinations of alpha and numeric
ed based on formulas for these factors. In-
terstate traffic is also complicated because
characters that provide identification to
the taxes from vehicle registration and taxes
those trained in decoding them. Various
are essential for highway maintenance and
classes of vehicles, weight and use restric-
new construction. States apportion fees
tions, validity of registration, and informa-
among themselves based on the vehicle's
tion about the owner and the vehicle are
communicated on the license plate.
portion of highway use in each state; the dis-
plays of license plates and decals on some
Currently, all the states and provinces issue vehicles hint at these complexities.
license plates that are permanent or semi-
permanent; they are intended to last
throughout the ownership of the vehicle or
History
for some period longer than one year. To Before license plates came vehicle registra-
revalidate the plate when registration fees tion bureaus. States realized as early as 1892
are paid annually, decals are issued for the that some form of regulation was becoming
vehicle operator to stick on the plate. Out of necessary with the increase in the number of
the 51 U.S. jurisdictions (the 50 states and motorized vehicles. Automobiles, horses,
Puerto Rico), 31 require two plates for each and pedestrians were causing roads to dete-
vehicle, one for the front and one for the riorate rapidly, and regulations-and
back. The remaining jurisdictions only re- funds-were needed to correct the problem.
quire a rear plate. The trend, however, may Public safety was also a grave issue, and law
2 92
License Plate
enforcement officials needed a device to gia in 1941, and Georgia was also the pioneer
help them keep records regarding vehicle in the use of decals to update registration in-
owners and their actions. License plates formation, rather than issuing new plates
came into existence in 1903 when it became every year. Plate sizes were not standardized
apparent that motor vehicles were sure to re- until 1957 when the dimensions of 6 x 12 in
place horse-drawn carriages and that a sys- (15.24 x 30.48 cm) were selected.
tem of registering and taxing them and their
drivers was needed. Massachusetts was one From the early days of license plates to about
of the first states to issue licenses for drivers 1965, many states also showed police troop
and registration plates for vehicles. codes, county designations, or congressional
districts on their vehicle plates. By 1991,
Funnily, many license plate terms refer back only 10 states continued any of these prac-
to the early history of the automobile or tices, although county name decals are af-
even to the days of horses and carriages. fixed to the plates from some other states.
Vintage vehicles bear Horseless Carriage li- Computer technology is largely responsible
cense plates in many states, and historical for this change because fewer codes are
vehicle plates are issued to owners whose needed for quick identification of vehicles.
vehicles were manufactured after 1922
(varies by state) and are at least 25 years
old. In Alabama, some trucks are licensed to Raw McAterials
operate in an area with a 15-mile radius. The raw materials used to make license
This is an outdated form of measurement plates include sheets of aluminum, preprint-
based on the distance a mule can travel in ed and colored reflective and adhesive
one day, so plates on these trucks are termed sheeting, and paint. The aluminum blanks
mule tags. In the early dates of motorcycle are usually precut to size by metal manufac-
registration, small plates were mounted on turers and supplied in this form to correc-
the motorcycles and the drivers were re- tional institutions or other plate makers.
quired to carry brass watch fobs bearing the
registration information. Decals for annual registration renewals,
county designations, or other uses are made
Vehicle operators were concemed that front- by specialty printers on reflective sheeting
mounted plates would block the flow of air much like that used to cover the license
to the radiator, so some states made slotted plates themselves.
plates to reduce this hazard; this practice was
discontinued in about 1918. The first plates
were made of sheet iron, but tin became the Design
standard by about 1920. The State of Ari- Design of license plates is limited to a stan-
zona made its tags from sheet copper in dard size and thickness that will fit license-
1932-1934. Porcelain plates were also quite plate mounts on most vehicles. Other prop-
common in the early days of vehicle plates, erties like colors and reflective coatings are
and Delaware was the last state to make continuously improved for visibility, pri-
porcelain plates in 1942. During World War marily to aid in law enforcement.
II, soybean-based fiberboard was used for li-
cense plates because of the need to devote all Beyond these restrictions, license plate de-
available metal to the war effort; goats were signs can be quite creative. Personalized
particularly pleased with this development plates, also called vanity, custom, or pres-
because the license plates made tasty snacks. tige plates, have become popular in the last
three decades when states recognized the
Also in about 1920, the states began using the cash benefits of appealing to the public's in-
labor of inmates in their correctional institu- dividuality. Canada calls these personalized
tions to manufacture registration plates to number plates (PNPs). In Califomia, the
provide useful work for the prisoners and revenue from vanity plates is dedicated to
also to keep plate production costs down. The environmental projects, so such plates are
states began to require that automobile called environmental license plates (ELPs).
builders provide lights for illuminating li-
cense plates in about 1923. The first reflec- Other special plates are made to survivors of
torized plate was issued in the State of Geor- the attack on Pearl Harbor and recipients of
293
Modern license plate monufacture tronauts' Memorial commemorating the

involves applying a preprinted, Challenger Space Shuttle disaster; Florida
reflective sheet to the unstamped uses sales of this plate to raise funds for the
metal blank. The sheet is affixed memorial. Florida has also used other spe-
to the blank, the sheet-covered cial category plates to raise funds to protect
blank is stamped to create the the manatee and the Florida panther and to
raised characters, and the char-
acters are colored with ink. The commemorate the twentieth anniversary of
plates are also given a clear, pro- Disney World and the five hundredth an-
tective coating. niversary of Columbus's discovery of the
New World; in fact, Florida has produced
Production over 50 specialty tags. Again, computers
have made these plates possible because it is
I no longer essential for a plate from Califor-
nia, for example, to be blue and gold for law
enforcement professionals to recognize the
home state of the vehicle.
_eS ~~4 I
The Manufacturing
Process
Fact-ry O/d method
Most license plates are still made in correc-
tional institutions, although some states con-
Factory tract out plate manufacture to private com-
panies.
I Metal blanks are inserted into presses and
stamped with rounded edging and a series
of characters, usually including both num-
bers and letters.
2 The whole plate is painted in its main
color, and the raised characters (and
sometimes decorations) are painted in a con-
trasting color with an automated roller that
is set to the correct height to only paint the
raised elements.
Stamping
3 The two-color plate is then treated with
reflective coating. This is a paint-like
substance made of extremely fine glass
national honors like the Purple Heart and the beads that refract (bend) light and bounce it
Congressional Medal of Honor. Every state back at many times the brightness of the
has its own list of special plates that paint alone. Plates made by this method are
changes-and tends to increase-every usually considered partially reflective be-
year. States often use license plates to pro- cause the application of the reflective coat-
mote tourism, and considerable thought ing over the dual levels of the plate is not
goes into plate design so the plate mirrors uniform.
the state's desired image.
New method
Special category plates are another variety Modem license plate manufacture applies
of license plate that is becoming increasing- a preprinted sheet to the unstamped metal
ly popular. These include plates recognizing blank. This preprinted sheeting has the main
graduates of colleges and universities and color of the plate as well as multicolored
veterans of military service and plates dedi- decorations. It also has reflective material in
cated to a number of causes such as the As- the coating on the sheet. The sheet is affixed
2 94
License Plate
to the blank, the sheet-covered blank is method of tracking vehicle ownership and
stamped to create the raised characters, and operation is useful for law enforcement, a
the characters are colored with ink. variety of taxes, registration, and other
data. The future may see devices like bar
2 The ink allows the reflective material to codes or scanner codes incorporated into li-
2shine through completely and uniformly, cense plates or directly into vehicles. When
so these plates are described as fully reflec- the code is read by a scanner (a handheld
torized. The ink is less durable than the model for police officers and fixed models
paint, however, so these plates are also for other applications), the complete histo-
given a clear, protective coating. The reflec- ry of the vehicle and information about its
tive sheeting makes license plates easier for operation and ownership would be avail-
law enforcement officials to read by the able by computer almost instantly. The bar
light of headlights or flashlights, and it is codes might also include other fees like
more effective as a safety device on the bridge tolls that would be billed to the ve-
highway. It does make license plates more hicle owner.
expensive to manufacture.
License plates as we know them are also
Quality Control experiencing second lives, thanks to col-
lectors. The Automobile License Plate
State motor vehicle departments establish Collectors Association (ALPCA) is one of
the rules for license plate manufacture under several organizations for hobbyists who
the direction of the State legislature. The In- collect historical plates and those from dif-
terstate Commerce Commission also has re- ferent locations. ALPCA awards one state
quirements for plate manufacture particular- per year with a coveted "Best Plate
ly with respect to interstate traffic, licensing, Award" based on a competition among the
and taxes. Number designations, the num- discerning members of ALPCA. To en-
bers and letters appearing on vanity plates, courage collectors and tourism, many
and special interest plates are all approved states and provinces also sell sample
well in advance of production by the state plates. Their variety, colorful designs, and
motor vehicle authority, which also oversees historic associations make license plates
manufacture in correctional institutions and attractive both on the road and in the en-
private companies. Quality control during thusiast's collection.
actual manufacture is by observation; the
stamped metal plate is inspected, as is the
coated and painted plate before packaging Where to Learn More
and distribution.
Books
Byproducts/Waste Murray, Thomson C. License Plate Book.
No byproducts are made from license plate Jericho, New York: Interstate Directory
manufacture, although a considerable indus- Publishing Company Inc., 1992.
try has arisen for making collectible plates
for sports teams, those bearing first names Periodicals
and nicknames, and humorous plates with
puns and jokes in the number and letter Tooley, Jo Ann. "GR8 PL8S." U.S. News &
combinations. World Report (August 12, 1991): 9.
Little waste results from plate making. The
metal blanks are sized to limit metal waste. Other
Minor amounts of trimmings from the American License Plate Collectors' Associ-
sheets of reflective coating material are sim- ation. http://www.alpca.org/
ply disposed.
State of Massachusetts Registry of Motor
The Future Vehicles. http://www.state.ma.us/rmv/
License plates are here to stay at least for
the foreseeable future. This tried-and-true -Gillian S. Holmes
2 95
Lock
Linus Yale Jr., an Bcackground keyhole, and the key was cut with corre-
sponding notches and grooves. Only the
American locksmith born Locks have been used to fasten doors proper key could fit into the keyhole, and
against thieves since earliest times. The Old then its tip engaged the bolt and withdrew it.
in 1821, made a Testament contains several references to The warded lock was much smaller than its
significant improvement in locks, and the first archaeological evidence predecessor, and keys were small enough
of locks are about 4,000 years old. These are that no slave was needed to take care of it.
lock design in 1861 with Egyptian locks depicted in the pyramids. But because the classic Roman toga had no
These earliest locks were of a type known as pockets, the key still wasn't easy to carry,
his invention of the pin tumbler, and they are actually not very and so it was usually attached to a finger
modern pin-tumbler lock. different from common door locks in use ring. Warded locks were widespread in Eu-
today. The Egyptian lock consisted of a rope by the thirteenth century and remained
heavy wooden housing mounted to the door. in use well into the eighteenth century. They
A wooden bolt passed through the lock and persisted in spite of the fact that they were
was held in place by iron pins which
easy to pick, and were barely an obstacle to
dropped into slots and held it firm. The key determined thieves.
was a straight piece of wood with pegs pro-
jecting up from its end. When the key was
inserted and pushed upwards, the pegs on The Romans also used padlocks, in which a
the key lifted the pins in the lock, and the key tumed a bolt releasing a spring on a
bolt was freed. shackle. These were used for locking trunks.
Similar locks were invented in China, India
The Greeks developed a simple door lock by and Russia during the same era. The Chi-
about 700 B.c. This used a latchstring to pull nese also invented the combination lock. It
a bolt through brackets in the door. By had moveable rings inscribed with numbers
pulling the string, the homeowner could lock or letters, and its hasp was released only
the door from the outside. Then, the string when the rings were aligned in the proper
was stuffed back through the keyhole. The sequence of symbols. Combination locks
key itself was a sickle-shaped piece of metal found their way to Europe, and were used in
from two to three feet long. The key could be the Middle Ages especially on couriers' dis-
fitted into the hole in the lock to pull back patch boxes.
the bolt from the outside. The major draw-
back to this lock was that anyone with a European locksmiths in the Middle Ages
curved stick or their own key could open it. made beautiful, intricate locks which took
And, the large metal key was cumbersome. appallingly long hours of work to build and
offered little real security. Locksmiths ap-
Romans adopted the Greek lock system, but prenticed for 10 years to reach the joumey-
solved the problem of the heavy key by man level. To reach the rank of master, the
chaining it to a slave, and then chaining the locksmith had to complete a masterpiece
slave to the doorpost. Eventually, Romans lock for approval by his guild. These mas-
developed a new kind of lock, called the terpieces took thousands of hours to com-
warded lock. In the warded lock, notches plete, and the results were generally much
and grooves called wards were cut into the more decorative than functional. Locks that
296
Lock
offered improved protection against theft The Manufacturing
were not developed until the late eighteenth Process
century, when an English locksmith, Robert
Barron, patented what was known as the
double-action lever-tumbler lock in 1788. Design
Barron's lock had two interior levers held 1 Locks come in grades, from low-security
by a spring. These levers, or tumblers, had to high-security. A low-security lock is
notches that hooked over the bolt and held it generally made from cheaper materials, and
shut. The key also had notches on it corre- its parts can be mass-produced. A company
sponding to the notches on the levers. When that manufactures low-security locks may
the right key was inserted, it would lift both have two or three available models, and
tumblers, and the bolt could be drawn. Other keep in stock the parts needed to customize
inventors added many more tumblers to this them. Beyond low-security, the lock manu-
design, and it proved much more difficult to facturer is generally what is called an origi-
pick than the earlier warded locks. nal equipment manufacturer, meaning that
Linus Yale Jr., an American locksmith born they make the parts for their locks as well
in 1821, made a significant improvement in as the final products. This kind of manufac-
lock design in 1861 with his invention of the turer may keep only the most basic and
modern pin-tumbler lock. The design princi- common parts in stock, and most of its or-
pal was similar to the Egyptian lock. This ders require custom design.
lock has a rotating cylinder which is held
fast in the bolt by a series of five spring-dri- The process begins with the manufacturer
ven pins of different heights. The key has assessing the customer's specifications. The
five notches on it that correspond to the customer orders a lock to fit a certain size
heights of the five pins. When the correct door for example, and asks that the locks
key is inserted, the pins line up level, and can be opened with a master key. The lock
the cylinder can be turned to disengage the manufacturer then comes up with the best
bolt. If the wrong key is inserted, the pins design for that customer's needs. In some
catch. Picking a Yale lock proved extremely cases, a customer may have purchased
difficult, and the parts for the lock could be locks in the past from one company, and
inexpensively mass-produced by machine. now wants more identical locks from a dif-
Within several years of its invention, the ferent manufacturer, who promises to make
Yale lock became the standard, replacing them more economically. Then, the lock
virtually all earlier lock technology. manufacturer examines the customer's orig-
inal locks and goes through what is known
Even more sophisticated locks were devel- as a reverse engineering process. The man-
oped in the twentieth century, including ufacturer's design team figures out from the
timer locks used in bank vaults, push button existing lock how to make their product
locks, and electronic locks that operate with match it. In many cases, the customer's first
a credit card like key. The manufacturing lock company has patented aspects of its
process that follows is for a standard pin- lock construction. The second manufacturer
tumbler lock. This is the kind of lock that may not duplicate it without infringing the
may be found on any front door or file cabi- other company's patents. So, the designers
net drawer. "design around" the first company's prod-
uct, producing a lock that will match the
customer's originals and serve the same
Raw Materials purpose, but using different mechanisms.
Standard five-tumbler key locks are made of Medium and high security locks in most
various strong metals. The internal mecha- cases go through this design stage, making
nisms of locks are generally made of brass the production of locks a time-consuming
or die-cast zinc. The cam, which is the process. A reputable manufacturer making
tongue that protrudes from the lock to se- anything but low security locks may take
cure it, is usually made of steel or stainless from eight to 12 weeks to produce locks for
steel. The outer casing of a lock may be an order, from the time the specifications
made of brass, chrome, steel, nickel or any are given to when the locks are packed and
other durable metal or alloy. shipped.
2 97
A cutaway of a standard Yale

lock. This lock has a rotafing cylin- The key grooved, ridged, jeweled, and polished. Pre-
der that is held fast in the bolt by cision tools handle these jobs, cutting the
a series of five spring-driven pins 2 For the standard five-tumbler key lock, metal to within tolerances of plus or minus
of different heights. The key has 2the key is made first. The lock manufac- 0.001 of an inch.
five notches on it that correspond turer buys key blanks and cuts the ridges, or
to the heights of the five pins. combinations, in each key. Each key has
When the correct key is inserted, five bumps on it that are cut to different lev- Other parts
the pins line up level, and the els. These levels are designated by numbers.
cylinder can be turned to disen- A low cut is one, next up is two, then three. A The manufacturer also makes the other
gage the bolt. If the wrong key is In many cases, there are only four levels,
'4 parts of the lock. The cylinder, or plug,
inserted, the pins catch. that the key fits into, guard plates, washers,
though some manufacturers may use as the bolt or cam, and the casing, are all made
many as seven. A five-tumbler key lock according to design specifications, by die-
with four levels in the key yields four to the casting and then further machining. The
fifth power, or 1024, different possible com- number of parts varies with the design of the
binations of ridges in the key. The five lock, but even a small and relatively simple
ridges are listed by the height of each level, lock may have thirty separate parts, and
yielding what is called the combination for some of these parts require multiple tool-
the key. A key with the combination 12341 ings. The process of making the lock com-
is cut with the first ridge at level one, the ponents can take several weeks.
second at two, the next at three, and so on.
The lock manufacturer chooses the combi-
nations from a random list and cuts each key Assembly
differently. 5 When all the parts are ready, the locks are
5assembled by hand. Lock workers sit at
well-lit tables with a kit of the pieces of the
Internal mechanisms lock in a bin, and the key on a stand in front
3 The internal mechanisms are made next. of them. An experienced worker can tell the
3These have been designed to fit this par- combination of the key just by looking at it.
ticular lock order, and the machinery that The worker first fills the plug, or cylinder, of
makes them may have to be re-tooled or re- the lock with the pins that correspond to the
set. Because the tiny interior parts, specifi- combination of the key. The worker inserts a
cally the pins, must be manufactured to ex- tiny spring and then the lock pin, using a
ceedingly fine tolerances, the machinists small tool called an assembly pick to hold the
may make a trial run before starting a big small parts. The assembly pick has a small
job. Then the machines may be re-set if nec- screwdriver on one end and a point on the
essary. The machining of small brass parts other, and the worker uses it to prod the deli-
takes many steps. They may be cast, then cate parts in where they belong. Once the
298
Lock
Cylinder
Spring washer
Cylinder guard \
Cylinder set screw
Spring washer
Cylinder \
-Strike
Cross section of a typical lock.

plug is filled according to the key combina- ified. For a new custom order, the machin-
tion, the worker snaps or screws together the ists usually produce trial samples of the
other parts around the lock. Though it is parts, and each one of these may be inspect-
skilled work, it takes no special training, and ed and measured manually, using precise
these workers are not locksmiths. gauges. If all seems to be going well, the
machinists will run the rest of the order, and
Final steps then perhaps one of every 500 or 1,000 parts
is checked. After the worker assembles the
6 Once a lock is fully assembled, the work- lock, he or she tests it with the key to make
Uer checks it with the key to make sure it sure it works properly. A quality control
works. It may pass to a quality control sta- specialist may also spot check the locks at
tion at this point, and then be dusted or pol- this stage.
ished. Workers package the completed locks
and box them for shipment.
The Future
Quality Control Many entities such as universities and large
The most important aspect of quality control corporate headquarters that use large num-
in lock manufacturing is ensuring that the bers of locks are converting to electronic
tiny machined parts are the exact sizes spec- pass-key systems. These use a magnetic
299
swipe card to open a door. The cards can Tchudi, Stephen. Lock and Key. New York:
have a bar code on them, and computers can Scribner's, 1993.
be used to store information on who goes in
through each door, raising privacy issues for Periodicals
some concerned people. Other high-tech
locks open with voice activation or palm or Belsie, Laurent. "Slide Toward Surveil-
fingerprint recognition. Such locks offer rel- lance Society: New Technology Allows
atively high security, but are generally too Govemment and Corporations to Cut Fraud
expensive and elaborate for the ordinary cit- and Boost Security, but Privacy Concerns
izen's home. However, the trend towards Mount." Christian Science Monitor. (March
these kinds of electronic and computer-con- 4, 1999).
trolled locks is growing in the late 1990s,
and they will undoubtedly be more preva- Leigh, Bobbie. "An Alarming Trend: Bul-
lent in the future. letproof Living." Wall Street Journal. (No-
vember 29, 1996).
Where to Learn More -Angela Woodward
Books
Roper, C.A. The Complete Book of Locks
and Locksmithing. Blue Ridge Summit,
Pennsylvania: Tab Books, 1991.
300
LP Record
Background pret as loudness or softness. Any and all Jules Levy, a coronet
sounds have these properties so, to record a
Sound has always fascinated human listen- bird's song, the symphony of vibrations pro- player, is credited as being
ers, but, until late in the 1800s, it eluded duced by the instruments in an orchestra, or
capture. This fact seems peculiar to us today the first recording artist. He
the voice of the lead singer in a rock band,
because, with compact discs, cassette tapes, the same techniques are used. played "Yankee Doodle"
highly portable players, automobiles with
lush sound systems, hundreds of radio sta- Edison's victrola recorded the sound and on his coronet, and the
tions on the dial, television stations devoted played it back. He used a metal cylinder
to music, and a myriad of other broadcast with open ends that was wrapped with a wax cylinder of his
sounds, we are surrounded by sound. sheet of tinfoil. By speaking into a "sound- rendition could be played
ing disc" that vibrated and was attached to a
Among the solid forms that music and other stylus or needle, the vibrations Edison creat- at home on the Edison
recordings have taken in their brief history, ed by speaking were etched by the stylus
the long-playing phonograph record may be onto the tinfoil. The etching looked like Parlor Speaking
the most romantic and among the most cher- small hills and valleys that spiraled around
ished. Phonograph records are no longer Phonograph (the first home-
the cylinder. To play back his recording,
manufactured except by private parties with Edison moved the needle back to the start of use phonograph), which
the equipment and the interest, and most the record of the vibrations and revolved the
sound systems are not equipped with turnta- cylinder at the same speed as it had moved sold for $10 in 1878.
bles. Long-playing records, known as LPs, during recording. The vibrations came back
are coveted by collectors, however, and out of the sounding disc and were amplified
there is a large secondary market in used by the cup, or primitive microphone, into
records among aficionados of particular which Edison had spoken.
types of music like jazz or opera or perform-
ers like Frank Sinatra or the Beatles. Following significant improvements to his
phonograph, the first records were made of
History wax cylinders. Jules Levy, a coronet player,
is credited as being the first recording artist.
The long-playing record was a direct de- He played "Yankee Doodle" on his coronet,
scendant of the first record made and played and the wax cylinder of his rendition could
on November 20, 1877, by Thomas Edison. be played at home on the Edison Parlor
Edison's bounty of inventions came from a Speaking Phonograph (the first home-use
thorough understanding of science. Edison phonograph), which sold for $10 in 1878.
knew that sound consists of a vibrating
wave of air molecules that enters our ears, In about 1887, Valdemar Poulsen, a Danish
strikes the eardrum and sets up vibrations in scientist, used the same principles to record
the tiny bones of the inner ear, and passes sound on a magnetic tape. At the turn of the
along nerve endings to the brain. The brain century, the infant recording industry made
decodes these vibrations as sounds. The cylinders of various materials with perma-
number of vibrations per second is the fre- nent recordings on them, but World War II
quency of the sound, and those vibrating pushed the magnetic tape into broad accep-
waves have amplitude or size that we inter- tance as the medium for recording sound
30 1
and then transferring it to records. Leading lowed six times as much music to be record-
recording companies like RCA Victor found ed on a single record. Large-scale record
that magnetic tape produced greater fidelity, production was ready for the age of Elvis
or faithful reproduction of sound, than other and rock and roll, and entire symphonies
methods. Also, tape can easily be cut and could be reproduced on a single long-play-
edited to shorten, lengthen, or remove pering album instead of a set of 78s.
formance errors from recordings.
R a w Materials
Until just after World War II, records were
available in only one playing speed and The raw materials for record manufacture
turned on their turntables at a rate of 78 rev- were subdivided into those needed to make
olutions per minute (rpm). In 1948, Peter the master disc, those for actual pressing of
Carl Goldmark (1906-1977), an American the records, and the paper goods needed for
physicist who had been born in Hungary, in- labels, sleeves, and jackets. The master disc
vented a record that revolved at less than was made of black lacquer, so it could be
half that speed, at 33.33 times per minute. etched with grooves to carry the sound. Sil-
Improvements in production also allowed ver was used to coat the finished disc, and
the track (the groove for the needle) to be chromium-plated nickel discs were used to
narrowed, and these two developments al- press the "vinyl" records.
302
LP Record
Records were most commonly made of fed to the recording head on a magnetic tape
black plastic, although some were produced recorder. The head is made of layers of
in other colors. Recording companies devel- metal that formed an electromagnet, and the
oped the designs for their own labels, magnet transmitted the current as a pattern
sleeves, and album jackets; however, manu- of sound waves to the magnetically sensitive
facture of these was usually subcontracted tape. The flow of the current or magnetism
to paper suppliers and printers. varies with the intensity of energy picked up
by the microphone as sound.
Design 2 The magnetic tape consists of a long rib-
Records evolved into three sizes and three -bon of 2 in (5 cm) wide plastic that is
forms of sound reproduction. Originally, coated on one side with iron oxide. As the
records were played at a speed of 78 revolu- tape winds its way through the machine and
tions per minute (rpm) and were called 78s. across the face of the electromagnet, the
The 78s were largely replaced by long-play- iron oxide responds to the changes in cur-
ing records, also called LPs and 33s because rent or magnetic flow so a permanent pic-
they revolve when played at 33.33 revolu- ture of the sound was formed on the tape by
tions per minute. Records with a single song the rearranged particles. The pattern can be
on each side were known as singles and also seen with a microscope but not with the
called 45s because their playing speed was naked eye. It is, however, permanent and
45 revolutions per minute. very precise.
In their early years, these records were 3 During a recording session, sound engi-
monaural with sound that usually only came neers monitor the work in progress to
from one needle or speaker and seemed to make sure that every note is captured on
have only one dimension or source direction. tape. The 2 in (5 cm) wide tape is divided
As technology improved, sound was record- into 16 separate tracks, each of which
ed in stereo or quadrophonic sound that was records particular instruments, voices, or-
also typically projected from two or four chestra sections, or sound from different mi-
speakers and was more realistic because it crophones. During recording, the sound en-
captured sound as we hear it with two ears. gineer also manipulates the master control
board to add special effects or modify the
Standardized record players prevented much sound he hears from one instrument or sec-
variation in physical design of the record. tion. The master control board also shows
Creativity, instead, came from the recording the recording levels on each track so these
studio but also from the artists, writers, and could be made softer or louder. The sound
researchers who developed the artwork and engineers then "do the mix" when the
text on the album jackets. Today's collectors recording is finished to adjust the balance of
are often as interested in the rare photos and the various instruments or singers. They
drawings and historical narratives on the may emphasize a particular instrument dur-
record jackets as they are in the music inside. ing one song, for example, and minimize it
during another.
The Manufacturing 4 Sometimes the sound from a particular
Process Ainstrument or voice is not right for the
finished recording, and the artist is called
Recording the sound back to the studio to rerecord. This process
1 In the recording studio, microphones are is called overdubbing and adds another part
I located in several different places de- to a separate track on the tape or to a multi-
pending on the acoustics (sound-bouncing track master. If the tape is overdubbed, it
properties) of the room and the music being may also have to be remixed. Sometimes,
recorded. There are different types of micro- the collection of artists recording the music
phones: a specialized microphone for a can not meet in the recording studio at the
vocal soloist and several others for instru- same time; in that case, the sound engineers
mental backup, for example, are used. The record the rhythm tracks first, then the
microphones hear the sounds and translate singers and the strings. This multiple
them into bursts of electrical current that are process is called sweetening. The record
303
IIU,
Recording Disk master
Recordings are made in a sound

studio, where engineered monitor producer and the sound and mixing engi- 7 Mastering engineers use a special
and manipulate the sound using neers work together on the final mix. The 7grooving machine called a Variable
highly technical sound recording tape is then edited to produce the collection Pitch Cutting Lathe that is equipped with
equipment. Once the sound is of sounds heard on the final recording. The an electronic cutting stylus to etch the
recorded on magnefic tape, a mas- finished tape, called the master tape, is used grooves in a hard plastic disc. The master
ter disc is made of aluminum coat- to make a master disc. disc looks much like a record, but it is larg-
ed with soft black lacquer and er. A 7 in (17.8 cm) diameter, 45-rpm
called a lacquer. The master is used record is cut onto a 10 in (25.4 cm) diame-
to create mass quantifies of LPs. Making the master disc
ter blank. A 12 in (30.5 cm) diameter,
The master disc is made of aluminum 33.33 LP is cut onto a 14 in (35.6 cm) di-
Jcoated with soft black lacquer and called ameter blank. The grooves are just like the
a lacquer. The responsibility for making it patterns of iron oxide particles on the mag-
rests with the mastering engineer. The mas- netic tape in that they imprison the sound
tering engineer fits all the sound for one side vibrations in plastic. As the lacquer is cut,
of the record in the specified width of the the stylus is heated to help it cut more
playing space. For instance, the sound for a smoothly. The cutting lathe also has a
45-rpm record is allowed to occupy a small vacuum-producing tube mounted
1.1875 in (3 cm) wide space for grooves on next to the stylus. It vacuums up the con-
the record, regardless of whether the song tinuous thread of black lacquer as the
was three to five minutes long. The master- grooves are cut. This spiral of waste lac-
ing engineer experiments with the spacing quer is called the chip.
of the grooves. The work of the mastering
engineer is critical because the master disc
he produces is used as the model for press- The mastering engineer scribes (marks)
ing thousands of records. Loud music re- Othe cut disc on the outer edge with iden-
quires large, fat grooves, while softer music tification information including the name
takes narrow grooves. of the song or album, the master number
that also appears on the master tape, and
The mastering engineer controls the the type of sound recording, which is
Uspace taken by the record grooves most monaural, stereo, or quadraphonic sound.
easily by manipulating the volume; howev- At this point in the manufacture, the record
er, if more than one song appears on one producer and the artists may listen to a
side of the album, it is also important to "reference acetate" or the master disc be-
keep the volume relatively constant. For the fore it is completed in a final set of steps.
best sound quality, mastering engineers try After the master disc is cut and approved
to use the loudest possible volume. They for production, the disc is plated with a
also use microscopes to inspect the grooves, very thin coat of silver. It is then called the
and they are very adept at recognizing metal master and is the basis for all the
sounds by their grooves. records manufactured.
304
LP Record
After the master disc is thoroughly

9 At the plating plant, a metal mold is plastic powder in a heated mixer. The plas- inspected, a metal mold is formed
9 formed from the metal master, and liq- tic is melted and mixed until it has the con- from the metal master, and liquid
uid nickel is poured into the mold to pro- sistency of jelly. It is then fed through a nickel is poured into the mold to
duce a nickel stamping record from each roller press that produces long, thin sheets produce a nickel stamping record
side of the metal master. These stampers are within strict tolerances for the thickness and from each side of the metal mas-
also electroplated with chromium that is less brittleness of the plastic. When the sheets ter. These stampers are also elec-
are cooled, they are cut into squares called troplated with chromium in order
than one hundred thousandth of an inch to prevent scratching. The stam-
(2.5-5 cm) thick. The chromium coat pro- biscuits. An automatic press is fitted with pers are used to produce LPs from
tects the stampers from scratching. the nickel stampers-one for each of the vinyl squares called biscuits.
two sides of the record. The biscuits are re-
heated to soften them slightly, and they are
Producing LPs fed into the press. The operator makes sure
O LPs are produced in factories called the biscuit is seated properly and activates
I V pressing plants that usually are located the press. The grooves and the sound pattern
some distance from the recording studio, the are pressed into the soft plastic. This same
birthplace of the master disc, and the plating process is used for both long-playing
plant where the stampers are made. A press- records and singles.
ing plant is capable of producing up to
185,000 records per day. The plastic or Still square shaped, the stamped biscuits
vinyl for the records is produced by melting are conveyed to another machine where
305
the labels are pasted on, and the square cor- Byproducts/Waste
ners are rounded. The edge of the disc is
smoothed, and the center hole is drilled Flawed records were melted and pressed
through the labels and the finished disc. again, as were the square corners that were
removed from the biscuits to make them into
12In an alternate version of the same round LPs. The chip of waste lacquer from
process, the automatic press is fitted the making of the master disc was recycled,
with the stampers (the two sides of the and any nickel or chromium from the metal
album), the round record labels, and a coil processing portions of master disc produc-
of black vinyl plastic. The press is heated to tion was carefully controlled and recycled.
300°F (149°C), causing the plastic coil to
melt and spread between the stampers and The Future
into the grooves in a process similar to in-
jection molding. This same machine forms The manufacture of long-playing records is
the hole through the center of the record. A a thing of the past. Compact discs stepped to
flash cutter is used to trim and finish the the forefront of recordings in the 1980s be-
edge of the LP. cause they are not worn by playing, they are
more convenient in size, and their sound re-
1 3 In the finishing department, each record production quality is better. All sizes of
is carefully inspected before packing. vinyls, however, have many fans among
The newly pressed record moves to a packag- collectors. Some recordings simply have not
ing station where it is inserted in a paper or been remade in compact disc form and are
cellophane envelope or sleeve, slipped into only available on LPs. More often, collec-
the printed record jacket or album cover, and tors treasure the collectible character of
then shrink-wrapped with plastic. Packing these records for their sounds, the kinds of
boxes filled with the packaged record albums music they preserve, and the artwork and in-
are shipped to distributors. formation on record jackets.
Quality Control Where to Learn More

Historically, sound engineers in the studio Books
carefully monitored all aspects of recording
to make sure the most desirable sound quali- Edmunds, Alice. Who Puts the Grooves in
ty was recorded. The mastering engineer's the Record? New York: Random House,
job was to transfer that quality to a reprodu- 1976.
cable master disc within the technical con-
straints of the size of the record and its Miller, Fred. Studio Recording for Musi-
grooves. After a test pressing was made, the cians. New York: Amsco Publications, 1981.
record producer (and sometimes the artists)
had the opportunity for an important quality Wullfson, Don L. The Kid Who Invented
control check in reviewing and approving the Popsicle: And Other Surprising Stories
the test pressing. About Inventions. New York: Cobblehill
Books, 1978.
In the record factory, operators checked the
biscuits and the motions of the press and pro- Periodicals
vided ands-on monitoring of the pressing of
records. The finishing department also in- Althouse, Paul "Audio: whither LP?"
spected the final product for scratches, American Record Guide (May-June 1994):
bumps, and other irregularities and cleaned 236.
each LP before it was packaged. After the
records were sealed in their jackets and boxed Egan, Jack. "Where's the value in vinyl?"
in bulk, an independent group of testers chose U.S. News & World Report (December 13,
packaged records randomly and removed 1993): 106.
them from their packaging. These testers
checked the packaging itself, played the McKee, David. "The flip side." Opera
records, and inspected them for any flaws. News (October 1997): 70.
306
LP Record
Scull, Jonathan. "All Sales are Vinyl." At- "Newton's Apple: Which sounds better: an
lantic Monthly (December 1997): 106-112. LP or CD?" http://wwwO.pbs.org/ktca/new
tons/l 1/cdlp.html/.
Other
"This Week in Music History." http://cgi.
"A Science Odyssey: Everyday Objects." canoe.ca/MusicHistoryJune/june2 1 .html/ .
http://pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/tech/indext.
html/. -Gillian S. Holmes
307
Lyocell
Commercial production of Lyocell is a manmade fiber derived from Paris in 1889, and contrary to Swan's ex-
cellulose, better known in the United States perience, people were thrilled by his new
a cellulosic fiber was first under the brand name Tencel. Though it is fabric. Chardonnet built a plant in Be-
carried out by the French related to rayon, another cellulosic fabric, sancon, France in 1891, and had great suc-
lyocell is created by a solvent spinning cess bringing his new fabric, now named
chemist Count Hilaire de technique, and the cellulose undergoes no rayon, to the forefront of the fashion in-
significant chemical change. It is an ex- dustry. In the United States, rayon produc-
Chardonnet. He exhibited tremely strong fabric with industrial uses tion began in 1910 under the auspices of
his so-called artificial silk such as in automotive filters, ropes, abra- the American Viscose Company. This
sive materials, bandages and protective company was an affiliate of Samuel Cour-
in Paris in 1889. suiting material. It is primarily found in the taulds and Co., Ltd., the forebear of the
garment industry, particularly in women's primary developer of lyocell, Courtaulds
Chardonnet built a plant clothing. PLC of the United Kingdom (now known
as Accordis Fibers).
in Besancon, France in
1891, and had great Background Chemists and manufacturers were intensely
Fabrics derived from cellulose date back to interested in manmade fibers in the twenti-
success bringing his new the middle of the nineteenth century, eth century. Acetate, another cellulosic
fabric, now named rayon, though no one commercially produced one fiber, was first commercially produced in
until 1889. A Swiss chemist, George Au- the United States in 1924. Chemists at the
to the forefront of the demars, was granted an English patent in Du Pont company developed nylon in the
1855 for an artificial silk he derived from 1930s, and it came into wide commercial
fashion industry. mulberry bark. Audemars attempted to re- use beginning in 1939. Acrylic and poly-
produce the method the silkworm uses for ester were two other significant man-made
making silk by dissolving the fibrous inner fibers. These debuted in the 1950s. Nylon,
bark of mulberry trees to separate out the acrylic and polyester differ from cellulosic
cellulose. To form threads, he dipped nee- fibers because they are derived from chemi-
dles into the cellulose solution and drew cals, and thus are totally manmade. Lyocell,
them out. Another chemist, Englishman rayon and acetate are based on the cellulose
Joseph W. Swan, modified Audemars' in wood pulp, and so these are often desig-
technique by forcing the cellulose solution nated "natural" fibers, though the fibers
through fine holes. His main interest was would not occur except for a manmade
in producing filaments for electric lamps, process.
but Swan realized that it was possible to
manufacture a cellulose textile using his The manufacturing and processing of artifi-
extrusion method. He exhibited cellulose cial fibers underwent much refinement
fabric in London in 1885, but he failed to throughout the twentieth century. The first
kindle any interest, and the project died rayon produced by Count Chardonnet, for
out. Commercial production of a cellulosic example, proved to be highly flammable,
fiber was first carried out by the French and the rayon on the market today is quite
chemist Count Hilaire de Chardonnet. He different. In the late 1970s and early 1980s,
exhibited his so-called artificial silk in researchers, principally at the leading rayon
308
Lyocell
A diagram depicting the manu-
facturing processes used to make
Amine oxde lyocell fiber.
Ifp
Evaporate
water
Spin
`\ s I ilute
I LYOCELL
producer Courtaulds Fibres and at an Amer- can Enka when it bought that company's
ican firm American Enka, began investigat- rayon operation in 1992.
ing a new method of producing a cellulosic
fiber through a solvent spinning technique.
In this method, the cellulose is softened and
then spun into fiber. Conventional rayon, Raw Materials
by contrast, is called a "regenerated cellu- The main ingredient of lyocell is cellulose,
lose fiber," and it involves many more a natural polymer found in the cells of all
steps. The cellulose is first chemically con- plants. It forms the basis for other plant-de-
verted into xanthate, then dissolved in caus- rived fibers such as cotton, hemp, and
tic soda, then regenerated into cellulose as linen. The cellulose for lyocell manufactur-
it is spun. The solvent spinning technique is ing is derived from the pulp of hardwood
both simpler and more environmentally trees. The pulp is typically from a mix of
sound, since it uses a non-toxic solvent trees chosen for their cellulosic properties
chemical that is recycled in the manufactur- such as the color and amount of contami-
ing process. The solvent-spun cellulosic nants. Some common tree species used are
fiber lyocell was first produced commer- oak and birch. The trees are grown on man-
cially in the United States in 1992 by Cour- aged tree farms, generally on land that is
taulds. The company used the brand name not suitable for other agricultural uses. The
Tencel. The fabric was given the generic solvent used in the manufacturing process
name lyocell in the United States in 1996. is an amine oxide. Water is another key in-
By this time, there was one other major ly- gredient in producing lyocell fiber. A fin-
ocell producer in the world, the Austrian ishing agent is also used, and this varies,
company Lenzing AG, which had acquired but is generally a lubricant such as soap or
patents and research on lyocell from Ameri- silicone. Lyocell fabrics are generally dyed
309
The main ingredient of lyocell is

cellulose, a natural polymer found with any dyes that are also compatible with roll of cellulose is enormous, weighing
in the cells of all plants. The cellu- cotton and rayon. some 500 lb (227 kg).
lose for lyocell manufacturing is
derived from the pulp of hardwood Dissolving the cellulose
trees. During the manufacturing The Manufacturing
process, the hardwood is broken Process 2 At the lyocell mill, workers unroll sever-
down into chips and then fed into a al spools of cellulose and break them
vat of chemical digesters, which into one inch squares. The workers then
soften them into a wet pulp. The Preparing the wood pulp load these squares into a heated, pressurized
pulp is washed, bleached, and vessel filled with amine oxide.
dried in a huge sheet that is rolled The hardwood trees grown for lyocell
onto a giant spool. production are harvested by loggers and
trucked to the mill. At the mill, the trees are Filtering
cut to 20 ft (6.1m) lengths and debarked by 3 After a short time soaking in the solvent,
high-pressure jets of water. Next, the logs the cellulose dissolves into a clear solu-
are fed into a chipper, a machine that chops tion. It is pumped out through a filter, to in-
them into squares little bigger than postage sure that all the chips are dissolved.
stamps. Mill workers load the chips into a
vat of chemical digesters that soften them Spinning
into a wet pulp. This pulp is washed with
water, and may be bleached. Then, it is A Next, the solution is pumped through
dried in a huge sheet, and mill workers roll < spinnerets. These are devices used with
it onto spools. The sheet of cellulose has the a variety of manmade fibers. Something like
consistency of thick posterboard paper. The a showerhead, the spinneret is pierced with
31 0
Lyocell
small holes, and when the cellulose is forced carried out by sophisticated computer mon-
through it, long strands of fiber come out. itoring systems. The computers continu-
The fibers are then immersed in another so- ously check a variety of key factors, such
lution of amine oxide, diluted this time. This as the tenacity of the fiber, its color, the de-
sets the fiber strands. Then, they are washed nier (a measurement of the fiber's diame-
with de-mineralized water. ter), elongation, moisture level, and level
of the finish application. Computers also
Drying and finishing monitor for "trash" that results when one
hole in the spinneret becomes blocked, and
5 The lyocell fiber next passes to a drying the filament comes out splintered or un-
5area, where the water is evaporated from drawn.
it. The strands at this point pass to a finishing
area, where a lubricant is applied. This may
be a soap or silicone or other agent, depend- Byproducts/Waste
ing on the future use of the fiber. This step is
basically a detangler, making the future steps The manufacture of lyocell produces no
of carding and spinning into yarn easier. harmful byproducts and is significantly
less toxic and wasteful than the manufac-
ture of other cellulosic fibers. Its principal
Final steps ingredient, cellulose, is easily obtained
The dried, finished fibers are at this stage from managed tree farms, and the industry
6in a form called tow. Tow is a large un- has not been accused of poor forestry
twisted bundle of continuous length fila- habits. The amine oxide solvent is non-
ments. The bundles of tow are taken to a toxic, and because it is almost completely
crimper, a machine which compresses the recycled during manufacturing, it is not re-
fiber, giving it texture and bulk. The crimped leased into the environment. Lyocell fab-
fiber is carded by mechanical carders, which rics are also naturally biodegradeable.
perform an action like combing, to separate Manufacturing lyocell is also environmen-
and order the strands. The carded strands are tally sound because less water and energy
cut and baled for shipment to a fabric mill. is used than in the manufacture of other
The entire manufacturing process, from un- manmade fibers.
rolling the raw cellulose to baling the fiber,
takes only about two hours. After this, the ly-
ocell may be processed in a wide assortment Where to Learn More
of ways. It may be spun with another fiber,
such as cotton or wool. The yarn can be Books
woven or knit like any other fabric, and
given a variety of finishes, from soft and Kadolph, S.J. and Langford, A.L. Textiles.
suede-like to silky. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1998.
Recovery of the solvent
7The amine oxide used to dissolve the Periodicals
7cellulose and set the fiber after spinning Maycumber, S. Gray. "Lenzing Developing
is recovered and re-used in the manufactur- New Lyocell." Daily News Record (Octo-
ing process. The dilute solution is evaporat- ber 14, 1993).
ed, removing the water, and the amine oxide
is routed for re-use in the pressurized vessel McCurry, John W. "Lyocell Disciples See
in step 2. Ninety-nine percent of the amine Lofty Future." Textile World (March 1998).
oxide is recoverable in the typical lyocell
manufacturing process.
Pfaff, Kimberly. "Courtaulds Tencel Plant
Opens; Great Potential Seen for New Fiber
Quality Control Said to Feel Like Cotton, Wear Like Poly-
Lyocell is only produced at a few plants in ester." HFD (December 21, 1992).
the world. These are specially designed,
state-of-the-art mills, and quality control is -Angela Woodward
311
Macadamia Nut
Mauna Loa Macadamia Background of the Botany Garden in Brisbane, found
one of the nuts, cracked it open using a vise,
Nut Corporation is the In the world of nuts and berries, macadamia and planted the seed. This "first"
nuts are almost as precious as gold. These macadamia nut tree is still growing and pro-
largest manufacturer of delicious, exotic nuts with their rich flavor ducing nuts, although typically the trees
and oil are considered delicacies and are
macadamia nuts in the served as dessert nuts. They are popular
only produce for about 70 years.
world. The firm's gifts at holiday times, both alone and when Hill had been traveling on a botanical expe-
covered with chocolate. They are prized as dition with Baron Ferdinand von Mueller,
plantation was founded in souvenirs from Hawaii, and, thanks to Mrs. who is considered the father of Australian
Fields' cookies, macadamia and chocolate botany and who held the post of Royal
1948, the trees began to chip cookies have brightened many after- Botanist in Melbourne at the time. He is
bear fruit in 1954, and noons at the local mall. credited with naming the tree after Scots-
man John Macadam, a friend, physician,
the first commercial crop Macadamia nuts are associated in the minds and member of the Philosophical Institute of
of most Americans with Hawaii. Victoria. Mr. Macadam never tasted the nut
was harvested and Macadamias are a commercial crop in that bears his name after a shipboard injury
processed in 1956. Over Hawaii, but they originated in northeastern caused his premature death en route to New
Australia in the rain forests along the coast. Zealand.
10,000 acres of rich, The tree is from the family Protaceae and is
one of about 10 species of which two grow Of course, the trees had long been known to
volcanic soil host Mauna best as commercially productive plants. The the native Australian aborigines who called
Loa's orchards. Macadamia integrefolia produces nuts with the macadamia trees kindal kindal and who
smooth shells, and the Macadamia tetra- feasted on the nuts in winter. The colonists
phylla has rough-shelled nuts. took the tree to their hearts and began to
learn to propagate it. The first known
Macadamia trees produce throughout their macadamia orchard consisted of 250 trees
lives but they are slow growing. The de- planted in 1890 on the Frederickson Estate
mand for the rich nuts has outstripped grow- in New South Wales, Australia. The tree
ers' ability to produce them. Consequently, was heavily cultivated and hybrids were
growers in many other countries including grown from seeds and, more often, by graft-
New Zealand, Zimbabwe, Malawi, South ing. Australia remains one of the world's
Africa, Kenya, Israel, Guatemala, Brazil, major producers.
Mexico, and Costa Rica have begun planti-
ng large orchards. In the United States, Cali- The macadamia migrated to Hawaii cour-
fornia and Florida boast macadamia crops, tesy of William Herbert Purvis who gath-
along with Hawaii. ered macadamia nuts near Mount Bauple in
Queensland, Australia, and brought them to
Hawaii's Big Island in 1882. He nurtured
History the imported nuts and planted them as
The macadamia nut was discovered by seedlings in Kukuihaele, Hawaii. One of
British colonists in Queensland, Australia, Purvis's original seedlings is also still grow-
in 1857. Walter Hill, who was the Director ing and producing nuts.
3 12
Macadamia Nut
Today, Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corpo- 300-600 flowers appear in sprays. Each
ration is the largest manufacturer of flower spray produces up to 20 nuts, which
macadamia nuts in the world. The firm's have green, fibrous husks and hard, outer
plantation was founded in 1948, the trees shells called pericarps. The pericarps split as
began to bear fruit in 1954, and the first the nuts ripen on the trees. Each nut (includ-
commercial crop was harvested and ing the kernel in its shell) is approximately 1
processed in 1956. Over 10,000 acres of in (2.5 cm) in diameter.
rich, volcanic soil host Mauna Loa's or-
chards. The single largest planting is not in 2)The flowering of the trees occurs over a
Hawaii but on 3,700 acres in South Africa. four to six month period. Consequently,
The hybrid grown in New Zealand produces the nuts mature at different times over the
the most expensive macadamia nuts in the course of the year. They are also biennial, so
world; the Beaumont sp. does not drop its alternate years produce light then heavy
macadamias, so they are expensive to har- crops from a single tree. The trees require
vest and are also among the finest in flavor. pollination during flowering, so beehives are
usually imported into the orchards. Weeds
grow heavily among the trees, and insects
Rcaw Materials proliferate in the tropical climate; mowing
The raw materials needed for commercial and bug control are required. The trees are
production of macadamia nuts are the nuts also fertilized with husks from their own
themselves, as well as salt and oil. nuts, chicken waste, and carefully selected
and controlled chemicals. When the nuts are
Design ready to be picked, the trees are pruned first
so the nut clusters are easier to reach.
Macadamia nuts are sold in jars and cans for
home consumption. These nuts have been 3 Ripened and unripened nuts look identi-
roasted in oil in the factory and salted. Un- cal, so producers either wait until the
salted nuts are also packed for commercial nuts fall to the ground or they harvest infre-
use, primarily by bakeries. The flavor of the quently, approximately five or six times a
nuts is well suited for use in many kinds of year. The nuts are harvested through a com-
desserts. Design can become elaborate if the plicated process that includes gathering by
nuts are used in candies, cookies, and other hand, shaking the trees and picking the fall-
products. A wide variety of desserts, sou- en nuts, or picking them with a mechanical
venirs of the islands, and other treats con- picker. Blowers are sometimes used to blow
taining macadamias are available on the the nuts and fallen leaves into windrows so
market; some are byproducts of the they can be collected by machine.
macadamia nut processors, but, more often,
other firms use the nuts as ingredients in In the factory
their own product lines.
4 The harvested macadamias are fed into
The Manufacturing
1+large hoppers and then into a dehusker
made of double rollers that strip the husk
Process away. The husked nut has a moisture con-
Cultivation tent of about 25%, and it has to be dried and
cured to reduce its moisture content to about
Macadamia trees require rich soil, about 1.5%. Drying is done in a greenhouse, and
50 in (130 cm) of rain per year, and tem- curing is accomplished by heating the nuts
peratures that are not only frost-free but that to 104-1220 F (40-50° C). Some processors
vary within a limited range. The soil must store the nuts in netted bags or onion bags
also drain well, so not all tropical zones are during drying so the heated air can move
suited to macadamias as a crop. The trees freely through the nuts.
are evergreen and everbearing; they have
leathery leaves much like holly that are The lower moisture helps later in processing
shiny and 7-12 in (20-30 cm) long. The trees in separating the kernel from the shell.
themselves grow to as much as 60 ft (18.3 Macadamia nuts have the hardest shells to
m) high. They produce clusters of flowers crack (although they are followed closely by
that are white or pink and fragrant; about the Brazil nut). The process of cracking the
3 13
U.
Macadamia nut Dehusking Drying
Macadamia nuts are harvested by

hand, shaking the trees and pick- nuts also makes them rare and expensive. as important. The cracking and sorting ma-
ing the fallen nuts, or picking them The hulls are too hard and smooth to be chinery is cleaned and disinfected at the end
with a mechanical picker. The cracked by standard nutcrackers, rocks, or of each day of operation.
harvested nuts are fed into large hammers. (In Hawaii, those who can collect
hoppers and then into a dehusker the nuts from trees in their own neighbor- 7 Processing of the kernels includes grad-
made of double rollers that strip hoods often resort to driving cars over them.) ing and sorting of whole kernels as well
the outer husk away. The husked In the factory, harvesting is complicated by as chips and halves. The kernels and pieces
nut has a moisture content of
about 25%, and it has to be dried the ever-bearing nature of the trees. Their are sold in raw forn, roasted and salted, or
and cured to reduce its moisture nuts mature throughout the year (i.e., not coated in a variety of products. Conveyors
content to about 1.5%. Drying is seasonally), so the process of gathering and carry the kernels to different stations. Raw
done in a greenhouse, and curing hulling the nuts is continuous and expensive. kernels are packed directly in cans or boxes.
is accomplished by heating the Kernels to be roasted are separated into
nuts to 104-122° F (40-50° C). 5 To shell the nuts, they are passed small batches of about 1 lb (2 kg) of nuts,
Some processors store the nuts in through steel rollers that counter-rotate coated in coconut oil, and cooked for about
netted bogs or onion bogs during (rotate in opposing directions) and are care- three minutes. Salt is mechanically sprin-
drying so the heated air can move fully spaced and engineered to conform to kled on the nuts, and the excess salt and oil
freely through the nuts. the size of the macadamias. These rollers are blotted off so the nuts will remain crisp
exert a pressure of 300 lb per sq in (21 kg and flavorful in their packages. Some
per sq cm) on the shells and cause them to processors use a dry roasting process rather
crack without damaging the kernels inside. than introducing additional oil.
An alternative process uses a cracking ma-
chine equipped with rotating knives that pin Macadamia nuts that are to be made into
the nuts against a wedge shape and crack Ocandy are sometimes processed on site
them. The kernels are passed through a se- by the manufacturer or done off site by con-
ries of blowers and trommels or gravity sep- tractors. Chocolate coatings of milk and
arators with holes that remove dust, dirt, any dark chocolate, various forms of brittle, and
remaining bits of husk, or nuts that are sub- honey sesame coatings are among the most
standard. Uncracked nuts are collected after popular.
they pass through the trommel and are recy-
cled through the crackers. The air blowers
separate the kernels from pieces of shell. Quolity Control
6 Optical devices inspect the nuts and sort The cultivation and processing of
them by color. Quality control inspec- macadamia nuts are persnickety by defini-
tors also observe the passing flow of kernels tion. Their unusual growing characteristics
and sort them by hand. Light-colored nuts and their devilishly hard shells need careful
are classified as Grade I or fancy nuts, and attention. Quality control is essential in the
the darker-colored nuts or those that are not orchard to produce nut clusters and collect
within a standard size range are sorted as them in a timely manner (and as cost effec-
Grade II. Grade I nuts are used for retail tive as possible). During processing, ma-
sales, while the Grade II nut is processed for chines are essential to remove both the
commercial use where size and color aren't husks and the hard shells, but observation is
3 1 4
Macadamia Nut
The nuts pass through steel rollers

provided throughout by quality inspectors Where to Learn More that counter-rotate and exert a
and by computer-controlled optical devices. pressure of 300 lb per sq in (21
Books kg per sq cm) on the shells, caus-
ing them to crack without damag-
Byproducts/Waste Thomson, Paul H. "Macadamia." In Nut ing the kernels inside. The kernels
Tree Culture in North America. Richard A passed through a series of blow-
Kernels are also ground and processed to Jaynes, ed. Hamden, Connecticut: The ers and trommels or gravity sepa-
produce macadamia nut oil as a byproduct. Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc. rators with holes that remove dust,
Bad kernels are not wasted and are often 1979, pp. 188-202. dirt, any remaining bits of husk,
used as animal feed. The shells and other or nuts that are substandard. Un-
waste comprise almost 70% by weight of cracked nuts are collected and re-
the macadamia nuts, and they also are col- Periodicals cycled through the crackers. Opti-
lected for other uses. The countries and re- Sokolov, Raymond "Tough Nuts: Despite cal devices inspect the nuts and
gions that produce macadamias also usually sort them by color. Quality control
Some Superficial Similarities, Brazil Nuts inspectors also observe the pass-
grow coffee, and shells can be burned as a And Macadamia Nuts Present A Study In
wood substitute in coffee roasting. The ing flow of kernels and sort them
Contrasts." Natural History (March 1985): by hand.
husks are ground to produce organic waste 78.
for gardening, for mulch in the nut tree or-
chards, and for chicken litter that, after use,
returns to the orchard for use as fertilizer. Other
California Macadamia Nut Society. http://
users.aol.com/TecterJS/themac.html/.
The Future
Macadamia nuts are an excellent source of Hamakua Macadamia Nut Company. http://
iron, calcium, vitamin B, and phosphorus. 206.127.252.21/hawnnut/.
Although they contain 73-80% fat, the fat is
monosaturated or "good" and as acceptable Macadamia Miravalles S.A., Costa Rica.
as olive oil in many diets. Although http://macadamia.co.cr/.
macadamias have many healthful properties,
their unusually rich flavor, crunch, and co- MacNut Farms & Caf6. http://macnut.co.nz/.
mingling with chocolate in a bounty of
forms make them favorites among gourmets Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation.
and snackers alike. Good taste is always in http://www.maunaloa.com/.
style, so the future of the macadamia nut is
promising indeed. -Gillian S. Holmes
315
Molasses
With 425,000 acres Molasses, from the Latin word melaceres, cess to sugar imports from the West In-
meaning honey-like, is a thick dark syrup dies. Napoleon then issued land grants
devoted to sugar cane, that is a byproduct of sugar refining. It re- and large sums of money to encourage the
the Florida Everglades is sults when sugar is crystallized out of sugar establishment of a beet sugar industry.
cane or sugar beet juice. Molasses is sold One man who took Napoleon up on his
a major producer that both for human consumption, to be used in offer was a French banker named Ben-
baking, and in the brewing of ale and distil- jamin Delessert. Delessert set up several
annually yields 90 million lation of rum, and as an ingredient in ani- beet sugar factories at Passy and within
mal feed. two years produced four million kilos of
gallons of black strap sugar. For his efforts, Napoleon awarded
molasses. Delessert with the medal of the Legion of
History Honor. By the end of 1813, 334 French
The pressing of cane to produce cane juice sugar beet plantations were producing
and then boiling the juice until it crystallized 35,000 tons of sugar.
was developed in India as early as 500 B.C.
However, it was slow to move to the rest of In contrast, the beet sugar industry struggled
the world. In the Middle Ages, Arab in- in the United States until the end of the
vaders brought the process to Spain. A cen- nineteenth century when a California facto-
tury or so later, Christopher Columbus ry finally turned a profit. At the turn of the
brought sugar cane to the West Indies. An- century, the country had 30 beet sugar pro-
other two hundred years later, cuttings were cessing plants.
planted in New Orleans.
Molasses figured prominently in two pecu-
Molasses figured prominently in the infa- liar events in United States history. The first
mous slave trade triangles of the late seven- was the Molasses Act of 1733, which im-
teenth century. English rum was sold to posed duties on all sugar and molasses
African slave traders who brought slaves to brought into North American colonies from
the West Indies and then brought West Indi- non-British possessions. The second was the
an molasses back to England. Great Boston Molasses Flood of January
1919 when a molasses storage tank owned
Using sugar beets to produce sugar was not by the Purity Distilling Company burst,
developed until the mid-1700s when a Ger- sending a two-story-high wave of molasses
man chemist Andreas Marggraf discovered through the streets of the North End of
the presence of sugar in the vegetable. By Boston.
1793, another German chemist, Franz Karl
Achard, perfected the process for extracting Before the advent of harvesting machinery,
the sugar from the beets. laborers performed the back-breaking work
of cutting and stripping the sugarcane by
The first beet sugar factory opened in hand. Mule-driven mills pressed the sugar
Prussian province of Silesia in 1802. Dur- cane to release the syrup, which was then
ing the Napoleonic Wars, the British cooked in large kettles over a fire until
blockaded France, cutting off French ac- thickened. Workers, usually the farmer's
31 6
Molasses
3 77
Molasses is a byproduct of sugar

cane or sugar beet processing. In wife and children, poured the syrup into Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris) can tolerate
the later, beet roots are loaded cans and covered them. The cans were more temperate or colder climates than
into a flume, where they are sepa- loaded onto a platform and cooled by an sugar cane. Therefore, the choices of
rated from debris. Once washed, overhead fan. growing areas is greater. At the end of the
they are sliced and loaded into twentieth century, the leading sugar beet
cylindrical diffusers that wash the producers were Russia, France, the United
beet juice out with the aid of hot States, and West Germany. The sugar is
water. The extracted juice is clari- Rav Materials contained in the vegetable's root, approxi-
fied by adding milk of lime and
carbon dioxide, then it is heated Sugar cane or sugar beets are the primary in- mately 15 teaspoons per beet root. At har-
and mixed with lime. The juice is gredient for the sugar process of which mo- vest, the tops are removed and used for
filtered, producing a mud-like lasses is a byproduct. Sugar cane (Saccha- cattle feed.
substance called carb juice. Next, rum officenarum) is a tall thick perennial
the carb juice is heated and clari- that thrives in tropical and subtropical re-
fied, causing the mud to setde and Milk of lime is used in the clarification
gions. It can grow to heights range from 10- process. Essentially burnt lime, it is pro-
the clear juice to rise. Once again 26 ft (3.05-7.9 m), and measuring 1-2 in
the mud is filtered out, leaving a duced in the factory by heating lime rock in
(2.54-5.08 cm) in diameter. Colors range a kiln. The lime rock is then mixed with
pale yellow liquid called thin from white to yellow to green to purple. The
juice. The juice is pumped into an sweet water-a byproduct of a previous
evaporator which extracts the Everglades of south Florida are a major pro- clarification process.
water until a syrup remains . The ducer of sugar cane with 425,000 acres
syrup is concentrated through sev- grown annually that yields 90 million gal-
eral stages of vacuum boiling. lons of black strap molasses. At harvest Carbon dioxide is released in the lime milk
time, the stalks are stripped of their leaves process. It is purified in tanks and also used
and trimmed. in to clarify the sugar juice.
31 8
Molasses
The Manufacturing is pumped through a heater and then to a
Process clarifying machine. Here the mud settles to
the bottom and the clear juice is piped to
Whether the base is sugar cane or beets, the yet another heater and treated again with
sugar extraction and refining process of
carbon dioxide. Once again the mud is fil-
which molasses is a byproduct is a circular tered out, leaving a pale yellow liquid
path of washing and heating the cane and called thin juice.
beets with hot water.
Washing and cuffing Evaporating and concentrating the

syrup
The sugar cane stalks are loaded onto
conveyer belts and subjected to hot water 4 The juice is pumped into an evaporator
sprays to remove dirt and other field debris.
< that boils the juice until the water dissi-
Then, they are passed under rotating knife pates and the syrup remains . The syrup is
blades that cut the stalk into short pieces or concentrated through several stages of vac-
shreds. uum boiling, a low temperature boil to
avoid scorching the syrup. Eventually, the
Beet roots are loaded into a tunnel-like ma- sugar crystallizes out of the syrup, creating
chine called a flume, in which leaves, a substance called massecuite. The masse-
weeds, and rocks are separated out. A cuite is poured into a centrifuge to further
pump pushes the beets into a washer fitted separate the raw sugar crystals from the
with a large shaft that moves the beets syrup. In the centrifuge, the sugar crystals
through the water to remove any remaining fall away from the syrup that is being spun
dirt. The beets move through a slicer that at a significant force. This remaining syrup
cuts the beet roots into thin strips called is molasses, and it is forced out through
cossettes. holes in the centrifuge.
Extracting the sugar juice Storage and boffling

2 In the sugar cane processing plant, ex- 5 The molasses is piped to large storage
traction can be accomplished in one of 5tanks. It is then pumped, as needed, to
two ways: diffusion or milling. By the the bottling machine where pre-measured
diffusion method, the cut stalks are dis- amounts of molasses are poured into bottles
solved in hot water or lime juice. In the moving along a conveyer belt.
milling process, the stalks are passed
under several successive heavy rollers,
which squeeze the juice out of the cane Byproducts/Waste
pulps. Water is sprayed throughout the
process to facilitate the dissolving of the In addition to molasses, which is itself a by-
juice. product of the processing of sugar cane,
there are several others materials that are
In the beet factory, the sliced beet
sugar used for other purposes. After pressing the
loaded into cylindri-
roots, or cossettes, are juice out of the cane stalks, the dry stalk
cal diffusers that wash the beet juice out residue, called bagasse, are used as fuel in
with the aid of hot water. The discarded the plant. Beet pulp is used in the processing
beet juice is used to pre-scald cossettes in of pet foods. Cane wax, which is extracted
the mixer so that they absorb even more of from the dry residue, is used in the manufac-
the sugar. ture of cosmetics, polish, and paper coatings.
Clarifying the juice Where to Learn More

3 The extracted juice is clarified by
adding milk of lime and carbon dioxide. Periodicals
The juice is piped into a decanter, heated
and mixed with lime. The juice passes "Sugarcane and the Everglades." Journal of
through carbon filters, producing a mud- the American Society of Sugar Cane Tech-
like substance. Called carb juice, this mud nologists (1997): 9-12.
319
Other
Florida Crystals. http://www.floridacrystals.
corn/.
Monitor Sugar Company. http://www.mon
itorsugar.com/htmtext.
Steen's. http://www.steensyrup.com.
-Mary McNulty
320
Mousetrap
Scientists describe the mousetrap as a de- chines. It works-sometimes. However, it Since 1838 when the
vice that is "irreducibly complex." The has enough flaws in design, operation, the
mousetrap cannot be made more simply and process of baiting the trap, the resulting U.S. Patent Office was
still function, and, at the same time, it is so killing, and the calculated ability of the opened, 4,400 patents
simple and does its job so well that it gives mouse to outsmart it that the objective of
the illusion of being a profound achieve- "building a better mousetrap" has become have been granted for
ment. "To build a better mousetrap" means the inventor's watchword. Our culture has
to achieve an ideal, to reach a pinnacle of also evolved in its level of humanitarian con- mousetraps, although less
achievement, or to create the best possible cern and the desire to live trap even the most than 25 such inventions
device in an imperfect world. pesky animals so they can be released in the
wild. The second major class of mousetraps have made their creators
that has been invented is the cage trap.
Bcickground any profits.
Traps as simple as pits dug in the ground History
have been used since humans began to hunt
for food or to kill predators and vermin. The In 1895, John Mast of Lancaster, Pennsylva-
needs to catch prey and to protect the earli- nia, invented the snap-trap. Many other in-
est settlements first motivated our ancestors ventors had produced devices for killing
to devise means of catching small and large mice before that date, but Mast's design was
animals for food and clothing. As early man brilliant in its simplicity-and it had the ad-
learned to grow a wider variety of food and vantage of not catching in ladies' long skirts
domesticate animals, trapping changed. An- of the day. Mast's simple trap enticed the
imals that raided farmyards, fields, and mouse with a bit of bait held in a bait pedal
grain supplies had to be stopped, and the and dispatched it with a striker that struck
trapping of wild animals as a part of hunting within three milliseconds of the mouse's
became a sport, rather than a necessity. fatal nibble.
More recently, animals have been trapped in Mast made a small fortune from his inven-
the wild for medical research, although the tion and sold his company in 1907 to Oneida
most commonly used research animals-the Community Ltd. Known for its production
laboratory mouse and rat-have been bred of silverware, Oneida was also a manufac-
for this use. And city dwelling, heated hous- turer of steel traps that used its profits to sup-
es, and stored food supplies have invited the plement local fanners in what is now called
"country cousins" of these laboratory ani- Oneida, New York. Woodstream Corp. in
mals to share our homes. When they feed, Lititz, Pennsylvania, purchased the mouse-
live, and breed where they are not wanted, trap business from Oneida, and, today,
traps, poisons, and the family cat have been Woodstream manufactures up to 10 million
used to keep their numbers down or elimi- mousetraps per year that are close cousins to
nate them entirely. Mast's original invention. Part of the beauty
of the snap trap is its low price. In 1900, it
The traditional snap mousetrap is a primitive retailed for five cents and, in 1962, it was
device made of a combination of simple ma- still available for seven cents.
32 1
Many have followed in Mast's footsteps and handles and with sliding release doors so the
have attempted to improve on his idea. captured rodent can be released in the wild.
Since 1838 when the U.S. Patent Office was The design lies in understanding the habits
opened, 4,400 patents have been granted for of the animal being trapped. A large but
mousetraps, although less than 25 such in- slow animal requires a cage made out of
ventions have made their creators any prof- stronger materials, but the door mechanism
its. The Patent Office has 39 official sub- can close securely but simply. For the wily
classes for mousetraps that read like an house mouse, an inexpensive, portable,
index of the Chamber of Horrors and in- lightweight trap with swift-action doors is
clude choking, squeezing, impaling, non-re- needed to capture it before it escapes. Ease
tum entrance, swinging killer bar, explosive, of baiting the trap, its reusability (called re-
and constricting noose devices. Electric peatability), the number of animals it can
mousetraps that dispatch victims with a capture and hold, types of construction ma-
shock, and various shapes and sizes of plas- terials, and other factors are design consid-
tic and metal traps that conceal the mouse erations.
remains have been created but have not
achieved commercial success. The cage also contains a trip pan where the
bait is placed. The trigger rod is attached to
In 1924, a janitor in an Iowa school wit- the trip pan so, when the bait is taken, the
nessed an infestation of mice in the school. exit slams shut. The tension required to acti-
He turned his attentions in the evenings to vate the trip pan and its trigger rod are set in
building a better mousetrap in his garage. the factory and are designed for the weight
The resulting invention, called the "Catch- of the animal. Cage traps for mice are made
All Multiple Catch Mousetrap" would trap a of steel to limit opportunities for the animals
mouse without killing it, allow its release, to try to chew through wire.
and could be reset for the next capture. A. E.
"Brick" Kness went on to found Kness
Manufacturing in Albia, Iowa. Today, The Sncap Trap
Kness Manufacturing builds a standard The base of the snap trap is made of wood
snap-trap that has a plastic base instead of a or plastic, depending on the manufacturer.
wood one and the metal and plastic "Catch- Pine is used because it is solid and relatively
All." The company is one of approximately inexpensive. Plastic can also be injection-
three in the world in this industry and mar- molded with sites to hold the metal parts on
kets to 14 countries. the base, termed the mouseboard. The bait
pedal is a small piece of die-cut metal with
Rawv Materials bait mount and a nub on it that allows it to
pivot very slightly within the confines of its
The raw materials for the snap trap include staples. The pivoting action releases the
pine for the base, a metal killer bar or striker trigger rod and striker no matter how slight-
that is driven by a 15-gauge coil spring, a ly the mouse moves the bait.
thin metal rod called a trigger rod, and a bait
pedal that is another small square of metal. Some manufacturers use hand labor to as-
Staples hold all the pieces together. semble snap traps, however at least one
maker has a fully automated process. In the
For the cage trap, sheet steel is used to form automated process, copper-coated strands of
the basic box, and plastic is used to form the steel are extruded and shaped into the trig-
internal workings. Both materials are sup- ger rod and striker. All metal parts are at-
plied by outside producers and formed in the tached to the mouseboard with metal staples
mousetrap factory. that extend through the mouseboard and
crimped into the board so the pieces do not
easily pull apart.
Design
The design of the cage trap is also relatively
simple. The cage typically has six sides, and The Manufacturing
one of these is the rodent's entrance-but
Process
not an exit. Some cages have two in- The manufacturing process of the catch-all
escapable entrances. Most are equipped with metal trap is described below.
322
Mousetrap
A traditional mousetrap and two

Sheets of galvanized steel are delivered Quality Control types of cage traps.
I to the factory for die cutting. The steel is Quality control for the cage traps is inten-
termed "G90 Lock-Forming Quality" steel
that is chosen for its strength characteristics sive. Because the traps can be used many
and durability. The sheets of steel are pre- times, they must be constructed to last for a
cut into six different widths. Outside suppli- long time and to maintain their appearance.
ers also deliver pellets of high-impact poly- Each piece part is checked by hand before
styrene for use in making the internal parts assembly, examined for cosmetics, and
of the cage. measured for exact dimensions. The line op-
erators are responsible for rejecting pieces
or partially assembled cages if they do not
2 The body, ends, lid, and paddle are all snap together properly.
2made of galvanized steel. The various
widths of steel are run through dies specific
to each width and trap part. These dies fur- Byproducts/Waste
ther cut, punch, notch, and form the pieces There are no byproducts from manufacture
of the cage. The dies exert pressures ranging of either type of trap, but most makers pro-
from 5-40 tons (4.5-36 metric tons), depend- duce other varieties of traps for larger ani-
ing on their purposes. All of the metal piece mals. Wood waste is disposed. Both metal
parts go through the die machine. and plastic waste are segregated and re-
turned to their suppliers where they are
3 Meanwhile, the plastic pellets are melted remelted and recycled.
in an injection molding machine that
forms the pieces of the trip assembly. All of
the metal and plastic pieces are transported The Future
by conveyor belt to the assembly line. The future of the two most successful forms
of the mousetrap-the snap trap and the
4 The parts of the cage trap are assembled cage trap-will be secure as long as mice
A4 by hand. Operators at eight different sta- are with us. Both the snap and cage traps
tions snap the pieces of the body together have seen minor evolutionary changes, but,
first. The trip assembly is also snapped to- essentially, they are near-perfect inventions.
gether and inserted in the body. The trip as- Agriculture is becoming more limited in
sembly operates because of a wind-up area but generating higher density produc-
mechanism that also allows it to be rewound tion, so protection of harvested and stored
(that is, the tension is reset) and reused. At crops from vermin is essential. In urban set-
the last sequence of assembly, the trip is tings, more crowded living conditions result
wound up and tested. One hundred percent in increases in rodent populations, making
of the cage traps are tested before they are traps a necessity. People are also more inter-
placed back on the conveyor and transported ested in saving the lives of the creatures they
to packing and shipping. The cage traps are capture, so humane traps are increasingly
wrapped singly and then packed in quanti- popular in the United States and other coun-
ties for shipment and sale. tries, thus broadening the marketplace for
323
American manufacturers. Competition in Other

building the better mousetrap is limited ex-
cept, perhaps, for that best mousetrap of Kness Manufacturing Co., Inc. http://www.
all-the cat. kness.com/.
"A Mousetrap Is Irreducibly Complex."
Where to Learn More http://www.ou.edu/engineering/cems/OKC
hE/jhh/Evol/sldO38.htm.
Books
Meyer, Steve. Being Kind to Animal Pests: Seabright Laboratories. http://www.sea
A no-nonsense guide to humane animal
brightlabs.com/mouse.html.
control with cage traps, 1991. McGuire, Odell. "The Slidewhistle Mouse-
trap." December 21, 1995. http://www.wlu.
Periodicals edu/-omcguire/mousex.html.
Fenn, Donna. "A better mousetrap." Inc. -Gillian S. Holmes
(March 1985): 69.
Hope, Jack. "A better mousetrap." Ameri-
can Heritage (October 1996): 90.
324
Mustard
A piquant condiment made from the seeds of Mustard popularity increased in the eigh- Eighty-five percent of the
the mustard plant. When the seeds are teenth century, thanks to two innovators. An
crushed, two elements, myronate and Englishwoman named Clements developed world's mustard seeds are
myrasin, are released, creating a fiery tasting a recipe that combined mustard powder with grown in Canada,
essence. It is either left in a powdered form water. She traveled the countryside selling
to which the consumer adds water; or it is her product, keeping its ingredients a secret. Montana, and North
mixed with water, wine, vinegar, or a combi- King George I is said to have been a fre-
nation of these ingredients, in a food pro- quent customer. In Dijon, France, a mustard Dakota.
cessing plant. manufacturer named Niageon created a
recipe for a strong mustard that combined
black and brown seeds with verjuice.
Background
In 1777, one of the most famous names in
Mustard seeds have been used for culinary mustard was created when Maurice Grey,
purposes since prehistoric times. You will who had invented a machine to crush, grind
find mention of them in the Bible. The and sieve seeds, joined forces with Auguste
plants were cultivated in Palestine and then Poupon. The resulting Grey-Poupon Dijon
made their way to Egypt where they have mustard is made from brown or black mus-
been found in the pyramids. tard seeds that have been mixed with white
The seeds were chewed during meals, quite wine.
possibly to disguise the rank flavor of In 1804, a British flour miller named Jere-
spoiled meat. The Romans were known to miah Colman expanded his business to in-
crush the seeds and mix them with verjuice clude the milling of mustard seeds. His
(unripened grape juice). Greek and Roman process for producing his dry mustard is vir-
cooks used the seeds in a flour form, or tually unchanged since that time, with the
mixed into a fish brine to flavor both fish only alteration being the use of brown seeds
and meat. instead of black ones. Brown and white
seeds are ground separately and then sifted
By the fourth century, mustard was being through silk to filter out the seed hulls and
used in Gaul and Burgundy. Pope John bran. The two mustards are then blended
XXII was so enamored of its flavor that he and poured into tins.
created a new office, grand moutardier du
pape (great mustardmaker to the pope), and By the tum of the century, an American
installed his nephew as the first moutardier. named Francis French was also finding suc-
cess making mustard. French's version was
In 1390, the French govemment issued reg- milder, made solely with white seeds, col-
ulations for the manufacture of mustard, de- ored bright yellow with tumeric and made
creeing that it contain nothing more than tart with vinegar.
"good seed and suitable vinegar." Two hun-
dred years later, corporations of vinegar and The process by which mustard is made has
mustard manufacturers were founded at Or- not changed substantially over the years.
leans and Dijon. The seeds are cleaned, crushed, sieved, and
325
sifted. A variety of liquids such as wine and The Manufacturing

vinegar are added to make prepared mus- Process
tards. Just like Mrs. Clements of Great
Britain, however, manufacturers are still se- Seeds are examined, cleaned,
cretive about the precise measurements of dried, and stored
each ingredient.
When the seeds arrive from the harvester,
they are visually examined for quality.
Today, most of the work is done by sophis-
ticated machinery. In the earliest times, the They are then loaded onto conveyer belts
seeds were crushed and grinded by hand. and passed under water sprayers to remove
dirt and other debris. After the seeds dry,
Then, steam-powered stampers were used.
Now, the seeds are loaded into roller mills they are stored in silos until ready to use.
that can flatten and hull them simultane-
ously. Seeds are soaked
Some companies soak the mustard seeds
2in wine and vinegar for lengths of time
Raw Materials ranging from a few hours to several days.
Brown (Brassica juncea) and white (Sinapis This softens the seeds, making the hulls eas-
alba) mustard seeds are used to make mus- ier to remove.
tard. They are sown in March and April, the
plants usually flower in June, harvesting Seeds are crushed and ground
takes place in September. It is important to The seeds are loaded into roller mills,
harvest before the pods are fully ripe be- vwhere large wheels crush and grind them
cause they will split and spill the seeds out. into a flour. Some companies subject the
An 8 oz (226.8 g) jar of mustard requires ap- seeds to numerous rounds of crushing and
proximately 1,000 seeds. grinding in order to obtain a desired degree
of fineness.
Before the invention of modem farming
procedures, much of the work was done by Hulls and bran are sifted out
hand. Quality was difficult to assure. Today,
plant breeding allows the farmer to produce The crushed seeds are passed through
a consistently high quality seed. Combines sieves, so that the hulls and bran fall to a
have eliminated the back-breaking work of tray underneath. Heartier varieties of mus-
hand-cutting the plants with sickles. tard may include the hulls.
Eighty-five percent of the world's mustard Liquids added to the seed flour
seeds are grown in Canada, Montana, and
North Dakota. Most mustard producers pur- 5 The seed flour is loaded into large mix-
chase seeds from a cooperative. The seeds ing vats and specific proportions of white
are stored by the tens of thousands in silos wine, vinegar and/or water are added. The
until they are ready to be used. Samples are mixture is blended until a paste is created.
taken from each shipment and tested for
quality. Seasonings and/or flavorings are
added
Vinegar, water and/or white wine are pur- Pre-measured amounts of seasoning
chased from an outside supplier and added 6and/or flavorings are added to the paste
to the milled mustard seed to make a paste. and blended thoroughly.
A variety of spices including tumeric, garlic,
paprika, and salt are added to the mustard Mustard paste is heated and
paste for flavoring and color. These are pur-
chased from outside supplier. Other ingredi- cooled
ents may be added to the mustard paste to 7 The mustard mixture is then heated to a
create flavored varieties. These ingredients 7pre-determined temperature and allowed
are purchased from an outside supplier and to simmer for a pre-determined time. It is
range from lemon to honey to horseradish. then cooled to room temperature. Some va-
326
Mustard
Mustard is made from brown
(Brassica juncea) and white
(Sinopis alba) mustard seeds. They
are sown in March and April, the
plants usually Rower in June, har-
vesting takes place in September.
The manufacturing process has
changed little. The seeds are
cleaned, crushed, sieved, and sift-
ed. A variety of liquids such as
wine and vinegar are added to
Harvesting Storage silos make prepared mustards, howev-
er, the quantity and variation of
I&
added ingredients are generally
or considered proprietary secrets.
Modern roller mills
rieties of mustard are aged in large contain- liness in the plant. These regulations include
ers before they are bottled. all utensils and machinery, floors, and work-
ers' garments
The mustard is bottled and packed
for shipment
Pre-measured amounts of mustard are
The Future
°poured into glass jars or plastic bottles In the United States, mustard is used more
that are moving along a conveyer belt. Lids than any other spice except pepper. Mustard
are vacuum-sealed onto the tops of the con- is also popular in Europe and Asia. By the
tainers. The containers are then loaded into late twentieth century, mustard cookery be-
cartons for shipment. came a favorite of both professional and am-
ateur chefs. Recipes were developed to use
mustard as a marinade for meats and fish.
Quality Control Mustard sauces were developed for a wide
All manufacturers check the mustard at each variety of dishes. The number and types of
point in the process. Government food pro- flavors seem to be restricted only by the
cessing regulations set parameters for clean- imagination.
327

Mount Horeb Mustard Museum. 109 E.
Books Main Street, Mount Horeb, WI 53572.
Jordan, Michele Anna. The Good Cook's (608) 437-3986. http://www.mustardweb.
Book of Mustard. Reading, Massachusetts: com/index.html/ (June 29, 1999).
Addison-Wesley, 1994.
Nabisco. http://www.nabisco.com/museum/
Lang, Jenifer Harvey, ed. Larousse Gas- gpoupon.html/ (June 29, 1999).
tronomique. New York: Crown Publishers, Unofficial Colman's mustard site. http://il-
1988, reprinted 1998. hawai i. net/-danrubio/mustard/history/
(June 29, 1999).
Roberts-Dominguez, Jan. The Mustard
Book. New York: Macmillan, 1993. -Mary McNulty
328
Nuclear Submarine
Background The submarine was first used in warfare The first use of a nuclear
during the American Revolution. The
A nuclear submarine is a ship powered by Turtle, designed by Yale student David submarine in active
atomic energy that travels primarily under- Bushnell, attempted to attach an explosive
water, but also on the surface of the ocean. to a British warship, but failed to penetrate
combat took place in
Previously, conventional submarines used
diesel engines that required air for moving
the copper sheathing on the ship's hull. In 1982, when the British
1801, the American inventor Robert Fulton
on the surface of the water, and battery- built the Nautilus, a submarine constructed attack submarine
powered electric motors for moving beneath of copper sheets over iron ribs. The
it. The limited lifetime of electric batteries Nautilus, which could carry a crew of four,
Conqueror sank the
meant that even the most advanced conven-
tional submarine could only remained sub-
succeeded in sinking ships in tests, but was Argentine ship General
rejected by both France and England. Fulton
merged for a few days at slow speed, and was working on a steam-powered submarine Belgrano during the
only a few hours at top speed. On the other that could carry a crew of one hundred when
hand, nuclear submarines can remain under- he died in 1815.
conflict over the Falkland
water for several months. This ability, com-
bined with advanced weapons technology, Islands.
During the American Civil War, Horace L.
makes nuclear submarines one of the most Hunley financed the building of submarines
useful warships ever built. for the Confederacy. The third of these ves-
sels, the H. L. Hunley, attacked and sank the
History Union ship Housatonic on February 17,
1864, but was itself destroyed in the result-
The first serious proposal for a ship de- ing explosion.
signed to travel underwater was made by the
English mathematician William Bourne in During the late nineteenth century, numer-
1578. Bourne suggested using two hulls, ous submarines were built in the United
one of wood and one of leather, but this de- States and Europe. Methods of moving the
vice was never actually built. The first submarine evolved from hand-operated pro-
working submarine was built by the Dutch pellers to steam engines, gasoline engines,
inventor Cornelis Drebbel in 1620. Using a and electric motors. Submarines using diesel
design similar to the one proposed by engines for surface travel and electric batter-
Bourne, this device was propelled beneath ies for underwater travel were used success-
the surface of the Thames River by eight fully in World War I and II.
wooden oars.
The development of nuclear power after
During the early eighteenth century, several World War II revolutionized submarine
small submarines were built using similar technology. Under the direction of Hyman
designs. In 1747, an unknown inventor sug- Rickover, an engineer and officer in the
gested attaching goatskin bags to a subma- U.S. Navy, American inventors Ross Gunn
rine. Filling the bags with water would and Philip Abelson designed the Nautilus,
lower the submarine, and ejecting water the first nuclear submarine that was
from the bags would raise it. The same basic launched in 1954. By 1959, some nuclear
concept is used in modem ballast tanks. submarines, known as strategic submarines,
329
were used to carry missiles with nuclear R a w Materials

warheads. Other nuclear submarines, known
as attack submarines, were designed to sink The main material used in manufacturing
enemy ships and submarines. Strategic sub- a nuclear submarine is steel. Steel is
marines and attack submarines became a used to make the inner hull that contains
vital part of naval forces worldwide. The the crew and all the inner workings of
first use of a nuclear submarine in active the submarine, and the outer hull. Be-
combat took place in 1982, when the British tween the two hulls are the ballast tanks,
attack submarine Conqueror sank me Ar- which take in water to make the subma-
gentine ship General Belgrano during the rine sink and eject water to make the
conflict over the Falkland Islands. submarine rise.
330
Nuclear Submarine
Engine room
Bridge
Combat systems
electronics -
Sonar
Nuclear power plant
Torpedoes
A typical submarine.
In addition to steel, various parts of a nuclear the manufacturing process begins. The nu-
submarine are made from other metals, such clear reactor is supplied by the govern-
as copper, aluminum, and brass. Other mate- ment's Naval Reactor project. The methods
rials used to manufacture the thousands of used to manufacture these nuclear reactors
components which make up a fully equipped are closely guarded and disclosure would be
nuclear submarine include glass and plastic. considered a breech of national security.
Electronic equipment includes semiconduc-
tors such as silicon and germanium. The nu-
clear reactor that powers the submarine de-
Making the hull
pends on uranium or some other radioactive 4 Steel plates, approximately 2-3 in (5.1-
element as a source of energy. 7.6 cm) thick, are obtained from steel
manufacturers. These plates are cut to the
proper size with acetylene torches.
The Manufacturing
Process The cut steel plates are moved between
large metal rollers under tons of pres-
Preparing for manufacture sure. The rollers, each about 28 in (71.1 cm)
l Because nuclear submarines are only in diameter and about 15 ft (4.6 m) long, are
manufactured for military use, the deci- set up so that one roller rests on two others.
sion to build them is made by a national gov- As the steel plate moves under the top roller
ernment. In the United States, the Undersea and over the two bottom rollers it is bent
Warfare Division of the Navy is responsible into a curve. The plate is rolled back and
for requesting that a group of submarines, forth until the desired curvature is obtained.
known as a flight, be manufactured.
6 The curved steel plates are placed around
2)The Navy accepts bids from thousands 6a wooden template that outlines the
2of companies to manufacture the many shape of the hull. They are then welded to-
components which make up a nuclear sub- gether by hand to form a section of the hull.
marine. The hull of the submarine is gener- The section is lifted by a crane and placed
ally made by the Electric Boat Division of next to another section. The two sections are
the General Dynamics Corporation. (The rolled slowly under an automatic welder,
original Electric Boat Company made the which seals them together. The rotating sec-
first submarines used by the United States tions move beneath the welder several times,
Navy in 1900.) resulting in an extremely strong seam.
3 Funding for nuclear submarines is in- 7 The welded sections are strengthened by
3cluded in the defense budget presented welding curved, T-shaped steel ribs
by the President to Congress. If approved, around them. These are made by heating
33 1
4,'
Scaffolding
The manufacture of a submarine is

highly complex and ufilizes both bars of steel until they are soft enough to seams are polished by high-speed grinding
manual and automated processes. bend. Automatic hammers strike the ends of wheels, making them smooth. Not only does
Large sheets of steel are rolled and the bar, producing a curve matching the hull. this improve the surface for painting, but it
welded into the shape of the inner also provides the submarine with a stream-
and outer hulls. Scaffolding is Welding several sections together pro- lined surface that experiences little friction
erected during manufacture so ac- 8duces an inner hull. The same process is
cessibility remains unencumbered. during travel. The hull is then painted with
Every aspect of manufacture is repeated to form an outer hull. The inner layers of protective coatings.
checked by inspection and quality hull is welded to steel ribs that are then
control measures. For example, welded to the outer hull. The steel ribs sepa- Finishing the exterior
welded steel components are in- rate the two hulls, allowing space for the
spected with x rays. Pipes are ballast tanks that control the depth of the External components such as rudders
filled with helium in order to check submarine. The outer hull only extends as I V and propellers are made using various
for leaks. As a result, the Naval far as the bottom and sides of the inner hull, metalworking techniques. One important
Reactors program is considered to allowing the submarine to remain upright. method used for many metal components is
have the best safety record of any sand casting. This process involves making
nuclear power program. Meanwhile, steel plates are welded in a wood or plastic model of the desired part.
9 place inside the inner hull in order to di- The model is then surrounded by tightly
vide the submarine into several watertight packed, hardened sand held in a mold. The
compartments. Steel decks and bulktheads halves of the mold are separated, allowing
are also welded in place. Exterior welding the model to be removed. The shape of the
332
Nuclear Submarine
desired part remains as a cavity in the hard- improvements could be made. Scale draw-
ened sand. Molten metal is poured into the ings of the new design were made, then ex-
cavity and allowed to cool, resulting in the panded into full-size paper patterns that al-
desired part. lowed small details to be studied closely. A
full-sized mockup of the interior was made
l 1 The hull is surrounded by scaffolding, in order to give builders a chance to adjust
allowing workers to reach all parts of the location of components in order to save
it. The external components are welded or space or make them more readily accessible.
otherwise attached. Certain components, Presently, design modeling, modification,
such as sonar equipment, are attached to the and simulation are all enhanced by the use
hull then covered with smooth sheets of of computers.
steel in order to reduce friction during un-
derwater travel. When the steel plates are cut and rolled to
form the hull, they are inspected to ensure
Finishing the interior that all dimensions are accurate to within
one sixteenth of an inch (0.16 cm); smaller
12 Large equipment is placed within the parts may need to be accurate to within one
inner hull as it is being built. Smaller ten-thousandth of an inch (0.00025 cm) or
equipment is brought into the inner hull less. Proper welding of all steel components
after it is completed. The submarine is is inspected with x rays. Pipes are inspected
launched before much of the interior equip- by filling them with helium and checking
ment is installed. After the launching cere- for leaks. Every instrument is tested to en-
mony, the submarine is towed into a fitting- sure it works properly. In particular, the nu-
out dock, where work on the interior clear reactor undergoes stringent tests to en-
continues. Vital components such as sure that it is safe. As a result of these
periscopes, snorkels, engines, and electronic precautions, the Naval Reactors program is
equipment are installed. Equipment for the considered to have the best safety record of
comfort of the crew, such as refrigerators, any nuclear power program.
electric stoves, air conditioners, and wash-
ing machines are also installed at this time. After the submarine is commissioned, it un-
dergoes a shakedown cruise to see how it
1 The nuclear reactor begins operating would operate in wartime conditions. The
l3as the submarine begins its first sea speed and maneuverability of the submarine
trials. The crew is trained during an Atlantic is tested to ensure that it meets the necessary
Ocean cruise. Weapons are launched and requirements.
tested, often in waters off Andros Island in
the Bahamas. The submarine is officially
commissioned in a ceremony which changes Byproducts/Waste
its designation from "Precommissioning The greatest concern dealing with wastes
Unit" (PCU) to "United States Ship" (USS). produced by nuclear submarines involves
The submarine then undergoes a shakedown the radioactive waste produced by nuclear
cruise before entering active service. reactors. Although the waste produced by a
nuclear submarine is much less than that
produced by a larger nuclear power plant,
Quality Control similar problems of disposal exist. The
The vital role it plays in national defense, Naval Reactors program has an excellent
the fact that the lives of its crew depend on record of safely storing radioactive wastes.
its proper functioning, and the dangers in- Some environmentalists, however, have ex-
herent in its nuclear reactor ensure that qual- pressed concern about the possibility of ra-
ity control is more important for a nuclear dioactive material being released if a nu-
submarine than for almost any other manu- clear submarine is sunk by accident or
factured product. Before construction be- during military operations.
gins, the materials which will be used to
build various components are inspected for The Future
any structural flaws. Previously when a new
design for a nuclear submarine was pro- Nuclear submarines are expected to remain
posed, a scale model was built to see if any a vital part of naval defense systems for
333
many years to come. Future designs will Periodicals

feature new ways to improve the speed and
depth capabilities of nuclear submarines. Re- George, Glenn R., and Lisa Megargle
search will also lead to an improved ability George. "The Naval Reactor Program:
to detect enemy ships while remaining unde- From Nautilus to the Millennium." Nuclear
tected. With the demise of the Soviet Union, News (October 1998): 26-33.
leading to reduced defense budgets, the U.S. Newman, Richard J. "Breaking the Sur-
Navy faces the challenge of reducing the face." U. S. News and World Report (April
cost of nuclear submarines while retaining 6, 1998): 28-31.
their effectiveness. With this goal in mind,
the New Attack Submarine program was de- Wilson, Jim. "Run Silent, Run Deep." Pop-
vised in the 1990s, with the goal of replacing ular Mechanics (January 1998): 62-66.
large and expensive Seawolf attack sub-
marines with smaller, less expensive, yet Other
equally effective nuclear submarines.
"Nuclear Submarines of the World." Janu-
ary 24, 1998. http://www.shima.demon.co.
Where to Learn More uk/sublist.htm/.
Books -Rose Secrest
Clancy, Tom. Submarine: A Guided Tour
Inside a Nuclear Warship. Berkley, 1993.
334
Nutcracker
Background wood or metal with a hinge. By placing the The part of the world most
nut between the two pieces and squeezing
A nutcracker is a device used to break open them together, it would have been possible famous for collectible
the shells of hard, dry fruits, known com- to exert control over the pressure applied. In
monly as nuts, produced by certain species nutcrackers is Erzebrige,
this way, the shell could be cracked with
of trees. The edible material within the shell less damage to the kernel. a mountainous region of
is known as the kernel. True nuts, including
familiar foods such as pecans, hazelnuts,
Although the exact details of the evolution Germany near the border
and walnuts, have shells which require nut-
crackers. Other foods loosely called nuts in- of the nutcracker are lost to history, by the of the Czech Republic.
clude many which do not require a nutcrack- middle of the eighteenth century decorative
wooden nutcrackers were carved by hand in
er, such as peanuts, almonds, and cashews, many parts of Germany. These devices, also
and those that do, such as the Brazil nut.
Nutcrackers are also used to break open known as nut-biters, usually resembled a
humorous human figure. The nut was placed
other hard foods, such as lobster. in the figure's mouth. A set of handles were
A wide variety of nutcrackers are used in used to bring the figure's jaws together,
modern kitchens, ranging from simple tools cracking the nut. This type of nutcracker
that resemble pliers to more complex de- was so familiar in Germany in the early
vices that rely on carefully controlled pres- nineteenth century that the German writer E.
sure to crack open shells without damaging T. A. Hoffman made one the hero of his
kernels. Their continued use in an era of fairy tale "Nussknacker und Mauseko6nig"
readily available shelled nuts is explained ("Nutcracker and Mouse King") in 1816.
by the proclivity of gourmet cooks for fresh- The Russian composer Peter Ilich
ly shelled nuts. Also, many people collect Tchaikovsky adapted Hoffman's story into a
decorative nutcrackers, which are designed ballet in 1891, and The Nutcracker has re-
more for appearance than for daily use. mained popular with audiences ever since,
These collectible nutcrackers, often in the leading to an increased interest in collecting
shape of humans or animals, are usually nutcrackers.
carved from wood, although some are made
of cast iron or other materials. The part of the world most famous for col-
lectible nutcrackers is Erzebrige, a moun-
tainous region of Germany near the border
History of the Czech Republic. A productive mining
Human beings have eaten nuts since prehis- region since the fourteenth century, Erze-
toric times, and have always faced the prob- brige also developed woodcarving as an im-
lem of breaking open the shells. The earliest portant industry. The founder of nutcracker
nutcracker was probably a rock used to carving in Erzebrige was Friedrich Wilhelm
smash open the nut, resulting in pieces of Fuuchtner. Around the year 1870 Fuuchtner
kernel mixed with pieces of shell. This began using a lathe to carve nutcrackers in
method was improved when simple tools the form of simple human figures, such as
were developed. Early nutcrackers were soldiers and police officers. These nutcrack-
probably made by connecting two pieces of ers were carved from woods such as pine,
335
beech, and alder, then painted in bright col- blown into the blast fumace. The hot air
ors. The village of Seiffen where Fuiuchtner bums the coke, releasing carbon monoxide
made his nutcrackers remains famous for its and heat. The carbon monoxide reacts with
wooden nutcrackers and toys. the iron oxides present in the ore to form
iron and carbon dioxide. The result of this
process is molten pig iron, which consists of
Rcw Materials at least 90% iron, 3-5% carbon, and various
Although many decorative nutcrackers are impurities.
still made by hand from wood, most modem
nutcrackers in daily use are made from To make cast iron, the molten pig iron is
metal. Some nutcrackers of unusual design 3allowed to cool into a solid. It is then
are made from various combinations of mixed with scrap metal. The scrap metal is se-
metal and wood or metal and hard plastic. lected to result in a final product with the de-
sired characteristics. The mixture of pig iron
The most common metals used to make nut- and scrap metal is moved by a conveyor belt
crackers are steel and cast iron. Steel is an to the top of a cupola. A cupola is similar to a
alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon. blast ftimace, but is somewhat smaller. The
Cast iron is an alloy of iron and a somewhat pig iron and scrap metal fall on a bed of hot
larger amount of iron. The raw materials coke through which air is blown. This process
used to manufacture both of these materials removes the impurities and some of the car-
are iron ore and coke. Coke is formed when bon, resulting in molten cast iron, which is
coal is heated to a high temperature in the poured into molds to form ingots as it cools.
absence of air, resulting in a substance
which is rich in carbon. 4 To make steel, the pig iron must have
most of its carbon removed. The most
Chromium and nickel are often added to common method used to make steel is
steel to form stainless steel. They may also known as the basic oxygen process. This
be used to coat steel. Some steel nutcrack- procedure uses a steel container lined with
ers, intended as impressive gifts, are coated heat-resistant brick. Scrap metal of the prop-
with silver or gold. er type to produce steel with the desired
characteristics is loaded into the container.
Molten pig iron, usually transported directly
The Manufacturing from the blast furnace without cooling, is
Process added to the scrap metal. Pure oxygen is
blown into the mixture at extremely high
Making cast iron and steel speeds. The oxygen reacts with various im-
Iron ore is dug out of surface mines. The purities in the mixture to form a mixture of
ore is obtained in pieces of various sizes, solids, known as slag, floating on the molten
ranging from particles as small as 0.04 in (1 metal. The oxygen also removes most of the
mm) in diameter to lumps as large as 40 in carbon in the form of carbon monoxide gas.
(1 m) in diameter. Large lumps are reduced Lime (calcium oxide) is also added to the
in size by being crushed. The smaller pieces mixture. The lime acts as a flux; that is, it
then pass through sieves to sort them by causes the substances in the mixture to melt
size. Small particles are melted together into together at a lower temperature than they
larger pieces, a process known as sintering. would without it. The lime also removes sul-
To make cast iron and steel, the pieces of fur in the form of calcium sulfide, which
ore should be from 0.3-1 in (7-25 mm) in di- forms part of the slag. The slag is removed
ameter. from the molten steel, which is poured into
molds to form ingots, cooled between rollers
2 A conveyor belt moves a mixture of iron to form sheets, or otherwise solidified.
ore and coke to the top of a blast fur-
nace. A blast fumace is a tall vertical steel
shaft lined with heat-resistant brick and Shaping cast iron and steel
graphite. The mixture of iron ore and coke, 5 Cast iron, as its name suggests, is usual-
known as charge, falls through the blast fur- ly shaped by casting. Casting involves
nace. Meanwhile, air heated to a tempera- pouring molten metal into a mold. The most
ture of 1,650-2,460° F (900-1,350° C) is common method used for cast iron is sand-
336
Nutcracker
Most handheld nutcrackers are

casting. A pattern in the shape of the desired cold stamping. This process involves pound- made of stainless steel. Steel is
product is shaped from wood, clay, metal, or ing a sharp die in the shape of the desired manufactured in a process that
plastic. The pattern is finrly packed into product into a thin sheet of steel. The die takes mined ore and refines it by
sand which is held together with various cuts through the steel, forming the product. melting the ore in a furnace. Once
substances known as bonding agents. The Steel can also be shaped by drop forging. melted, the pure iron sinks to the
sand mixture is hardened by various meth- This process also requires a shaped die, bottom, while slag floats to the
ods, which may involve heat, pressure, or known as a drop hammer. The drop hammer top. Chromium and nickel are
chemicals. The pattern is removed from the is pounded into a red-hot bar of steel. The added to create stainless steel.
hardened sand. Molten cast iron is poured pressure of the die strengthens the steel at
into the resulting mold and allowed to cool the same time it shapes the product.
into a solid.
6 Steel can be shaped in a variety of ways. Assembling the nutcracker
UMolten steel can be poured into molds, 7 Cast iron components must be cleaned
much like cast iron. It can also be shaped by 7and polished before being assembled
337
Kisers prue 10
Cope
_ A
Flask pin
Drag
Core Gate Runner

Sand casting
Sand casting is the most common

method used to cast iron. A pat- into the nutcracker. Ball bearings strike the Quality Control
tern is shaped from wood, clay, cast iron at high speed to remove any sand
metal, or plastic and then firmly which clings to it. The cast iron is then pol- After cast iron and steel parts are formed
packed into sand held together ished with a surface grinder. A surface they are inspected to ensure that all the
with various substances known as grinder is typically a rapidly spinning wheel shapes are correct. Sharp edges or small ir-
bonding agents. The sand mixture covered with an abrasive substance. The regularities produced during the shaping
is hardened into a mold using abrasive grinds away a small portion of the process are removed by hand using tools
heat, pressure, or chemicals. surface of the cast iron, leaving it smooth. such as files.
Molten cast iron is poured into the
resulting mold and allowed to cool 8 Steel components are hardened by heat- During the assembly process, the tools used
into a solid.
8ing and cooling, a process known as to drill holes may causeirregularities in the
metal. Again, these can be removed using
tempering.
hand tools.
9 Depending on the exact structure of the
9 nutcracker, assembly may be fairly sim- After being painted or plated, the nutcracker
ple or it may be quite complex. Precision is inspected to ensure that the protective coat-
drilling equipment it sued to form holes in ing covers the entire surface. Any flaws found
the metal. The components are then brought are corrected by repeating the procedure.
together and rivets or screws pass through
the holes and are tightened to hold the A sample nutcracker may be tested after it is
pieces of the nutcracker in place. Some nut- manufactured to ensure that it operates cor-
crackers may also require welding. rectly. In general, nutcrackers are extremely
reliable tools, so frequent testing is not nec-
1 If the nutcracker is made form stain- essary.
V less steel, formed by adding chromium
or nickel to the scrap metal and molten pig
iron mixture, no protective coating is need- The Future
ed. Other metals are usually painted or cov- Although the nutcracker seems to be a sim-
ered with chromium or nickel. These metal- ple device with little room for improvement,
lic coatings are applied by giving a negative inventors are always working on better ways
electrical charge to the nutcracker in a solu- to break open shells without damaging ker-
tion containing positively charged particles nels. Various designs have been proposed
of chromium or nickel. The particles are at- which are much different from the tradition-
tracted to the nutcracker, coating it evenly al plier-shaped nutcracker.
and smoothly. The coated nutcracker is re-
moved from the solution, cleaned, and is One simple but innovative device consists of
ready to be packaged and shipped. a metal screw which rotates into a small plas-
338
Nutcracker
tic bowl. The nut in placed in the bowl and Where to Learn More
the screw is twisted until it cracks the shell. A
more complex device which uses a similar Books
mechanism consists of a small metal handle Beard, James, et al., ed. The Cooks' Cata-
attached to a large handle which contains an logue. Harper and Row, 1975.
opening. The nut is placed in the opening.
Pulling the small handle toward the large Campbell, Susan. Cooks' Tools. Morrow,
handle causes a knob to be cranked up a 1980.
notch toward the nut. Repeating the action in-
creases the pressure until the nut cracks. Both Periodicals
these devices allow the amount of pressure
placed on the nut to be carefully controlled; LaTorre, Bob. "Nutcrackers." Mother Earth
too little pressure fails to crack the shell, but News (November/December 1986): 54-56.
too much pressure shatters the kernel.
Smith, Louvinia T. "Nutcrackers." Antiques
A more radical design is found in the Texas and Collecting (December 1996): 38-39.
Native Inertia Nutcracker. This unusual de-
vice, made from oak, steel, and aluminum, Other
uses a rubber band to power a battering ram "A Little History." August 11, 1997. http://
which cracks the nut. Imitations of this in- members.aol.com/trcdesign/history.htm/
novative device are usually made from hard (June 29, 1999).
plastic and might be shaped like a gun
whose trigger pulls the rubber band. The fu- "The Story of the Nutcracker." December
ture will continue to see changes in nut- 28, 1992. http://www.serve.com/shea/ger-
cracker design, while collectible wooden musa/nutcrack.html (June 29, 1999).
nutcrackers carved in the style of nineteenth
century artisans will continue to be popular. -Rose Secrest
339
Oatmeal
When oatmeal was first Oatmeal is made from the ground or rolled Using a water wheel to generate power and
seeds of oat grass (Avena sativa). It is rotate two large millstones, Schumacher's
introduced in the United cooked as cereal or used as an ingredient in business was able to fill twenty 180 lb (81.7
States as a breakfast baking. kg) barrels with oatmeal daily.
alternative, cartoons and This method for grinding oats was not revo-
Background lutionary. It had been used for centuries.
editorials poked fun at the Wild oats were eaten as early as the Neolith-
Oats were hulled by passing them between
two stone wheels turning in opposite direc-
so-called oat-eaters, ic and Bronze Ages. The Romans cultivated tions. The hulls and residue were sifted out
it. The Teutons and the Gauls used it to of the oat grains, which are known as groats.
accusing them of robbing make gruel. Often growing weed-like The groats were crushed under a second set
animals of their feeds and amongst wheat and barley, oats thrive in
of millstones, producing a meal that could
cold climates with a short growing season, be eaten after it was cooked for three to four
developing a whinny. hence its prevalence in Scotland, Ireland, hours. But there was still enough powdery
Scandinavia, and Germany. In those coun- residue in the groats that the cooked oatmeal
Eventually, the medical tries it became a basic foodstuff well into was pasty and lumpy.
profession found that the the nineteenth century. Haggis-a blend of
oatmeal, goat organs, onions, and spices that One of Schumacher's employees, Asmus J.
human consumption of are roasted in pieces of goat stomach-is Ehrrichsen had the idea to replace the mill-
still enjoyed as a traditional Scottish meal. stones with rotating knife blades. This sub-
oats was beneficial for the stantially reduced the amount of residue and
entire population, not just In the United States, however, oats were produced a meal of uniform taste and flaki-
viewed as nothing more than horse feed until ness. However, one-quarter of Schumacher's
invalids and infants. a German grocer named Ferdinand Schu- oats were still ending up as residue, a prod-
macher emigrated to the United States in the uct that he could not sell. Therefore, in 1878
mid-1800s and saw a ready market for oat- Schumacher purchased a set of porcelain
meal in the growing immigrant population. rollers from England. By rolling the groats,
Up until that time, much of the United States the residue was virtually eliminated and the
was farmland. Breakfasts consisted of meats, cooking time was decreased to one hour.
eggs, breads, potatoes, fruits, and vegetables.
The immigrants arriving in the growing In nearby Ravenna, another mill, owned by
urban areas had neither the means nor the re- Henry Parsons Crowell, William Heston, and
sources to produce such morning meals. Henry Seymour, was also selling steel-cut
oats. Instead of selling them in bulk out of an
The climate of the American Midwest was open barrel, Crowell measured out two
also conducive to growing oat grass and pounds and placed them in clean paper boxes
farmers were producing 150 bushels of the with the cooking directions printed on the out-
grain per year. In 1854, Schumacher began side. They called their product Quaker Oats.
grinding oats in his Akron, Ohio, store, using
a hand mill similar that used to grind coffee George Cormack, an employee at Quaker
beans. Within two years he opened the Ger- Oats Company, designed a number of labor-
man Mills American Oatmeal Company. saving devices. They included the first me-
340
Oatmeal
Oatmeal manufacture involves

chanical sorter that separated the oat grains tation of boll weevils. Rancidity is a major harvesting, washing, steaming,
by size instead of weight, ventilation sys- concern in the milling of oats. With a higher and hulling the oats. Standard
tems that reduced spoilage, escalators and fat content than other cereal grains, the li- oats are steel-cut, whereas quick-
endless conveyer belts to move the product pase enzyme can create a soapy taste. This cooking oats are rolled between
to and from the warehouses. is controlled by steaming the oats. cylinders to produce a flatter
flake. Once flaked, the oats are
roasted and packaged.
Oat grain is the only ingredient in oatmeal. Process
The seeds of the Avena grasses are harvest-
ed in the fall. The thinner-skinned grains are Cleaning and sifting
preferable as they have a high protein con-
tent without being overly starchy. Addition- The oats are loaded onto moving trays
ally, the thin-skinned oats will yield 60% and washed under a high-intensity water
oatmeal, while the yield of thick-skinned spray. Often the trays are perforated so that
oats is 50%. Oatmeal millers develop close foreign material is discarded underneath.
relationships with their farmer-suppliers in
order to insure that they receive the finest
quality grain. Steaming
2 The cleaned oats then move to a large
The grains should be milled as soon as pos- steamer where they are subjected to moist
sible thereafter to prevent spoilage or infes- heat for a predetermined length of time.
34 1
Rolling or cutting antifreeze, charcoals, textiles, plastic bottle

caps, buttons, glue, and antiseptics.
3 Standard oats are those that have been
3steel-cut. The oats are run through a ma-
chine with razor-sharp knife blades. Quick- The Future
cooking oats are rolled between cylinders to Ironically, when Schumacher first started
produce a flatter, lighter flake. These grinding oats in his Akron grocery store, the
processes are usually repeated several times press had a field day with the idea of people
to produce the type of oat flake that is de- eating horse food. Cartoons and editorials
sired. In both processes, the hull is separated poked fun at the so-called oat-eaters, accus-
from the grain. The hulls are sifted out and ing them of robbing animals of their feeds
used for other purposes. and developing a whinny. Eventually, the
medical profession found that the human
Roasting consumption of oats was beneficial for the
entire population, not just invalids and in-
4 The hulled oats are then placed into a fants. By the end of the twentieth century,
z roaster where they are toasted at a preset oatmeal was touted as one of the primary ele-
temperature for a pre-determined amount of ments of a healthy diet. In 1997, the Federal
time. Drug Administration ruled that manufactur-
ers of foods made with the soluble fiber from
Packaging whole oats could claim that when part of a
diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, these
5 Pre-printed containers are filled with foods may reduce heart disease risk. Oatmeal
5pre-measured amounts of oatmeal. A lid was also being used by the food processing
is vacuum-packed onto the top of the con- industry as an ingredient in meat substitutes.
tainer. The containers are then loaded into
cartons for shipment.
Where to Learn More
Books
Byproducts/Waste
Marquette, Arthur F. Brands, Trademarks
The oat hulls that have been removed from and Good Will. New York: McGraw-Hill,
the grain are often used for livestock feed 1967.
and as fuel. The most common byproduct of
the hulls is furfural, a liquid aldehyde (dehy-
drogenated alcohol) that is used as a pheno- Other
lic resin or as a solvent. The list of products Quaker Oats. http://www.quakeroats.com.
that contain furfural include nylon, synthetic
rubber, lubricating oils, pharmaceuticals, -Mary McNulty
342
Olives
The olive tree boasts two prizes-the olive they are to be used for oil. Six to eight In 1870, a bartender in
itself (called the table olive) and the pre- months after the flowers bloomed, the fruit
cious oil pressed from the fruit's flesh. In will reach its greatest weight; and 20-30% Califomia added an olive
fact, a third prize is the tree which has a of that weight (excluding the pit) is oil. In- to a new concoction
twisted trunk full of character, grey-green side each olive, the pit contains one or two
leaves, and wood which can be used for seeds; botanists call this kind of fruit with a named the Martinez after
carving and furniture-making. Fallen fruit seed-bearing stone a drupe; plums and
looks edible, but it isn't. All olives, whether peaches are other drupes. his hometown. Today, the
green or black, require processing before olive-ornamented cocktail
they can be eaten. Olives grow in subtropical climates in both
the northern and southern hemispheres. is known as a martini.
Hundreds of varieties are grown; some pro-
Background duce only table olives, and others are culti-
The olive tree has been given the Latin name vated for olive oil. Italy and Spain lead
Olea europaea and is from the botanical fami- world production of olives; and Greece,
ly called Oleaceae. It is an evergreen that typi- Morocco, Tunisia, Portugal, Syria, and
cally grows from 10-40 ft (3-12 m) tall. The Turkey also consider the olive an important
branches are fine and many, and the leathery part of their economies. Europe produces
leaves are spear-shaped and dark green on three-fourths of the world's olives and also
their tops and silver on their undersides. leads in consumption of both table olives
and olive oil. California has also become a
The trees bloom in the late spring and pro- respected producer, especially since the
duce clusters of small, white flowers. Olives health benefits of the olive have been widely
grow erratically (unless the trees are culti- recognized.
vated and irrigated) and tend to either pro-
duce in alternate years or bear heavy crops History
and light ones alternately. Seedlings do not
produce the best trees. Instead, seedlings are Cultivation of the olive is as old as the civi-
grafted to existing tree trunks or trees are lizations that encircle the Mediterranean
grown from cuttings. Olives are first seen on Sea. The indications that people had learned
trees within eight years, but the trees must the secrets to making olives edible date from
grow for 15-20 years before they produce the isle of Crete in about 3,500 B.C. The
worthwhile crops, which they will do until Egyptians recorded their knowledge of the
they are about 80 years old. Once estab- olive around 1,000 B.C., and the Phoenicians
lished, the trees are enduring and will live exported it to Greece, Libya, and Carthage.
for several hundred years. The Greeks further carried the olive to Sici-
ly, Southern Italy, and Spain. The Romans
Olives mature on the tree and can be har- also mastered olive cultivation. Around 600
vested for green table olives when the fruit B.C., they had a merchant marine and stock
is immature or left on the tree to ripen. The market just for the oil trade. Sardinia and the
ripe olives are also harvested for processing south of France became olive-growing re-
as food but are left on the trees still longer if gions, thanks to the Romans.
343
Olive branches, leaves, and wood gained sa- ta olives from Greece are one of the best-
cred connotations in both Testaments of the known varieties and are distinguished by
Bible, like the dove's return to Noah's Ark their purplish brown color and elongated
with an olive leaf in its beak. In the Olympic shape with a sharp point. The green Man-
Games in Greece, the victors were awarded zanilla is the most famous Spanish olive
crowns of olive branches and leaves. Oil and is now also cultivated in California.
figured in the anointing of athletes, rulers, The Nicoise olive from France is famous
and religious authorities and was used as for the tuna salad that requires the olive as
lamp oil by most ancient civilizations on the an ingredient. Naturally cured olives can
Mediterranean rim. It was olive oil that vary in color from a wonderful range of
burned on empty for eight days in the He- greens to purple, black, brown, and even
brews' eternal flame during the miracle cel- the small Souri olive from Israel that is
ebrated as Hanukkah. The olive's fragrant brownish pink.
wood was reserved exclusively for altars to
the gods, and all of these uses helped make The key to the flavor, color, and texture of
the olive a symbol of peace. the olive is the moment of harvest. Obvious-
ly, the fruit can be harvested when it is
In the 1500s, Spanish missionaries brought green and unripe, fully ripened to black or
the both the grape and the olive to Califor- any stage in between. Older fruit can be salt-
nia. In South America, Italian immigrants cured or dry cured to produce a salty, wrin-
planted the olive, and they were also respon- kled product. Damaged fruit can still be
sible for plantings in Australia and southern used by pressing it into oil. It is the combi-
Africa. The olive achieved new fame in Cal- nation of the harvest, the cure, and any
ifornia when, in 1870, an inventive bar- added flavors that yield the characteristics
tender added the fruit to a new concoction sought by the producer and consumer.
named the Martinez for the town he lived in;
the olive-ornamented cocktail is known
today as the martini. Until recently, most olives available in
American grocery stores were artificially
cured, meaning that they were treated with
Raw Materials lye to remove their bitterness. This is still
The olives themselves are the most impor- true for all canned black olives, many of the
tant raw material. Depending on the curing green olives imported from Spain and the
method, pure water, caustic soda or lye, and black Nicoise from France, and other bottled
coarse salt are used. Flavorings can be versions; however, renewed appreciation of
added to the brine. Among the favorites are the olive has led to interest in naturally cured
red pepper or a variety of Mediterranean olives that are now generally available at deli
herbs for black olives and lemon or hot counters and are bottled by some specialized
green peppers or chilies for green olives. manufacturers. Naturally cured olives are
Fennel, wine vinegar, or garlic can be used cured with either oil or brine and additives
to add interest to any olive, but the time re- like wine vinegar for flavor.
quired for the olives to take on these flavors
can range from a week for whole chilies to Lye treatment is done to remove the bitter-
several months for a more subtle taste like ness of the olive. Olives contain oleuropein
the herb fennel. (after their botanical name Olea europea),
and it is this substance (a compound called a
Pitted green olives can be stuffed to add glucoside) that makes them too bitter to eat
color, flavor, and texture. Almonds, pearl directly from the tree. According to the
onions, sliced pimentos, mushrooms, an- purists, lye-cured olives are bland, either
chovies, and pimento paste are the most spongy or hard (but not crunchy), with most
common olive accessories. of the flavor gone. Lye-cured olives are also
almost always pitted, and the most naturally
flavorful part of the olive is adjacent to the
Design pit. Curing with lye softens the olive so it
"Design" of olives includes variety, color can be picked when it is still hard, but olives
with green or ripe olives as the two basic to be naturally cured must be more ripe,
differences, and method of curing. Kalama- handled carefully, and processed quickly.
3 44
I CvZ-
Olives
Harvesting
In order to produce edible olives,

The Manufacturing day can be harvested in this manner. The harvested olives are cleaned and
Process trees are sensitive to such assaults by ma- then cured in a natural brine of
chines, however, and many purists prefer salt, oil, and flavorings or artifi-
In the field hand harvesting. cially with lye. For green olives,
the salinity is increased by 2%
When olives are harvested by hand, 2 After harvesting of a tree's crop is com- every two to three weeks from the
sheets of netting or plastic are placed on 2pleted, the nets filled with olives are initial salinity of 12-14%. Black
the ground under the trees, and the har- emptied into baskets or crates, which are olives begin their curing at 8-9%
vesters climb ladders and comb the fruit salinity; this is increased by 1-2%
then transported to the processing plant. every two weeks until a maximum
from the branches. Long-handled rakes
made of wood or plastic are used to pull the solution of 22-24% is reached.
olives from the tree. There are other meth-
In the processing plant Taste of the final product depends
upon variety, time of harvest, and
ods of harvesting including striking the 3 At the processing plant, the harvest bags curing solution.
branches with long canes or using shaped are emptied into 1,000 lb (450 kg) bins.
animal horns as combs to scrape the fruit From the bins, the olives are deposited onto
from the branches. Pickers who use their conveyors and moved past a blower that
fingers only employ a milking motion to blasts leaves and tree and dirt particles off
strip the fruit from the trees. Hand picking is the fruit. They are washed in pure water and
preferred by most growers, but it is also ex- placed in 55 gal (200 1) barrels.
pensive.
4 For brine curing of green olives, 12-14%
Machine harvesting is a recent addition to salt and water are added to the barrels
the olive grower's arsenal. The machines filled with olives. One cup of live active
were borrowed from the nut harvesters and brine is added to each barrel; the live active
are able to grasp the trunks of the trees and solution is previously used brine that con-
shake them. Each machine has a crew of six tains airborne yeasts and sugars from the
to nine men to operate the machine, shep- olives that fermented in the brine. The ac-
herd the falling olives into the nets, and tive ingredient transfers enough yeast to
strike the branches to knock down the stub- begin the curing process in the new batch of
born few by hand. The vibrations of the ma- brine. If salt and water alone were added to
chine shake down about 80% of the tree's the olives, fermentation (curing) would not
burden, and knocking at the branches with begin on its own, so the live active brine is a
staves yields another 10% percent. About starter. A salometer-a salinity meter or
1,100-1,800 lb (500-815 kg) of olives per specific gravity meter-is used to measure
345
Different types of olives. changes the color and texture of the olive
and removes many of its nutrients.
7 Dry (or Greek-style) curing is a method
in which plump black olives are layered
in barrels with dry rock salt (no liquid is
added). The salt breaks down the bitterness
and leaches it out. The olives are stirred
daily, and purplish liquid leached from them
is drained from the bottoms of the barrels.
After four to six weeks, the olives are rinsed
to remove the salt and glycoside and lightly
coated in oil; they are wrinkled and purple
in color, and these qualities are unpleasant
to some despite the excellent flavor and nu-
tritional value of dry-cured olives.
8 Black olives can also be cured by air
8curing. The olives are stored in burlap
bags that allow air to pass through and
around the olives. Over a period of weeks,
the olives will cure, although they tend to be
stronger in flavor than olives cured by other
methods.
the percent of salt in solution in the barrels. 9 Green or black olives can be cured in
For green olives, the salinity is increased by 9 water alone. They should be rinsed once
2% every two to three weeks from the initial or twice daily and consumed in about two
salinity of 12-14%. Black olives begin their weeks when the curing is complete. Water-
curing at 8-9% salinity; this is increased by and air-cured olives are not stable and should
1-2% every 2 weeks until a maximum solu- be kept in jars in the refrigerator; brine-, lye-,
tion of 22-24% is reached. and salt-cured (dry-cured) olives will keep in
crocks almost indefinitely.
5 After curing is completed, the barrels of
_olives are emptied onto a shaker table O In 1910, discovery of a method of can-
and rinsed with clean water. The shaker IV ning black olives made commercial
table sorts the olives by size while inspec- processing possible. Until that time, process-
tors watch and remove damaged fruit. The ing had been unsuccessful because the olives
olives are moved to another station where tended to discolor. The canning method con-
they are pitted then stuffed. At filling sta- sists of air ripening or lye-curing green olives
tions, they are put in jars that are filled with in an oxygenated solution until they turn
an 8- 11% saline solution. If the saline is fla- black, and treating them with ferrous glu-
vored, herbs or other flavorings are also conate. The iron additive fixes the black
added to the brine. The jars are then capped color, but the whole process removes most of
and sealed for safety. the nutritional value of the olive. The olives
are then packed in mild brine and processed
in canners using pressure and heat.
Other curing and canning methods
6 Processing plants may use other methods
of curing. Lye curing is accomplished Qucality Control
with a solution containing lye, an alkaline The quality of olive processing is protected
byproduct of wood ash. The olives soak in by many sets of hands and eyes. Steps from
lye solutions for 24 hours (as opposed to the hand-picking in the grove to hand-culling of
six to eight weeks required for salt brine cur- olives on the shaker table are monitored by
ing). The lye draws out the oleuropein to re- touch. All other processes are watched care-
move the olive's natural bitterness and make fully. Chemistry is regulated by relatively
it edible; unfortunately, lye curing also simple instruments, and taste tests help as-
34 6
Olives
sure the crunch of cured olives and the Rosenblum, Mort. Olives: The Life and
blending of flavors. Lore of a Noble Fruit. New York: North
Point Press, 1996.
Byproducts/Waste
Periodicals
Olive producers usually manufacture olive
oil as well. Another byproduct that is grow- Clark, Melissa. "An Ode to the Olive."
ing in popularity is processed olive leaves. Vegetarian Times (October 1997): 136.
They are made into tea, put in caplets as
crushed leaves, and processed as an extract Hamblin, Dora Jane. "To Italy, Olive Oil is
or in tablets; all forms are believed to aid Green Gold." Smithsonian (March 1985): 98.
blood flow and inhibit viruses and diabetes. Johnson, Elaine. "Know Your Olive Op-
Waste from olive processing consists of the tions." Sunset (April 1995): 164.
pits and damaged fruit. The pits are sold as Kummer, Corby. "Real Olives: In Praise of
food for pigs, and all other olive waste can an Old World Treat, Pits and All." The At-
be ground and used as organic fertilizer. lantic (June 1993): 115.
Some manufacturers return it to their groves
to fertilize the olive trees. Wing, Lucy. "A Taste of Olives." Country
Living (September 1994): 142.
The Future
A ripe future is predicted for the olive busi- Other
ness thanks to three occurrences. Medical Australian Olive Association http:/Hwww.
studies have shown that olives and olive oil australianolives.com.au/.
are healthful foods that provide vitamins,
minerals, and other nutrients. They may re- Australian Olive Association and Informa-
duce the risk of heart attacks and breast tion Center. http://pom44.ucdavis.edu/olive2.
cancer, among other diseases. In America, html!.
the influence of immigrants from Spain,
Italy, and the North Coast of Africa who are Naomi's Olive Page, "An Ode to the Olive"
accustomed to naturally cured fruit has led http://www.bayarea.net/-emerald/olive.
to an interest in flavorful olives; specialty html/.
growers are reaching this market with care-
fully crafted, flavored olives. Finally, the The Olive Oil Source. http://www.oliveoil
"discovery" of crunchy, tasty, nutritious, source.com/ .
naturally cured olives by a growing public Santa Barbara Olive Company. Http://
is leading to the decline of canned ripe www.sbolive.com/.
olives, which may disappear from the mar-
ketplace by about 2010. -Gillian S. Holmes
Where to Learn More

Books
Klein, Maggie Blyth. The Feast of the Olive.
San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1994.
347
Paintbrush
Before about 1830, Background least in part, by hand-assembly methods.
Those who require delicate brushes for fine
nearly all quality brushes A paintbrush is a handheld tool used to apply oil or watercolor painting may make their
paint or sealers to paintable surfaces. The own brushes or purchase them from a spe-
were imported, but shortly brush picks up paint with filament, includes cialist who produces them to order. These
a ferrule that is a metal band that holds the
thereafter, a number of filament and handle together and gives the
handmade brushes can be very expensive.
American companies brush strength, a spacer plug within the fer-
rule which helps the filament sits tightly in History
were founded that could the brush and creates a reservoir for paint,
epoxy to lock the filament, and a handle
Very little is known about the invention of
produce paintbrushes which provides comfort and good balance. the paintbrush. Nineteenth century histories
of manufactures indicate that brushes are of
rather quickly without The paintbrush industry categorizes their
relatively recent development. Then, as
products based on the user of the product.
much machinery to assist now, sable brushes were the very best bris-
Thus, there are consumer grade paintbrushes
made for the homeowner who is painting tle for close hand painting. Prior to the de-
them. small projects, professional grade paint- velopment of synthetics in paintbrushes
brushes for the professional house painter materials such as rattan, whalebone or even
who requires a high-quality, long-lasting shavings of wood were used in place of
brush, and artistic grade paintbrushes. bristle for painting jobs that did not require
much elasticity within the brush. Before
Paintbrushes vary tremendously based on the about 1830, nearly all quality brushes were
quality of components used and are specifi- imported but shortly thereafter a number of
cally constructed for the application of dif- American companies were founded that
ferent paints and varnishes upon certain sur- could produce paintbrushes rather quickly
faces. The filament may be either animal but without much machinery to assist them.
bristle or synthetic and the brush quality Bristle was cleaned and mixed by hand,
largely rests on the differences in these mate- brush heads were affixed to the spacer by
rials. Inexpensive animal hair brushes used hand-gluing. A source from 1870 notes that
in lower grade brushes are of unbleached the packing, papering, labeling was all
hog bristle, however, the most expensive an- completed by boys and girls. While these
imal hair brushes are of sable and are used factories could produce brushes quickly, the
for delicate hand painting. These synthetics process was not yet mechanized. Special-
vary greatly in quality and may be used for ized machines for mixing, finishing, taper-
cheap brushes as well as better-quality ing, gluing, handle-making and attaching
brushes. Handles are of wood or plastic; the brush head to handle over 50 years later.
rounder the brush the easier it is to manipu- However, fine brushes are still individually
late the brush for intricate movement. made by hand with great care at great cost.
Most paintbrushes are manufactured in a

factory. However, the more expensive pro- Rcsw Materials
fessional-quality brushes may still be pro- The filament may be either of animal hair
duced in a factory but may be assembled, at and is most often of long-haired hog bristle,
348
Paintbrush
often referred to simply as bristle. Other nat- that can be held in the hand. Each bundle in-
ural animal hairs used in American brushes cludes bristle of the same length and taper
include squirrel, goat, ox, badger, and horse- ratio. However, brushes must include bristle
hair. The most expensive animal-hair brush- of various length and taper ratio. The bun-
es are hand-made of sable. Synthetic fila- dles must be untied and mixed together. As
ment used in paintbrushes are produced by each different size and taper of bristle is un-
extrusion (in which liquid synthetic is bundled it is placed with all bristles aligned
pushed through a mold and thus formed) and in the same direction on a mixing machine.
may be acrylic, polyester, nylon or amalon This machine is a series of belts that move
which is a very inexpensive petroleum-based back and forth, folding the bristle in and
synthetic. Different synthetics perform better shuffling them together. This occurs as the
with different kinds of paint so a painter bristle drops off the belt and lays onto the
should know the filament material as he or top of another belt with that set of bristle,
she chooses brushes. Synthetic filament may then falls onto another set of bristle, etc.
be of three constructions: solid extrusion, "x- until the bristle is completely mixed (but
shaped," or hollow. Solid extrusion synthetic still aligned in the same direction). This
filament lasts the longest and cleans up the mixing takes about ten minute.
easiest. X-shaped filament gives good per-
formance and is a bit cheaper than solid fila- Picking the bristle and adding a
ment. The hollow filament wears out quickly ferrule
and is difficult to clean but is quite inexpen-
sive. Consumer-grade paintbrushes may be 2 The mixed bristles are then put into a
of hog bristle or synthetic filament; however, machine that pinches off the proper
water-based paints, such as latex, perform amount of bristle (determined by weight) to
better when synthetic filament is used. form the size of brush under production.
Then, the machine takes the bristle for indi-
Handles may be either of wood or plastic. vidual brushes and shoves it into a metal fer-
Different painters like the "feel" of specific rule (an oval band that helps attach and hide
handle materials; generally, professional the attachment of the bristle to the brush).
painters prefer wood handles whereas the
"do-it-yourself-er" often prefers plastic. Adding the plug
Epoxy, a two-part glue consisting of epoxy
resin and the other part consisting of a cata- 3 The bristle and ferrule combination is
lyst and curing agent, is required to affix the 3put on a conveyor belt in which devices
bristles within a metal band called the fer- for patting the bristle further into the ferrule.
rule. The ferrule, the metal band between the When the bristle is pushed halfway into the
handle and the bristles, is always of metal ferrule the pieces are sent to the plugging
and may be tin-coated steel or another inex- station. Here, a wooden or cardboard plug,
pensive metal. The spacer plug, either of cut to fit the size of ferrule for the brush
wood or cardboard, is inserted in the brush width under construction, is automatically
head in the middle of the bristles (pushed shoved into the "butt end" of the ferrule (the
within the ferrule). This plug provides a well end that will be attached to the handle). The
that allows the brush to hold a reservoir of bristle and the plug are patted again to en-
paint after it is dipped within the paint. The sure the bristles and plug are against the top
paint flows from this well to the brush tips. edge of the ferrule.
The Manufacturing Epoxying the bristles

Process A The brushes are pulled off the line by
This process will describe the manufacture hand, put into racks with the ferrule end
of a consumer-grade brush made of hog sticking up, and sent to the gluing station.
bristle with a plastic handle. Here, a worker then injects each butt-end of
the brush with an epoxy with a machine that
injects a squirt of epoxy by the touch of a
Mixing the bristle trigger. This is done brush by brush with a
First, the bristle (often imported) is hand-operated pump. The brush head is es-
brought into the plant in small bundles sentially complete; it takes about two min-
34 9
Most paintbrushes are mass-pro- Generally, consumer-quality brushes have

duced, but more expensive, pro- Square construction Chisel construction plastic handles that are injection molded. To
fessional-quality brushes are often produce such a handle, a mold with two
hand assembled. Brushes used by halves is clamped together and molten plas-
the artist are handmade. Mass- tic is injected into the mold. The liquid plas-
produced brushes are either
squared or chiseled. Typically, tic quickly hardens and the mold is opened.
chiseled bristles indicate a higher- Many handles can be made in a series of
quality professional brush. Square molds that are connected. All the plastic
construction and trim are often less I
handles are attached by a "stringer" or long,
expensive or used to spread paint thin piece of plastic that must be broken to
over large areas. disconnect the handles. The handles do not
require finishing.
Putting on the handles

7 The brush heads are stacked up one on
7top of another after they are dried. The
brush heads are taken, one at a time, and
automatically inserted with the plastic
Square trim Chisel trim molded handle which is forced against the
ferrule. After insertion, the handles are
nailed or riveted by machine and crimped to
the ferrule so the brush head stays securely
on the handle.
utes to pick the bristle, add the ferrule, put
in the plug, and epoxy the bristles within the
plug and ferrule. The brush head is now set Packaging
aside to dry. 8 The same machine that inserted the han-
Odle into the ferrule also takes each fin-
Finishing the bristles ished brush and automatically packages the
brushes individually. However, a number of
5 After the brush head is made and epox- paintbrushes come with minimal or no pack-
ied the manufacturer must "finish" the aging and are sold in bins or cartons at the
brush head. The head is then run through a point-of-sale. Many brushes have minimal
series of equipment that clean out all loose packaging that includes only small card-
hairs that escaped the epoxy. The brush head board packaging that does not run the length
is also "tipped" meaning that the ends (that of the brush.
are dipped into paint) are slightly feathered
or split so that they are finer and able to pick
up paint more easily (the finer the bristles Quality Control
that fewer brush strokes the consumer will
see when the paint has dried). The ends may Brushes are extraordinarily varied in quali-
also be tapered. A sanding wheel is used to ty. Brush quality is determined by the use of
feather and split the ends and clippers are materials and the methods of construction
often used for tapering. Now, the brush is set and the quality of a brush is generally well-
out to air dry overnight. The machinery and marked on the packaging. Even if a brush is
methods used to finish a brush is peculiar to of lower-grade consumer quality, the mate-
each manufacturer and is part of the unique rials are carefully monitored and chosen for
qualities of a brand-name brush. their effectiveness as brush materials. Inferi-
or brushes (and very cheap ones) are pro-
Making the handles duced by using synthetic filament that is
thick, untapered and unfeathered as the bris-
The handles are made earlier and may tles show every brush stroke. Bristle that is
have come from another manufacturer. used for consumer-grade brushes is often
Some manufacturers produce their own han- imported and is inspected once it arrives in
dles elsewhere in the plant and send them to the factory. The mixing process and particu-
the brush-making department. larly the finishing process ensures that ade-
350
Paintbrush
111111101
Joining bristles with ferrules

Gluing
Final assembly Cutting, combing, and cleaning
In an automated process, bristles

quate bristle is processed enough to make Byproducts/Waste are separated into bundles that
good quality brushes. are joined with a metal ferrule,
The primary byproducts of this manufactur- plugged, and glued. Once dry,
Brush manufacturers employ brush inspec- ing process are dust created from mixing fil- the brush head is cleaned,
tors who control quality by assessing the aments or bristle, handling plastic handles combed, and trimmed. Handles
product at many stages of production. Fur- or ferrules, cutting out wooden or cardboard are automatically inserted into the
thermore, most American plants encourage plugs, etc. Thus, most factories are vacu- brush head and then nailed, rivet-
the employees to visually monitor quality umed constantly using automatic systems. ed, or crimped to the ferrule.
since so many of the processes described Epoxies used to secure the bristles within
above are accomplished in plain sight and the ferrule and plug should not be inhaled
not within a "black box" of machinery. Em- extensively so the epoxies are ducted and
ployees are asked to pull pieces off the line filtered. Most of the parts of a paintbrush are
when they believed the product is inferior. recyclable (the ferrule perhaps is not). Plas-
35 1
tic handles can be recycled, bristles can be Sloan, Annie and Kate Gwynn. Classic
re-mixed. No harmful solvents are used in Paints and Faux Finishes. Pleasantville,
the manufacture of the paintbrush. NY: The Reader's Digest Association, Inc.,
1993.
Where to Learn More
Other
Books Osbom International. http://www.osbom.
Gottlieb, Leonard. Factory Made: How com.
Things are Manufactured. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1978. Wooster Brush Company. "All About Paint
Applicators: Information and Sales Tips."
Greeley, Horace et al. The Great Industries Wooster, OH: The Wooster Brush Company.
of the United States. Hartford: J.B. Burr &
Hyde, 1872. -Nancy EV Bryk
352
Parachute
Background sion lines will have time to straighten. A One parachute
gradual opening of the canopy also reduces
A parachute is a device used to slow the the shock to the equipment and the user that manufacturing plant lists
movement of a person or object as it falls or a more sudden opening would cause.
moves through the air. Used primarily for its monthly materials use
safe descent from high altitudes (e.g., a as exceeding 400,000 sq
spacecraft reentering the atmosphere, a per- History
son or object dropped from an airplane), yd 330,000 m2) of
parachutes can also be used in horizontal There is some evidence that rigid, umbrella-
configurations to slow objects like race cars like parachutes were used for entertainment fabric, 500,000 yd (455
that have finished their runs. in China as early as the twelfth century, al-
lowing people to jump from high places and km) of tape and webbing,
There are two basic types of parachutes. float to the ground. The first recorded de- 2.3 million yd (2,000 km)
One is a dome canopy made of fabric in a sign for a parachute was drawn by Leonardo
shape that ranges from a hemisphere to a da Vinci in 1495. It consisted of a pyramid- of cord, and 3,000 lb
cone; the canopy traps air inside its enve- shaped, linen canopy held open by a square,
lope, creating a region of high pressure that wooden frame. It was proposed as an escape (1,400 kg) of thread.
retards movement in the direction opposite device to allow people to jump from a burn-
the entering air flow. The other is a rectan- ing building, but there is no evidence that it
gular parafoil, or ram-air canopy, consisting was ever tested.
of a series of tubular cells; commonly used
by sport jumpers, the parafoil acts as a wing, Parachute development really began in the
allowing the jumper to "fly" toward a target. eighteenth century. In 1783 Louis-Sebastien
Either type of parachute weighs less than 15 Lenormand, a French physicist, jumped
lb (7 kg) and costs from $1,200-$1,500. from a tree while holding two parasols. Two
years later, J. P. Blanchard, another French-
In addition to the fabric canopy, a parachute man, used silk to make the first parachute
designed to be used by a person must be that was not held open by a rigid frame.
equipped with a harness that is worn by the There is some evidence that he used the de-
user. Attached to the harness is a container vice to jump from a hot air balloon.
that holds the canopy; often this is a back-
pack, but it can also extend low enough for There is extensive evidence that Andre
the user to sit on it. There is an actuation de- Jacques Garnerin made numerous parachute
vice that opens the container and releases the jumps from hot air balloons, beginning in
canopy for use; one of the most common ac- 1797. His first jump, in Paris, was from an
tuation devices is a ripcord. When the con- altitude of at least 2,000 ft (600 m). In 1802,
tainer is opened, a small pilot chute about 3 he jumped from an altitude of 8,000 ft
ft (1 m) in diameter is pulled out, either by a (2,400 m); he rode in a basket attached to a
spring mechanism or by hand. This pilot wooden pole that extended downward from
chute, in turn, pulls the main canopy from the apex (top) of the canopy, which was
the container. Some type of deployment de- made of either silk or canvas. The parachute
vice, such as a fabric sleeve, is used to slow assembly weighed about 100 lb (45 kg).
the opening of the canopy so that the suspen- During the descent, the canopy oscillated so
353
wildly that Garnerin became airsick. In fact, rics, such as Dacron and Kevlar, have re-
he was once quoted as saying that he "usual- cently been used for parachute canopies, but
ly experienced [painful vomiting] for sever- nylon remains the most popular material.
al hours after a descent in a parachute." In More specifically, parachutes are made of
1804, French scientist Joseph Lelandes in- "ripstop" nylon that is woven with a double
troduced the apex vent-a circular hole in or extra-thick thread at regular intervals,
the center of the canopy-and thus eliminat- creating a pattem of small squares. This
ed the troublesome oscillations. structure keeps small tears from spreading.
Americans became involved in parachute Other fabric components such as reinforcing
development in 1901 when Charles Broad- tape, harness straps, and suspension lines
wick designed a parachute pack that was are also made of nylon. Metal connectors
laced together with a cord. When the para- are made of forged steel that is plated with
chutist jumped, a line connecting the cord cadmium to prevent rusting. Ripcords are
with the aircraft caused the cord to break, made from stainless steel cable.
opening the pack and pulling out the para-
chute. In 1912, Captain Albert Berry of the One parachute manufacturing plant lists its
U.S. Army accomplished the first parachute monthly materials use as exceeding 400,000
jump from a moving airplane. Parachutes sq yd (330,000 m2) of fabric, 500,000 yd
did not become standard equipment for (455 km) of tape and webbing, 2.3 million
American military pilots until after World yd (2,000 km) of cord, and 3,000 lb (1,400
War I (German pilots used them during the kg) of thread.
final year of that war).
Parachutes were widely used during World Design
War II, not only as life-saving devices for A dome canopy may consist of a flat circle
pilots, but also for troop deployment. In of fabric, or it may have a conical or para-
1944, an American named Frank Derry bolic shape that will not lie flat when spread
patented a design that placed slots in the out. It has a vent hole at the apex to allow
outer edge of the canopy to make a para- some air to flow through the open canopy.
chute steerable. Some designs also have a few mesh panels
near the outer edge of the canopy to aid in
The world record for the highest parachute steering the descent. Some designs use con-
jump was set in 1960. Joe Kittinger, a test tinuous suspension lines that run across the
pilot for the U.S. Air Force's Project Excel- entire span of the canopy and extend to the
sior ascended in a balloon to an altitude of harness on each end. Others-as described
102,800 ft (31 km) and jumped. Using only in "The Manufacturing Process"-use seg-
a 6ft (1.8 m) parachute to keep him in a sta- ments of suspension lines that are attached
ble, vertical position, he experienced essen- only to the outer edge of the canopy (and
tially free fall for four minutes and 38 sec- across the apex vent).
onds, reaching a speed of 714 mph (1,150
km/h). At an altitude of 17,500 ft (5.3 km),
his 28-ft (8.5-m) parachute opened. In all, The Manufacturing
his fall lasted nearly 14 minutes. Process
Assembling
Raw Materials
Ripstop nylon cloth is spread on a long
Parachute canopies were first made of can- table and cut according to pattem pieces.
vas. Silk proved to be more practical be- The cutting may be done by a computer-
cause it was thin, lightweight, strong, easy guided mechanism or by a person using a
to pack, fire resistant, and springy. During round-bladed electric knife.
World War II, the United States was unable
to import silk from Japan, and parachute 2 Four trapezoidal panels are sewn togeth-
manufacturers began using nylon fabric. er to form a wedge-shaped "gore" about
The material tumed out to be superior to silk 13 ft (3.96 m) long. A two-needle industrial
because it was more elastic, more resistant sewing machine stitches two parallel rows,
to mildew, and less expensive. Other fab- maintaining consistent separation between
354
Parachute
A typical dome canopy parachute.
Canopy
Suspension lines
the rows. To provide sufficient strength and circular canopy. The seams are sewn in the
enclose the raw fabric edges, a "French fell" same manner as in Step 2.
seam is used; an attachment on the sewing
machine folds the cloth edges as a highly 4 Every panel and every seam is carefully
skilled operator feeds the material through 1 inspected on a lighted inspection table to
it. Depending on the parachute's specific make certain that the seams are correctly
design, a few of the gore sections may be folded and sewn and that there are no flaws
sewn using mesh rather than ripstop nylon in the cloth. If any weaving defects, sewn-in
fabric for the largest panel. pleats, or an incorrect number of stitches per
inch is found, the canopy is rejected. The
problems are recorded on an inspection
3 A number of gores (typically 24) are sheet, and they must be repaired before ad-
3sewn together, side by side, to form a ditional work is done.
355
A. French fell seam. B. Needle

hem. C. V-tab. D. Outside view of
stitched v-tab.
A. B.
s
v :1.
ll -s
_-V.
.1 1.u
-::::
x
C. D.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF STITCHING AND SEAMS
Finishing tab, which will distribute the load from the

line to a section of the skirt hem. Using a
5 A tape the same width as the original
5seam is sewn on top of each radial seam special zigzag pattern that is both strong and
elastic, the suspension cord is sewn to the
using two more rows of stitching. This tape canopy's hem tape and to the canopy seam
strengthens the canopy. for a length of 4-10 in (10-25 cm).
6 The top of each gore is a few inches
(several centimeters) wide; after the After the 24 suspension lines are sewn
V to the canopy, 12 1 ft (30 cm) long
gores are sewn together, their tops form a
small open circle (the vent) at the center of apex lines are similarly sewn to the central
the canopy. To reinforce the vent and to vent. One end of each line is stitched into a
keep the cloth from fraying, the fabric is V-tab, then the line crosses the vent to the
rolled around a piece of webbing and sewn opposite seam where the other end is
with a four-needle sewing machine, which stitched into a V-tab.
stitches four parallel rows at once.
Rigging
7 The bottom of each gore is 2-3 ft (0.5-1
7m) wide. Sewn together, these edges 1 lThe canopy is attached to the harness
form the outer edge (the skirt) of the by tying the suspension lines to steel
canopy. This edge is finished in the same connector links on the harness. The lines
manner as the vent, as in Step 6. must not be twisted or tangled if the para-
chute is to function properly. Attaching the
8 A short piece of reinforcing tape is sewn lines to their correct sequential positions on
8to the skirt at each radial tape. It is folded the connecting links of the harness and mak-
into a "V" pointing outward from the canopy. ing certain that the lines are straight is called
A specialized automatic sewing machine, de- rigging the parachute. The line end may be
signed for this specific operation, is used to knotted at the harness link, or the end may
sew precisely the same number of stitches in be threaded back inside the line like a "Chi-
exactly the same pattern every time. nese fingertrap."
9 One end of a 20 ft (6 m) long suspension 12 To keep the attaching knot or finger-
line is threaded through each V-shaped trap from untying, the end of each sus-
356
Parachute
A. Two half hitches. B. Clove and
half hitch. C. Braided suspension
line.
11
Side view._
A. B. C.
SUSPENSION LINE AND RIGGING
pension line is zigzag stitched to the main The Future

section of the line.
Like other manufacturers, parachute makers
Every assembly operation, every continually search for better materials and
13seam, even every stitch is reviewed designs. Perhaps the most intriguing future
for completion and correctness. When the development for parachutes, however, is
parachute is approved, it is marked with a their potential use to control the emergency
serial number, the date of manufacture, and descent of entire aircraft. At least one com-
a final inspection stamp. pany, Ballistic Recovery Systems Inc.
(BRS), is already manufacturing such Gen-
A parachute rigger licensed by the eral Aviation Recovery Devices (GARDs)
I'4 Federal Aviation Administration for use on small airplanes.
(FAA) assembles the component parts (e.g.,
canopy, suspension lines, pilot chute) and Using an extremely low-porosity, strong,
carefully folds and arranges them in the lightweight fabric for the canopy, the
pack, securing it with the appropriate activa- manufacturer bakes a 1,600-square-foot
tion device such as a ripcord. (150-m2) canopy and vacuum-packs it
into a 15xI0x6-in (38x25xl5-cm) bag
weighing 25 lb (10 kg). The pack is in-
Quolity Control stalled inside the roof liner of the airplane
The quality control systems used by para- near its center of gravity. To ensure that
chute manufacturers must meet the require- the parachute will deploy even in low-alti-
ments for civil and/or military aviation equip- tude emergencies, it is activated by a
ment established by the federal government, small rocket device.
under the supervision of the FAA. In addition
to the lighted inspection tables mentioned, By the late 1990s, more than 14,000 light
other types of testing equipment include ten- and ultralight airplanes have already been
sile test machines (to measure strength of equipped with GARDs costing $2,000-
fabric and seams while being pulled), perme- $4,000 each. As of June 1998, BRS had
ameters (to test the amount of air that can documented 121 lives saved by the devices.
pass through the fabric), and basic measuring The FAA has approved a GARD system for
devices (e.g., to count stitches per inch). two models of Cessna airplanes.
357
A system of five parafoils has been proposed Poynter, Dan. Parachuting: The Skydiver's
for use on Boeing 747 commercial airliners. Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: Para Pub-
The complex system would allow the pilot to lishing, 1989.
control the deployment of each canopy.
Rather than dropping the airplane straight Other
down, the system would establish a glide
path that would allow the pilot to control and "Ballistic Recovery Systems." http://users.
land the craft. The practicality of the pro- aol.com/BRSchute/BRS.HTML (February
posed system has not yet been proven. 1999).
"Strong Enterprises Company Overview."
Where to Learn More http://www.strongparachutes.com (February
1999).
Books
Bates, Jim. Parachuting: From Student to -Loretta Hall
Skydiver. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB
Books, 1990.
358
Pepper
Background other heat-generating substances, including Since 1950, consumption
an alkaloid called piperine, which is used to
Pepper is often described as the "king of add the pungent effect to brandy, and an oil of pepper in the United
spices," and it shares a place on most dinner that is distilled from the peppercorns for use
tables with salt. The word pepper originated in meat sauces.
States has risen from
from the Sanskrit word pippali, meaning
berry. Pepper is now grown in Indonesia,
about 14,000-30,000
As a natural medicinal agent, black pepper in
Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and Kam- tea form has been credited for relieving tons (12,700-27,200
puchea as well as the West coast of India, arthritis, nausea, fever, migraine headaches,
known as Malabar, where it originated. The poor digestion, strep throat, and even coma. metric tons) per year.
United States is the largest importer of pep- It has also been used for non-medical appli-
per. India is still the largest exporter of the cations as an insecticide. Of course, black
spice, and Brazil may be among the newest pepper is a favorite spice of cooks because of
exporter of pepper. its dark color and pungent aroma and flavor.
Both black and white pepper come from the White pepper is also commonly used and is
shrub classified as Piper nigrum. Piper ni- popular among chefs for its slightly milder
grum is one of about 1,000 species in the flavor and the light color that compliments
Piper genus that is part of the larger family white sauces, mayonnaise, souffles, and
of peppers called Piperaceae. The various other light-colored dishes. White pepper is
species of Piper are grown mostly as woody also true pepper that is processed in the field
shrubs, small trees, and vines in the tropical differently than its black form.
and subtropical regions of the world. The
Piper nigrum is a climbing shrub that grows A mixture of black and white peppercorns is
to about 30 ft (9 m) tall through a system of called a mignonette. Ground pepper is also
aerial roots, but is usually pruned to 12 ft popular in mixes of spices. A French spice
(3.66 m) in cultivation. Its flowers are slen- blend called quartre epices consists of white
der, dense spikes with about 50 blossoms pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and either nut-
each. The berry-like fruits it produces be- meg or mace. Kitchen pepper is called for in
come peppercorns; each one is about 0.2 in some recipes for sauces and includes salt,
(5 mm) in diameter and contains a single white pepper, ginger, mace, cloves, and nut-
seed. It is indigenous to southern India and meg. Pepper, therefore, proves itself to be a
Sri Lanka, and has been cultivated in other versatile and essential ingredient in combi-
countries with uniformly warm tempera- nation with other spices, as well as in soli-
tures and with moist soil conditions. Be- tary glory in the pepper mill.
cause the plant also likes shade, it is some-
times grown interspersed within coffee and Other species of peppers, such as P. Iongum,
tea plantations. Each plant may produce P. cubeba, and P. guineense, produce pep-
berries for 40 years. percorns that are used locally for medicinal
purposes, or are made into oleoresins, essen-
The hot taste sensation in pepper comes tial oils, or used as an adulterant of black
from a resin called chavicine in the pepper- pepper. Berries of pepper trees from the
corns. Peppercorns also are the source of genus Schinus, family Euphorbiaceae, are
359
not true peppers, but are often combined peans valued pepper highly in the Middle
with true peppercorns for their color, rather Ages and the Renaissance, and pepper was
than their flavor. S. terebinthifolius is the often presented for gifts, rent, dowries,
source of pink peppercorns, but must be bribes, and to pay taxes.
used sparingly, because they are toxic if
eaten in large quantity. Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama
reached India in 1497 and opened the trade
Betel leaf (P. betel) chewing, practiced by route for pepper, among many other spices.
the Malays of Malaysia and Indonesia, is as Meanwhile, on the other side of the world,
popular as cigarette smoking in that region. Christopher Columbus discovered the New
Chewing the leaves aids digestion, decreas- World, and in the process, he made life
es perspiration, and increases physical en- complicated for pepper lovers. Columbus
durance. found a large and aromatic berry he dubbed
"the Jamaican Pepper." This berry is exten-
Bell, cayenne, and chili peppers are not sively used as a ground spice today, but it is
members of the Piper genus. They are clas- called allspice. His second peppery discov-
sified within the family Solanacene, com- ery was the capsicum. Its large, mild-fla-
monly known as nightshades. Comprised of vored versions come in red, yellow, and
over 2,000 species, the nightshade family is green varieties; and it also includes these
indigenous to Central and South America, three colors in fiery hot chili peppers. The
although many species have been cultivated capsicum peppers are not related to the pep-
worldwide. Common nightshade species in- per found in shakers and mills. Cayenne
clude potatoes, eggplant, tomatoes, tobacco, pepper is ground from dried capsicums, so it
and petunia. also is not a variety of the dried berry.
To add further to the confusion Columbus
History unwittingly unleashed, the Spanish word for
Pepper was an important part of the spice pepper is pimento; so the small slivers of red
trade between India and Europe as early as pimento found in olives are red pepper
Greek and Roman times. Pepper remained pieces, and allspice is also known as Ja-
largely unknown in Western Europe until maican pimento. Allspice, as this version of
the Middle Ages. During that time, the Ge- its name states, has a fragrance that suggests
noese and Venetians monopolized sea trade a mixture of cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, and
routes and, therefore, also monopolized sale pepper. A few whole allspice berries added
of pepper and other spices. to the dinner-table pepper mill will spice up
ground pepper.
Knowledge of pepper truly flowered during
the European period of exploration that Raw Materials
began in the late fifteenth century. Pepper
grows in hot, humid conditions near sea Peppercorns are the only raw material for
level, so many of the areas where pepper both black and white pepper in any form. If
grows were simply unknown to Europeans the manufacturer produces green pepper-
until seafaring, exploring, and empire-build- corns, brine consisting of pure water, salt,
ing began. In addition, European tastes fa- and preservatives is used. Green pepper-
vored the "sweet pot," in which both sweet corns are also packed in vinegar; the vinegar
and savory ingredients were cooked in a sin- or brine should be washed off the berries be-
gle pot on the hearth. The spices used most fore the peppercorns are used in cooking.
often for this kind of cooking were nutmeg,
cinnamon, mace, ginger, and cloves. The Manufacturing
The pepper that was known in Europe from Process
Roman times was the Piper longum (or long
pepper) that is more aromatic and not so hot. Cultivation
Our familiar black pepper, or Piper nigrum, The pepper berries grow on bushes that
rose in popularity when the stove was intro- are cultivated to heights of about 13 ft (4
duced for cooking and sweet and savory m). If the berries were allowed to ripen fully,
foods could be prepared separately. Euro- they would turn red; instead, they are har-
360
Pepper
vested when they are green. Harvesting is Black pepper plant Piper nigrum.
done without any mechanical equipment.
Women pick the unripened berries and trans-
port them in large wicker baskets to drying
platforms. The berries are spread on these
large platforms to dry in the sun over a peri-
od of about a week and a half. In their dried
state, the green berries blacken to become
the peppercorns we use in pepper mills.
2 Alternatively, the pepper berries can be
2picked just as they begin to turn red.
They are plunged into boiling water for ap-
proximately 10 minutes, and they turn black
or dark brown in an hour. The peppercorns
are spread in the sun to dry for three to four
days before they are taken to the factory to
be ground. This process is quicker than air-
drying alone but requires the added step of
the boiling water bath.
3 If white pepper is to be produced, the
peppercorns are either stored in heaps
after they have been boiled or they are har-
vested and packed in large sacks that are vor. Further grinding steps crush pepper-
then lowered into running streams for seven corns into coarse and fine grinds of pepper
to 15 days (depending on location). Bacteri- that are packaged separately. A sifter sorts
al action causes the outer husk of each pep- the grains by size, and they are conveyed to
percorn, called the pericarp, to break away packaging stations. Packaging varies widely
from the remainder of the peppercorn. The among processors and includes bags, boxes,
berries are removed from the stream and and canisters for large-volume commercial
placed in barrels partially immersed in sales and smaller jars, cans, and mills for
water; workers trample the berries, much home use. Packing may also include the
like stomping grapes, to agitate the pepper- blending of pepper with other spices in a va-
corns and remove any remaining husks. riety of spice mixes for preparing sauces,
Some processors now use mechanical meth- cajun recipes, Italian foods, seafood, and a
ods to grind off the outer coating to produce range of other specialized blends.
so-called decorticated pepper, but many ex-
porters prefer the old-fashioned method.
Quality Control
in the factory Because pepper is harvested by hand, quali-
4 Black and white pepper are processed in ty control begins in the field with the careful
'+ the factory by cleaning, grinding, and observations of the harvesters. Bulk impor-
packaging. Blowers and gravity separators tation of peppercorns is monitored, as with
are used to remove dust, dirt clods, bits of all agricultural products, by government in-
twigs and stalk, and other impurities from spectors. In the factory, machinery used to
the peppercorns after they are imported process pepper is simple, and the processing
from the field. Sometimes, treatments are is observed throughout.
used to eliminate bacteria on the cleaned,
dry peppercorns. The Future
5Grinding consists of using a series of The life of the spice called pepper seems
rollers in a process called cold roll guaranteed. Since 1950, consumption of
milling to crush the peppercorns. Cracked pepper in the United States has risen from
peppercorns are only crushed lightly to about 14,000-30,000 tons (12,700-27,200
bruise the peppercorns and release their fla- metric tons) per year. Interest in gourmet
36 1
Cold roll milling machines crush the

peppercoms by rolling them be-
tween a series of rollers. Cracked
lightly, the peppercoms are able to
release their flavor.
.4
cooking, in types of cooking like cajun-style Walker, Jane. Creative Cooking with
recipes that are spice-dependent, in restau- Spices: Where They Come From & How to
rant dining, and in healthful food prepara- Use Them. London: Quintet Publishing
tion have all sparked renewed enthusiasm Ltd., 1985.
for the flavor and goodness of pepper. Pep-
per will surely have an honored place at the Periodicals
table as long as there are cooks, kitchens,
and taste-conscious consumers. Ee, Khoo Joo. "The life of spice; cloves,
nutmeg, pepper, cinnamon." UNESCO
Courier (June 1984): 20.
Where to Learn More
Wemick, Robert. "Men launched 1,000
Books ships in search of the dark condiment."
Heinerman, John. The Complete Book of Smithsonian (February 1984): 128.
Spices: Their Medical, Nutritional and
Cooking Uses. New Canaan, Connecticut: Other
Keats Publishing Inc., 1983. Hela Spice Co. "The History of Spices."
http://arcos.org/hela (March 24, 1999).
Norman, Jill. The Complete Book ofSpices:
A Practical Guide to Spices and Aromatic India Spice Board. http://www.indian-
Seeds. New York: Viking Studio Books, spices.com (March 24, 1999).
1990.
McCormick & Company, Inc. March 24,
Stobart, Tom. The International Wine and 1999. http://www.mccormick.com (March
Food Society's Guide to Herbs, Spices and 24, 1999).
Flavorings. New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 1970. -Gillian S. Holmes
362
Pipe Organ
Background largest pipe organ in the world, located in The largest pipe organ in
Philadelphia, contains 28,500 pipes.
A pipe organ is a musical instrument that the world, located in
produces sound by blowing air through a se- The action may be mechanical, pneumatic,
ries of hollow tubes controlled by key- electric, or electropneumatic. A mechanical Philadelphia,
boards. Pipe organs are distinguished from action links the console to the valves which
reed organs, in which air causes thin strips Pennsylvania, contains
control the flow of air to the pipes with
of metal to vibrate. They are also distin- cranks, rollers, and levers. A pneumatic ac- 28,500 pipes.
guished from electronic organs that use tion uses air pressure, activated by the con-
electrical devices to produce sounds similar sole, to control the valves. An electric action
to pipe organs. The large pipe organs used uses electromagnets, controlled by the con-
in public buildings are by far the biggest and sole, to activate the valves. An electropneu-
most complicated musical instruments ever matic action uses electromagnets, activated
built. by the console, to control air pressure which
activates the valves.
A pipe organ consists of four basic parts.
The console contains the keyboards, foot The wind generator of a modem pipe organ
pedals, and stops. The pipes, which may be is usually a rotary blower, powered by an
as short as 1 in (2.5 cm) or as long as 32 ft electric motor. Some small pipe organs use
(10 m), produce the sound. The action is hand-pumped bellows as wind generators,
the complex mechanism which is operated as all pipe organs did until the beginning of
by the console to control the flow of air to the twentieth century.
the pipes. The wind generator supplies air
to the pipes. The earliest known ancestor of the pipe
organ was the hydraulus, invented by the
A very small pipe organ may have a console Greek engineer Ctesibius in Alexandria,
with only one keyboard, with each key con- Egypt, in the third century B.C. This device
trolling the flow of air to one pipe. Most pipe contained a reservoir of air which was
organs, however, have consoles with two to placed in a large container of water. Air was
five keyboards, a set of foot pedals, and a set pumped into the reservoir, and the pressure
of stops. Stops are controls which open or of the water maintained a steady supply of
close the air supply to a group of pipes, air to the pipes. Pipe organs with bellows
known as a rank. In this way, each key can appeared about four hundred years later.
control the flow of air to several pipes.
Medieval pipe organs had very large keys
The pipes exist in two basic forms. About and could only play diatonic notes (the notes
four-fifths of the pipes in a typical pipe played by the white keys on modem key-
organ are flue pipes. A flue pipe consists of boards). By the fourteenth century, key-
a hollow cylinder with an opening in the boards could also play chromatic notes (the
side of the pipe. The rest of the pipes are notes played by the black keys on modem
reed pipes. A reed pipe consists of a hollow keyboards). Keys were reduced in size by
cylinder, containing a vibrating strip of the end of the fifteenth century. By the year
metal, connected to a hollow cone. The 1500, pipe organs in northern Germany had
363
all the basic features found in modem in- such as zinc and copper. The vibrating reeds
struments. Germany led the world in organ inside reed pipes are usually made of brass.
building for three hundred years.
Various small components, such as screws
Pipe organs fell out of favor during the eigh- and bolts to hold parts of the action together,
teenth century, when orchestral music be- are made of steel. Other small components
came popular. During the early nineteenth may be made of other materials, such as
century, reed organs, which were smaller plastics and ceramics. Electronic organs re-
and less expensive than pipe organs, began quire semiconducting materials, such as sili-
to be used in small buildings and private con and germanium, in order to manufacture
homes. The increased availability of rela- the electrical circuits which produce the
tively inexpensive pianos in the early twen- sound.
tieth century, followed by the development
of electronic organs in the middle of the
century, led to the demise of reed organs in Design
Europe and the United States. Small reed or- Every pipe organ must be individually craft-
gans are still used in India. ed. Because only very small pipe organs are
movable, the instrument must be able to
Meanwhile, a renewed interest in pipe organs produce the best possible sound in one par-
appeared in the middle of the nineteenth cen- ticular location.
tury, led by the French organ builder Aristide
Cavaille-Coll and the British organ builder The organ builder inspects the site where the
Henry Willis. These new pipe organs were organ will be used. The acoustics of the lo-
better suited to playing orchestral music, cation, as well as its physical dimensions,
greatly increasing their popularity. must be considered. The visual appearance
of the pipe organ must be as beautiful as the
The twentieth century brought the devel- sound it makes. Locations for pipes are se-
opment of the electronic organ. The earli- lected with both factors in mind. Sometimes
est ancestor of this device, known as the dummy pipes that do not actually produce
Telharmonium, was invented in the Unit- sound are installed strictly to improve the
ed States in 1904 by Thaddeus Cahill. appearance of the instrument.
This instrument weighed two tons (1800
kg) and was not a success. The first suc- The amount of money that a client is willing
cessful electronic organ was developed in to spend for a pipe organ has an important
France in 1928 by Edouard Coupleux and influence on the design, such as the number
Armand Givelet. One of the most success- of pipes that will be installed. Often a client
ful early electronic organs was the Ham- will consider designs submitted by several
mond organ, invented by Laurens Ham- organ builders, and will select the one that
mond in 1934. best supplies the desired characteristics
within a specified budget.
Raw Mcaterials
Pipe organs are primarily made of wood The Manufacturing
and metal. Wood used to make parts of the Process
organ which are not visible, such as the ac-
tion, may be made of plywood or soft Making the pipes
woods such as poplar. Visible wooden Lumber arrives at the pipe organ manu-
parts, such as the console, are made from facturer and is inspected for flaws. It is
hard, decorative woods, such as mahogany then stored for about six months to allow it
or oak. Wood is also used to make some of to adjust to the local climate. This avoids
the pipes. Woods used for pipes include having the wood split or crack after it is
poplar and mahogany. shaped into pipes. Precision woodworking
equipment is used to cut the wood to the
Most pipes are made from metal. Metal proper size and shape.
pipes are most often made from alloys con-
taining various amounts of tin and lead. 2 Some metals, such as copper, zinc, and
Pipes may also be made from other metals, various alloys, may arrive at the pipe
364
Pipe Organ
Powered by a rotary blower, a me-
chanical pipe organ creates sound
by linking the console to the valves
which control the Row of air to the
pipes with cranks, rollers, and
levers. The blower moves air
through the wind trunk to the wind
chest. Stop knobs open and close
specific rows of pipes. When a row
is open, the air can flow from the
wind chest to the pipes as the key-
board is played, creating sound.
365
Pipe orgons ufilize two types of

pipes. About four-fifths of the
pipes in a typical pipe organ are
flue pipes. A flue pipe consists of a
hollow cylinder with an opening in
the side of the pipe. The rest of the
pipes are reed pipes. A reed pipe
consists of a hollow cylinder, con-
taining a vibroting strip of metal,
Tuning wire II
connected to a hollow cone.
Reed tongue
Shallot
Reed pipe Flue pipe
organ manufacturer in the form of sheets of Assembling the organ

the proper size and thickness. Sheets made
of alloys of tin and lead are usually made by 6 Manufacturing the console, the action,
the pipe organ manufacturer. This is be- and the wind chest is a long, slow, diffi-
cause small changes in the exact amounts of cult process. Each of the thousands of
tin and lead present may cause large wooden parts which make up a pipe organ is
changes in the sound of the pipe. More tin carefully carved using precision woodwork-
tends to produce a brighter sound. More ing equipment, including joiners, sanders,
lead tends to produce a heavier sound. and saws. Highly accurate drill presses are
used to drill thousands of holes, each of
3 Tin and lead are carefully weighed on ac- which must be in the correct position to
3curate scales and mixed together in the allow the pipe organ to operate. Wooden
parts that will be visible are carefully pol-
desired amounts. The mixture is heated in an
oven until it melts into a liquid. The molten ished smooth and given a protective, trans-
alloy is poured into a large, shallow cooling parent finish, allowing the natural beauty of
tray. The metal cools into a sheet, which is the wood to be seen. The keys, also carved
removed from the tray. The exact amount of from wood, are covered with layers of black
liquid that is poured into the tray determines or white plastic.
the thickness of the sheet, which will affect
the sound of the pipe. 7 The various components, except the
pipes, are assembled in order to test the
4 The metal sheet is cut to the proper size. action. A small pipe organ may be assem-
It is then bent around a wooden mandrel bled where it is built, but most pipe organs
in the shape of the pipe being made. The must be assembled and tested in the place
sheet is hammered and rolled around the where they will be used. After the action is
mandrel until it is shaped into a pipe. The tested, the pipes are installed, tested, and ad-
seam, where one edge of the sheet meets the justed.
other edge, is smoothed and soldered. The
pipe is then cut to the proper length.
5 For flue pipes, an opening of the proper Quality Control
5size, shape, and location is cut into the Raw materials are inspected before the
side of the pipe. For reed pipes, a strip of process of building the pipe organ begins.
brass is installed in the correct position. Wood must be dry, evenly grained, and free
Small adjustments in the opening or the reed from cracks or splits. Sheets of metal alloy
are often needed when the pipe organ is must contain the proper amounts of each
completed. metal and must be of the proper thickness.
366
Pipe Organ
Constant visual inspection of all parts is On the other hand, many organ builders are
necessary as they are built. showing more interest in creating instru-
ments similar to those used prior to the nine-
Before the pipes are installed, the console teenth century. These pipe organs are better
and action are tested to ensure that all mech- suited to playing music from the Baroque
anisms work properly. This procedure also and Classical periods than organs built using
blows dust out of the many holes drilled in designs developed during the Romantic pe-
the action that prevents it from causing riod. Perhaps these two seemingly opposite
problems later. Each pipe is tested for sound trends will be combined to accurately repro-
quality one at a time. The sound of each duce sounds which have not been heard for
pipe is also compared to the sounds of its hundreds of years.
nearest neighbors. Then, an entire rank of
pipes is tested and compared to neighboring
ranks. Small adjustments are made as neces- Where to Learn More
sary, and the tests are repeated.
Books
The Future Sonnaillon, Bernard. King of Instruments:
A History of the Organ. Rizzoli Internation-
Electronic organs will continue to reproduce al Publications, 1985.
the sound of pipe organs with greater accu-
racy. The most critical factor in this process Williams, Peter. A New History of the
will be improvements in sampling technolo- Organ: From the Greeks to the Present
gy. Sampling involves converting sound Day. Indiana University Press, 1980.
into digital information, storing this infor-
mation, then retrieving the information from
memory and using it to reproduce the sound. Periodicals
Electronic organs will also make increasing Webster, Donovan. "Pipe Dreams." Smith-
use of Musical Instrument Digital Interface sonian (July 1997): 100-108.
(MIDI) technology. MIDI technology al-
lows electronic instruments of various kinds Other
to work together and with computers. MIDI
technology could allow electronic organs to "Pipe Organs and Music." http://www.orgel.
reproduce the sound of almost any instru- com/home-e.html (September 3, 1998).
ment, as well as producing sounds that have
never been heard before. -Rose Secrest
367
Pita Bread
By the 1 990s, the Background sale, these bakeries would set aside time for
people who still wanted to mix their own
wholesale pita bread Nearly every civilization makes some type dough and then bake it in the commercial
of bread. Prehistoric people of 10,000 years ovens. These were large brick ovens heated
market in the United ago baked bread. The residents of by wood or coal. The loaves were moved in
States was nearing $80 Mesopotamia, what is now Iraq, were and out of the ovens with a long-handled
known to use stones to grind grain to which wooden shovel called a peel.
million in yearly sales. they added water and then cooked over an
open fire. It may have been the Bedouins who first
made pita bread. After a long day in the sun,
Excavations of ancient Egyptian cities show traversing the desert, they made camp and
that they grew wheat and barley and used prepared a modest respite. Powdered grain
them to bake flatbreads. It is believed that was mixed with water to make dough which
the Egyptians discovered leavened or raised was formed into flat round loaves. The loaves
bread accidentally when a mixture of grain were placed over the bottom of the mixing
and water was left in a warm place, releas- vessel and baked over an open fire. This bread
ing the naturally occurring yeast and pro- was used as a utensil, as well as for food.
ducing a puffed-up dough.
In remote Arab villages, bread is still baked
Before a process for making yeast was de- in backyard stoves. Some Arab and Israeli
veloped, bakers would often set aside a communities have community ovens or bak-
piece of unbaked dough from each batch. eries that set aside special hours for families
By the time the next batch was made, the re- to bring in their homemade loaves.
served dough had soured, or fermented, by
airbome yeasts. It was then mixed with When Middle Eastem immigrants began
fresh dough to make it rise. In 1665, an en- moving to the United States in large numbers
terprising baker thought to add brewer's in the 1970s, they introduced Americans to
yeast to his reserved dough. their cuisine. Pita bread became a popular
bread choice, especially because the absence
At first, grain was manually ground by rub- of shortening and the small amounts of sugar
bing it between two stones. Then, a mechan- make it a low-fat food. By the 1990s, the
ical process was invented, in which a cattle- wholesale pita bread market was nearing $80
drive stone revolved on top of a lower, million in yearly sales. Most of the pita is
perpendicular, stationary stone. In time, the baked by specialty bakeries in the East, West
cattle were replaced by water mills or wind- and Midwest. Commerical pitas are typically
mills. By the late eighteenth century, a baked with unbleached all-purpose flour or
Swiss miller had invented a steel roller whole wheat flour. They range in size from
mechanism that greatly simplified the grind- 4-10 in (10.16-25.4 cm) in diameter.
ing process.
Commercial bakeries first appeared in the
Raw Materials
Middle Ages, as towns and villages were es- Pita bread is made with grain flour, water,
tablished. In addition to baking bread for salt, and bakers' yeast. Harvested grain is
368
Pita Bread
Pita bread is made by mixing pre-

ground according to the type of bread being and packaged. It is either combined with measured amounts of flour, salt,
made. Grains are composed of three parts: starch and compressed into cakes, or ground water, and yeast. Once kneaded,
bran (the hard outer layer), germ (the repro- into powdered form and mixed with corn- the dough is fed through an ex-
ductive component), and endosperm (the meal. Bakeries purchase bakers' yeast in truder that forms the dough into
soft inner core). Whole wheat flour is made bulk from outside suppliers. tennis-ball sized portions. Next,
from the grinding of all three parts. White the dough balls are allowed to rest
The water used must be of the purest quali- and rise in a process called proof-
flour is made solely from the endosperm. ing. The dough balls pass under a
Because the nutrient-rich bran and germ ty, not only because it will be used for series of rollers that press the
have been removed in the processing of human consumption, but also because the dough into the desired-sized cir-
white flour, vitamins and minerals are often hardness and pH affect the properties of the cles. The flattened dough is then
added. Grain mills grind the flour and then dough. Most processors filter the water so passed under die-cuts that create
sell it in bulk to commercial bakeries. The that it is of medium hardness (50-100 parts circular pieces.
bakeries store the flour in 100,000 lb per million) with a neutral pH.
(45,400 kg) bulk silos until ready for use.
Yeast is a single-celled fungus with en-
The Manufacturing
Process
zymes that extract oxygen from starches or
sugars present in food. This causes fermen- Mixing the dough
tation and leavening (rising). In commercial
production, yeast strains are fed a solution Premeasured amounts of flour, salt,
of molasses, mineral salts and ammonia. water, and yeast are blended in commer-
After the fungus completes growth, the cial mixers in several hundred pound batch-
yeast is separated from the solution, washed es. Some bakeries may add a mold retardant
369
After a second proofing, the cir-

cle-shaped dough is baked quick- such as calcium propionate. Large motor- rollers that press the dough into the desired-
ly at a very high temperature so ized arms in the mixer knead the dough to sized circles. If the dough is still in one
that the upper and lower crusts the desired elasticity. layer, the rollers press it to a thickness of
separate, forming a pocket. about 0.125 in (0.3175 cm). The flattened
Extruding the dough dough is then passed under die-cuts that cre-
ate circular pieces. The excess dough, about
2 The dough is scooped out of the mixing 10%, is recycled back into the extruder.
bowl and fed into an extruder that forms
the dough into tennis-ball sized portions.
Each ball is then dropped into cups moving Second proofing
on a conveyor belt. 5 The circular loaves move into the top
shelf of a rotating proofer. As they slow-
First proofing ly move down to the bottom of the proofer,
3 The dough balls are allowed to rest and the rises again. They exit the proofer and are
rise in the cups for approximately 15 conveyed into the oven.
minutes. This process is called proofing. In
some processing plants, the dough is al- Baking the pitas
lowed to proof in one continuous layer be-
fore it is cut into individual portions. 6 The ovens are kept at a very high tem-
6perature, between 800-900° F (426.6-
Cuffing and forming the pitas 482.20 C). The pita loaves move quickly
through the ovens where they are exposed to
4 The dough balls are turned out onto a the high heat for about one minute. The
sheeter that travels on a linear conveyer combination of the high heat and flash-bak-
belt. The sheeter passes under a series of ing causes the water in the dough to turn to
370
Pita Bread
steam thus forming the pita pocket by sepa- station, the pita are tested for appearance,
rating the upper and lower crusts. texture, and taste.
Cooling and flattening the loaves Because of its high moisture content, 38-
40%, bread is particularly subject to bacteria
7 The baked pita loaves moves out of the growth. While the baking process destroys
7oven and back and forth on a system of most of the bacteria, bread is still suscepti-
conveyers belt for about 20 minutes until ble to re-inoculation of fungi after packages.
they are cooled. Plant workers then manual- There are a number of methods used to com-
ly flatten the puffed-up loaves. Burnt or un- bat this including fungicides and ultraviolet
dercooked loaves are discarded. lighting.
Slicing the loaves Labeling regulations stipulate the plant list
baking date, ingredients and weight on
8 If the pita loaves are to be sliced in half, packaging. If the pita bread is marketed as
Cthey are conveyed to slicing machines an organic product, its processing must ad-
where rotating knife blades quickly slice the here to the Organic Foods Production Act
bread. The loaves can be cut individually or that enumerates various requirements.
stacked in piles about six high and sliced. Those that pertain to bread processing in-
clude prohibitions against treating seeds
Packaging with prohibited materials during the grow-
9 Whether sliced or left whole, the pita are ing season and strict rules for commodities
conveyed to the packaging area where grown with fungi, such as yeast.
they are stacked in a pre-determined amount
and inserted into pre-printed plastic bags. Where to Learn More
Workers may close the bags manually with
twist ties. Alternately, the bag openings may Books
be fitted with a zipper tear-strip, in which Habeeb, Virginia T. Pita the Great. New
case the bag is mechanically heat-sealed.
York: Workman Publishing, 1986.
The packaged pitas are loaded onto trays or
into cartons for shipment. If the pitas are not
going to be shipped immediately, they are Periodicals
flash-frozen and kept in industrial freezers Pacyniak, Bernard. "Kangaroo packs a wal-
that are regulated to a constant temperature lop." Bakery Production and Marketing
of about 100 F (-12.2° C). (April 24, 1990): 60.
"Pita sales zip along." Packaging Digest
Quality Control (September 1990): 42.
As a foodstuff, pita bread is subject to strin-
gent government food processing regula- Sobel, Dava. "The Upper Crust." Health
tions, including, but not limited to the per- (December 1986): 45.
cent of additives allowed, sterilization of
plant equipment, and cleanliness of plant Other
workers. In addition to adhering to these Leon International, division of Middle East
regulations, processors control the quality of Baking Co. http://leon-intl.com/pitabread.
their products to meet consumer expecta- htm.
tions by installing checkpoints are various
stages of the processing. At each inspection -Mary McNulty
371
Plastic Doll
Today, dolls of all Background became a commercial entity. Such dolls re-
tained their popularity until the end of the
materials represent a Dolls have evolved over the centuries from nineteenth century. By the fifteenth century,
religious symbols or idols in ceremonies to Germany had established itself as an impor-
market valued at over $2 playthings by children, and are now also tant center of doll-making, with France fol-
highly-prized collectibles. Doll collecting
billion in shipments of the has become the second largest adult hobby
lowing suit. The making of luxury dolls
continued into the sixteenth century with
$15+ billion U.S. toy in the United States, and many collectibles Paris an important center. Also during this
are made of plastic. One popular doll com-
industry. period, the number of available doll acces-
pany, Alexander Doll Company, sells more sories increased.
than 500,000 dolls every year to both chil-
dren and collectors. The next century continued to see dolls
being played by both ordinary children and
Some of the earliest dolls date from around those born into nobility. Wax and wood
2000 B.C. and were produced in Egypt. were still popular, and papier mache was
Made of wood into a simple paddle shape, becoming more common. The doll by the
these dolls were probably used in fertility end of this century became an accepted arti-
rites. Other miniature figures were used in cle of commerce, even as far as the colonies
tombs. Wooden and clay dolls were also of America. American settlers also began to
made by the early Greeks. Many of these produce dolls of their own, usually made
ancient dolls were believed to have magical from wood.
powers.
Other materials became popular during the
Doll-making was also an industry in the eighteenth century. Plaster of paris, which
Roman era, and materials included wood, was easy to cast, was used despite it being
cloth, bone, and terra cotta. During this peri- so fragile. In Germany, hard paste porcelain
od, dolls were dedicated at puberty to the was first made and was subsequently used to
gods of Mercury, Jupiter, and Diana. Dolls make heads. A common tradition during this
were also often buried with their owners, es- period was for ladies to have wax dolls
pecially since many died young. Other early made as portraits of themselves and dressed
cultures-including those found in India, in fashionable clothes. Another method of
Japan, and North America-used dolls to studying and examining costume that be-
teach children their traditions. Materials in- came popular was the use of paper figures.
cluded cloth, clay, buckskin, and corn Paper was cheap and readily available;
husks. Dolls made from corn were often dresses were painted to fit the figure. Flat
used in harvest celebrations. paper or card dolls were sold in sheet form
in Europe at the end of the century.
As civilizations evolved, so did the doll,
which became much more elaborate for During the nineteenth century, doll heads
those who could afford it. Wealthy children and dolls made of china were introduced
in Europe were given dolls of wax, wood, and doll makers began looking for an un-
and composition during the late Medieval breakable substance. Gutta percha, a rubber
period (fourteenth century) and doll making like substance from Mayala, came into regu-
372
Plastic Doll
lar use around 1840 in Europe. When the made, followed by a color illustration. Next,
American firm Goodyear Rubber Company a model is sculptured from wax. Once the de-
invented the vulcanizing process for hard sign is approved, a master mold is made that
rubber in 1851, this material was adapted by is used to manufacture production molds.
many doll makers in the United States and
was still being used a hundred years later.
Metal and celluloid were two other materi- Rcavw Mcaterials
als that were also used during this time in
various countries. Most plastic dolls are made from vinyl, oth-
erwise known as polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Composition was still popular during the Major resin producers supply PVC com-
early twentieth century, and it was not until pounds, which is the world's second largest
several years after World War II that the first selling thermoplastic behind polyethylene.
true plastic doll was made in East Germany. The basic building block of PVC is vinyl
Since then, plastic dolls abound in every toy chloride, which is converted to PVC by a
store, with the most popular one named Bar- suspension process. All PVC must be com-
bie (with annual retail sales of almost $1 bil- pounded prior to use. Rigid compounds con-
lion). Since 1959, more than one billion Bar- sist mostly of resin (85-90%), whereas flexi-
bie dolls and members of her family have ble PVC contains 40-60% resin. Other
been sold in more than 140 countries around additives include plasticizers, stabilizers,
the world. Every second, two Barbie dolls processing aids, lubricants, pigments, and
are sold somewhere in the world. fillers.
Today, dolls of all materials represent a Some doll bodies are also made of polyeth-
market valued at over $2 billion in ship- ylene-a derivative of ethylene and a color-
ments of the $15+ billion U.S. toy industry. less, flammable gas. This gas is subjected to
This represents a retail market of approxi- elevated temperatures and pressures in the
mately $23 billion, a third of the global toy presence of a catalyst, which converts the
market. gas into a polymer. Other raw materials
used in doll making include various paints
to make facial features, nylon for the hair,
Design and cloth and thread for the outfits.
Many toy designers utilize information from
various sources, including parents, psychol-
ogists, educators, and other child-develop- The Manufacturing
ment specialists. This background provides Process
valuable clues as to what consumers are
looking for when they purchase toys, how Two major plastic forming processes are
children leam through play, and when used to make doll body parts.The heads and
youngsters are physically and cognitively limbs are made by a process called rotation-
ready for certain types of toys. Toys are also al molding. Rotational molding is used for
frequently tested by the children themselves producing hollow, seamless products of all
in focus groups or at home to determine sizes and shapes with uniform wall thick-
durability, age-appropriateness, play pat- ness. Blow molding is sometimes used to
terns, and marketability. Some toy manufac- make the torso if cost is an issue since it is a
turers maintain in-house, year-round child faster, more economical method.
care facilities for this purpose, while others
establish relationships with universities and Raw material preparation
other research sites. A detailed evaluation of
a product's safety is made upon completion 1 A separate compounding operation is re-
of the very first prototype and updated as the quired to convert the form of a resin,
toy nears production. while also introducing any additives, into
one suitable for the molding processes. Usu-
Doll manufacturers usually design a doll ally this step is done at the plastic manufac-
from the original concept to the finished turer, though sometimes it is performed by
product, which includes packaging and the doll manufacturer if a special formula-
clothes. First, a simple sketch or drawing is tion is required.
373
Part
C* removal
E> Heating Q> Cooling
Molds loaded
Plastic doll heads and limbs are

made by a process called rototion- Molding are applied. First, the eyes are inserted and
al molding. First, the mold cavities then cheeks, lips, and sometimes lashes are
are filled, closed, and heated. 2 During rotational molding, the mold spray painted using an air brushing method.
While they are heating, the molds cavities are first filled with a predeter- This process can involve up to 15 steps.
rotate biaxially in order to create a mined amount of the compound, in liquid
hollow, seamless shape. form. Each metal mold consists of multiple 7If the hair isn't molded as part of the
cavities and the quantity depends on the size head, nylon is rooted into the vinyl using
of doll. For instance, as many as 60 heads a special sewing machine that is operated by
can be made at once. After the molds are hand. The hair is then carefully trimmed,
closed, they are placed in a heated oven and combed, and set. The head can now be at-
rotated biaxially. During the heating cycle, tached to the body, along with the limbs.
the resin melts, fuses, and then densifies into
the shape of the mold cavity. Dressing and packaging
3 Next, the molds are slowly cooled inside 8 The next step is to dress the doll and
a chamber using air and water. Once 8trim any hanging threads. Any special
cooled, the molds are removed from the labels or tags are attached before packaging.
chamber, opened, and the finished part is re- Most dolls are packaged in boxes by hand
moved. since they often must be posed. Each doll is
given a final check before the box is cov-
4During blow molding, a hollow tube ered. The boxes are then packed in shipping
called a parison is first formed out of cartons.
molten plastic by extrusion through a tubu-
lar reservoir. This tube is then placed be- Quality Control
tween two halves of a steel mold and forced
to assume the shape of the mold cavity by In addition to spot checking the doll parts for
use of air pressure. The air pressure, ranging defects during the molding process, plastic
from 80-120 psi, is introduced through the dolls must meet specific toy safety regula-
inside of the tube, forcing the plastic against tions first established by the United States
the surface of the mold. Consumer Product Safety Commission
(CPSC). These include requirements and test
5 After either molding process, the part is criteria for paint and other similar surface-
trimmed by hand to remove the flange. coating materials; sharp edges and points;
small parts which could be swallowed or in-
haled; use-and-abuse testing; hazardous sub-
Decorating the head stances; flammability and toxicity; among
Before all the body parts are assembled to others. All raw materials are tested by the
Vmake the doll, the facial features and hair supplier and are shipped with property data
3 74
Plastic Doll
II1U E*
Before final assembly, the facial

sheets. Before the doll is packaged it is sent computer and 22% actively surf the net, dis- features and hair are applied to
through a metal detector to make sure no placing some of the time that might otherwise the doll head. If the hair isn't mold-
metal contaminants are present. be devoted to traditional play. Video games ed as part of the head, nylon is
(now a market of almost $3 billion whole- rooted into the vinyl using a spe-
The CPSC regulations are incorporated by sale) and PC software also continue to gain in cial sewing machine that is operat-
reference in the toy industry's voluntary popularity, with double digit growth expected by hand. The hair is then care-
standard, ASTM F963, published by the ed. However, the traditional toy market in the fully trimmed, combed, and set.
American Society for Testing and Materials. United States will grow by only a few per-
ASTM F963 and federal regulations include cent and the basic doll market has shrunk
more than 100 separate tests and design from three to eight year olds to three- to five-
specifications to reduce or eliminate hazards year-olds. Overall, the toy and video game
that have the potential to cause injury under industry will grow by between 3-5%.
conditions of normal use or reasonably fore-
seeable abuse. These tests are conducted in- Consumers can expect to see many more ex-
house or by independent testing laboratories. amples of the use of technology in toys or to
enhance the traditional version. For in-
Similar safety standards exist in Japan and stance, the Barbie "Dress Designer" CD-
Europe. An international standard is also ROM is an excellent example of creating
under development that will serve as a set of new play dimensions for Barbie doll own-
requirements toward which all other coun- ers. As the cost of interactive microchip
tries can begin to harmonize. components continues to go down, more toy
manufacturers will be able to incorporate in-
teractive technology into toys at an afford-
Byproducts/Waste able price for the consumer.
Any excess material produced during the
molding process is usually discarded, since it Though the basic doll market has become
cannot be recycled back into the process. smaller, it is not expected to totally disap-
The composition of the virgin material pear. The demand is increasing for dolls that
would be affected that would change the have more functions and are interactive. In
quality and color of the doll. Sometimes, the the near future, plastic dolls will no doubt fol-
waste material is recycled for other purposes. low in the footsteps of the popular toy Furbie.
The Future Where to Learn More

The Internet and other computer technologies Books
are having a profound effect on the toy indus-
try and will continue to do so. Today, 40% of King, Eileen. The Collector's History of
Americans aged nine to 14 have access to a Dolls. St. Martin's Press Inc., 1978.
375
Periodicals
Vargas, Alexia. "A Pretty Population Ex-
plosion Sets Stage for Doll Wars." Wall
Street Journal (December 16, 1997).
Other
The Toy Manufacturers of America, Inc.
1115 Broadway, Suite 400, New York, NY
10010. http://www.toy-tma.com/ (June 29,
1999).
Uneeda Doll Co., Ltd. 200 Fifth Avenue,
Ste. 556, New York, NY 10010. (212) 675-
3313. Fax: (212) 929-6494.
-Laurel Sheppard
376
Popcorn
Background change in climate conditions around the Annual consumption of
world over thousands of years.
Before about 1912, less than 19,000 acres popcorn in America
(7,700 hectares) of farmland were dedicated Popcorn officially crossed into Western
to growing popcorn, but the electric popcorn exceeds 1 billion lb (0.45
culture at the first Thanksgiving celebra-
machine and the microwave increased the tion. Popular legend has it that Quadequina, billion kg) or 71 quarts
demand for "prairie gold." Today, annual brother of the Indian chief Massosoit,
consumption of popcorn in America ex- brought a deerskin bag full of popped corn (67 liters) per person per
ceeds 1 billion lb (0.45 billion kg) or 71 to that harvest celebration. The Indians'
quarts (67 liters) per person per year. The year.
methods for popping corn varied from tribe
states of Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, and Ohio
to tribe. They probably discovered how to
lead the field. Of the volume grown in the
pop popcorn by accident because the hard
United States, 10% is used for seed and sold kernel doesn't give any hint of the potential
outside the United States; 30% is sold at ball treat inside. The earliest poppers of corn
games, movies, fairs, and circuses; and 60%
may have thrown it into the fire and eaten
is consumed in the home. the kernels when they popped and flew out
of the flames. Our only historical evidence
of early but more sophisticated popping
History methods is from the Incas whose ruins con-
Corn may have begun its long evolution as a tain specially shaped clay pots with kernels
kind of grass. In the Americas, corn vari- of popped corn still inside them. The Incas
eties, including popcorn, were cultivated by apparently heated sand and placed it in
the Aztecs and Mayans in Central America these pots, then placed the corn on the sand.
and Mexico and by the Incas in South The pot was covered, and heat from the
America. The Aztecs decorated their Gods sand popped the kernels. The heavier sand
of Rain and Maize with strings of popcorn. stayed at the bottom of the pot, and the
North American Indians also strung the popped kernels rose above it where they
popped kernels on grass strings and used could be reached.
them for decorations and personal adorn-
ment. Archaeologists have found popped Over 700 types of popcorn were being
corn in dwelling caves in New Mexico, and grown in the Americas by the time Colum-
the corn is estimated to be 5,600 years old. bus discovered these continents. French ex-
Scientists' best guesses for the age of pop- plorers in 1612 saw the Iroquois people pop-
corn and the place where it originated are ping corn in clay pots; and the Winnebago
8,000 years and in Mexico. Curiously, pop- Indians who lived near the Great Lakes sim-
corn was also common in parts of India, ply drove sticks into the cobs and held the
China, and Sumatra before the discovery of cobs near the fire. Popcorn soup was a fa-
the Americas, but the paths and methods of vorite method of using the grain among the
its migration are unknown, as is the reason Iroquois, and the Indians of Central Ameri-
for its existence in these areas but not oth- ca even made popcorn beer. Early explorers
ers. Part of the answer may be the hardiness observed ornamental necklaces, bouquets,
of this type of corn over others or the and headdresses made of popcorn.
377
In early America, popcorn became a ritual smells of popping corn often made more
part of many festivities including quilting money than the feature film. During the
bees and barn raisings. In cabins and home- Great Depression in the 1930s, vendors sold
steads, corn could be popped in the fire- popcorn in five-cent bags, and popcorn be-
place, seasoned with grease or butter, and came one of few affordable luxuries. Mean-
shared by the family. Popped kernels were while, back in the theater, the paper bucket
used as teeth in Halloween pumpkins and replaced the bag as the container for pop-
strung in long ropes to festoon Christmas corn because the rustling bags made too
trees. Popcorn was the accompaniment to much noise.
banjo playing, singing, and the telling of
ghost stories and folktales. In the 1700s, the During World War II, popcorn was taken
first puffed cereal was created by pouring overseas as a treat for American servicemen
milk and sugar over popped corn; this and was adopted by other countries. In
breakfast dish was popular from Boston 1945, Percy Spencer applied microwave en-
south to the Carolinas. ergy to popcorn and found that it popped;
his discovery led to experiments with other
Popcorn was grown in family gardens or foods and development of the microwave
farms or bought from neighbors who grew oven. Television brought popcorn into the
more than they needed until about 1890 home in the 1950s, when electric popcorn
when it started to become recognized as a poppers and pre-packed corn for popping
legitimate cash crop. The first automatic were developed and marketed. The 1970s
popcorn popper was a steam-powered ma- and 1980s witnessed a boom in electric pop-
chine invented by Charlie Cretors in 1885; pers, hot-air poppers, and microwave pop-
before Cretors' invention, street vendors corn as the videotape industry brought
popped corn in wire baskets over open fires. movies and the desire for all the customs as-
By about 1890, the glass-sided popcorn ma- sociated with movie-going into the home.
chine with its gasoline burner became a pop-
ular feature of the circus, carnival,
sideshow, local fair, and small town streets Raw Materials
where popcorn vendors would sell bags of Selection of the best variety or hybrid of
popcorn as dusk fell. The packaging of pop- popcorn to be grown and processed for the
corn for use at home began in about 1914. kind of popcorn to be sold is critical to the
raw materials comprising popcorn. In some
In 1893, Fred and Louis Rueckheim used forms of popcorn, the corn itself is the only
the Chicago World's Fair to kick off their raw material. For other methods of market-
blend of popcorn, peanuts, and molasses. ing popcorn such as microwave popcorn,
These German brothers made their name in soybean oil, salt, and flavoring are also
America by manufacturing Cracker Jack, as needed.
this mixture came to be called, in a small
kitchen and then at the World's Fair. In
order to claim a prize, the consumer could Popcorn varieties and hybrids
mail in a coupon found in every box of There are several commercial classifications
Cracker Jack. After the Fair and until World of corn. Field corn (also called dent corn or
War II, prizes were actually packed in the cow corn) is fed to animals. Flour corn is
boxes, although this practice stopped during mostly starchy center with a soft hull that al-
the War because the prizes were made in lows it to be easily ground into flour. Sweet
Japan. After the War, a bonus prize returned corn is the kind we eat at the dinner table.
to every box. Flint corn is usually called Indian corn; its
colorful kernels make it highly attractive,
When moving pictures became the rage and and it is used for decoration because it is
movie houses opened across the country, the tough and tasteless. Pod corn is also only
street vendors of popcorn would rent space used for decoration because each of its ker-
outside the theaters and sell bags of popcorn nels has its own separate husk.
to movie ticket buyers. In 1925, Charles T.
Manley perfected his electric popcorn ma- Popcorn, also a collection of varieties of Zea
chine, and popcorn vendors moved inside mays, is the only corn that pops; it is not
the theater where the trapped sounds and dried kernels of sweet corn. There are sever-
378
Popcorn
There are several commercial
classifications of corn. Field com
(also called dent corn or cow
corn) is fed to animals. Sweet com
is the kind we eat at the dinner
table. Popcorn, also a collection of
varieties of Zea mays, is the only
com that pops; it is not dried ker-
nels of sweet corn.
Sweet com
Field corn
Popcom
al popular varieties of popcorn out of thou- A major popcorn producer like Orville Re-
sands of hybrids. White hull-less and yellow denbacher Popping Corn Company employs
hull-less are the varieties sold most com- a team of scientists to pollinate its hybrid
monly and packaged in microwave bags. corn by hand. The kernels that are grown are
Rice popcorn is a variety with kernels that used as seed to grow the popcorn that will
are pointed at both ends, and pearl popcorn be harvested and sold. As many as 30,000
produces round, compact kernels. Tiny red new hybrids per year are created to try to
ears that are shaped like strawberries pro- improve the popcorn product. Producers
duce red kernels and are called strawberry also work with universities to develop ideal
popcorn. Black popcorn has black grains but hybrids; millions of dollars are invested an-
pops as white kernels, and rainbow or calico nually in this research.
corn has white, yellow, red, and blue ker-
nels. Popcorn is also classified by the char- Smaller growers like Snappy Popcorn rely
acteristics of its popped kernels, with the on hybrids that are best suited to their loca-
largest kernels called "Dynamite" and tion, climate, and type of product. When the
"Snow Puff." hybrid is well matched to geography, it pro-
duces a greater yield. Hybrids are also cho-
The business of developing new hybrids and sen based on resistance to disease and dam-
cultivating known, productive hybrids is key age from insects, stalk strength, how easily
to the creation of popcorn. A hybrid is made they grow, and how easily they can be pulled
by fertilizing one kind of popcorn plant with out of the ground. Types of kernels are im-
the pollen from another kind. The result is a portant, so hybrids are chosen specifically to
seed that has characteristics of both plants. produce carmel corn, microwave popcorn,
379
As a final step in the manufactur-

ing process, quality-control in-
spectors observe the kernels as
they move along a conveyor belt
and suck out poor-quality kernels
with a vacuum hose.
and movie theater popcorn. Movie theaters nels, the correct internal moisture to insure
are interested in selling the greatest volume that most of the corn pops, and other mar-
for the smallest investment, so high-expan- ket-friendly characteristics. When the ears
sion kernels are chosen for this market. are ripe, the corn is harvested with either a
picker that removes the ears and leaves the
Popping methods stalks temporarily or with a combine that
crushes the corn stalks, mechanically re-
Part of the "design" of popcorn is the moves the ears, and husks the corn. Com-
method used to pop it. The dry method con- bines tend to do more damage to the ears of
sists of putting the unpopped grain in a bas- corn. The ears are collected in the field in
ket or wire cage, agitating it over a heat bins or boxes and moved into steel cribs
source like the campfire or coal stove, allow- using mechanical elevators or conveyors.
ing the corn to pop, and seasoning it with
butter and salt. In the wet-pop method, corn 2 The ears are dried in cribs that are nar-
is placed in a container with a solid bottom. 2row and have open slots to minimize the
Oil is added (either before the corn or poured time needed to dry them. A crib can be up to
on top), and the oil helps to distribute the three stories high, as long as a city block,
heat and cause more even and complete pop- and with a capacity of up to 4 million lb (1.8
ping. Commercial popping machines use the million kg) of corn. The ears are stored for
wet-pop method, and coconut oil is used for eight to 12 months to allow them to dry, or
its aroma and lightness. Microwave popcorn in an alternative method, hot air is forced up
also uses the wet-pop method, although the into the cribs through holes in the bottoms
moisture is present in a solidified form of oil, of them to reduce the natural drying time.
flavoring, and salt that melts when the mi- While in the cribs, the corn is carefully tend-
crowaving process begins. ed until the kernels reach a moisture content
of 12.5-13.5% moisture, which is ideal for
popping characteristics.
The Manufacturing
Process
In the factory
Cultivation 3 The dried ears of popcorn are then trans-
1 Popcorn grows best in rich soil. It is ferred by conveyor belt to the factory
planted in checkrows, rows that intersect and a machine called a scalper. The scalper
at right (90-degree) angles, so that it can be strips the kernels from the cobs. Simultane-
harvested by machine. Hybrid forms of pop- ously, a cleaner and de-stoner sort out the
corn have been perfected to produce the shuckings and any dirt or particles by pass-
most grains per ear of corn, flavorful ker- ing it through a series of screens to separate
380
Popcorn
the kernels. They are cleaned and polished materials and unwanted kernels. Even mag-
in another machine equipped with metal nets are used to pull out bits of metal that
brushes that remove the chaff (sometimes may have been introduced by the farm ma-
called bee's wings). A gravity separator is chinery or storage bins. Finally, a team of
then used to separate good kernels from bad; quality-control inspectors simply observes
the kernels that have matured properly are the kernels as they move along a conveyor
lighter in weight, so the bad kernels drop belt and removes poor-quality kernels with a
through the bottom of the separator and are vacuum hose.
recycled for use as seed. The kernels near
the two ends of the cob also tend to be either
too small or too large to pop properly, and Byproducts/Waste
the gravity separator removes them as well. Cobs, husks, and stalks are sold for use as
feed for cattle and other animals, so very lit-
4Finally, in the portion of the factory tle waste remains from popcorn cultivation
called the fanning mill, fans blow dust and processing.
and other fine material off the kernels, and
the kernels are treated with a natural, inert
fumigant to eliminate insects. Most manu- The Future
facturers avoid pesticides altogether during
the winter months when bugs are less com- Popcorn's future was assured in the 1980s
mon, and all must comply with government when its nutritional benefits were widely
regulations regarding their use. Now com- publicized. Weight Watchers recommends
pletely processed, the popcorn kernels travel popcorn as a snack for the weight-con-
toward storage bins on a conveyor belt; scious, the American Dental Association en-
quality-control personnel watch the passing dorses this sugar-free snack, and the Ameri-
flow and vacuum up bad kernels that may can Cancer Society recognizes the benefits
have escaped the previous sortings. of the high fiber content of popcorn in possi-
bly preventing several types of cancer. Pop-
5 Types of popcorn with no other addi- corn's nutritional value is so high that doc-
tives go directly to holding bins to await tors recommend it-even with oil-over
packaging. For microwave popcorn, mea- many other snack foods.
sured amounts of salt, soybean oil, flavor-
ing, and popcorn are pumped or dropped Microwave packaging has also allowed
into the microwave bags. The bags are not popcorn manufacturers to enhance their
vacuum-sealed, but they are air tight to pre- product with flavorings that keep well and
vent moisture in the air from affecting the produce a range of good tastes when
contents. cooked. The competition to create the latest
taste sensations (or borrow them from other
6 In the packaging area, popcorn is con- trendy foods) is fierce in the popcorn trade,
Uveyed from the holding bins to packing but this also helps assure the food's future.
machines where it is placed in bags and then American popcorn makers compete among
boxed for storage or shipment. Usually, the themselves for the best yield and novel fla-
factory will bag a particular type of quanti- vors, but, increasingly, their competition is
ty, say 5 lb (2.27 kg) bags, until it has met coming from growers in Argentina and
its orders plus some for storage. Then the South Africa.
packing line is changed to accommodate
different bags and quantities of popcorn. Where to Learn More
Quality Control Books
Quality control practices are essential in the Russel, Solveig Paulson. Peanuts, Popcorn,
field and factory. The process of pollinating Ice Cream, Candy and Soda Pop and how
the ears of corn correctly is essential to the they began New York: Abingdon Press,
production of any popcorn at all. In the fac- 1970.
tory, the cleaning processes are carefully
monitored, and the series of screens and Woodside, Dave. What Makes Popcorn
other devices are chosen to remove all stray Pop? New York: Atheneum, 1980.
38 1
Periodicals Other
"Exploding the Popcorn Myth." Yankee Jolly Time Popcorn Company. http:Hlwww.
(February 1993): 27. jollytime.com.
Hyatt, Joshua. "Surviving on Chaos." Inc. The Popcorn Institute. http://www.pop-
(May 1990): 60. corn.org.
Kummer, Corby. "Hot popcorn: The First Snappy Popcorn. http://www.netins.net/
Popcorn was Made by Accident. Now showcase/snappy/snappy.html.
There are Better Ways." The Atlantic (June
1988): 96. Wabash Valley Farms. http://www.wabash-
valleyfarms.com.
-Gillian S. Holmes
382
Rice
Background known as a caryopsis or grain, are one- With one out of every
seeded, and can contain a large concentra-
As a main source of nourishment for over tion of starch. three people on earth
half the world's population, rice is by far
one of the most important commercial food Classified in the genus Oryza, there are two dependent on rice as a
crops. Its annual yield worldwide is approx- species of domesticated rice-O. sativa and
imately 535 million tons. Fifty countries
staple food in their diet
0. glaberrima. 0. sativa is the most com-
produce rice, with China and India support- mon and often cultivated plant, occurring in and with 80-100 million
ing 50% of total production. Southeast Africa, America, Australia, China, New
Asian countries separately support an annu- Guinea, and South Asia. The natural habitat new people to be fed
al production rate of 9-23 million metric of rice is tropical marshes, but it is now culti- annually, the importance
tons of which they export very little. Collec- vated in a wide range of subtropical and
tively, they are termed the Rice Bowl. Over tropical habitats. Unlike other agricultural of rice production to the
300 million acres of Asian land is used for crop grasses, rice plants thrive under ex-
growing rice. Rice production is so impor- tremely moist conditions and moderate tem- worldwide human
tant to Asian cultures that oftentimes the peratures. The ideal climate is roughly 750 F population is crucial.
word for rice in a particular Asian language (240 C). Average plant height varies between
also means food itself. 1.3-16.4 ft (0.4-5 m). Its growth cycle is be-
tween three to six months (agriculturally,
Rice is a member of the grass family this is broken down into three phases lasting
(Gramineae). There are more that 10,000 approximately 120 days). Rice plants pro-
species of grasses distributed among 600 duce a variety of short- to long-grain rices,
genera. Grasses occur worldwide in a vari- as well as aromatic grains.
ety of habitats. They are dominant species in
such ecosystems as prairies and steppes, and There are three different types of rice: japoni-
they are an important source of forage for ca, javanica, and indica. Japonica rice vari-
herbivorous animals. Many grass species are eties are high yielding and tend to be resistant
also primary agricultural crops for humans. to disease. Javanica types of rice fall between
As well as rice, they include maize, wheat, japonica and indica varieties in terms of
sorghum, barley, oats, and sugar cane. yield, use, and hardiness. Although quite
hardy, indica yield less than japonica types
Typically, grass species are annual plants or and are most often grown in the tropics.
are herbaceous perennials that die back to
the ground at the end of the growing season Because cultivation is so widespread, devel-
and then regenerate the next season by opment of four distinct types of ecosystems
shoots developing from underground root has occurred. They are commonly referred
systems. Shoots generally are characterized to as irrigated, rainfed lowland, upland, and
by swollen nodes or bases. Leaves are long flood-prone agroecological zones. Irrigated
and narrow, varying in width from 0.28- ecosystems are the primary type found in
0.79 in (7-20 mm). Flowers are small and East Asia. Irrigated ecosystems provide
are called florets. Grasses pollinate by 75% of global rice production. Irrigated rice
using the wind to widely and opportunisti- is grown in bunded (embanked), paddy
cally disperse grass pollen. The fruits are fields. Rainfed lowland ecosystems only
383
sustain one crop per growing season and cated along a specific portion of the Yangtze
fields are flooded as much as 19.7 in (50 unanimously indicate a median age of over
cm) during part of the season. Rainfed low- 11,000 years. Another discovery of possibly
land rice is grown in such areas as East the oldest settlement found in China, which
India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines, is located closely upstream from the other
and Thailand, and is 25% of total rice area sites, gives credence to the new findings.
used worldwide. Production is variable be-
cause of the lack of technology used in rice In any event, it wasn't until the development
production. Rainfed lowland farmers are of puddling and transplanting of the rice
typically challenged by poor soil quality, plant that the spread of rice as an agricultur-
drought/flood conditions, and erratic yields. al crop really began. Practiced in the wet-
Upland zones are found in Asia, Africa, and lands of China, the concept of the rice paddy
Latin America. It is the primary type of rice was adopted by Southeast Asia in roughly
ecosystem in Latin America and West 2000 B.C. Wetland cultivation techniques
Africa. Upland rice fields are generally dry, migrated to Indonesia around 1500 B.C. and
unbunded, and directly seeded. Land uti- then to Japan by 100 B.C. To the West, rice
lized in upland rice production runs the was also an early important crop in India
gamut of descriptions. It can be low lying, and Sri Lanka, dating as far back as 2500
drought-prone, rolling, or steep sloping. B.C. and 1000 B.C. respectively.
Usually, crops are either sown interspersed
with another crop, intermittently with anoth- The spread to Europe, Africa, and America
er crop, or the crop is shifted every few occurred more slowly, first with the Moor's
years to a new location. Lastly, flood-prone invasion of Spain in 700 A.D. and then later
ecosystems are prevalent in South and to the New World during the age of explo-
Southeast Asia, and are characterized by pe- ration and colonialism. Rice has been grown
riods of extreme flooding and drought. in the United States since the seventeenth
Yields are low and variable. Flooding oc- century in such areas as the southeastern and
curs during the wet season from June to No- southern states, as well as California.
vember, and rice varieties are chosen for
their level of tolerance to submersion. Raw Materials
Rice is mostly eaten steamed or boiled, but The only raw material needed for commer-
it can also be dried and ground into a flour. cial production of rice is the rice seed or
Like most grains, rice can be used to make seedlings. Additional use of herbicides, pes-
beer and liquors. Rice straw is used to make ticides, and fertilizer can increase the likeli-
paper and can also be woven into mats, hats, hood of a larger yield.
and other products.
Design
History Varieties of rice are selected and grown
specifically for their end use. In the United
Since it has been such an important grain States, long-grain rice is typically used for
worldwide, the domestication and cultiva- boiling, quick-cook products, and soup.
tion of rice is one of the most important Whereas, shorter- grain rice is used in cere-
events in history that has had the greatest al, baby food, and beer/liquors.
impact on the most people. When and where
the domestication of rice took place is not
specifically known, but new archaeological The Manufacturing
evidence points to an area along the Yangtze Process
River in central China and dates back as far
as 11,000 years. Researched by a team of Preparation
Japanese and Chinese archaeologists and Prior to planting, minimal soil manipula-
presented at the 1996 Intemational Sympo- tion is needed to prepare for cultivation.
sium on Agriculture and Civilizations in If the rice will be grown on a hilly terrain,
Nara, Japan, radiocarbon testing of 125 the area must be leveled into terraces. Pad-
samples of rice grains and husks, as well as dies are leveled and surrounded by dikes or
of rice impressions in pottery, from sites lo- levees with the aide of earth-moving equip-
384
Rice
The cultivation of rice begins by

ment. Then, the fields are plowed before chine called a drill that places the seed in the planting water-soaked seeds in a
planting. In the United States, rice is most ground. Larger enterprises often found in the properly prepared bed. Often-
often planted on river deltas and plowing is United States sow rice seed by airplane. fimes, the seedlings are transplant-
accomplished with a disk plow, an off-set Low-flying planes distribute seed onto al- ed to the paddy when they reach a
disk plow, or a chisel. Adequate irrigation of ready flooded fields. An average distribution certain size. When the grains
the terrace or river delta bed is required and is 90-100 lb per acre (101-111 kg per begin to ripen, the water is
accomplished by leveling and by controlling hectare), creating roughly 15-30 seedlings drained from the fields. Harvesting
water with pumps, reservoirs, ditches, and per square foot. begins when the grain yellow and
the plants start to droop. Depend-
streams. ing on the size of the operation
Harvesting and the amount of mechanization,
Planting rice is either harvested by hand or
4 Once the plants have reached full machine. Once harvested, the rice
2 Rice seeds are soaked prior to planting. growth (approximately three months is usually dried in the fields with
after planting) and the grains begin to the help of sunshine.
ripen-the tops begin to droop and the stem
3 Depending on the level of mechanization yellows-the water is drained from the
and the size of the planting, seeding oc- fields. As the fields dry, the grains ripen fur-
curs in three ways. In many Asian countries ther and harvesting is commenced.
that haven't mechanized their farming prac-
tices, seeds are sown by hand. After 30-50 5 Depending on the size of the operation
days of growth, the seedlings are transplant- and the amount of mechanization, rice is
ed in bunches from nursery beds to flooded either harvested by hand or machine. By
paddies. Seeds can also be sown using a ma- hand, rice stalks are cut by sharp knives or
385
At the processing plant, the rice is 9 Once clean, the rice is hulled by a ma-
cleaned and hulled. At this point, 9 chine that mimics the action of the hand-
brown rice needs no further pro- held stones. The shelling machine loosens
cessing. If white rice is desired, the hulls from the rice by rolling them be-
the brown rice is milled to remove tween two sheets of metal coated with abra-
the outer bran layers. sives. 80-90% of the kernel hulls are re-
moved during this process.
From the shelling machine, the grains
I and hulls are conveyed to a stone reel
that aspirates the waste hulls and moves the
kernels to a machine that separates the
hulled from the unhulled grains. By shaking
the kernels, the paddy machine forces the
heavier unhulled grains to one side of the
machine, while the lighter weight rice falls
to the other end. The unhulled grains are
then siphoned to another batch of shelling
machines to complete the hulling process.
Hulled rice grains are known as brown rice.
sickles. This practice still occurs in many Milling

Asian countries. Rice can also be harvested Since it retains the outer bran layers of the
by a mechanized hand harvester or by a trac- rice grain, brown rice needs no other pro-
tor/horse-drawn machine that cuts and cessing. However along with added vita-
stacks the rice stalks. In the United States, mins and minerals, the bran layers also con-
most operations use large combines to har- tain oil that makes brown rice spoil faster
vest and thresh-separate the grain from the than milled white rice. That is one of the
stalk-the rice stalks. reasons why brown rice is milled further to
create a more visually appealing white rice.
6 If the rice has been harvested by hand or
Cby a semi-automated process, threshing The brown rice runs through two
is completed by flailing the stalks by hand I huller machines that remove the outer
or by using a mechanized thresher. bran layers from the grain. With the grains
pressed against the inner wall of the huller
and a spinning core, the bran layers are
Drying rubbed off. The core and inner wall move
7 Before milling, rice grains must be dried closer for the second hulling, ensuring re-
in order to decrease the moisture content moval of all bran layers.
to between 18-22%. This is done with artifi-
cially heated air or, more often, with the The now light-colored grain is cooled
help of naturally occurring sunshine. Rice I2and polished by a brush machine.
grains are left on racks in fields to dry out 13 The smooth white rice is conveyed to
naturally. Once dried, the rice grain, now
called rough rice, is ready for processing. a brewer's reel, where over a wire
mesh screen broken kernels are sifted out.
Oftentimes, the polished white rice is then
Hulling coated with glucose to increase luster.
8 Hulling can be done by hand by rolling
8or grinding the rough rice between Enriching
stones. However, more often it is processed The milling process that produces white rice
at a mill with the help of automated process- also removes much of the vitamins and min-
es. The rough rice is first cleaned by passing erals found primarily in the outer bran lay-
through a number of sieves that sift out the ers. Further processing is often done in
debris. Blown air removes top matter. order to restore the nutrients to the grain.
386
Rice
Once complete, the rice is called converted Rice farming is responsible for 14% of total
rice. global methane emissions.
1 4 White rice is converted in one of two
1 ways. Prior to milling, the rice is The Future
steeped under pressure in order to transfer With one out of every three people on earth
all the vitamins and minerals from the bran dependent on rice as a staple food in their diet
layers to the kernel itself. Once done, the and with 80-100 million new people to be fed
rice is steamed, dried, and then milled. Rice annually, the importance of rice production to
that has already been milled can be sub- the worldwide human population is crucial.
mersed in a vitamin and mineral bath that Scientists and farmers face the daunting task
coats the grains. Once soaked, they are dried of increasing yield while minimizing rice
and mixed with unconverted rice. farming's negative environmental effects. Or-
ganizations such as the International Rice Re-
search Institute (IRRI) and the West African
Quality Control Rice Development Association (WARDA),
Quality control practices vary with the size and Centro Intemacional de Agricultura Trop-
and location of each farm. Large commerical (CIAT [International Center for Tropical
cial rice farms in the United States more Agriculture]) are conducting research that will
often than not apply the most effective com- eventually lead to more productive varieties
bination of herbicides, fertilization, crop roof rice and rice hybrids, use of less water dur-
tation, and newest farming equipment to op- ing the growing season, decrease in the use of
timize their yields. Smaller, less mechanized fresh organic fertilizer that contributes to
operations are more likely to be influenced greenhouse effect, and crops more resistant to
by traditional cultural methods of farming disease and pests.
rather than high technology. Certainly, there
are benefits to both approaches and a union Where To Learn More
of the two is ideal. Rotating crops during
consecutive years is a traditional practice Books
that encourages large yield as is the planting
of hardier seed varieties developed with the Huke, R.E. and E.H. Rice: Then and Now.
help of modem hybridization practices. International Rice Institute, 1990.
Johnson, Sylvia A. Rice. Minneapolis, MN:
Byproducts/Waste Lemer Publications Co., 1985.
Straw from the harvested rice plants is used Periodicals
as bedding for livestock. Oil extracted from
discarded rice bran is used in livestock feed. "Limiting Rice's Role in Global Warming."
Hulls are used to produce mulch that will Science News (July 10, 1993): 30.
eventually be used to recondition the farm Normile, Dennis. "Yangtze Seen as Earliest
soil. Rice Site." Science (January 17, 1997): 309.
The essential use of irrigation, flooding, and
draining techniques in rice farming also pro- Other
duces runoff of pesticides, herbicides, and Riceweb. http://www.riceweb.org/ (June 29,
fertilizers into natural water systems. The 1999).
extensive use of water in rice farming also
increases its level of methane emissions. -Jacqueline L. Longe
387
Safety Razor
Gillette employs 500 A safety razor is a device used to remove after a joiner's plane. He even wrote a book
hair from areas of the body where it is un- on the subject entitled Pogonotomy or the
design engineers, who desirable such as the face for men and the Art of Learning to Shave Oneself. As with
are constantly developing legs and underarm regions for women. The the razors of today, Perret's design covered
modem blade razor consists of a specially the blade on three sides to protect the user
new shaving systems. designed blade mounted in a metal or plas- from nicks and cuts. However, it still re-
tic shell that is attached to a handle. This quired periodic sharpening to give a good
Preliminary designs are kind of razor can be designed as a refill- shave. Similar inventions were introduced
developed into working able cartridge which can accept new throughout the 1800s. Nonetheless, even as
blades or as a disposable unit which is in- late as the early 1900s most men were still
prototypes that are tested tended to be thrown away after the blade shaved periodically at the barber.
becomes dull.
by over 300 company Shaving practices began to change dramati-
employees taking part in cally around the turn of the century. In
History 1895, an American named King Camp
Gillette's shave-at-work Since primitive times, shaving has been an Gillette had the idea of marketing a dispos-
program. important cultural grooming practice. Cave able blade that didn't require sharpening.
painting show that even the prehistoric men Gillette designed a razor that had a separate
practiced shaving by scraping hair off with handle and clamp unit that allowed the user
crude implements such as stones, flint, clam to easily replace the blade when it became
shells, and other sharpened natural objects. dull. However, metal working technology
With the advent of the Bronze Age, humans took another two years before it was able to
developed the ability forge simple metals and make the paper thin steel blades required by
began to make razors from iron, bronze, and Gillette's design. Even though he filed
even gold. The ancient Egyptians began the patents in 1901, Gillette could not market
custom of shaving their beards and heads, his disposable blades until 1903 when he
which was eventually adopted by the Greeks produced a total of 51 razors and 168
and Romans around 330 B.C. This practice blades. By 1905, sales rose to 90,000 razors
was advantageous for soldiers because it pre- and 2.5 million blades. Sales continued to
vented enemies from grasping their hair in grow over the next several years, reaching
hand-to-hand combat. The unshaven, un- 0.3 million razors and 14 million blades in
kempt tribes they fought became known as 1908. After Gillette's initial success, other
barbarians, meaning the unbarbered. manufacturers soon followed suit with their
own designs, and an entire industry was
Until the nineteenth century, the most com- born. Over the last 90 years, a variety of
mon razor was still a long handled open products have been introduced including
blade called a "cut-throat" razor which was tiny safety razors for women, long-life
difficult to use, required repeated sharpen- stainless steel blades, twin-blade safety ra-
ing, and was usually wielded by profession- zors, the completely disposable, one-piece
al barbers. Credit for the first safety razor is plastic razor introduced by Bic, and the
generally given to a Frenchman, Jean- state of the art Sensor and Mach 3 shaving
Jacques Perret, who modeled his design systems by Gillette.
388
Safety Razor
Design thereof, depending on the razor design.
These parts are typically molded from a
Razor designs vary depending on the style. number of different plastic resins including
Some razors, such as the single piece dispos- polystyrene, polypropylene, and phenylene-
ables, are relatively simple. They consist of a oxide based resins as well as elastomeric
hollow plastic handle, a blade, and a head as- compounds. These resins are taken in pellet
sembly to keep the blade in place. They are form and are melted and molded into the
primarily designed to be simple, economical, razor components through a combination of
and disposable. The refillable cartridge style extrusion and injection molding techniques.
is more complicated. They are designed to For example, in making the handle for their
give a more premium shaving experience
advanced shaving systems, Gillette uses a
with options like multiple blades, pivoting coextrusion process which simultaneously
heads, and lubricating strips. For example, molds an elastomer molded over polypropy-
Gillette's Mach 3 razor, which was intro- lene to create a surface that is easy to grip.
duced in 1998, features a skin guard com-
prised of flexible microfins, a soft grip handle,
water-activated moisturizers, a flow-through Other components
cartridge, optimal blade positioning, and other Razors may contain a variety of miscella-
innovative features. The engineering behind neous parts which help hold the blade in
some of these advancements is quite impres- place, guards which cover the blade during
sive. Gillette employs 500 design engineers, shipping, or springs or other release mecha-
who are constantly developing new shaving nisms which facilitate changing of the
systems. Preliminary designs are developed blades. These pieces are molded by similar
into working prototypes that are tested by processes. The more sophisticated brands
over 300 company employees, who take part include a lubricating strip made of
in Gillette's shave-at-work program. The polyurethane, or other similar materials, that
company has 20 booths set up where employ- is impregnated with acrylic polymers. These
ees use unmarked razors on different sides of strips are mounted on the head of the razor,
their faces. They then rate performance attrib- in front of the blades. The polymer film ab-
utes of each razor with the aid of a computer sorbs water and becomes very slippery, thus
program. Engineers use this feedback to ad- creating a lubricating surface that helps the
just their designs and create improved proto- blade glide across the surface of the face
types for further evaluation. without snagging or cutting the skin.

Process
Blades
Razor blades are periodically exposed to high
Cutting blade formation
levels of moisture and therefore must be made Blade manufacturing processes involve
from a special corrosion resistant steel alloy. mixing and melting of the components in
Furthermore, the grade of steel must be hard the steel. This mixture undergoes a process
enough to allow the blade to hold its shape, yet known as annealing, which makes the
malleable enough to allow it to be processed. blades stronger. The steel is heated to tem-
The preferred type of steel is called carbide peratures of 1,967-2,048°F (1,075-1,120°C),
steel because it is made using a tungsten-car- then quenched in water to a temperature be-
bon compound. One patented combination of tween -76- -112° F (-60- -80° C) to harden
elements used in stainless steel blade construc- it. The next step is to temper the steel at a
tion includes carbon (0.45-0.55%), silicon temperature of (482-752°F (250- 400°C).
(0.4-1%); manganese (0.5-1.0%); chromium
(12-14%) and molybdenum (1.0-1.6%); with 2 The blades are then die stamped at a rate
the remainder being iron. of 800-1,200 strokes a minute to form
the appropriate cutting edge shape. The ac-
tual cutting edge of modem cartridge style
Plastic parts razor blade is deceptively small. The entire
The plastic portions of a safety razor include cutting surface is only about 1.5 in (3.81cm)
the handle and blade cartridge, or portions wide by 1 mm deep. This is compared to tra-
389
Lubricating strip
_Retaining clips c Blade support

members -
Blade
members
supporzt_____
The plastic portions of a safety

razor include the handle and ditional razor blades which are almost 20 the members in a single file fashion the third
blade cartridge. These parts are times wider and several times thicker. This work station where they are welded onto the
typically molded from a number of design creates efficiencies in manufacturing cutting blade. The finished blade assembly is
different plastic resins, including by allowing the creation of a durable cutting then ready for mounting in the cartridge. Be-
polystyrene, polypropylene, and surface using very little metal. Because the cause the entire process is automated, waste
phenylene-oxide based resins as blade is so small, a special support structure from broken or bent cutting blades and sup-
well as elastomeric compounds. is required to hold it inside the cartridge. port members is minimized.
Razor blades are made from a
special corrosion resistant blend
of steel called carbide steel be- Support member formation Plastic component molding
cause it is made using a tungsten-
carbon compound. At a separate work station, another sheet Concurrent with the blade-making oper-
3of metal passes through a die and cutter 5ations, the plastic components are mold-
device to form a series of L-shaped support ed and readied for assembly. The plastic
members. These support members are resins are mixed with the plasticizers, col-
formed in a line with two edge runners con- orants, antioxidants, stabilizers, and fillers.
nected to each side. The powders are mixed together and melted
in a special heated screw feeder. The resul-
4 The row of supports, still connected to tant mixture is cut into pellets which can be
the edge runners is rolled onto a coil and used in subsequent molding operations.
transported to the next station. There the
support pieces are severed from the edge Plastic razor parts are typically extru-
runners which are collected in a waste bin. 6sion molded. In this process, molten
The support members are dropped into a fun- plastic is shaped by being forced through
nel-like device equipped with a vibrating the opening of a die. The parts can also be
unit which deposits individual support mem- manufactured by injection molding, where
bers onto a conveyor belt. The belt transfers plastic resin and other additives are mixed
390
Safety Razor
Work station
Support
membrs
Vibratory
hopper 'N,
10culter device
ag
(I'll:) Die
Station that welds or Bl d Cutting edge

otherwise joins together
cutting blade edge with
support.
Support member I
I
Assembly
The manufacture of safety razors

together, melted, and injected into a two and insertion. Spring loaded arms push the involves First making the blade
piece mold under pressure. After the plastic blades into place and secure them in the car- cartridge by die stamping the car-
has cooled, the mold is opened and the tridge slots. The finished cartridge may be bide steel and then welding the
plastic parts are ejected. Major manufactur- attached to the razor handle during subse- blades to steel support members.
Simultaneously, the plasfic compo-
ers have extremely efficient molding oper- quent operations or they may be packaged nents are extruded or injection
ations with cycle times for molded plastic separately. This step may include insertion molded and readied for assembly.
parts routinely below 10 seconds. These of springs and other parts in the handle to The blade cartridge and plastic
processes are so efficient that the thermo- allow ejection of the cartridge. ports are automatically assembled
plastic runners and other scrap from the at workstations that use vacuum
molding process are reground, remelted, lines to orient and hold the small
and reused. Packaging blade ports in place during trans-
port and insertion. Spring loaded
Q Razors are routinely packaged in clear arms push the blades into place
Assembly of components U plastic blister packs with a cardboard and secure them in the cartridge
7The molded plastic components are fed backing sheet that allow display of the ra- slots. The finished cartridge may
zors design. Refill blade cartridges can be be attached to the razor handle
to various work stations where the blade during subsequent operations or
assembly is inserted into the cartridge. The packaged in boxes, although most current they may be packaged separately.
work surfaces in these stations are equipped designs require the cartridges to be held in a
with vacuum lines to orient and hold the plastic tray that helps insert them into the
small blade parts in place during transport handle.
3 91
Quality Control materials science continues to produce

blades of increased hardness that are capa-
All finished razor components must con- ble of sustaining sharp edge for more
form to tight specifications before they are shaves. Advanced head design allows the
released. For example, blades must meet a blades to contact the face without cuts or
designated hardness rating and contain a nicks. They are also constantly updating
certain amount of steel. Gillette blades must their manufacturing equipment. The future
meet a standard knows as Vickers hardness manufacturing techniques also improve effi-
of at least 620 and a carbide density of 10- ciency in molding and stamping operations.
45 particles per 100 square microns to avoid Gillette claims they are twice as fast as they
rejection. The equipment itself operates so were 10 years ago and have fewer defects.
precisely that Gillette measures its reject
rate in parts per million. Similarly, molded
plastic parts are closely inspected by opera- Where to Learn More
tors with lighted magnifying glasses to
check for loose flashing or rough edges; Books
they alert technicians when problems are
discovered. In addition, razor components Panati, Charles. Extraordinary Origins of
are checked by a computerized vision sys- Everyday Things. New York: Perennial Li-
tem which compares a critical dimension to brary, 1987.
a reference.
Other
The Future Gillette Company. 1999. http://www.gillette.
Razor manufacturers like Gillette are con- com/ (April 5, 1999).
stantly designing new and improved shaving
systems. Their commitment to improved -Randy Schueller
392
Sheet Music
Background explosion was probably a direct result of the By 1910, Woolworth's
Industrial Revolution that gave rise to the
Sheet music is a magic carpet. It is a printed middle class and allowed individuals more department store sold
page that, like a book, tells an original story leisure time and money to spend on pianos
created by the talent, imagination, training- sheet music for 10 cents a
for their homes, instruments for the town
and sometimes genius-of a writer. In the band, and attendance at the symphony. copy.
case of music, the writer is a composer or Composers were motivated to create when,
songwriter who uses a long-established set during the nineteenth century, musicians
of notes and other symbols as well as lyrics began to pay for the privilege of performing
(words that are sung to the music) and other the writer's music.
words that instruct the singer or instrumen-
talist on the dynamics (loudness) and other The growth of many styles of popular music
characteristics of the piece. When the musi- that are considered American in character,
cian reads and performs the music, magic including jazz, country-western, bluegrass,
happens as the songwriter's composition is spirituals, and musical theater, is attribut-
interpreted for the pleasure of the audience. able not only to talented composers and
artists but to the publishers who made it
History possible to imitate their music on Dad's
banjo at home. By 1890, many department
Some of the earliest sheet music was labori- stores had counters for the sale of sheet
ously written by scribes in the monasteries music, and its popularity forced the price
of medieval Europe. These beautiful exam- down. By 1910, Woolworth sold sheet
ples were carefully inked on parchment and music for 10 cents a copy.
are prized today not only as music history
but as artistic masterpieces. With the inven- The musicians of Tin Pan Alley in New
tion of the printing press, Johann Gutenberg York City were made famous early in the
and his followers developed methods of 1900s by the swift availability of their tunes
printing music, as well as words, during the in sheet music form; George Gershwin's
fifteenth century. The printing of music was "Rhapsody in Blue" (1924) is an excellent
limited in quality and quantity for several example. Composers Aaron Copeland,
hundred years, but the industry traveled to Charles Ives, and Virgil Thompson estab-
America with the founding of the Colonies. lished their own publishing house and gave
the American public its own contemporary,
The first music published in North America classical music. When Charles Lindberg
was The Bay Psalm Book printed in 1640 by made his solo flight across the Atlantic
Harvard College Press. The book contained Ocean in 1927, 100 songs commemorating
only text because the congregations of the event were printed in sheet music form
churches were assumed to know the songs within a year.
by heart. Publishing of music, complete
with notation, became an industry by about In 1892, a European firm established itself
1800 when a number of firms in both Amer- in the United States as G. Schirmer, Inc.;
ica and Europe rolled out their presses to they publish a vast library of classical music
print both serious and popular music. This recognizable by its yellow covers. The Eu-
393
ropean influence was felt even more strong- be known by the songwriters' names. How-
ly after World War I (1914-1919) and the ever, popular writers like Henry Mancini or
rise of Hitler in Germany (1933) forced the Herb Alpert have had songbooks of their
immigration of Bela Bartok, Arnold own music published. Matching folios are
Schoenberg, and Igor Stravinsky, com- collections of music that match all the songs
posers of international repute who imported on or in a compact disc, movie soundtrack,
music editors whose skills brought a classi- or musical. Mixed folios are similar, except
cal tradition. Between the two World Wars, they combine music by multiple writers
the phonograph and radio further popular- under a theme cover like Great Country
ized a wide range of music; and, after, Music Hits, Best Songs of the Century, or
World War II, television and technological Music for the Tuba.
improvements in the sound business accel-
erated popular interest in sheet music. Publishing of educational music is also a
large part of the sheet music business.
The sheet music industry experienced an- Schools, marching bands, drum corps, and
other boost in 1914 when the first perfor- choruses purchase or rent large quantities of
mance rights society was established. The copies of all categories of music that have
American Society of Composers, Authors been arranged specifically for voice or or-
and Publishers, Inc., (ASCAP) was followed chestra, for example, or for players at partic-
by The Society of European Stage Authors ular skill levels. Finally, most publishers also
and Composers (SESAC, Inc. 1931) and develop and sell MIDI sequences, which are
Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI 1940). These electronically sequenced and recorded ver-
organizations are essential to the orderly ad- sions of songs; some are complete, profes-
ministration of performance data and distri- sional arrangements and performances that
bution of royalties for music in copyright. are ready for use in performance.
These organizations also play an important
role in funding the first efforts of young
composers and songwriters. The Manufacturing
Process
Rawv Materials 1 The process of making sheet music be-
gins in the imagination of composer. The
The songwriter's or composer's music may composer or songwriter may write a piece of
be the most important "raw material" in the music on his own accord, or he may receive
production of sheet music. When the writer a commission from an organization or indi-
has completed a piece of music, the business vidual like an opera company, film produc-
of publishing the music must be negotiated tion company, or a jazz singer. The compos-
among the writer, his agent, and the publisher may have an established working
er. A well-known songwriter may receive relationship with a music publisher, or his or
advances from a publishing company, but, her agent may market the piece to publishers
typically, the contract between the writer specializing in particular types of music.
and publishing house involves negotiation
and distribution of royalties, where royalties 2 When an interested publisher is found,
are fees that are paid to the publisher and the publisher's editorial department re-
writer based on how often the piece of views the composition for its quality, mar-
music is used. ket appeal, and the practicality of publishing
it. Each publisher has an editorial policy that
Design governs the range of types of music the firm
publishes and the level or quality. For exam-
Music in print appears in several major for- ple, a music publisher that specializes in
mats. Sheet music usually includes arrange- sheet music for students is not likely to be
ments for voice and piano or guitar. Some- interested in a ballet score. A large music
times chord diagrams for other instruments publishing house may have a number of di-
are also shown. Sheet music that is collected visions, however; following a pre-screening,
under a songwriter's or performer's name is both the beginning-level music and the bal-
called a personality folio. Frank Sinatra and let score will be forwarded to the editorial
Barbra Streisand, for example, have popu- departments in the respective divisions, and
larized many pieces of music that wouldn't both may be published by the same house.
3 94
Sheet Music
Treble (or G) clef Bass (or F) clef Alto (or C) clef Six-eight time
CLEFS 16 X 13?r
PA
90
3 6 1 Stave
(staff)
Breve Semibreve Minim Crotchet Quaver Semiquaver
NOTES
Breve rest Semibreve rest Minim rest Crotchet rest Quaver rest Semiquaver rest
\ \ I I I /
RESTS
SCALE
I v
O e_
F G A B I
C D C
Sharp Flat Natural Double flat Double sharp Key signature
ACCIDENTALS I\ 'l
i ~~~~~ii!I
V,
v v
EW1
1 "~/6:5~ E Q ,T Y^
iV
1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Types of musical notation.

3 The music publisher also reviews the groups (ballet companies, musical theater
3composer's work in the Legal Division groups, orchestras, opera houses, and oth-
or Rights Clearance Division. The legal ers) and recording, and film, and television
staff performs a number of functions. It ne- companies. The Rights Clearance Division
gotiates a contract between the publishing collects and distributes royalties annually.
house and the songwriter or composer. The
new piece is registered with the U.S. Copy- 4 After the writer and the composition
right Office. The publisher's legal staff '+have cleared the hurdles of the editorial
works with the major performance rights or- department, the U.S. Copyright Office, and
ganizations (ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) so the legal department, the piece of music is
that royalties from performances of copy- ready for publication. Traditionally, the
righted music can be collected and negoti- composer's hand-drafted music is sent to an
ates other royalties from performing arts engraver who uses sets of type that include
3 95
musical staffs, notation, and text to etch the shipped to the publisher's warehouse where
music into a metal plate. Engraving has sev- it is stored by edition number for sale. Many
eral disadvantages; it is very expensive, and types of sheet music aren't "sold" at all; in-
it has been outdated not only by publishing stead, the publisher operates a rental depart-
methods but by styles of notation. More re- ment that rents the material to performance
cently, composers use specialized music groups like orchestras or ensembles and to
software that writes out notation exactly as other organizations like the libraries of
it will be printed. Music software, like Fi- music schools and universities. The major
nale, produces sheet music that duplicates publishers may carry over 20,000 titles, and
the quality o,f music produced through tradi- they attend trade shows where music profes-
tional engraving methods. The computer no- sionals everyone from opera company
tations can be made through a standard key- music directors to marching band leaders to
board; often, the publisher or music notation performing artists shop for arrangements of
service has a piano-style keyboard linked to sheet music and bargains in the rental de-
the computer, and the notation is entered by partment. The publisher's rental department
playing the piece. The music publisher not also coordinates performance dates so that
only enters the notation and expressive indi- the top ten symphonies will not be perform-
cations but adjusts the size, spacing, and ing the same works in the same season; they
layout by computer. The full score is com- are also able to recommend complimentary
pleted and then the publisher extracts the pieces so performance groups can present an
parts for each instrument, places them in evening of innovative jazz or an afternoon
separate sheet music, and repeats the in old Vienna.
process of adjusting sizing and layout. The
writer reviews printed drafts of proofs (from 7 After a customer buys or rents a piece of
either the traditional engraving process or music, the order is processed by the pub-
computer methods). When the music is fi- lisher's trade department. Shipment is as
nalized, the composer is given a hard copy simple as sending a box of 1,000 copies of
and the piece on diskette to take to the agent Celine Dion's latest hit to a music store or
and publishing houses. as complex as assembling the thick scores of
a Richard Wagner opera for the 100-plus
5 If an engraving process is used, the different instruments in the orchestra, 10
music from the engraver is set up on principal singers, 60 chorus members, and
pages to make camera-ready copy. The copy the conductor, prompter, various directors,
is photographed to make a negative, the neg- and other musical staff. The shipment is
ative is burned onto a metal plate using documented and invoiced by computer, and
chemicals, and the plate is inserted in a print- the music is sent to the customer. Finally,
ing press. The areas of the plate that are to be the composer's dream will be brought to life
printed attract ink that is pressed onto a page by artists who interpret that dream from the
in a process called offset lithography. The written page.
pages are collated, folded, or bound (depend-
ing on the length and style of the piece of Quality Control
music). A piece of popular sheet music will
also bear a color photograph or design on the The songwriter/composer has a say in the
cover, and all published music includes dedi- quality control of his or her music in print
cations, copyright information, page num- form. When proof copies of the music are
bers and headings, and instructions (if neces- provided by the publisher, the writer re-
sary to a beginning instrumentalist, for views the notations, chords and so forth to
example). If the piece of music was written verify that they are as written or that they
using computer software, that same software accurately represent the creation. The divi-
can be used to instruct a laser printer to print sions of a large publishing house also bear
the music using fonts, notation styles, and responsibility for observing high standards
layouts that are input as data into the pro- and the legalities of the trade.
gram. The cover illustration or photograph
can also be input using digital techniques. The Future
6 The printed music is bundled and Sheet music from bygone days has become
6shrink-wrapped or boxed in quantity and a valuable collectible. Cover art greatly in-
3 96
Sheet Music
terests collectors who seek out the Art Deco Music from 1775 to 1975. Des Moines, IA:
designs of the 1920s and African-American Wallace-Homestead Book Co., 1978.
songs published as early as 1835, for exam-
ple. Photos of singers, band leaders, and Sachs, Carolyn, ed. An Introduction to
Broadway productions as well as autographs Music Publishing. New York: C. F. Peters,
by the songwriters, lyricists, and performers 1981.
whet the collectors' appetites.
Sheet music shows every sign of maintain- Shemel, Sidney and M. William Krasi-
ing its popularity as long as performers from lovsky. This Business of Music: A Practical
the top of the charts to the beginning piano Guide to the Music Industry for Publishers,
student at home want to play the latest tunes Writers, Record Companies, Producers,
and the greatest classics. Software like Fi- Artists, Agents. Billboard Books, 1990.
nale and Overture makes it easy for the
youngest musician to experiment with com- Periodicals
position and for the most experienced tune-
smith to produce data and hardcopy versions Mike, Dennis. "Classroom maestros: pro-
of his or her latest song. The issue of imme- fessional music software that's a boon to
diacy somewhat hampers the music publish- the classroom."Electronics Learning ( Sep-
er who makes a considerable investment in tember 1994): 62.
copyrights and the physical production of
sheet music. Despite the advent of many Pogue, David. "Overture 2.0."Macworld
other technical diversions, music is among (September 1997): 74.
our most popular entertainments, and sheet
music allows us to own copies of Mozart's
genius and the joy of a simple Christmas Other
carol. Lewis Music Library. Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology. December 9, 1997.
Where to Learn More http://libraries.mit.edu/music/sheetmusic/
(June 29, 1999).
Books
Braheny, John. The Craft and Business of Special Collections Library for historic
Song Writing. Cincinnati: Writer's Digest American sheet music at Duke University.
Books, 1988. 1999. http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/sheet-
music/ (June 29, 1999).
Priest, Daniel B. American Sheet Music
with Prices: A Guide to Collecting Sheet -Gillian S. Holmes
3 97
Silly Putty
In 1968, the Apollo 8 Background off. Initially, its market as a novelty item
was 80% adult. However, by 1955 Silly
astronouts carried Silly In 1943, Silly Putty was accidentally invent- Putty was most popular with kids ages six to
ed by James Wright, an engineer in General 12 years old. Six years later, Silly Putty was
Putty into space in a Electric's New Haven laboratory, which introduced to the Soviet Union, followed by
specially designed was under a government contract to create Europe, where it was a hit in Germany,
an inexpensive substitute for synthetic rub- Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Italy. By
sterling silver egg to ber for the war effort. By combining boric the time Hodgson died in 1976, Silly Putty
acid with silicone oil, a material resulted had made him a multi-millionaire.
alleviate boredom and that would stretch and bounce farther than
help fasten down tools in rubber, even at extreme temperatures. In ad- It was only after its success as a toy that
dition, the substance would copy any news- practical uses were also found for Silly
the weightless paper or comic-book print that it touched. Putty. It picks up dirt, lint, and pet hair, and
can stabilize wobbly furniture. It has also
environment. There is some debate on who received the been used in stress-reduction and physical
first patent. Coming Glass Works, who was therapy (athletes have used it to strengthen
also developing a substitute for rubber, ap- their grip), and in other medical and scien-
plied for a patent in 1943 and received it in tific situations (like smoking cessation pro-
1947 for treating dimethyl silicone polymer grams). In 1968, the Apollo 8 astronauts car-
with boric oxide. Wright applied for his ried Silly Putty into space in a specially
patent in 1944. In any event, Wright is still designed sterling silver egg to alleviate
officially credited with the invention. boredom and help fasten down tools in the
weightless environment. The Columbus Zoo
By 1945, General Electric (GE) had shared in Ohio has even used it to make casts of the
this discovery with scientists around the hands and feet of gorillas for educational
world, only to find that none of them, in- purposes.
cluding those at the U.S. War Production
Board, found it more practical than the syn- The eight million units produced in 1998 is
thetic rubber already then being produced. four times what was produced in 1987. Bin-
Several years later, an unemployed copy- ney & Smith, the maker of Crayola products
writer named Peter Hodgson recognized its who has manufactured Silly Putty since
marketing potential as a children's toy, after 1977, added four fluorescent colors in
first seeing it advertised at a local toy store 1990-magenta, orange, green, and yellow.
as an adult gift. Hodgson bought the produc- A market study at this time showed that
tion rights from GE and renamed it Silly nearly 70% of American households had
Putty, packaging it in plastic eggs because purchased Silly Putty at some time.
Easter was on the way.
In 1991, "Glow in the Dark" was intro-
Though Hodgson introduced Silly Putty at duced, though classic Silly Putty has re-
the International Toy Fair in New York in mained the best seller. Most Silly Putty is
February of 1950, it was not until several still packaged in plastic eggs. Each egg con-
months later when an article appeared in tains 0.47 oz (13.5 g) and sells for about
The New Yorker magazine that sales took $1.00. Binney & Smith produces more than
398
Silly Putty
A sigma-blade mixer is used to
manufacture Silly Putty. Raw ma-
terials are placed into the mixing
bowl and blended together for
half an hour. Once mixed, the
machine operator tilts the mixing
bowl and removes the material
onto a cart. From there, the Silly
Putty is cut and packaged.
Sigma-blade mixer
12,000 eggs or 300 lb (136.2 kg) each day. weighed in the appropriate amounts to make
More than 300 million eggs-or 4,000 tons up a batch.
of Silly Putty-have been sold since 1950,
which is enough to stretch around the earth Mixing
nearly three times.
The ingredients are placed into a large
machine called a sigma blade mixer and
Raw Materials blended together for half an hour. Once the
Silly Putty is made from a mixture of sili- batch is mixed, the machine operator tilts
cone polymers (about 70 wt%) and other the machine and removes the sticky material
chemicals, including boric acid. Powdered onto a cart. From there, it is transported to
fillers (clay and calcium carbonate) and dry the cutting operation.
pigments (to produce color or glitter) are
also added. A homemade recipe can be Cutting
made from mixing together water, white The mixed material is first cut into bas-
glue, and borax solution. 2ketball-sized pieces by hand. These
pieces are then fed into the hoppers of a ma-
Design chine traditionally used for pulling taffy by
the candy industry that extrudes and cuts the
Silly putty was a serendipitous design that re- Silly Putty into smaller pieces similar in size
sulted from the combination of boric acid and to a golf ball. As the pieces come out of the
silicone oil. The original design has not been machine, the pieces fall onto a conveyor belt
significantly changed. Even the plastic eggs that transports them to the packaging area.
in which the silly putty is packaged has re-
mained for the original marketing campaign. Packaging
There are two packaging steps. First,
The Manufacturing 3production workers place each piece into
Process the plastic egg. The plastic eggs are then
The process for making Silly Putty is rela- conveyed to a special packaging machine
tively simple and involves only a few steps. called a blister carding machine. This ma-
After the raw materials are checked to make chine automatically places the egg, one per
sure they meet specifications, they are card, onto a special piece of cardboard called
399
a blister card. Next, the machine encases the The Future

egg into a vacuum formed plastic tray.
Though Silly Putty is particularly popular
with children, college students have recently
Quality Control taken a renewed interest. New uses will con-
tinue to be created and the artist community
A safety evaluation is conducted before may find Silly Putty a medium they can't re-
manufacturing begins. At this point, the sist. At least one sculptor already is selling his
product ingredients are certified in a toxico- creations for several thousand dollars a piece.
logical evaluation by the Art & Creative
Materials Institute's consulting toxicolo- Silly Putty turns 50 in 2000 and a special
gists. This certifies that the product contains commemorative product will be introduced.
no harmful or toxic materials and is then Silly Putty remains a classic toy that appeals
granted the AP (approved product) seal. to any age group and will continue to pro-
Once this certification takes place, Silly vide fun for many throughout the twenty-
Putty is labeled in accordance with ASTM first century and beyond.
(American Society for Testing and Materi-
als) labeling standards.
Where to Learn More
The weight of each Silly Putty egg is con-
trolled by sampling the extrusion process. Periodicals
Statistical process control is also used to Chase, R. "Silly Putty's Turning 50."Min-
maintain the correct weight. In addition to neapolis Star Tribune, September 16, 1998
being visually checked for color, sample
eggs are tested for bounce, stretch, and other "Silly putty: It's almost 50! It's still silly!
performance properties. And it still sells! "The Courant, August 2,
1995.
Byproducts/Waste Other
What little waste is produced is recycled Binney & Smith. 1100 Church Lane East-
back into the mixing process. Since it must on, PA 18044. (610) 253-6271.
be safe for child's play, the material used to
make Silly Putty is nontoxic. -Laurel Sheppard
400
Soccer Ball
Background tility rite. This evolved in the Middle Ages The English Football
into a game played on Shrove Tuesday.
People have played games similar to mod- Teams competed to kick the head of an ani- Association was founded
em soccer around the world since ancient mal around their agricultural fields. The win-
times. The oldest recorded soccer-like game in 1863. The term soccer
ning team got to bury the head on its ground,
is the Chinese game of tsu-chu, allegedly in- supposedly guaranteeing a good harvest. dates to that time, when
vented by the emperor Huang-Ti in 1697
B.C. Records from Huang-Ti's time describe By the 1300s, soccer (at that point called in British college student
a game played with a leather ball stuffed football) had evolved into a rough street
with animal hair and cork. Two teams vied game, where opposing mobs injured each slang the term ruggers
to kick it through goal posts. The Japanese other and crashed through houses and was the game played at
played a similar game called kemari in the stores in their struggle to get the ball
same era. A North African game from the through the goal posts. King Edward II Rugby, and soccer was
seventh century B.C. was also evidently sim- outlawed the game in 1314, and subse-
ilar to soccer, though it was a ceremonial quent rulers had to renew his decree. As the game played
game played as part of a fertility rite. with the Roman soldiers, football was pop- according to the Football
ular with British army men, and they ap-
The ancient Greeks participated in a game parently neglected their military training Association rules.
involving kicking and throwing a ball on a in order to play.
marked field. It was called espiskyros. The
Romans later had similar games, probably The game continued to be played in the
adapted from the Greek. One of the Roman streets of England at least through the
games was called follis, and used a large eighteenth century, but in the nineteenth
light ball filled with hair. In follis, the play- century, it became an upper-crust game,
ers tried to keep the ball in the air with their played at British public schools and col-
hands. Another version was called harpas- leges. Each school had its own rules, and
tum. In this rougher game, players tried to the first standardized soccer rules were
tackle the person with the ball. Harpastum published in 1862, so that graduates of the
was popular among Roman soldiers, and it different schools could play harmoniously.
spread throughout Italy, and then across the The English Football Association was
Roman Empire. The game was brought to founded in 1863. The term soccer dates to
England, and from there its history becomes that time, when in British college student
more narrowly British. slang the term ruggers was the game
played at Rugby, and soccer was the game
The balls used in early Britain were probably played according to the Football Associa-
made from inflated animal bladders, though tion rules.
there are persistent rumors of games played
with human heads. The skulls of either When the English Football Association
Roman or Viking oppressors were said to was founded and it's official rules (based
have been batted about at various Dark Age on Eton rules) of the game soccer drafted,
revelries. The British also may have had a it excluded certain game nuances that had
soccer-like game played with the head of an developed at the Rugby school. Running
animal, used in pre-Christian times as a fer- with the ball and hacking (violently scrap-
40 1
The inner bladder of a soccer ball

can be made from either natural ping at the ball with the boot to get it away Raw Mcatericals
or synthetic rubber that is gendy from the player or tripping the player run-
heated and forced into a mold. ning with the ball) were not adopted by the The standard soccer ball is made of syn-
The outer panels are produced Cambridge rules, and so Rugbeian teams thetic leather, usually polyurethane or
from sheets of synthetic leather refused to join the Football Association. In polyvinyl chloride, stitched around an in-
backed with several layers of 1871, eight years after the organization of flated rubber or rubber-like bladder. Older
cloth, to strengthen the material. the English Football Association, Rugby balls were made of genuine leather and
The sheets of synthetic leather are teams formed the Rugby Football Union, held shut with cotton laces. Modem balls
passed through a die-cutfing ma- have a valve. The synthetic leather panels
chine that cuts the hexagonal pan- which drafted its own official rules of the
game rugby. With so much strong debate are backed with cloth, usually polyester or
els and also punches the stitch a poly-cotton blend. The backing is held
holes. The panels are then over hacking, the Rugby Football Union
also discarded the practice. Over the years, on with a latex adhesive. The ball is spher-
silkscreened and imprinted with ical, and for standard play must be no big-
the manufacturer's logo. rugby rules have been modified, but still
the game and its equipment remains dis- ger than 28 in (71.12 cm) around, and no
tinct from soccer. smaller than 27 in (68.6 cm). Its weight is
specified at no less than 14 oz (0.392 kg)
Worldwide spread of soccer came with the and no more than 16 oz (0.448 kg), filled
expansion of the British empire. British la- to a pressure of 15 lb per sq in (6.8 kg per
borers working on the Argentine and sq cm).
Uruguayan railroads took the game to those
countries. International codification of the
rules came in 1904, with the founding of the The Manufacturing
International Federation of Association Foot- Process
ball (known by its acronym in French, FIFA). There are two main elements of the soc-
By the late 1990s, soccer was the most popu- cer ball. One is the inner bladder, the sec-
lar game on Earth, with millions of fans and a ond is the outer covering. Sometimes the
burgeoning equipment industry. whole soccer ball is made under one roof.
402
Soccer Ball
The 32 panels are sewn together
by hand. The stitcher inserts the
bladder and sews the final seams.
In order to ensure that the bladder
has not been punctured by a nee-
dle during stitching, a worker
pumps up the ball. Then, the fin-
ished ball is deflated again and
packed for shipping.
In many cases, the bladders are manufac- Cutting the panels

tured and the covering is die-cut and im-
printed with logos at a central factory, 2 After the adhesive is fully dried, the
and the stitching is done by hand else- sheets of synthetic leather are passed to a
where. The ball covering consists of 32 die-cutting machine. Workers load the cloth
hexagonal panels, and the hand stitching into the die cutter, which cuts the hexagonal
of these is tedious and exacting work. panels and also punches the stitch holes.
Over 80% of all soccer balls are manufac-
tured in Pakistan. Imprinting the panels
3 Some of the cut panels are next taken to
Lining the cover material a screening area. Workers silkscreen the
panels individually, imprinting them with
Sheets of synthetic leather are backed the manufacturer's logo. This is done with a
with several layers of cloth, to strengthen specially fast-drying paint.
the material. The sheets are fed through a
press that applies a latex adhesive and at- Making the bladder
taches the cloth. Material for a cheaper ball
will receive a two-layer backing. A sturdier, A The bladder can be made from either
more expensive ball will have four layers of < natural or synthetic rubber. The raw ma-
cloth attached. terial is gently heated and forced into a
403
mold, where it forms a balloon. As the mate- of treating these materials in order to come
rial cools, it wrinkles. Next, workers remove up with a better ball.
the bladders and partially inflate them to
smooth them out. In the manufacturing process itself, the
biggest change will hopefully lie in the
eradication of unfair working conditions.
Stitching and final assembly Public outcry in the mid-1990s forced man-
5 Now the balls are ready to be assembled. ufacturers to address the issue of child and
5The 32 panels and the bladder are prison labor. American consumers were
packed in a kit for the stitcher. The stitcher confounded in 1994 when it was widely
uses a pattern to guide him or her in assem- publicized that child laborers, living in ap-
bling the panels in the proper order. The palling conditions of poverty and enslave-
stitcher sews the panels together by hand. ment, sewed the majority soccer balls.
Over 80% of all soccer balls are manufac-
6 When the cover is sewed, the stitcher in- tured in Pakistan, where the stitching was
6serts the bladder and sews the final routinely outsourced to remote villages
seams. The ball is complete. In order to en- where children did the work. In the mid-
sure that the bladder has not been punctured 1990s, it was also revealed that some balls
by a needle during stitching, a worker manufactured in China had been stitched
pumps up the ball. The ball may also be by prison inmates. Under a barrage of neg-
weighed and measured at this point. Then, ative publicity, reputable soccer ball manu-
the finished ball is deflated again and facturers vowed to centralize their manu-
packed for shipping. facturing under one roof, and not
sub-contract to outside stitchers. Many of
the largest manufacturers instituted human
Quality Control rights departments in order to guarantee
The soccer ball is inspected at many points that their balls were not being assembled
in its assembly. The bladders are checked by child or prison labor. Some athletes re-
as they are removed from the molds. The fused to endorse soccer products unless
covering material is checked after it is they had a guarantee that balls were pro-
lined with the backing material. Another duced under humane conditions. With high
important quality checkpoint is the consumer awareness of the child labor
silkscreen printing. The printed panels are problem, it is in the best interest of ball
visually inspected, and any faulty ones re- makers to monitor working conditions at
moved. After the ball is stitched together, their foreign plants. Some manufacturers
an inspector looks it over carefully to see are investing in technology that will elimi-
that no stitches have been missed. The nate hand stitching altogether. In the late
bladder is inflated and the ball weighed and 1990s, automatic stitching machines were
measured before the ball is passed on to the able to produce low quality balls, suitable
shipping area. for non-professional play. Manufacturers
hope to improve the stitching technology
so that all grades of balls can be made by
The Future machine in the future.
Soccer is the world's most popular sport,
and ball manufacturers are vying to create Where to Learn More
new sensations in soccer equipment. How-
ever, the shape, size, and weight of the ball Books
is defined by international rules, and in a LaBlanc, Michael L. and Richard Henshaw,
traditional sport, there is not too much room The World Encyclopedia of Soccer. Detroit,
for innovation. Manufacturers are testing Michigan: Visible Ink, 1994.
new synthetics, such as butyl for the inner
bladder. For the covering, the aim is to cre- Periodicals
ate a softer, more pliable ball. While
polyurethane and polyvinyl chloride are the Cove, Tom. "The Last Word on Soccer
synthetic leathers of choice, manufacturers Balls and Child Labor." Sporting Goods
are investigating new materials or new ways Business (February 4, 1998).
4 04
Soccer Ball
Newell, Kevin. "Goal Oriented: Soccer Com-
panies with an Eye on Growing U.S. Sales
Are Getting a Leg Up on Innovation." Sport-
ing Goods Business (April 15, 1998).
Schanberg, Sydney H. "Six Cents an
Hour."Life (June 1996).
-Angela Woodward
405
Soy Milk
Commercial Background been sold in cafes and from street vendors
for generations. So important to the Chinese
manufacturers of soy milk Soy milk is a high protein, iron-rich milky are soybeans for the production of soy milk
liquid produced from pressing ground, and tofu that soybeans are considered one of
are able to produce as cooked soybeans. Creamy white soy milk the five sacred grains along with rice, wheat,
many as 18,000 resembles cow's milk but in fact differs barley, and millet. Soybeans made their way
from its dairy counterpart in a number of to Japan by the sixth century and to Europe
packages of soy milk per ways. Not only is it higher in protein and by the seventeenth century.
iron content, but it is cholesterol-free, low
production hour. fat, and low sodium. It is, however, lower in The beans came to the United States on
calcium and must be fortified with calcium ships from Asia and were used as ballast and
when given to growing children. Those who often discarded once the ships docked. But
are allergic to cow's milk or are unable to soldiers during the Civil War substituted soy
digest lactose, the natural sugar found in beans for coffee beans and were thus mak-
cow's milk, find soy milk easy to digest ing their own form of soy beverage. By the
since it is lactose-free. Those who are calo- nineteenth century, soy beverages were
rie-conscious can purchase reduced fat soy available in Europe as well.
milk (called lite soy milk) but this is often
lower in protein as well. Some do not enjoy However, the popularity of soybean prod-
the taste of original soy milk, so manufac- ucts, including soy milk, came slowly to the
turers now offer flavored soy milk. Soy milk United States. African-American agricultur-
can be substituted for milk in nearly any ist George Washington Carver began study-
recipe. Those who merely want to boost ing the soybean and touting its nutritive
protein intake often add powdered soy milk value in the early twentieth century. Shortly
to other beverages; others find it economical thereafter, doctors became intrigued with
to purchase it in powder form and then make their use for its nutritional value, particular-
soy milk when they add water to the pow- ly for children unable to drink cow's milk.
der. Children under one year of age should Soybean production has increased in the
be given a formula of soy milk specifically United States throughout the twentieth cen-
developed with their nutritional needs in tury and is a staple crop for many midwest-
mind. Soy milk that is intentionally curdled em farmers, allowing soy milk producers a
is known as tofu. steady supply of the main ingredient. Soy-
beans are grown in 29 states and are our sec-
ond largest cash crop.
History Until the 1950s, soy milk was made in small
The soybean (Glycine max) is the world's quantities at home or in small shops and was
foremost provider of protein and oil. The not produced on a mass scale in this country.
Chinese have been cultivating soybeans for At this time, soy milk was bottled like soft
thousands of years. The first written record drinks. Much of the technology now used in
of Chinese cultivation dates to the third cen- the production of soy milk was developed by
turyB.c. Many believe that the Chinese have the Japanese who use soy beverages (and
been making soy milk for centuries-it has other soy products) in tremendous quantities.
406
Soy Milk
In the 1970s, when interest in soy and other De-hulling
non-dairy products soared, manufacturers
began adding flavors to the bland soy milk. The soybeans are steamed and split in
Shortly thereafter, the development of asep- half. This loosens the hull on the bean. A
tic packaging (in which the milk is packaged vacuum sucks off the hulls.
in such a way that no air is introduced which
can contain harmful bacteria) brought the
beverage into the modem era. Invalidating the indigestible
enzyme
3 Next, soybeans must be cooked in order
Raw Materials 3to invalidate, or counteract, a specific
Soy milk requires only soybeans and water enzyme which makes them indigestible to
(and steam) for its creation. Soy milk is humans. This cooking occurs in the Enzyme
nearly always fortified with calcium, vita- Invalidator, in which the de-hulled soybeans
mins D, and certain B vitamins. Highly con- are cooked using high pressure, Water, and
centrated flavorings, such as vanilla, carob, high temperature (creating very hot live
chocolate, and almond are often added to steam) to invalidate that enzyme.
the finished product. Many companies add
sugar and salt to the drink to make it more
palatable to the consumer. Rough grinding
4 The cooked soybeans then fall into the
The Manufcacturing
'4first rough grinder or mill. Water is
added to the machine and the bean pieces
Process are roughly ground in this first milling.
The soybean is a low acid food and as such,
is a good host for the breeding of harmful
bacteria. Thus, the manufacturing process is Finer grinding
"aseptic," meaning that at a certain point in 5 Although they have been ground once,
its production, the soy milk is sealed off
from any air because it might introduce dan-
5the cooked soybeans are still rather
coarse. Thus, the fine grinder further pulver-
gerous bacteria into the product. The devel- izes the bean pellets into small particles.
opment of successful, affordable aseptic The hot slurry is white in color with minus-
production of soy milk has been of tremen- cule particles of insoluble soybean particles.
dous importance in the mass production of
this beverage. The initial phases of the pro-
duction of soy milk do not have to be sealed Extracting
off to air; only later does this happen.
A large centrifuge is then used to extract
Ijthe tiny bits of soybean that are insoluble
Procuring the raw materials and cannot be included in the finished prod-
Soy milk manufacturers very often work uct. These particles are separated from the
directly with farmers so that the kind of soy milk slurry using a centrifuge. A rubber
soy bean that produces good soy milk is roller presses the soy milk slurry against the
grown (one manufacturer gives the farmers surface of a drum within the centrifuge, forc-
the seeds for the soybeans they require). ing the liquid inside the drum while the
Generally soy milk producers seek large fibers remain on the outside of the drum. The
soybeans called clear hylem. drum is then scraped of these fibers.
Once the soybeans are harvested and These soybean fibers are physically re-
brought to the plant, the beans are cleaned in moved from the production process at this
a grain elevator or bin on or off premises. time. This waste soy fiber is called okara
The process may begin with the blending to- and it resembles mashed potatoes. A sepa-
gether of four to six tons of soybeans at one rate process dries the okara for use other
time. Some factories have two or more pro- than human consumption. The fiber-less soy
duction lines running at one time, and thus liquid is raw soy milk at this point and is re-
use several tons of soybeans in a day. ferred to in the industry as jun.
407
Good quality soybeans are har-

vested, cleaned, hulled, and pres- Blending pressure piston pump, the is blended as it is
sure cooked. Next, the cooked drawn into the pump cylinder and then
soybeans are ground by a num- 7 The jun is injected into large tanks and forced back out in a repetitive motion.
ber of grinders that transform the flavorings, sugar, and vitamins are
beans into a milky slurry. The slur- mixed separately in smaller tanks. Ingredi-
ry is placed in a centrifuge that ents of the smaller tank are infused into the Cooling
extracts any insoluble bits of larger tanks, thus blending the flavors with O Next, the hot milk is piped to the cool-
bean. The separated soy liquid the raw milk. V ing tank. Here, the hot milk passes
called jun is blended with vita- next to cold plates that lower the tempera-
mins, flavorings, and sugar and
then sterilized and homogenized. Aseptic sterilizing ture of the soy milk to room temperature.
The hot milk is cooled and pack- 8 At this point, it is essential that the jun
aged in such a way that it is never 8be sealed within the equipment until the Storing
exposed to air.
end of the manufacturing process (including The cooled milk is sent to the aseptic
packaging) in order to keep out air and am- (sealed) tanks and held here in prepa-
bient bacteria and germs that can grow in ration for packaging. Here, the soy milk is
low-acid soy milk. Sterilization occurs with refrigerated, pressurized, and sealed to en-
pressure and very hot temperatures within a sure no bacteria thrives in the milk.
vacuum for a short period of time.
Packaging
Homogenizing
12 A very important part of the produc-
9 From the sterilizer, the hot milk is sent tion is the aseptic packaging of the
to the homogenizer. This breaks down product. Packaging machines have been de-
the fat particles and prevents them from sep- veloped for this product that are able to me-
arating from the rest of the mixture. In the chanically package the product without ex-
homogenizer, which is essentially a high- posing it to air. The cooled milk is sent to
408
Soy Milk
this packaging machine which has a ribbon Byproducts/Waste
of flat packaging (cardboard) threaded into
it. As the milk runs through the machine, the Until recently, the unusable okara was a
packaging surrounds the milk and a cutter significant waste problem for many soy
cuts through the cardboard packaging and milk production plants. Okara, the insoluble
the milk, simultaneously folding the pack- fiber that is removed from the raw soy
age and sealing the milk within it. A ma- Now, soy milk producers send the okara to
a drying machine which takes the moisture
chine glues a plastic spout onto the sealed
package. From here, the product is sent to an out of the okara, transforming it into a high-
automatic sorter that packs a case and places fiber, high-protein animal feed. The dried
it on a pallet. A modem factory is able to okara is now sold to farmers for feed, thus
produce as many as 18,000 packages of soy eliminating a storage and waste problem at
milk in an hour. most soy milk plants. It has proven to be in-
valuable to farmers who raise organically
fed animals because many soy milk produc-
Quality Control ers only take in organically grown soy-
Quality control begins with acquiring high beans. Thus, the dried okara feed produced
quality soybean for the production of soy from these beans is considered organic and
milk. The beans considered most desirable acceptable for feed.
for the process are called clear hylem, with a
white (or colorless) hylem on the body of the Where to Learn More
bean. While the soybean is generally bland,
the clear hylem variety is considered more
flavorful. A number of soy milk producers Books
market their product as organic and beans Herbst, Sharon Tyler.Food Lover's Com-
purchased from farmers for soy milk must be panion. Barron's Educational Services, Inc.
certified organic in order to be utilized.
The production of soy milk must be meticu- Other
lously monitored to ensure that no bacteria Eden Foods. "History of Soy Beverages."
grows in the low acid medium. Thus, many Clinton, MI: Eden Foods, 1997.
factories include over 206 quality control
checkpoints in this production. Temperatures Eden Foods. "Soy Beverage Manufacturing
of water, steam, and the monitoring of pres- Process." Clinton, MI: Eden Foods, 1997.
sure is essential in this process. In addition,
the product is constantly analyzed as a sam-
ple of the product is taken off the line every Guelph Food Technology Centre.
10 minutes and checked for pH, temperature, http://www.gftc.ca/tech/equip/soymilk.htm/
and bacterial growth (many samples are cul- (June 29, 1999).
tured). Because the product is sealed off from
the workers for much of the production, visu- U.S. Soyfoods Directory. http://www.soy-
al checks occur primarily as the product foods.com (June 29, 1999).
comes off the line. Here, workers check to
ensure packages are properly sealed. -Nancy EV Bryk
409
Spacesuit
Presently, NASA has 17 A spacesuit is a pressurized garment worn moval, and protection from sunlight, solar
by astronauts during space flights. It is de- radiation and tiny micrometeoroids. It is a
completed Extravehicular signed to protect them from the potentially life-support system for astronauts working
Mobility Units (EMUs), damaging conditions experienced in space. outside Earth's atmosphere. Spacesuits have
Spacesuits are also known as Extravehicular been used for many important tasks in space.
each of which cost over Mobility Units (EMUs) to reflect the fact These include aiding in payload deployment,
that they are also used as mobility aides retrieval and servicing of orbiting equip-
$10.4 million to make. when an astronaut takes a space walk out- ment, external inspection and repair of the
side of an orbiting spacecraft. They are orbiter, and taking stunning photographs.
composed of numerous tailor-made compo-
nents that are produced by a variety of man-
ufacturers and assembled by the National History
Aeronautics Space Agency (NASA) at their Spacesuits have evolved naturally as tech-
headquarters in Houston. The first space- nological improvements have been made in
suits were introduced during the 1950s areas of materials, electronics and fibers.
when space exploration began. They have During the early years of the space program,
evolved overtime becoming more functional spacesuits were tailor made for each astro-
and complicated. Today, NASA has 17 naut. These were much less complex than
completed EMUs, each of which cost over today's suits. In fact, the suit worn by Alan
$10.4 million to make. Shepard on the first U.S. suborbital was lit-
tle more than a pressure suit adapted from
Background the U.S. Navy high-altitude jet aircraft pres-
sure suit. This suit had only two layers and it
On Earth, our atmosphere provides us with was difficult for the pilot to move his arms
the environmental conditions we need to or legs.
survive. We take for granted the things it
provides such as air for breathing, protec- The next generation spacesuit was designed
tion from solar radiation, temperature regu- to protect against depressurization while the
lation and consistent pressure. In space, astronauts were in an orbiting spacecraft.
none of these protective characteristics are However, space walks in these suits were not
present. For example, an environment with- possible because they did not protect against
out consistent pressure doesn't contain the harsh environment of space. These suits
breathable oxygen. Also, the temperature in were made up of five layers. The layer clos-
space is as cold as -459.4° F (-273° C). For est to the body was a white cotton underwear
humans to survive in space, these protective that had attachments for biomedical devices.
conditions had to be synthesized. A blue nylon layer that provided comfort
was next. On top of the blue nylon layer was
A spacesuit is designed to re-create the envi- a pressurized, black, neoprene-coated nylon
ronmental conditions of Earth's atmosphere. layer. This provided oxygen in the event that
It provides the basic necessities for life sup- cabin pressure failed. A Teflon layer was
port such as oxygen, temperature control, next to hold the suit's shape when pressur-
pressurized enclosure, carbon dioxide re- ized, and the final layer was a white nylon
410
Spacesuit
material that reflected sunlight and guarded The Apollo missions utilized more compli-
against accidental damage. cated suits that solved some of these prob-
lems. For moon walks, the astronauts wore a
For the first space walks mat occurred dur- seven layer garment with a life-support
ing the Gemini missions in 1965, a seven backpack. The total weight was about 57 lb
layer suit was used for extra protection. The (26 kg). For the Space Shuttle missions,
extra layers were composed of aluminized NASA introduced the Extravehicular Mo-
Mylar, which provided more thermal protec- bility Unit (EMU). This was a spacesuit de-
tion and protection from micrometeoroids. signed for space walks that did not require a
These suits had a total weight of 33 lb (15 connection to the orbiter. One primary dif-
kg). While they were adequate, there were ference in these suits was that they were de-
certain problems associated with them. For signed for multiple astronaut use instead of
example, the face mask on the helmet quick- being custom made like the previous space-
ly fogged so vision was hampered. Also, the suits. Over the last 20 years, the EMUs have
gas cooling system was not adequate be- undergone steady improvements however,
cause it could not remove excessive heat they still look the same as they did when the
and moisture quickly enough. shuttle program began in 1981. Currently,
4 1 1
the EMU has 14 layers of protection and The helmet is a large plastic, pressurized
weighs over 275 lb (125 kg). bubble that has a neck ring and a ventilation
distribution pad. It also has a purge valve,
which is used with a secondary oxygen
Raw Materials pack. In the helmet, there is a straw to a
Numerous raw materials are used for con- drink bag in case the astronaut gets thirsty, a
structing a spacesuit. Fabric materials in- visor which shields rays from the bright sun,
clude a variety of different synthetic poly- and a camera which records extra vehicular
mers. The innermost layer is made up of a activities. Since space walks can last over
Nylon tricot material. Another layer is com- seven hours at a time, the suit is fitted with a
posed of spandex, an elastic wearable poly- urine collection system to allow for bath-
mer. There is also a layer of urethane-coated room breaks. The MSOR assembly attaches
nylon, which is involved in pressurization. to the outside of the helmet. This device
Dacron-a type of polyester-is used for a (also known as a "Snoopy Cap") snaps into
pressure-restraining layer. Other synthetic place with a chin strap. It consists of head-
fabrics used include Neoprene that is a type phones and a microphone for two way com-
of sponge rubber, aluminized Mylar, Gor- munication. It also has four small "head
tex, Kevlar, and Nomex. lamps" which shine extra light where need-
ed. The visor is manually adjusted to shield
Beyond synthetic fibers other raw materials the astronaut's eyes.
have important roles. Fiberglass is the pri-
mary material for the hard upper torso seg- To maintain temperature, a liquid cooling
ment. Lithium hydroxide is used in making and ventilation garment is worn under the
the filter which removes carbon dioxide and outer garment. It is composed of cooling
water vapor during a space walk. A silver tubes, which have fluid flowing through
zinc blend comprises the battery that powers them. The undergarment is a mesh one-
the suit. Plastic tubing is woven into the fab- piece suit composed of spandex. It has a zip-
ric to transport cooling water throughout the per to allow for front entry. It has over 300
suit. A polycarbonate material is used for ft of plastic tubing intertwined within which
constructing the shell of the helmet. Various it circulates cool water. Normally, the circu-
other components are used to make up the lating water is maintained from 40-50° F
electronic circuitry and suit controls. (4.4-9.9° C). The temperature is controlled
by a valve on the display control panel. The
lower garment weighs 8.4 lb (3.8 kg) when
Design loaded with water.
A single EMU spacesuit is constructed from The lower torso assembly is made up of the
various tailor-made components produced pants, boots, "brief' unit, knee and ankle
by over 80 companies. The size of the parts joints and the waist connection. It is com-
vary ranging from one-eighth-inch washers posed of a pressure bladder of urethane-
to a 30 inch (76.2 cm) long water tank. The coated nylon. A restraining layer of Dacron
EMU consists of 18 separate items. Some of and an outer thermal garment composed of
the major components are outlined below. Neoprene-coated nylon. It also has five lay-
ers of aluminized Mylar and a fabric surface
The primary life support system is a self- layer composed of Teflon, Kevlar, and
contained backpack that is fitted with an Nomex. This part of the suit can be made
oxygen supply, carbon-dioxide removal fil- shorter or longer by adjusting the sizing
ters, electrical power, ventilating fan and rings in the thigh and leg section. The boots
communication equipment. It provides the have an insulated toe cap to improve heat re-
astronaut with most of the things needed to tention. Thermal socks are also worn. The
survive such as oxygen, air purification, urine storage device is also located in this
temperature control and communication. As section of the suit. Old models could hold
much as seven hours worth of oxygen can up to 950 milliliters of liquid. Currently, a
be stored in the suit's tank. A secondary disposable diaper type garment is used.
oxygen pack is also found on the suit. This
provides an additional 30 minutes of emer- The arm assembly is adjustable just like the
gency oxygen. lower torso assembly. The gloves contain
4 12
Spacesuit
An Extravehicular Mobility Unit
(EMU).
Drink bag Hard upper torso
Display and control module

' Temperature control valve
,) control actuator
miniature battery-powered heaters in each Chest mounted control module lets the as-
finger. The rest of the unit is covered by tronaut monitor the suit's status and connect
padding and an additional protective outer to external sources of fluids and electricity.
layer. It contains all the mechanical and electrical
operating controls and also a visual display
The hard upper torso is constructed with panel. A silver zinc, rechargeable battery
fiberglass and metal. It is where most of the which operates at 17 volts is used to power
suit pieces attach including the helmet, the suit. This control module is integrated
arms, life support system display, control with the warning system found in the hard
module and lower torso. It includes oxygen upper torso to ensure that the astronaut
bottles, water storage tanks, a sublimator, a knows the status of the suit's environment.
contaminant control cartridge, regulators, The suit connects to the orbiter through an
sensors, valves, and a communications sys- umbilical line. It is disconnected prior to
tem. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and water leaving the airlock.
vapor leave the suit through the ventilation
garment near the astronaut's feet and el- The white suit weighs about 275 lb (124.8 kg)
bows. A drinkbag in the upper torso can on earth and has a product life expectancy of
hold as much as 32 oz (907.2 g) of water. about 15 years. It is pressurized to 4.3 lb (1.95
The astronaut can take a drink through the kg) per square inch and can be recharged by
mouthpiece that extends into the helmet. hooking up directly to the orbiter. The exist-
4 1 3
The primary life support system is

a self-contained backpack that is Extravehicular
fitted with an oxygen supply, car-
bon-dioxide removal filters, elec- warning system
trical power, ventilating fan, and Antenna
communication equipment.
Battery
Primary 02 tanks
Primary 02 regulator
assembly and 02 actuator
ing spacesuits are modular so they can be special connector in the airlock chamber.
shared by multiple astronauts. The four basic The waste rings are connected and then the
interchangeable sections include the helmet, gloves and helmet are put on.
the hard upper torso, the arms and the lower
torso assembly. These parts are adjustable and
can be resized to fit over 95% of all astro- The Manufacturing
nauts. Each set of arms and legs comes in dif- Process
ferent sizes which can be fine- tuned to fit the The manufacture of a spacesuit is a compli-
specific astronaut. The arms allow for as cated process. It can be broken down into
much as a one inch adjustment. The legs two phases of production. First the individ-
allow for up to a three inch adjustment. ual components are constructed. Then the
parts are brought together in a primary man-
It takes about 15 minutes to put on the space- ufacture location, such as NASA headquar-
suit. To put the spacesuit on the astronaut ters in Houston, and assembled. The general
first puts on the lower garment that contains process is outline as follows.
the liquid cooling and ventilation system.
The lower torso assembly is put on next with
the boots being attached. Next, the astronaut Helmet and visor assembly
slides into the upper torso unit which is 1 The helmet and visor may be construct-
mounted with the life-support backpack on a ed using traditional blow molding tech-
4 14
Spacesuit
An EMU is made of 14 protective
layers. Fabric materials include a
variety of different synthetic poly-
mers. The innermost layer is a
Nylon tricot material. Another
layer is composed of spandex, an
elastic wearable polymer. There is
also a layer of urethane-coated
nylon, which is involved in pres-
surization. Dacron-a type of
polyester-is used for a pressure-
restraining layer. Other synthetic
fabrics used include Neoprene
that is a type of sponge rubber,
aluminized Mylar, Gortex, Kevlar,
and Nomex.
niques. Pellets of polycarbonate are Control module

loaded into a injection-molding machine.
They are melted and forced into a cavity 3 The key components of the control mod-
which as the approximate size and shape ule are built in separate units and then
of the helmet. When the cavity is opened, assembled. This modular approach allows
the primary piece of the helmet is con- key parts to be easily serviced if necessary.
structed. A connecting device is added at The chest mounted control module contains
the open end so the helmet can be fastened all of the electronic controls, a digital dis-
to the hard upper torso. The ventilation play and other electronic interfaces. The pri-
distribution pad is added along with purge mary purge valve is also added to this part.
valves before the helmet is packaged and
shipped. The visor assembly is similarly Cooling garment
fitted with "head lamps" and communica- 4 The cooling garment is worn inside the
tion equipment. A pressure layers. It is made out of a com-
bination of nylon, spandex fibers and liquid
Life-support systems cooling tubes. The nylon tricot is first cut
into a long underwear-like shape. Mean-
2 The life support systems are put together while, the spandex fibers are woven into a
2in a number of steps. All the pieces are sheet of fabric and cut into the same shape.
fitted to the outer backpack housing. First, The spandex is then fitted with a series of
the pressurized oxygen tanks are filled, cooling tubes and then sewn together with
capped, and put into the housing. The carbon the nylon layer. A front zipper is then at-
dioxide removal equipment is put together. tached as well as connectors for attachment
This typically involves a filter canister that is to the life support system.
filled with lithium hydroxide which gets at-
tached to a hose. The backpack is then fitted
with a ventilating fan system, electrical Upper and lower torso
power, a radio, a warning system, and the 5 The lower torso, arm assembly, and
water cooling equipment. When completely 5gloves are made in a similar manner.
assembled, the life support system can attach The various layers of synthetic fibers are
directly to the hard upper torso. woven together and then cut into the appro-
4 15
priate shape. Connection rings are attached The Future

at the ends and the various segments are at-
tached. The gloves are fitted with miniature The current EMU design is the result of
heaters in every finger and covered with in- many years of research and development.
sulation padding. While they are a powerful tool for orbital op-
erations, many improvements are possible. It
6 The hard upper torso is forged using a has been suggested that the spacesuit of the
Vcombination of fiberglass and metal. It future may look dramatically different than
has four openings where the lower torso as- the current suit. One area that can be im-
sembly, the two arms, and the helmet attach. proved is the development of suits that can
Additionally, adapters are added where the operate at higher pressures than the current
life support pack and the control module can EMU. This would have the advantage of re-
be attached. ducing time currently required for prebreath-
ing prior to a space walk. To make higher
Final assembly pressure suits improvements will have to be
made in the connecting joints on each part of
7 All the parts are shipped to NASA to be the suit. Another improvement can be in the
assembled. This is done on the ground resizing of the suit in orbit. Currently, it takes
where the suit can be tested prior to use in a significant amount of time to remove or add
space. extending inserts in the leg and arm areas.
One other possible improvement is in the
electronic controls of the suit. What now re-
Quality Control quires complex command codes will be done
The individual suppliers conduct quality with the push of a single button in the future.
control tests at each step of the production
process. This ensures that every part is made Where to Learn More
to exacting standards and will function in
the extreme environment of space. NASA Books
also conducts extensive tests on the com- Suitedfor Spacewalking. NASA, 1998.
pletely assembled suit. They check for
things such as air leakage, depressurization, Other
or nonfunctional life support systems. The Hamilton-Standard Company. http:H/www.
quality control testing is crucial because a hamilton-standard.com/.
single malfunction could have dire conse-
quences for an astronaut. -Perry Romanowski
4 1 6
Sponge
Background Raw Mcsterials Sea sponges are thought
There are many different varieties of sea Many different types of sponge are harvest- to have evolved at least
sponges, and these come in widely varying ed and dried for human use, but the most
shapes and sizes. They can be very large, common one is the Spongia oficinalis, also 700 million years ago.
and grow in elaborate branched formations, known as the glove sponge. Another com- They are among the
or be round and small, or grow flat or in a mon type used commercially is the sheep's
tube shape. Some are brilliantly colored, wool sponge, or Hippospongia canaliculata. simplest animal
though they fade when they are harvested. Synthetic sponges are made of three basic
Sea sponges are thought to have evolved at ingredients: cellulose derived from wood organisms, having no
least 700 million years ago. They are among pulp, sodium sulphate, and hemp fiber. specialized organs such
the simplest animal organisms, having no Other materials needed are chemical soften-
specialized organs such as heart and lungs, ers, which break the cellulose down into the as heart and lungs, and
and no locomotion. Sponges live attached to proper consistency, bleach, and dye.
rocks on the sea bed. Their bodies consist of no locomotion.
skeletons made of a soft material called
spongin, and a leathery skin broken by Harvesting Sea Sponges
pores. The sponge eats by pumping seawa-
ter in through its pores. It filters microscopic To gather natural sponges, specially trained
plants from the water, and expels the excess divers descend into sponge-growing waters
water through one or more large holes called with a large two-pronged hook and a string
oscula. It also absorbs oxygen directly from bag. Traditional sponge divers in Greece
seawater. Sponges are slow-growing, taking used no special breathing equipment. The
several years to reach full size, and some men of seaside villages were trained from
live for hundreds of years. childhood and were expert deep water
divers. The sponge industry in the United
States centers around Tarpon Springs, Flori-
Sea sponges were used since ancient times in da, a community that was founded by Greek
the Mediterranean region where they are most immigrant divers. Today's sponge divers
common. Roman soldiers each carried a per- use modem diving equipment such as wet
sonal sponge, which served the purpose of suits and oxygen tanks. The divers pry
modem toilet paper, and they were certainly sponges off the rocks or reefs where they
used for other purposes as well. Artificial grow, and bring them up in their string bags.
sponges were first developed by the Du Pont The divers pile the sponges on the deck of
company-a leader in synthetic materials their boat and cover them with wet cloths.
manufacturing industry that also invented The animals die on the boat, and their skins
nylon-in the 1940s. Three DuPont engineers rot off. After the skins have decayed, the
patented the cellulose sponge process, and harvesters wash the sponges and string them
DuPont held onto the secret until 1952, when on a long, thin rope to dry in the sun. After
it sold its sponge technology to General Mills. they have dried completely, the harvesters
In the second half of the twentieth century, wash the sponges several more times. This
cellulose sponges rapidly replaced the natural is all the preparation the sponges need to be
sponge for most common household uses. ready for sale.
417
Natural sponges are the skeletons

of a kind of simple sea animal.
They grow in worm, shallow wa-
ters, and are particularly plentiful
in the eastern Mediterranean and
off the western coast of Florida.
Artificial sponges have largely re-
placed natural ones in the United
States, where at least 80% of the
sponges in use are manmade.
The Manufacturing up is made with very fine crystals. As the

Process celluolose mix cooks, then cools, it becomes
a hard, porous block.
The steps necessary in the manufacture of
synthetic sponge is discussed below. 3 The sponge block is then soaked in a vat
of bleach. This removes dirt and impuri-
1 The cellulose used for sponges arrives at ties, and also brightens the color. Next the
the sponge factory in large, stiff sheets. sponge is cleaned in water. Additional
Workers take the sheets and soak them in a washings alter the texture, making the
vat of water mixed with certain chemical sponge more pliable. The sponge is left to
softeners. The cellulose becomes soft and dry, to prepare it for cutting.
jelly-like. Then workers load the cellulose
into a revolving mixer, which is a large ro- A Some manufacturers make the sponge
tating metal drum. Workers add the sodium ' and cut and package it themselves. Oth-
sulphate crystals, cut hemp fibers, and dye, ers produce the raw blocks of sponge, and
and close the mixer. The mixer is set to ro- then sell them to a company known as a con-
tate, and it chums the ingredients so that verter. The converter cuts the sponges ac-
they are thoroughly amalgamated. cording to its customers needs, and takes
care of the packaging and distribution.
2 From the mixer, workers pour the mater- Whether at the first manufacturing facility or
ial into a large rectangular mold that at the converter, workers cut the sponges on
may be 2 ft (61 cm) high, 2 ft (61 cm) wide, an automatic cutter. They load each big rec-
and 6 ft (1.8 m) long. The mold is heated, tangle of sponge into a machine that slices it
and the cellulose mixture cooks. As it cooks, into the desired size. Because the sponge
the sodium sulphate crystals melt, and drain block is rectangular, it can be cut into many
away through openings in the bottom of the smaller rectangles with little or no waste.
mold. It is their melting that leaves the char-
acteristic pores in the finished sponge. The 5 Many household sponges have a textured
size of the pores is determined by the size of Jplastic scouring pad attached to one side.
the sodium sulphate crystals. A rough This is attached in a process called laminat-
sponge used for washing a car, for instance, ing, after the sponge is cut. The scouring
is made with coarse crystals, while a fine pad, which is cut to the same size as the
sponge of the type used for applying make- sponge, is affixed to the sponge in a laniinat-
4 18
Sponge
Softened cellulose is mixed with
sodium sulphate crystals, cut
hemp fibers, and dye in a large,
revolving metal drum. Once
blended, the material is poured
into a large rectangulor mold,
which may be 2 ft ( 61 cm) high,
2 ft (61 cm) wide, and 6 h (182.9
cm) long. As the mold cooks, the
sodium sulphate crystals melt, and
drain away through openings in
the bottom of the mold. It is their
melting that leaves the character-
istic pores in the finished sponge.
ing machine that uses a specialized sponge manufacturing process. The raw ingredients
glue made of moisture-cured polyurethane. are analyzed when they come into the plant
Next, the sponges move to a packaging area to make sure they conform to standards. In a
where they are sealed in plastic. The pack- modem facility, most of the machinery is
aged sponges are boxed, and the boxes sent monitored by computers, that maintain the
to a warehouse for further distribution. proper proportions in the mix, for example,
and control the temperature of the mold dur-
ing the cooking process. The finished
Quality Control sponges are checked for tenacity, that is,
A sponge manufacturer typically checks the how easily they tear. An inspector takes a
product for quality at many steps along the random sample from the batch and puts it in
41 9
a specially built machine. The machine Where to Learn More

measures the force needed to tear the
sponge. Another test is of color. In this case, Books
a sample sponge is examined under a spec- Esbensen, Barbara Juster. Sponges Are
trograph. Skeletons (New York: Harper Collins, 1993).
Sponge manufacturing produces no harmful Sookdeo, Richard. "Ex-sponging Bacteria."
byproducts and little waste. Sponge material Fortune (October 31, 1994).
that is lost in trimming, such as when an un-
even end is cut off the large block, is ground -Angela Woodward
up and recycled. It can be thrown in the
mixer at the beginning of the process, and
become part of a new sponge.
420
Statuary
Background History Cast sculpture is the
Sculpture is three-dimensional art, and stat- Sculpture has been an important art form in parent of statuary, but the
uary is affordable sculpture for everyone. all cultures that have evolved since Pale-
Statuary encompasses the sublime to the olithic times. Its three dimensions have per- process of making both is
ridiculous it is as familiar as red- and-green mitted artists to interpret mythical charac- essentially the same. The
lawn gnomes and as exotic the Winged Vic- ters or pay homage to kings, and
tory, an ancient Greek sculpture displayed construction materials like metal and stone major differences are that
in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France. The are more durable and adaptable than canvas,
availability of free time to spend in our paper, and paint. Artistic trends in sculpture sculpture is produced in
yards and gardens has boosted interest in or- have always kept pace and similarity with very limited quantities,
namenting quiet corners of flower gardens other styles, although its development has
with cherubs, birdbaths, and gargoyles. The also followed architecture, the filling of materials like statuary
same statuary can be used indoors as paper- large spaces, and the idea of freeing the per-
weights, decorations for the mantelpiece, sonality trapped in stone. bronze are more
wall display, or other ornamentation. It pro- expensive, sculptures are
vides a relatively inexpensive means of The sculpture of all the great civilizations
echoing a design or artistic theme in a room, has been copied in making statuary. Statu- often large in, and all
establishing atmosphere, and providing in- ary is just as old as sculpture, and these
terest in an empty space. same civilizations have prized statuary for these factors make
display in private and public gardens, patios
and piazzas, and interior decoration. The sculpture expensive or,
Cast sculpture is the parent of statuary, but eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79A.D. per- indeed, priceless.
the process of making both is essentially fectly preserved the lifestyles of the inhabi-
the same. The major differences are that tants of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and
sculpture is produced in very limited quan- their homes and gardens housed ornamental
tities, materials like statuary bronze are statuary.
more expensive, sculptures are often large
in size (prohibitively so for the average The rise of civilizations in Europe and Asia
home), and all these factors make sculp- produced new styles of statuary, but, period-
ture expensive or, indeed, priceless. Statu- ically, interest in ancient forms and styles
ary is cast using molds and is made of ce- was reborn, so statuary has helped preserve
ment, plaster, or resin; but sculpture can be and personalize the marble friezes of the
made of almost any material or many ma- Parthenon and clay statues of early Chinese
terials from marble and bronze to feathers dynasties. In modern America, private
and hubcaps. Any method or material that homes can feature French Gothic decor,
adds dimension to artwork has potential thanks to statuary manufacturers who repro-
value to the sculptor. The finish of statu- duce the great works of the period in afford-
ary, like sculpture, consists of either an ap- able formats.
plied finish like color or a natural finish
that allows the true color and beauty of the The extensive gardens of royal palaces and
material to show or to be enhanced by parks in many cultures have included the
sanding or polishing. display of fountains and sculpture. Repro-
42 1
Statuary is cast using molds and is

made of cement, plaster, or resin. duction through statuary allows small statuary, as opposed to waste molds (that are
spaces to be filled with similar artwork that used once and wasted) or piece molds (that
adds personality, whimsy, and even scholar- are constructed in sections) for making
ly knowledge on a more reasonable scale. sculpture. Molds are made from either rub-
The renaissance of interest in gardening has ber or silicone, depending on the material
helped spur enthusiasm for relief statuary that will be cast. Cement and plaster statues
that can be mounted on walls or inset among are created from rubber molds, and resin
paving stones as well as statuary birds, rab- statues require silicone molds. Both materi-
bits, fairies, and other real and imaginary als can be molded with different surface fin-
woodland inhabitants. ishes, but they can be removed more cleanly
from their respective statue types.
Raw M0aterials The statue-making cement, plaster, and
Materials for home statuary consist of those resin are all mixed into liquids by adding
for making molds and those for the actual clean water to powder components supplied
sculpture. Flexible molds are used to cast by specialized manufacturers. The grade,
42 2
Statuary
dried color, and fineness of the powders will manufacture. When the work is reviewed,
affect the appearance of the final product. modified (if necessary), and approved, a
They are chosen carefully and may be very mold is made from the sculpted model.
different from one style of statue to another.
Plaster is used to make statues for the interi- 2 Using the mold made especially from an
or only, but cement and resin can be made original design or an existing mold that
for indoor or outdoor use. Additives are may be several generations removed from its
mixed with the synthetic or polyester resin original, liquid resin, plaster, or cement is
particularly to make it durable, give it the poured into the mold. Although each statue
properties to withstand temperature ex- is made individually, many molds for the
tremes, and make it non-porous so moisture same design are used to reproduce a number
won't penetrate and cause damage during of statues at the same time. The molds are
frosts and freezing. Sometimes, fiberglass stored in temperature- and humidity-con-
are mixed in to add strength; the resin is trolled rooms for 24-72 hours, depending on
then termed glass-fiber reinforced polyester the configuration of the piece. Heat is not ap-
resin or GRP. Statues made of enriched ce- plied, so this is called "cold cure" statuary.
ment sometimes include marble dust and are
left unfinished so the statue has the natural 3 When the statue has dried partially, the
texture of the cement. 3mold is carefully removed. This is possi-
ble because the flexible mold can be re-
moved from complex detailing and undercut
Design areas of the statue without damaging either
Designs for home statuary originate from the statue or the mold. The mold can be
three sources. Old molds made for original cleaned and reused. The statue is stored
sculpture and for statuary makers that have again in a drying room to be completed
gone out of business are sometimes avail- cured or dehydrated. This step also takes 24-
able for purchase. Statuary makers hire 72 hours depending on the material, size,
artists to design statues based on existing and complexity of design of the piece. The
art; these designers are basically copyists, dried statues are inspected before the finish-
but they are experts in the process of sketch- ing processes begin.
ing, modeling clay pieces from their sketch- 4 Finishing involves two phases of sand-
es, and making molds from those models. ing for most of the statue designs. En-
This type of design requires skills in propor- riched cement statues and other pieces with
tioning and interpreting the original art and rough appearances aren't sanded at all or are
in reproducing it. Reproduction designers sanded once before priming. Statuary with
also look at ancient sources with modem the finest finish is sanded then painted with
eyes and often adapt an older work for mod- primer and sanded a second time. The stat-
em tastes. Finally, manufacturers of statuary ues are inspected before they are painted be-
commission designers to create original cause the quality of the sanded finish will
works. Like reproduction specialists, these affect quality of the paint job and the final
designers are also knowledgeable about the appearance.
processes of modeling and molding casts for
statuary, and they use antique sources or Statues of the same color are painted in
themes and new trends in home and garden Jbatches in the paint room. Spray guns
decorating to create original works. are used to apply the most popular colors.
Most statuary makers will custom finish or
The Manufacturing paint statues at the customer's request; in
Process this case, the statues are painted individually
in small work stations. The painted statues
For original artwork and some reproduc- are left to dry overnight.
tions, the process may begin with a sketch
from which the artist makes a clay or plaster 6 The statues are moved to the packing
original or model. Usually, this step is com- 6and shipping department where small
pleted in the design process so the manufac- ones are boxed in cardboard and larger mod-
turer can see the three-dimensional piece, reels are crated in wood. They are stored
view and approve it, and commit to full-scale pending shipment.
423
Quality Control hobby, and fascination with art. Mass pro-

duction of statuary for the home and garden
Statuary making is a hand manufacturing creates affordable art that can stand on the
process, so opportunities for inspecting the desktop or add personality to a stone walk-
product for quality occur throughout pro- way or lawn.
duction. Quality control is practiced first in
choosing the artists who will design the stat-
ues then in accepting the designs for produc- Where to Learn More
tion. Initials casts, prepared molds, and
dried statuary are all checked. Sanded and Books
primed statues are also inspected carefully Dawson, Robert. Practical Sculpture: Cre-
because these preparations prior to painting ating with plastic media. New York: The
are critical to the look of the finished stat- Viking Press, 1970.
ues. Painting is observed during the process
and inspected after the paint has dried. Johnson, Lillian.Sculpture: The Basic
Methods and Materials. New York: David
Byproducts/Waste McKay Co., Inc., 1960.
Statue manufacturers produce many vari- Periodicals
eties of statuary for interior or exterior use
and in many artistic styles. Waste is mini- Adams, William Howard. "The Power of
mal. The quality of the plaster, resin, and ce- Bare Suggestion." House & Garden (April
ment used for the statuary prevents air bub- 1985): 234+.
bles and other flaws, so few of the statues
have to be destroyed because of errors dis- Greenberg, Cara. "Heroics Come Home:
covered after they have been cast. Rubber Raise High the Roof Beams garden Statu-
and silicone molds are long lasting. Careful ary Is Moving Indoors." Metropolitan
observations throughout manufacturing also Home (July 1991): 32+.
limit waste.
Other
The Future Design Toscano. http://www.aaweb.com/
toscano/ (June 29, 1999).
Statuary's strong future is founded on its
past. The museums of the world hold a Eaglemount Statuary. http://www.olympus.
range of art work that can be reproduced at net/eaglemount/ (June 29, 1999).
full size, in smaller versions, and in modem-
ized adaptations to suit every taste. Other Gargoyles Statuary. http://www.gargoyle
sources of sculpted inspiration, like the gar- statuary.com/ (June 29, 1999).
goyles on the great cathedrals and public
buildings of Europe, further multiply the Orlandi Statuary. http://www.statue.com/
possibilities. Interest in sculpture is fueled (June 29, 1999).
by the always evolving trends in interior
decoration, the popularity of gardening as a -Gillian S. Holmes
424
Steel Pipe
Steel pipes are long, hollow tubes that are constructed in Europe. In tropical countries, Archeological evidence
used for a variety of purposes. They are pro- bamboo tubes were used to transport water.
duced by two distinct methods which result Colonial Americans used wood for a similar suggests that the Chinese
in either a welded or seamless pipe. In both purpose. In 1652, the first waterworks was used reed pipe for
methods, raw steel is first cast into a more made in Boston using hollow logs.
workable starting form. It is then made into transporting water to
a pipe by stretching the steel out into a Development of the modem day welded
seamless tube or forcing the edges together steel pipe can be traced back to the early desired locations as early
and sealing them with a weld. The first 1800s. In 1815, William Murdock invented
a coal burning lamp system. To fit the entire as 2000 B.C.
methods for producing steel pipe were intro-
duced in the early 1800s, and they have city of London with these lights, Murdock
steadily evolved into the modem processes joined together the barrels from discarded
we use today. Each year, millions of tons of muskets. He used this continuous pipeline to
steel pipe are produced. Its versatility makes transport the coal gas. When his lighting
it the most often used product produced by system proved successful a greater demand
the steel industry. was created for long metal tubes. To pro-
duce enough tubes to meet this demand, a
Steel pipes are found in a variety of places. variety of inventors set to work on develop-
Since they are strong, they are used under- ing new pipe making processes.
ground for transporting water and gas
throughout cities and towns. They are also An early notable method for producing
metal tubes quickly and inexpensively was
employed in construction to protect electri- patented by James Russell in 1824. In his
cal wires. While steel pipes are strong, they
can also be lightweight. This makes them method, tubes were created by joining to-
perfect for use in bicycle frame manufac- gether opposite edges of a flat iron strip.
The metal was first heated until it was mal-
ture. Other places they find utility is in auto- leable. Using a drop hammer, the edges
mobiles, refrigeration units, heating and
plumbing systems, flagpoles, street lamps, folded together and welded. The pipe was
finished by passing it through a groove and
and medicine to name a few. rolling mill.
Russell's method was not used long because
History in the next year, Comelius Whitehouse de-
People have used pipes for thousands of veloped a better method for making metal
years. Perhaps the first use was by ancient tubes. This process, called the butt-weld
agriculturalists who diverted water from process is the basis for our current pipe-
streams and rivers into their fields. Archeo- making procedures. In his method, thin
logical evidence suggests that the Chinese sheets of iron were heated and drawn
used reed pipe for transporting water to de- through a cone-shaped opening. As the
sired locations as early as 2000 B.C. Clay metal went through the opening, its edges
tubes that were used by other ancient civi- curled up and created a pipe shape. The two
lizations have been discovered. During the ends were welded together to finish the
first century A.D., the first lead pipes were pipe. The first manufacturing plant to use
425
Welded pipe is formed by rolling

steel strips through a series of this process in the United States was opened moved leaving a hole in the middle. Since
grooved rollers that mold the main 1832 in Philadelphia. then new roller techniques have replaced
terial into a circular shape. Next, these methods.
the unwelded pipe passes by weld- Gradually, improvements were made in the
ing electrodes. These devices seal Whitehouse method. One of the most im-
the two ends of the pipe together. portant innovations was introduced by John Design
Moon in 1911. He suggested the continuous There are two types of steel pipe, one is
process method in which a manufacturing seamless and another has a single welded
plant could produce pipe in an unending seam along its length. Both have different
stream. He built machinery for this specific uses. Seamless tubes are typically more
purpose and many pipe manufacturing facil- light weight, and have thinner walls. They
ities adopted it. are used for bicycles and transporting liq-
uids. Seamed tubes are heavier and more
While the welded tube processes were being rigid. The have a better consistency and are
developed, a need for seamless metal pipes typically straighter. They are used for things
arouse. Seamless pipes are those which do such as gas transportation, electrical conduit
not have a welded seam. They were first and plumbing. Typically, they are used in
made by drilling a hole through the center of instances when the pipe is not put under a
a solid cylinder. This method was developed high degree of stress.
during the late 1800s. These types of pipes
were perfect for bicycle frames because they Certain pipe characteristics can be con-
have thin walls, are lightweight but are trolled during production. For example, the
strong. In 1895, the first plant to produce diameter of the pipe is often modified de-
seamless tubes was built. As bicycle manu- pending how it will be used. The diameter
facturing gave way to auto manufacturing, can range from tiny pipes used to make hy-
seamless tubes were still needed for gasoline podermic needles, to large pipes used to
and oil lines. This demand was made even transport gas throughout a city. The wall
greater as larger oil deposits were found. thickness of the pipe can also be controlled.
Often the type of steel will also have an im-
As early as 1840, ironworkers could already pact on pipe's the strength and flexibility.
produce seamless tubes. In one method, a Other controllable characteristics include
hole was drilled through a solid metal, length, coating material, and end finish.
round billet. The billet was then heated and
drawn through a series of dies which elon-
gated it to form a pipe. This method was in- Raw Materials
efficient because it was difficult to drill the The primary raw material in pipe production
hole in the center. This resulted in an un- is steel. Steel is made up of primarily iron.
even pipe with one side being thicker than Other metals that may be present in the alloy
the other. In 1888, an improved method was include aluminum, manganese, titanium,
awarded a patent. In this process the solid tungsten, vanadium, and zirconium. Some
billed was cast around a fireproof brick finishing materials are sometimes used dur-
core. When it was cooled, the brick was re- ing production. For example, paint may be
426
Steel Pipe
Seamless pipe is manufactured
using a process that heats and
molds a solid billet into a cylindri-
cal shape and then rolls it until it is
stretched and hollowed. Since the
hollowed center is irregularly
shaped, a bullet-shaped piercer
point is pushed through the middle
of the billet as it is being rolled.
used if the pipe is coated. Typically, a light 2 In order to form flat products such as
amount of oil is applied to steel pipes at the 2plates and sheets, or long products such
end of the production line. This helps pro- as bars and rods, ingots are shaped between
tect the pipe. While it is not actually a part large rollers under enormous pressure.
of the finished product, sulfuric acid is used
in one manufacturing step to clean the pipe. Producing blooms and slabs
3 To produce a bloom, the ingot is passed
The Manufacturing 3through a pair of grooved steel rollers
Process that are stacked. These types of rollers are
called "two-high mills." In some cases,
Steel pipes are made by two different three rollers are used. The rollers are mount-
processes. The overall production method ed so that their grooves coincide, and they
for both processes involves three steps. move in opposite directions. This action
First, raw steel is converted into a more causes the steel to be squeezed and stretched
workable form. Next, the pipe is formed on into thinner, longer pieces. When the rollers
a continuous or semicontinuous production are reversed by the human operator, the
line. Finally, the pipe is cut and modified to steel is pulled back through making it thin-
meet the customer's needs. ner and longer. This process is repeated
until the steel achieves the desired shape.
Ingot production During this process, machines called manip-
ulators flip the steel so that each side is
Molten steel is made by melting iron ore processed evenly.
and coke (a carbon-rich substance that re-
sults when coal is heated in the absence of Ingots may also be rolled into slabs in a
air) in a furnace, then removing most of the A process that is similar to the bloom mak-
carbon by blasting oxygen into the liquid. ing process. The steel is passed through a
The molten steel is then poured into large, pair of stacked rollers which stretch it. How-
thick-walled iron molds, where it cools into ever, there are also rollers mounted on the
ingots. side to control the width of the slabs. When
427
the steel acquires the desired shape, the un- which helps create a tight weld. The pipe is
even ends are cut off and the slabs or then cut to a desired length and stacked for
blooms are cut into shorter pieces. further processing. Welded steel pipe is a
continuous process and depending on the
Further processing size of the pipe, it can be made as fast as
1,100 ft (335.3 m) per minute.
5 Blooms are typically processed further
before they are made into pipes. Blooms When seamless pipe is needed, square
are converted into billets by putting them I V billets are used for production. They
through more rolling devices which make are heated and molded to form a cylinder
them longer and more narrow. The billets shape, also called a round. The round is then
are cut by devices known as flying shears. put in a furnace where it is heated white-hot.
These are a pair of synchronized shears that The heated round is then rolled with great
race along with the moving billet and cut it. pressure. This high pressure rolling causes
This allows efficient cuts without stopping the billet to stretch out and a hole to form in
the manufacturing process. These billets are the center. Since this hole is irregularly
stacked and will eventually become seam- shaped, a bullet shaped piercer point is
less pipe. pushed through the middle of the billet as it
6 Slabs are also reworked. To make them is being rolled. After the piercing stage, the
6malleable, they are first heated to 2,2000 F pipe may still be of irregular thickness and
(1,2040 C). This causes an oxide coating to shape. To correct this it is passed through
form on the surface of the slab. This coating another series of rolling mills.
is broken off with a scale breaker and high
pressure water spray. The slabs are then sent Final processing
through a series of rollers on a hot mill and
made into thin narrow strips of steel called 1 1 After either type of pipe is made, they
skelp. This mill can be as long as a half may be put through a straightening
mile. As the slabs pass through the rollers, machine. They may also be fitted with joints
they become thinner and longer. In the so two or more pieces of pipe can be con-
course of about three minutes a single slab nected. The most common type of joint for
can be converted from a 6 in (15.2 cm) thick pipes with smaller diameters is threading-
piece of steel to a thin steel ribbon that can tight grooves that are cut into the end of the
be a quarter mile long. pipe. The pipes are also sent through a mea-
suring machine. This information along with
7 After stretching, the steel is pickled. other quality control data is automatically
This process involves running it through stenciled on the pipe. The pipe is then
a series of tanks that contain sulfuric acid to sprayed with a light coating of protective
clean the metal. To finish, it is rinsed with oil. Most pipe is typically treated to prevent
cold and hot water, dried and then rolled up it from rusting. This is done by galvanizing
on large spools and packaged for transport it or giving it a coating of zinc. Depending
to a pipe making facility. on the use of the pipe, other paints or coat-
ings may be used.
Pipe making
8Both skelp and billets are used to make Quclity Control
8pipes. Skelp is made into welded pipe. It
is first placed on an unwinding machine. As A variety of measures are taken to ensure
the spool of steel is unwound, it is heated. that the finished steel pipe meets specifica-
The steel is then passed through a series of tions. For example, x-ray gauges are used to
grooved rollers. As it passes by, the rollers regulate the thickness of the steel. The
cause the edges of the skelp to curl together. gauges work by utilizing two x rays. One
This forms an unwelded pipe. ray is directed at a steel of known thickness.
The other is directed at the passing steel on
9 The steel next passes by welding elec- the production line. If there is any variance
trodes. These devices seal the two ends between the two rays, the gauge will auto-
of the pipe together. The welded seam is matically trigger a resizing of the rollers to
then passed through a high pressure roller compensate.
428
Steel Pipe
Pipes are also inspected for defects at the Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
end of the process. One method of testing a Technology. John Wiley & Sons. New
pipe is by using a special machine. This ma- York: 1992.
chine fills the pipe with water and then in-
creases the pressure to see if it holds. Defec- Steel Pipe: A Guide for Design and Instal-
tive pipes are returned for scrap. lation. American Water Works Association.
1989.
Where to Learn More -Perry Romanowski
Books
Pipe Characteristic Handbook. Williams
Natural Gas Company Engineering Group.
Pennwell Publishing. 1996.
42 9
Sunflower Seed
The sunflower plant Sunflower seeds have become a popular tiny little flowers joined together at the base.
snack food. The sunflower plant is an annu- These flowers are disk-shaped and can be
originated in western al herb that has large yellow flowers, broad brown, yellow or purple. During the grow-
North America. It is leaves and can grow from 3-15 ft (0.91-4.6 ing season, the individual flowers are each
m) high. To make the finished product en- pollinated. Seed development then begins
thought to have been joyed by millions annually, the seeds are moving from the outer rim of the flower to-
harvested after about 120 days, dried, roast- ward the center. It generally takes 30 days
domesticated around ed, salted and packaged. after the last flower is pollinated for the
1000 B.c. by Native plant to mature.
Americans. Background The sunflower plants reach various heights,

The sunflower plant originated in western but most are from 5-7 ft (1.52-2.1 m) tall.
North America. It is thought to have been The width of the flower heads is relatively
domesticated around 1000 B.C. by Native large, typically between 3-6 in (7.62-15.24
Americans. Spanish explorers brought the cm), although some can reach more than a
sunflower to Europe in 1510. However, it foot. An exception is the dwarf varieties that
was not until the late 1800s when the flower are only 3-4 ft (0.91-1.22 m) high and have
was introduced to Russia that the sunflower smaller flower heads. A common character-
became a food crop. In 1860, Russian farm- istic of sunflowers is a tendency for their
ers made significant improvements in the flowering heads to follow the movement of
way that the sunflower was cultivated. Dur- the sun during the day. This phenomenon,
ing this time, they became the world's called heliotropism, has the benefit of reduc-
largest producer of sunflower seeds. Today, ing bird damage and disease development.
they remain a world leader along with Eu-
rope, Argentina, and the United States. Pro- Most sunflower plants grown in the United
duction in the United States has emphasized States are used for the oil production. The
oil producing varieties, but snack food pro- plants have been bred over time and have
ducing sunflowers have steadily increased. steadily improved in quality and consisten-
cy. Many options are now available includ-
Sunflowers are technically classified as He- ing dwarf varieties and high oil types. Cer-
lianthus annuus. They are a large plant and tain hybrids have higher yields and a
are grown throughout the world because of reduced oil content. The modern sunflower
their relatively short growing season. In the crop is self pollinating so insect vectors are
United States, some varieties reach maturity not necessary. Other traits of the crops that
from 90-100 days after planting. Domesti- have been controlled are disease resistance,
cated sunflowers typically have a single speed of maturity, and seed size.
stalk topped by a large flower. This is sig-
nificantly different from the smaller, multi- Design
ply branched wild sunflower. Sunflowers
have large yellow, ray flower petals on the While most sunflower seeds are used for
outer edge that do not produce seeds. The their oil, sunflower seeds are also sold as a
sunflower head is composed of 1,000-2,000 food product. These products are available
430
Sunflower Seed
in many different flavors. Most are sold salt- ural rancidity reactions. Salt has the added
ed and in their shell. They can be coated and benefit of also preserving the seeds.
sold as barbeque, sour cream, or ranch. Cer-
tain varieties of sunflower seed are made To grow the best sunflower plants, the soil
unsalted or with reduced sodium and fat for must be adequately treated. Sunflower
more health conscious consumers. For growth is dependant on the amount of nitro-
smaller sunflower seeds, the shells are re- gen available more than any other nutrient.
moved and only the kernel is sold. These For this reason, about 100 lb (45.4 kg) of ni-
variants are generally easier to eat. Seeds trogen fertilizer per acre is used. Phospho-
are packaged in plastic bags or glass jars, rous and potassium are also included in the
which are also available in various sizes. fertilizer. To protect the crop from damage,
herbicides are added to the soil. Insecticides
are also used, but only to a limited extent to
Raw Materials prevent the killing of beneficial pollinating
insects.
The seed is the primary ingredient in all sun-
flower seed products. They are four sided
and flat. They are generally a quarter inch The Manufacturing
long and an eighth of an inch wide. They Process
have a black seed coat with dark or grey Producing sunflower seeds involves the
stripes. The coat, or hull, surrounds a small basic process of growing and harvesting the
kernel which is composed of about 20% plants, separating the seeds, roasting them
protein and 30% lipids. Additionally, it con- and then packaging.
tains a high level of iron and dietary fiber.
The high linoleic acid content of the kernel
makes it prone to rancidity and thus gives it Planting and growing
a limited shelf life. Sunflower seed production begins in
early spring when the fields are prepared
While plain sunflower seeds are sold as a and the seeds are planted. The seedbeds are
snack food, most varieties are soaked or tilled and the soil is kept moist. Having ade-
coated with ingredients to improve the quate moisture content in the soil is the most
seed's characteristics. Flavor enhancers are important planting requirement. The seeding
often added to increase appeal and differen- rate (number of seeds planted per acre) is
tiate product types. Salt is the most common particularly important for sunflower seeds
flavor enhancer. It can provide a subtle taste sold as snack foods because a high seeding
effect that removes the "off' flavor inherent rate results in smaller seeds which are less
in raw sunflower seeds. A small amount of desirable. Roughly 17,000 seeds are planted
sugar or dry corn syrup can be added to imper acre for snack food sunflower seeds.
part a sweet flavor. Spices and herbs such as Row spacing is typically between 20-30 in
garlic, onion powder, or paprika can also (50.8-76.2 cm). It is thought that the best
have a unique effect on how a sunflower orientation of the plants is in a North-South
seed tastes. Both natural and artificial fla- direction. A common planting method is to
vors can be included. use a corn planter fitted with a special sun-
flower seed plate. The seeds are typically
Beyond flavoring ingredients, manufactur- treated with a fungicide prior to planting.
ers include texture and appearance modi-
fiers, antioxidants and preservatives with 2 Sunflowers are ready to harvest when
sunflower seed recipes. Texture modifiers the black part of their heads turns brown.
such as maltodextrin or cornstarch help con- In the United States this is generally in late
trol the feel of the sunflowers when they are September or October. The seeds typically
put in the mouth. Color modifiers are used mature earlier than this but the heads must
to change the seed's appearance. Typically, first dry out to make harvesting efficient. To
natural coloring materials are used. These minimize losses to birds and disease, har-
modifiers are useful for sunflower flavors vesting is done in a timely manner. A modi-
such as barbeque or sour cream. Antioxi- fied grain head is put on the front of the har-
dants are sometimes added to improve the vesting combine to reduce seed loss. This
sunflower seed's shelf life by inhibiting nat- special device collects the sunflower heads
43 1
Sunflowers are harvested in the

United States in late September or while minimizing the amount of stem mater- Medium sized seeds are destined for use in
October. A modified grain head ial. Harvesting speed is reduced to prevent toppings for cookies, salad, or ice cream.
is put on the front of the harvest- dehulling of the seeds. The smallest seeds are sold as bird and pet
ing combine to reduce seed loss. feed.
This special device collects the 3 The seeds are rapidly dried to under
sunflower heads, while minimiz-
ing the amount of stem material.
310% moisture content. Growers typical- 6 Snack food sunflower seeds are trans-
ly have facilities on their farms to store Oferred through large ovens. Here, they
seeds until they can be transferred to the are dry roasted, reducing the moisture level
local grain elevators. From here, the seeds in the seed further. The medium sized seeds
are transported by truck or train to the pro- are first sent through de-hulling machines
cessing sites. which remove their shells. They are then
roasted in oil.
Processing 7 Both types of seeds can be flavored as
4 When the sunflower seeds arrive at the desired. There are a variety of ways in
4 processing plant, they are emptied onto which this can be accomplished. In one pro-
wire screens and shaken to remove dirt and cedure, the warm seeds are transferred out
unwanted debris. They are also inspected to of the roasters and put into a large, rotating
ensure they meet previously determined container. As they are moved around, they
specifications. Factors such as moisture con- are combined with the flavoring ingredients.
tent, appearance and taste are used to evalu- Oils are sometimes used to make the ingre-
ate the shipment. They are next transferred dients stick better.
to a large bin and further cleaned.
5 The seeds are then passed on to sizing Packaging
Jscreens which separate them by size. 8 From the flavoring stations, the seeds
These screens have holes that allow smaller Uare transferred to packaging machines.
sized seeds to fall through. The largest seeds Here, the sunflower seeds are weighed and
will be further processed as snack foods. placed in packaging. Typically, these are
432
Sunflower Seed
When the sunflower seeds arrive
at the processing plant, they are
cleaned and inspected Next, the
seeds are passed on to sizing
screens that separate them by
size. These screens hove holes that
allow smaller sized seeds to fall
through. The largest seeds will be
further processed as snack foods.
Medium sized seeds are destined
for use in toppings for cookies,
salad, or ice cream. The smallest
seeds are sold as bird and pet
feed. Snack food sunflower seeds
are dry roasted, reducing the
moisture level in the seed further.
The medium sized seeds are
hulled and then roasted in oil.
Once flavored, the seeds are
packaged in air tight containers to
prevent spoilage.
Processing
sealed plastic bags. It is important that this limited and the hulls are often just burned by
packaging be air tight to prevent the uptake the factories for energy.
of moisture by the product because moisture
can cause them to become rancid. From the
The Future
packaging station, the sunflower seeds are
transferred to boxes, put on pallets, and Current sunflower research promises to pro-
shipped to stores. duce improved crops. These plants will be
designed to produce a greater yield per acre,
grow faster, be better tasting, and more tol-
Quality Control erant to pests and diseases. Marketers will
To ensure that a consistent and quality prod- also develop new recipes with flavors de-
uct is made, sunflower seeds are examnined signed to attract more customers.
during each step of production. While the
plants are growing, they are frequently Where to Learn More
checked to make sure they are growing
properly and free from disease. The seeds Books
are also inspected when they are received at
the manufacturing plant. They are subjected Booth, Gordon. Snack Food. New York:
to a variety of laboratory tests to ensure that Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1990.
only high quality seeds are used. The fin-
ished products are also tested. This may in- Hoseney, Carl. Principles of Cereal Science
clude a chemical analysis or a consumer and Technology. St. Paul, MN: American
taste test. Packaging components may also Association of Cereal Chemists, 1994.
be inspected. Macrae, R. et al., ed. Encyclopedia of Food
Science, Food Technology, and Nutrition.
Byproducts/Waste San Diego: Academic Press, 1993.
The hulls are the primary byproduct of sun- Salunkhe, D.K., J. Chavan, R. Adsule, and
flower seed production. This material is S. Kadam. World Oilseeds-Chemistry,
high in fiber and is often used as a feed ad- Technology and Utilization. New York:
ditive for cows. The hulls have also been Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1992.
sold as poultry litter, fireplace logs and
fillers for plastics. These markets have been -Perry Romanowski
433
Suspension Bridge
Completed in 1998 with a In a suspension bridge, the traffic-carrying when an American named James Finley
deck is supported by a series of wire ropes patented a system for suspending a rigid
span of 6,529 ft (1, 991 that hang from massive cables draped be- deck from a bridge's cables.
tween tall towers. The Brooklyn Bridge in
m), the Akashi Kaikyo New York City and the Golden Gate Bridge Although Finley built more than a dozen
Bridge took ten years to in San Francisco are two of the most famous small bridges, the first major bridge that in-
suspension bridges. The Akashi Kaikyo corporated his technique was built by
build, cost $3.6 billion, Bridge in Japan, which was completed in Thomas Telford over the Menai Straits in
1998, contains the world's longest suspen- England. Completed in 1825, it had stone
and involved only six sion span (distance between support tow- towers 153 ft (47 m) tall, was 1,710 ft (521
injuries (no deaths). A ers)-6,529 ft (1,991 m); the entire bridge, m) long, and boasted a span of 580 ft (177
including the portions between the towers m). The roadway, which was 30 ft (9 m)
century earlier, and the shores, totals nearly 2.5 mi (4 km). wide, was built on a rigid platform suspend-
Construction of the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge ed from iron chain cables. The bridge is still
construction of the in use, although the iron chains were re-
took ten years, cost $3.6 billion, and in-
Brooklyn Bridge, with a volved only six injuries (no deaths). A cen- placed with steel bar links in 1939.
tury earlier, construction of the Brooklyn
span of 1,600 ft (490 m) Bridge, with a span of 1,600 ft (490 m) took Another American, John Roebling, devel-
14 years and resulted in the loss of 27 lives. oped two major improvements to suspension
took 14 years and resulted bridge design during the mid-1800s. One was
to stiffen the rigid deck platform with trusses
in the loss of 27 lives.
Background (arrays of horizontal and vertical girders that
are cross-braced with diagonal beams). Expe-
Suspension bridges are one of the earliest rience had shown that wind or rhythmic traf-
types devised by man. The most primitive fic loads could send insufficiently stiffened
version is a vine rope linking two sides of a decks into vibrations that could grow out of
chasm; a person travels across by hanging control and literally rip a bridge apart.
from the rope and pulling himself along, hand
over hand. Such primitive bridges-some as Roebling's other important innovation in-
long as 660 ft (200 mr-are still being used in volved construction of the bridge's support-
areas such as rural India. Somewhat more so- ing cables. Around 1830, French engineers
phisticated designs incorporate a flat surface had shown that cables consisting of many
on which a person can walk, sometimes with strands of wire worked better than chains to
the assistance of vine handrails. suspend bridges. Roebling developed a
method for "spinning," or constructing, the
By the eighth century, Chinese bridge cables in place on the bridge rather than
builders were constructing suspension transporting ungainly prefabricated cables
bridges by laying planks between pairs of and laboring them into position. His method
iron chains, essentially providing a flexible is still commonly (though not exclusively)
deck resting on cables. Similar bridges were used on new bridges.
built in various parts of the world during
subsequent centuries. But the modem era of The history of suspension bridges is liberal-
suspension bridges did not begin until 1808 ly sprinkled with examples of successful
4 34
Suspension Bridge
bridges that were widely believed to be im- cessfully carrying traffic 2.5 times as heavy
possible when proposed by a visionary engi- as it was designed for; at that point it was re-
neer. One example was a railway bridge tired and dismantled.
Roebling constructed between 1851-1855
across the Niagra River gorge. The first In 1869, Roebling died in an accident while
truss-stiffened suspension bridge, it was surveying the site for the Brooklyn Bridge,
supported by four 10 in (250 cm) diameter which he had designed. His son, Washing-
cables strung between stone towers. Forty ton Roebling, spent the next 14 years build-
years after completion, the bridge was suc- ing the famous structure. This was the first
435
suspension bridge to use cables made of When steel is drawn (stretched) into wires,
steel rather than wrought iron (a relatively its strength increases; consequently, a rela-
soft type of iron that, while hot, can be tively flexible bundle of steel wires is
shaped by machines or formed by hammer- stronger than a solid steel bar of the same di-
ing). Each of the four 16 in (40 cm) diame- ameter. This is the reason steel cable is used
ter cables consists of more than 5,000 paral- to support suspension bridges. For the
lel strands of steel wire. More than a century Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, a new low-alloy steel
after its completion, the Brooklyn Bridge strengthened with silicon was developed; its
carries heavy loads of modem traffic. tensile strength (resistance against pulling
forces) is 12% greater than any previous
Another landmark suspension bridge was steel wire formulation. On some suspension
built across the Golden Gate-the mouth of bridges, the steel wires forming the cables
San Francisco Bay-from 1933-1937 by have been galvanized (coated with zinc).
Joseph Strauss. The Golden Gate Bridge is
6,450 ft (1,966 m) long, with a main span of The towers of most suspension bridges are
4,200 ft (1,280 m). Its two towers are 746 ft made of steel, although a few have been
(227 m) tall; they support two 7,125-ton (6.5 built of steel-reinforced concrete.
million kg) cables that contain a total of
80,000 mi (129,000 km) of steel wire. De- Design
spite rigorous safety precautions, 11 work-
ers died; 19 were saved by a safety net Each suspension bridge must be designed
hanging below the deck during construc- individually to take into account many fac-
tion-an innovation that became standard tors. For example, the geology of the site
on later bridge projects. provides a foundation for the towers and
cable anchorages, and may be susceptible to
One of the most famous bridge failures in earthquakes. The depth and nature of the
America was the 1940 collapse of the Taco- water being bridged (e.g., fresh or saltwater,
ma Narrows Bridge on Puget Sound in the and strength of currents) may affect both the
state of Washington. Then the third-longest physical design and the choice of materials
suspension bridge in the world, it had been like protective coatings for the steel. In nav-
designed to be exceptionally sleek. Only igable waters, it may be necessary to protect
wide enough for two traffic lanes and side- a tower from possible ship collisions by
walks, the span was 2,800 ft (853 m) long. building up an artificial island at its base.
Rather than being stiffened with trusses, the
deck was reinforced by two steel girders that Since the Tacoma Narrows Bridge disaster,
were only 8 ft (2.4 m) high, with some cross- all new bridge designs have been tested by
bracing connecting them. This design not placing scale models in wind tunnels, as
only provided less rigidity than trusses, but it the Golden Gate Bridge's design had been.
also allowed the wind to exert strong forces For the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, for exam-
on the structure rather than passing harmless- ple, the world's largest wind tunnel was
ly through an open truss arrangement. Four constructed to test 1/100th-scale models of
months after it was completed, the bridge bridge sections.
was set into a pattem of increasing oscilla- In very long bridges, it may be necessary to
tions by 42 mph (68 km/h) winds and tore it- take the earth's curvature into account when
self apart. The replacement bridge, built a designing the towers. For example, in the
decade later, was designed with a deck stiff- New York's Verrazano Narrows Bridge, the
ened with a steel truss 33 ft (10 m) thick. towers, which are 700 ft (215 m) tall and
stand 4,260 ft (298 m) apart, are about 1.75
in (4.5 cm) farther apart at the top than they
Raw Mcaterials are at the bottom.
Many of the components of a suspension
bridge are made of steel. The girders used to The Manufacturing
make the deck rigid are one example. Steel Process
is also used for the saddles, or open chan-
nels, on which the cables rest atop a suspen- Construction of a suspension bridge in-
sion bridge's towers. volves sequential construction of the three
436
Suspension Bridge
Towers are constructed on

top of the steel caissons.
Tower constructions that will stand

major components: the towers and cable an- ground beneath the water; removing the in water begin with caissons (a
chorages, the support cable itself, and the water from the caisson's interior allows steel and concrete cylinder that
deck structure. workers to excavate a foundation without acts as a circular dam) that are
actually working in water. When the exca- lowered to the ground beneath the
Tower construction vation is complete, a concrete tower founda- water, emptied of water, and
tion is formed and poured. filled with concrete in preparation
Tower foundations are prepared by dig- for the actual towers.
ging down to a sufficiently firm rock for-
mation. Some bridges are designed so that 2 Construction details vary with each
their towers are built on dry land, which unique bridge. As an example, consider
makes construction easier. If a tower will the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge. Each of its two
stand in water, its construction begins with steel towers consists of two columns. Each
lowering a caisson (a steel and concrete column is composed of 30 vertical blocks
cylinder that acts as a circular damn) to the (or layers), each of which is 33 ft (10 m)
437
-Anchor girders
Catwalks
Anchorages-structures that sup-

port the bridge's cables-are tall; each of these blocks, in turn, consists of River bridge, for example, Roebling offered
massive concrete blocks securely three horizontal sections. A crane positioned a reward of $10 to the first youngster who
attached to strong rock forma- between the columns lifted three sections could fly a kite with a pilot line attached
tions. When the towers and an- into place on each column, completing a across the gorge to make the connection.
chorages have been completed, a layer. After completing a block on each col- Today, a helicopter might be used. Or the
pilot line must be strung along the umn, the"bootstrapping" crane was jacked line might be taken across the expanse by
cable's eventual path, from one up to the next level, where it lifted the sec- boat and then lifted into position. When the
anchorage across the towers to tions of the next layer into place. At appro-
the other anchorage. pilot line is in place, a catwalk is construct-
priate intervals, diagonal bracing was added ed for the bridge's entire length, about 3 ft
between the columns. (1 m) below the pilot line, so workers can
attend to the cable formation.
Anchorage construction To begin spinning the cable, a large
Anchorages are the structures to which 5spool of wire is positioned at the anchor-
3the ends of the bridge's cables are se- age. The free end of the wire is looped
cured. They are massive concrete blocks se- around a strand shoe (a steel channel an-
curely attached to strong rock formations. chored to an eyebar). Between the spool and
During construction of the anchorages, the strand shoe, the wire is looped around a
strong eyebars (steel bars with a circular hole spinning wheel that is mounted on the pilot
at one end) are embedded in the concrete. line. This wheel carries the wire across the
Mounted in front of the anchorage is a spray bridge's path, and the wire is looped around
saddle, which will support the cable at the a strand shoe at the other anchorage; the
point where its individual wire bundles (see wheel then returns to the first anchorage,
Step 5) fan out-each wire bundle will be laying another strand in place. The process
secured to one of the anchorage's eyebars. is repeated until a bundle of the desired
number of wire strands is formed (this
Cable construction varies from about 125 strands to more than
400). During the spinning, workers standing
4 When the towers and anchorages have on the catwalk make sure the wire unwinds
been completed, a pilot line must be smoothly, freeing any kinks. As spools are
strung along the cable's eventual path, from exhausted, the end of the wire is spliced to
one anchorage across the towers to the other the wire from a new spool, forming a con-
anchorage. Various methods can been used tinuous strand. When the bundle is thick
to position the pilot line. For the Niagra enough, tape or wire straps are applied at in-
438
Suspension Bridge
Once the vertical cables are at-

tervals to keep the wires together. The wire the deck and move forward as each section tached to the main support cable,
coming off the spool is cut and secured to is placed. the deck structure must be built in
the anchorage. Then the process begins both directions from the support
again for the next bundle. towers at the correct rate in order
Finishing to keep the forces on the towers
The number of bundles needed for a com- 7 When the deck structure is complete, it balanced at all times. A moving
is covered with a base layer (e.g., steel crane lifts deck sections into place,
plete cable varies; on the Golden Gate where workers attach them to pre-
Bridge it is 61, and on the Akashi Kaikyo plates) and paved over. Painting the steel viously placed sections and to the
Bridge it is 290. When the proper number surfaces and installing electric lines for vertical cables that hang from the
have been spun, a special arrangement of ra- lighting are examples of other finishing main suspension cables.
dially positioned jacks is used to compress steps. In addition, ongoing maintenance pro-
the bundles into a compact cable, and steel cedures begin. For example, a permanent
wire is wrapped around it. Steel clamps are staff of 17 ironworkers and 38 painters con-
mounted around the cable at predetermined tinue to work daily on the Golden Gate
intervals to serve as anchoring points for the Bridge, replacing corroding rivets and other
vertical cables that will connect the decking steel components and touching up the paint
to the support cable. that protects the bridge.
Deck construction The Future

6 After vertical cables are attached to the Each suspension bridge is designed unique-
Omain support cable, the deck structure ly, with attention given to both function and
can be started. The structure must be built in aesthetics. New materials may be used, or
both directions from the support towers at even developed, to make the bridge less
the correct rate in order to keep the forces bulky and more efficient. And innovative
on the towers balanced at all times. In one designers sometimes create unusual solu-
technique, a moving crane that rolls atop the tions to their challenges. For example, the
main suspension cable lifts deck sections design approved in 1998 to replace the east
into place, where workers attach them to span of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay
previously placed sections and to the verti- Bridge that was severely damaged by a 1989
cal cables that hang from the main suspen- earthquake is a suspension bridge supported
sion cables, extending the completed length. by only one tower. Its main cables are an-
Alternatively, the crane may rest directly on chored, not in the massive anchorages de-
439
scribed above, but in the deck support struc- Kingston, Jeremy. How Bridges are Made.
ture of the bridge itself. New York: Facts on File, 1985.
Perhaps the most ambitious plans currently Troitsky, M.S. Planning and Design of
under development for a new suspension Bridges.New York: John Wiley & Sons,
bridge are those for connecting Sicily to the 1994.
Italian mainland. Because the support tow-
ers will have to be built on opposite shores Periodicals
of the Messina Strait, the main span will be
9,500-10,800 ft (2,900-3,300 m) long. One Kashima, Satoshi and Makoto Kitagawa.
proposed design uses towers that are 1,312 "The Longest Suspension Bridge." Scientific
ft (400 m) tall. Developers hope to build the American (December 1997): 88ff.
bridge by 2006.
Kosowatz, John J."Building a New Gate-
way to China." Scientific American (Decem-
Where to Learn More ber 1997): 106ff.
Books -Loretta Hall
Brown, David J. Bridges. New York:
Macmillan, 1993.
Cassady, Stephen. Spanning the Gate. Mill
Valley, CA: Squarebooks, 1979.
440
Sword
Background During the Middle Ages in Europe, the With swordplay arose the
The development of the sword was not sword was the preferred weapon of the
knight in armor. The medieval sword was art of the duel, a privilege
possible until ancient civilizations dis-
covered how to mine and work metal. made of steel, and so sharp and heavy that it primarily reserved for the
Thus, the first swords were probably could easily cut a man in half. The quality of
made of the oldest worked metal, pure the sword depended to a great extent on the upper class. From 1600-
copper. The earliest copper mines were in quality of the metal. Production of swords
was specialized in certain towns or areas 1789, 40,000 aristocrats
Egypt around 3700B.C., and in Anatolia
(in what is now Turkey) around the same where skilled ironworkers had access to lost their lives in duels.
time. By about 1900B.C., copper working good metal and knew how to work it. From
had spread across Europe, and presum- the sixth century, the lower Rhine in Ger-
ably copper swords were made during many was a center of sword manufacturing,
this era. Copper alloyed with tin produces and later swords were exported from Milan,
bronze, and this metal made stronger Brescia, and Passau. Toledo, in Spain, was
weapons than pure copper. The earliest renowned for its swords. A test of the Tole-
bronze swords were made by the Egyp- do sword's sharpness was to throw a silk
tians in about 2500B.c. They made blades scarf into the air so that it floated down onto
by heating bronze ingots or by casting the sword blade. The edge was so sharp that
molten metal in clay molds. Bronze the silk would rend on impact.
swords were used throughout the ancient
world, until bronze was replaced by iron Perhaps the strongest swords ever made
as the metal used to make weapons. The were the weapons of the samurai in Japan.
Hittites knew how to smelt iron as early As far back as the eighth century until the
as 3000B.c., but an efficient method of end of the feudal period in the nineteenth
forming the iron into blades was not dis- century, Japanese smiths made blades of ex-
covered until somewhere around 1400 ceptional hardness by welding strips of iron
B.C. The Hittites were the first to harden and steel together, then folding the resulting
iron for blades by heating it with carbon, sandwich over on itself and pounding it flat
hammering it into shape, and then again. This process was repeated from 12-28
quenching it in water. They kept their times. Old blades were passed down in fami-
methods secret for as long as they could, lies, and some were still in use in World War
but gradually ironworking spread across H. These swords were so sharp and strong
the ancient world. The Romans used iron they could cut through a machine gun barrel.
swords with double blades, a weapon for
hand-to-hand fighting. A bigger sword, During the sixteenth century, the sword
which could be used to fight from horse- evolved from a slashing weapon into a more
back, came into vogue in Western Europe refined thrusting rapier. The rapier had a
by the third century. Both the Vikings and long, thin blade sometimes reaching 6 ft
Saxons were renowned swordsmiths. (1.83 m) in length. When carried at the
They used sophisticated ironworking waist, the longest of rapiers would inconve-
techniques both in forming and decorat- niently hit the street. By the end of the cen-
ing their blades. tury, the rapier became more lightweight
44 1
and its length was shortened to 3 ft (0.91 m). popular with the upper class as a teacher of
These adjustments gave birth to swordplay dueling. He opened a school and fencing as
and expertise. sport was established.
With swordplay arose the art of the duel, a Modem fencing is done with blunted foils,
privilege primarily reserved for the upper epees, and sabers. A typical uniform is
class. From 1600-1789, 40,000 aristocrats equipped with a padded jacket, gauntlets,
lost their lives in duels. Since Germans pre- and wire-mesh helmets. It is an official
ferred heavier swords, dueling was often vi- Olympic sport and it's popularity has been
olent and resulted in injury and death. It sustained by the romantic swashbuckling of
was tolerated by the ruling monarchs be- early Hollywood films and recent epics like
cause of its rigid exclusion of the lower Star Wars and Braveheart.
classes. In Germany, dueling as an aristo-
cratic sport unified the upper classes and Rawv Materials
distinguished them from the masses. In
France, dueling was more of an art that did The swords commonly in use in Europe in
not necessarily have to end in injury or the Middle Ages were made of steel. Steel is
death. With the French Revolution and the an alloy of iron and carbon, and iron heated
abolition of aristocracy, dueling was con- properly over a charcoal fire becomes steel.
sidered a sport for all. The French used But the theory behind the process was not
lighter weight epees-a sword with no cut- understood until the nineteenth century, and
ting edge that tapers to a point-and duels not many communities knew how to make
were usually fought until the first blood was good steel. Iron smelters roasted ore in char-
drawn. By the end of the nineteenth centu- coal fires, and produced wrought iron, cast
ry, Frenchmen averaged 400-500 duels per iron and carbon steel, depending on the heat
year with a nonexistent death rate. The and makeup of the ore. Cast iron contains
English banned dueling in 1844. more than 2.2% carbon. It is too hard to
work, and until the fourteenth century in Eu-
Swords declined in utility after the intro- rope, it was considered a waste product.
duction of firearms, though they persisted Wrought iron contains less than 0.3% car-
for a surprisingly long time. The British bon. It is a soft, workable metal most used
army was still perfecting its sword design in for tools. But wrought iron swords bent in
the first decade of the twentieth century, use, and so were inferior to steel ones. Steel
and its last change in design was in 1920. suitable for swords contains from 0.3-2.2%
The cutlass, a wide sword used in the carbon, and it is both soft and workable and
British Navy, was not withdrawn from ser- can be hardened by heating it to red hot and
vice until 1936. Swords made today are for then quenching it in water.
the most part ceremonial. They are still part
of some military dress uniforms. The only Until the fourteenth century, when the me-
place where swords are actually still em- chanical bellows was invented and iron pro-
ployed as weapons seems to be Japan, duction became more organized in Europe,
where they are said to be a choice murder production of steel was haphazard, and
weapon of underworld gangsters and far- primitive fumaces produced steel more by
right political assassins. luck than design. The invention of the bel-
lows and the blast furmace in the fourteenth
century allowed smelters to heat ore to high-
Fencing as Sport er temperatures, producing wrought iron
With the refinement of sword design and the that could be converted to steel. A common
popularity of dueling came the sport of fenc- kind of steel available in Medieval Europe
ing. During the eighteenth century Domeni- was called blister steel. It was made from
co Angelo, an Italian that studied swords- thin rods of wrought iron. The iron rods
manship in Paris, moved to London and were packed in charcoal dust and set inside
gained a reputation as an expert duelist. a tight iron box or small fumace. The iron
Challenged by Ireland's master swordsman was heated in the furnace and blown with
Dr. Keys, Angelo quickly out-maneuvered the bellows. When the iron reached white
Dr. Keys' slashing techniques with his own hot, it began to absorb carbon from the char-
fencing moves. His victory made Angelo coal, and turn to steel. Rods of small diame-
442
Sword
Sword hilt assembly.
ter could be transformed into steel in about regular formations along the blade. This an-
24 hours, and bigger rods took longer. cient art is now lost. Eastern blades with pat-
terned metal are called Damascus swords,
The finest steel was imported from India, named after the city that was a major east-
called Wootz steel. Indian metallurgy was west trading point. To confuse matters, some
renowned from the time of the Roman Em- European swords are also called "Damas-
pire, and blades made in the Persian Empire cus." In this case, European smiths tried to
and across the east were usually made from copy the eastern swords by marking blades
imported Wootz. European Crusaders en- and inlaying the metal. But in true Damascus
countered Wootz steel in the superior blades, the patterning is inherent in the steel
weapons of their eastern enemies. Crusading itself, and not imposed on it.
knights began bringing Wootz steel back to
Europe in the eleventh century, but the secret Indian metallurgists had several ways of
of making it remained in India until the nine- preparing Wootz steel. In one method,
teenth century. Blades made from Wootz wrought iron plates were immersed in a cru-
showed a grainy pattern in the metal, formed cible filled with molten cast iron. Cast iron
by the fibrous layout of crystals in the steel. has a high carbon content, and when heated,
The appearance has been compared to wa- the carbon leached from the cast iron to the
tered silk, or damask fabric. The swordsmith wrought plates. The resulting metal was a
usually emphasized the pattern by etching mixture of soft iron and hard carbon steel,
the blade with acid. The most skilled smiths dispersed in granules throughout the ingot.
could make the crystalline pattern appear in Another method was to crush iron ore and
44 3
The blade core is formed from two

or more thin iron rods that have
been heated, forged, and twisted
ed rods are drawn out and a seam
along the edge of the blade is
opened with a heated tool. A thin
piece of steel that has been rough-
ened or 'scarfed' along one edge,
is then set into the groove. The smith
then heats the metal so that both the
iron and steel are molten and join.
The blade is tempered-trans-
formed from soft, workable metal
into a hard blade-by holding the
blade over a fire and then quench-
Weldiring
ing the blade in a vat of oil or
brine. The blade is polished and
decorated.
Fitting
4 44
Sword
wash it repeatedly, in the panning process Fitting the blades
used by goldminers. This refined ore was
then dried and placed in a small clay cru- 3 Next, the smith fixes the iron into a vice
cible. The smelter added charcoal and other and opens a seam along the edge with a
plant matter, sealed the crucible, and fired it heated tool. A thin piece of steel that has
in a charcoal fire for one to two days. Then, been roughened or "scarfed" along one edge,
the sealed crucible was cooled for another is then set into the groove. The smith then
period of days. The clay was broken open, heats the metal so that both the iron and steel
and the ingot was then packed in clay mixed are molten on the surface. This was evident-
with iron filings. Next, the smelter reheated ly quite an art, as the metals had different
this mixture to red heat. At this point, the melting temperatures. The smith closes the
metal was soft enough to work, and could be seam by hammering it deftly, and the molten
successfully forged into weapons. metals join. For a two-edged sword, the
process is then repeated on the other side.
The Manufacturing
Process Packing the edge
Different metal workers made swords in 4 Now, the smith heats the blade so it bare-
many different ways, and most of the tech- ly tums red. The smith often held the
niques of swordmaking were never written blade in the shadow of a box or barrel, to see
down. In general, specialized smiths made the color in the dark. When the whole length
swords. The finishing of the blade, which of the blade is the right color, the smith sets
often involved elaborate inlay work, was it on the anvil and strikes quick blows with a
done separately by a jeweler. Then the small hammer all along the steel edges. This
blade was sometimes sent to a cutler, who masses the steel fibers, and makes a stronger
did the final assembling of the blade in the weapon that keeps its sharpness longer.
grip. What follows is a general process for
a type of sword made with an iron core and
steel blades. A Roman sword was presum- Tempering
ably made this way, as were the swords of Now the blade is tempered-trans-
Toledo. 5formed from soft, workable metal into a
hard blade. The smith holds the blade over a
Forming the core fire that may be a long fire built specially to
fit swords. The difficulty is in getting an
1 Some swords were made with a core of even heat all along the length of the metal.
wrought iron, and fitted with steel When every part is glowing an even color,
blades. The softer center made the weapon the smith quenches the blade in a vat of oil
more flexible and resilient. The core is or brine. For this first quenching, the blade
formed from twisted rods of iron. The smith is placed in the vat with the blade held flat,
takes two or more thin iron rods and heats parallel to the liquid's surface. After it
them in the forge until they are white-hot. cools, the smith cleans off the metal scale
Then, the smith fastens one end of the rods that collects on the blade's surface. Then,
in a vice, and twists them all together using the smith heats the sword again, in a slightly
a pair of tongs. One long narrow piece is different way. The smith heats a long iron
left to protrude from the center of the bun- bar to orange-red, and lays the sword on it.
dle. This forms the tang that holds the When the sword heats to a blue or purple
sword to its hilt. color, the smith lifts it with tongs and
quenches it again, this time edge down (per-
Drawing out pendicular to the first quenching).
The twisted rods are then "drawn out"
2-a smith's term for making the iron Filing and grinding
thinner. The metal is heated to an orange-
red, then placed on the anvil. The smith The blade is next polished with a series
strikes the metal with measured blows that V of fine files. The edges are ground sharp
stretch the body and make it long and on a grindstone, a rotating wheel of textured
sword-shaped. stone.
445
Decorating massive scale ran into the danger of defor-

estation.
7 Many blades were elaborately decorated
7with inlaid patterns. Usually the sword Iron itself was usually assiduously recycled.
was sent to a jeweler for this step. The jew- Old nails and horseshoes made excellent
eler engraved a pattern on the metal, and sword cores, and smiths usually kept a scrap
then often etched it out with acid. heap of broken or useless tools and parts
that could be melted down and re-used. An
Assembling unskilled smith, however, could waste steel
For the final step, the blade is attached to if he burnt the narrow edge of a blade. If
Oa hilt. The smith had made the blade heated too high, the steel became brittle and
with a narrow piece called the tang protrud- useless. And in this condition, it was not re-
ing from the end of the sword opposite the cyclable.
tip. The smith prepares a crosspiece with a
hole punched through the center. The sim- Where to Learn More
plest grip was usually made of wood. It was
carved as a solid piece, and then the smith, Books
(or cutler, if a specialist did the finishing)
bored a hole through it from end to end. A Bealer, Alex W. The Art of Blacksmithing.
third piece is called the pommel. It is the New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1969.
rounded end of the grip. It would also be
carved in one piece, and drilled end to end. Evangelista, Nick. Encyclopedia of the
Then, the smith heats the tang, and fits the Sword. Greenwood Publishing Group,
pieces over it. The hot metal bores out and 1995.
fills the holes in the pieces, and effectively
joins them. The tang is long enough that a Figiel, Leo S. On Damascus Steel. New
bit of it still protrudes through the pommel. York: Atlantis Arts Press, 1991.
This is folded over and tacked down.
Oakeshott, Ewart. A Knight and His
Byproducts/Waste Weapons. Chester Springs, PA: Dufour
Editions, 1997.
The production of iron and steel for swords
required massive amounts of charcoal. Wilkinson-Latham, Robert. Swords in
Charcoal is made from slowly charred Color. New York: Arco Publishing Compa-
wood. The amount of trees needed to pro- ny, 1978.
vide charcoal was so enormous that Queen
Elizabeth I of England had to put a limit on Periodicals
how much timber could be felled, fearing
her country would run out. An ironworks in "Murder a la Mode." The Economist (April
colonial America that produced 15 tons of 29, 1995).
iron a week used up about four square miles
of forest each year. So iron production on a -Angela Woodward
446
Telephone
History we know today. In a real sense, it was just a Long-distance telephone
modified version of a telegraph. The prima-
Throughout history, people have devised ry difference was that it could transmit true service was first made
methods for communicating over long dis- sound. Bell continued to improve upon his
tances. The earliest methods involved crude available in 1881.
design. After two years, he created a mag-
systems such as drum beating or smoke sig- netic telephone which was the precursor to
naling. These systems evolved into optical modem phones. This design consisted of a
telegraphy, and by the early 1800s, electric transmitter, receiver, and a magnet. The
telegraphy. The first simple telephones, transmitter and receiver each contained a di-
which were comprised of a long string and aphragm, which is a metal disk. During a
two cans, were known in the early eigh- phone call, the vibrations of the caller's
teenth century. voice caused the diaphragm in the transmit-
ter to move. This motion was transferred
A working electrical voice-transmission
system was first demonstrated by Johann along the phone line to the receiver. The re-
Philipp Reis in 1863. His machine consisted ceiving diaphragm began vibrating thereby
producing sound and completing the call.
of a vibrating membrane that opened or
closed an electric circuit. While Reis only
used his machine to demonstrate the nature While the magnetic phone was an important
of sound, other inventors tried to find more breakthrough, it had significant drawbacks.
practical applications of this technology. For example, callers had to shout to overcome
They were found by Alexander Graham Bell noise and voice distortions. Additionally, there
in 1876 when he was awarded a patent for was a time lapse in the transmission which re-
the first operational telephone. This inven- sulted in nearly incoherent conversations.
tion proved to revolutionize the way people These problems were eventually solved as the
communicate throughout the world. telephone underwent numerous design
changes. The first phones made available to
Bell's interest in telephony was primarily consumers used a single microphone. This re-
derived from his background in vocal physi- quired the user to speak into it and then put it
ology and his speech instruction to the deaf. to the ear to listen. Thomas Edison introduced
His breakthrough experiment occurred on a model that had a moveable listening earpiece
June 2, 1875. He and his assistant, Thomas and stationary speaking tube. When placing a
Watson, were working on a harmonic tele- call, the receiver was lifted and the user was
graph. When a reed stuck on Watson's connected directly to an operator who would
transmitter an intermittent current was con- then switch wires manually to transmit. In
verted to a continuous current. Bell was able 1878, the first manual telephone exchange was
to hear the sound on his receiver confirming opened. It served 21 customers in New Haven,
his belief that sound could be transmitted Connecticut. Use of the telephone spread
and reconverted through an electric wire by rapidly and in 1891, the first automatic num-
using a continuous electric current. ber calling mechanism was introduced.
The original telephone design that Bell Long-distance service was first made avail-
patented was much different than the phone able in 1881. However, the transmission rates
447
were not good and it was difficult to hear. In

1900, two workers at Bell System designed
loading coils that could minimize distortions.
In 1912, the vacuum tube was adapted to the
phone as an amplifier. This made it possible
to have a transcontinental phone line, first
demonstrated in 1915. In 1956, a submarine
cable was laid across the Atlantic to allow
transatlantic telephone communication. The
telecommunication industry was revolution-
ized in 1962 when orbiting communication
satellites were utilized. In 1980, a fiber-optic
system was introduced, again revolutionizing
the industry.
Background
Telephones still operate on the same basic
principles that Bell introduced over one
hundred years ago. If a person wishes to
make a call, they pick up the handset. This
causes the phone to be connected to a rout-
ing network. When the numbers are pressed
on a touch-tone keypad, signals are sent
down the phone line to the routing station.
Here, each digit is recognized as a combina-
tion of tone frequencies. The specific num-
ber combination causes a signal to be sent to
another phone causing it to ring. When that
phone is picked up, a connection between
the two phones is initiated.
The mouthpiece acts as a microphone.

Sound waves from the user's voice cause a
thin, plastic disk inside the phone to vibrate.
This changes the distance between the plas-
tic disk and another metal disk. The intensi-
ty of an electric field between the two disks
is changed as a result and a varying electric
current is sent down the phone line. The re-
ceiver on the other phone picks up this cur-
rent. As it enters the receiver, it passes
through a set of electromagnets. These mag-
nets cause a metal diaphragm to vibrate.
This vibration reproduces the voice that ini-
tiated the current. An amplifier in the re-
ceiver makes it easier to hear. When one of
the phones is hung up the electric current is
broken, causing all of the routing connec-
tions to be released.
The system of transmission presented de-

scribes what happens during a local call. It
varies slightly for other types of calls such as
long distance or cellular. Long distance calls
are not always connected directly through
wires. In some cases, the signal is converted
448
Telephone
The electronic components of the

to a satellite dish signal and transmitted via a Design telephone are sophisticated and
satellite. For cellular phones, the signal is use the latest in electronic process-
sent to a cellular antenna. Here, it is sent via Modem telephones come in many shapes ing technology. The circuit board
radio waves to the appropriate cell phone. and sizes, but they all have the same general is produced the same way that
features. They consist of a single handset boards are made for other types
which contains both the transmitter and re- of electronic equipment. The
Rawv Materials ceiver. The handset rests on the base when preprinted, nonconductive board
A variety of raw materials are used for mak- the phone is not in use. They also have a di- is passed through a series of ma-
ing telephones. Materials range from glass, aling system which is either a rotary dial or chines that place the appropriate
a touch-tone keypad. Recently, rotary chips, diodes, capacitors, and
ceramics, paper, metals, rubber and plastics. other electronic parts in the ap-
The primary components on the circuit phones have been phased out in favor of the propriate places. To affix the elec-
board are made from silicon. The outer more useful keypad. To alert the consumer tronic parts to the board, a wave
housing of the phone is typically made of a that they have an incoming call, phones are soldering machine is used.
strong, high-impact resistant polymer. To equipped with ringers. A wide variety of
modify the characteristics of this polymer, specialized phones are also produced.
various fillers and colorants are used. The Speaker phones are made to allow the con-
speakers require magnetic materials. sumer to carry on a telephone conversation
44 9
Die-casting Assembly
The individual parts of the tele-

phone are assembled both auto- without holding the handset. Cordless form a cavity which matches the shape of
matically and manually. The trans- phones are also available. These models do the telephone part. While inside the mold,
mitter and receiver are put together not require direct connection of the handset the plastic is held under pressure for a set
by machines. These parts are then to the base. Instead the user's voice is con- amount of time and then allowed to cool. As
fed onto the main assembly line verted to radio waves and then sent to the it cools, it hardens and forms into the shape
and inserted into the molded head- phone base. This, in turn, gets converted to of the part. This mold is coated with chromi-
set. Similarly, the internal electron-
an electric signal and sent down the phone um to create a shiny surface.
ics, including the touch-tone pad,
are inserted into the main housing
lines. Another type of common phone is the
and attached with screws. cellular phone. These phones use radio 2 After a short while, the mold halves are
waves and an antenna system to communi- opened and the part is ejected. The mold
cate between phones. then closes again and the process begins
again. At this point in process, many of the
The Manufacturing parts are manually inspected to ensure that
Process no significantly damaged parts are used. If
there are damaged parts, they are set aside to
Since there are so many different parts that be remelted and reformed into new parts.
go into making a telephone, the components
are typically produced by different compa-
nies and then assembled by the phone manu- Internal electronics
facturer. The main components include the
internal electronics, the handset, and the 3)The electronic components of the tele-
various plastic parts. 3phone are sophisticated and use the lat-
est in electronic processing technology. The
circuit board is produced the same way that
Plastic parts
boards are made for other types of electronic
To produce the plastic parts like the base, equipment. The process begins with a board
handset casing, and push buttons, injec- made of non-conducting material that has
tion molding is typically done. In this the electronic configuration printed on it
process, pellets of plastic polymer are put using a conducting material. This board is
into the hopper of an injection molding ma- then passed through a series of machines
chine. They then pass through a hydraulical- that place the appropriate chips, diodes, ca-
ly controlled screw and are melted. While pacitors and other electronic parts in the ap-
the screw rotates, the melted plastic is propriate places. To prevent damage caused
moved through a nozzle and injected into a by dust, the process is completed in a spe-
mold. Just prior to this injection, the two cially cleaned room. When completed, it is
halves of a mold are brought together to sent to the next step for soldering.
450
Telephone
4 To affix the electronic parts to the setting. Plastic parts are given torture tests to
1
board, a wave soldering machine is ensure they will still function even after a
used. Before being put into the machine, the level of consumer abuse. For example, the
board is washed to remove contaminants. numbers on a touch tone pad are put under a
Upon entering, the board is heated using in- rubber-finger that taps the buttons enough
frared heat. The underside of the board is times that it equals forty years of dialing.
passed over a wave of molten solder and Since many of the parts that make up the
through capillary action, all of the neces- telephone are produced by subcontractors,
sary spots are filled. As the board is al- telephone manufacturers rely heavily on
lowed to cool, the solder hardens and the these suppliers for good quality. To ensure
pieces stay in place. This creates an electri- consistent manufacturing, most telephone
cal connection between the printed circuits makers set quality specifications for individ-
and the components. ual parts that the suppliers must meet.
Assembly and Packaging The Future

5 The individual parts are assembled both Telephone technology is improving rapidly. In
automatically and manually. The trans- the future, cordless phones will be designed to
mitter and receiver are put together by ma- be smaller and lighter. They will have wider
chines. These parts are then fed onto the transmission and better reception ranges. The
main assembly line and inserted into the sound quality will also be improved. Other
molded headset. Similarly, the intemal technologies that integrate the phone with
electronics, including the touch-tone pad, computers and cable television will be com-
are inserted into the main housing and at- monplace. Dialing systems will also be im-
tached with screws. The headset is then put proved. In a recent demonstration, one compa-
on the phone base and the phone chord may ny showed a technology that accepted voice
also be put on. command to dial a phone number.
6 After all of the phone pieces are assem-
bled, the completed phones are put in Where to Learn More
final packaging. Typically, they are wrapped Books
in plastic and put in boxes. A packaging ma-
terial such as polystyrene is also included to Bigelow, Stephen. Understanding Tele-
protect the device from damage during ship- phone Electronics New York: Butterworth-
ping. An owner's manual or other literature Heinemann, 1997.
is included and the box is sealed with tape.
The boxes are stacked on pallets, shipped to Noll, A. Introduction to Telephones and
distributors and finally, customers. Telephone Systems. New York: Artech
House Publishers, 1998.
Quality Control Grosvenor, E and M. Wesson. Alexander
Graham Bell: The Life and Times of the
To ensure the quality of each telephone, vi- Man Who Invented the Telephone. Harry N.
sual and electrical inspections are done Abrams Inc., 1997.
throughout the entire production process and
most flaws are detected. Additionally, the
each completed phone is tested to make sure Periodicals
it works. Often these tests are done under Woolley, S. "Dial tones? No, Web
different environmental conditions such as tones."Forbes (January 26, 1998).
excessive heat and humidity to simulate the
extremes that are experienced in a real life -Perry Romanowski
45 1
Thread
Ninety-five percent of all Background like linen, rayon, and cotton that also have
plant origins. Plant-based fabrics may
sewing thread that is Thread is a tightly twisted strand of two or shrink, and cotton thread has the same
more plys of yarn that are circular when cut
manufactured is used in shrinkage characteristics. Also, cotton
in cross section. It is used for hand sewing thread does not stretch, so it is useful for
commercial and industrial and in home sewing machines. Ninety-five woven fabrics but not stretchy knits. Cotton
percent of all sewing thread that is manufac- is also used to make basting thread that is
sewing. tured is used in commercial and industrial used to hold pieces of a garment together
sewing. Sewing thread is distinguished from temporarily until the garment is sewn. Cot-
yarn by the fact that thread is used to sew to-
ton basting thread is inexpensive and is
gether garments or other products, but yarn loosely twisted so it can be broken easily
is the collection of fibers used to weave or and pulled out when permanent stitching is
knit into a textile fabric. The terms are con- in place.
fusing and are often used interchangeably;
thread can be made of yarn, but yarn is not
made of threads. Nylon and polyester threads are preferred
for synthetics and stretch knits. Both types
Thread is wound on spools or large cones of synthetic threads have the same charac-
that are marked on their ends with the size teristics including no shrinkage, high
or fineness of the thread. Thread for hand-
strength, and excellent abilities to stretch
work and machines (both home and com- and recover that make them suitable for
mercial machines) has to be smooth and knits, preshrunk fabrics, and sheers. Nylon
friction-free. It should be easy to thread and polyester are the only threads that can
through needles, and it should move easily be made from a single yarn or single ply.
when tension is applied to it. Strength to Nylon thread was popular in the 1960s and
hold stitches when garments are being worn 1970s because it is clear and so matches any
and during laundering is a requirement, as is fabric; however, nylon's stretching proper-
elasticity during stitching and wear. ties and relative brittleness also work as dis-
advantages, and this thread has become less
The three basic types of thread are based on popular. Synthetic threads are marketed
their origin and are animal, plant, or synthet- under a variety of names including
ic. Silk thread is best for wools and silks polypropylene, Kevlar, Teflon, and Nomex.
(fabrics of animal origin). It is strong, very Production of Kevlar and Nomex is re-
elastic, and fine in diameter. Silk is also viewed and approved by Underwriters Lab-
used for tailoring, to finish the edges of but- oratories because these threads are used to
tonholes, to sew on buttons, and for decora- stitch fire-resistant and -retardant products
tion. Buttonhole twist is about three times such as suits for firefighters and motor rac-
the diameter of sewing silk and shiny or lus- ing drivers as well as sleepers and crib
trous. It is strong and can be permanently linens for infants.
stretched.
Specialized thread is also treated after
Cotton threads are made of the cellulose spinning and depending on use. Garments
from plants and are used to stitch fabrics made of fabric treated with water repellant
452
Thread
are also sewn with treated thread. Metallic spaces to be filled with colorful scenes that
thread is used for decoration, but it is sen- were also portable. Tapestries were woven
sitive to heat and steam and must be han- of wool yarn primarily, but linen, cotton,
dled with care. Mending thread is made in silk, and gold and silver were also used in
the same types as those sold on spools, but weaving these magnificent paintings in
it comes in short lengths so it is economi- fiber. Seamstresses and needleworkers were
cal to buy a small amount. Upholstery inspired to use the same materials in smaller
thread is reinforced for strength so it can works stitched with sewing or embroidery
be used to upholster furniture. Its opposite thread.
is invisible thread that is very fine and
made from nylon to be strong. Invisible During the Industrial Revolution in the sev-
thread is used to sew light- to medium- enteenth and eighteenth centuries, produc-
weight synthetic fabrics. Other specialized tion of thread moved out of the cottages and
threads are made for decorative sewing into factories equipped with high-speed ma-
like needlepoint. These include soft cotton chines. Machine manufacture generated
embroidery thread, cotton perle that is more uniform thread with fewer flaws, and
twisted and has a lustrous or pearl-like fin- producers could devote more time to maxi-
ish, stranded cotton with six fine strands mizing the characteristics of the types of
that can be used together or separated for fibers being used. Stronger thread, truer dye
finer stitching, tapestry wool for decora- colors, and production of a wider variety of
tive work, and mending yarn for reinforc- thread for different applications were among
ing and darning. the direct results.
Thread can also be made of combinations of
fiber. Thread with a core of polyester and an
outer wrap of cotton, spun polyester, or Raw Materials
rayon combines the characteristics of both
fibers, with the outer fiber creating the ap- Silk thread
pearance or finish of the thread.
Silk worms produce cocoons from which
silk is made. The female silk worms feed on
History mulberry leaves until the worms mature and
Thread has been essential to humans since begin to spin cocoons. The worm secretes
the first garments were made for warmth the silk thread from specialized glands
and protection. Early sewing thread consist- below its mouth. It completes the cocoon
ed of thin strips of animal hide that were around itself; over a two- to three-week pe-
used to stitch together larger pieces of hide riod, it becomes a pupa then a moth. The co-
and fur. The advance of civilizations coons can be harvested when the pupas are
brought many refinements in clothing and still inside so that so-called nett silk can be
adornments, including the spinning and dye- produced; cocoons are also collected after
ing of thread. The Egyptians were skilled at the moths have hatched, and silk from these
making thread from plant fibers and in using is termed Schappe silk.
the wool and hair from domestic animals in
spinning. They and the Phoenicians also pi- Cotton thread
oneered the use of berries and plant matter
in the manufacture of colorful and longlast- Cotton is picked from cotton plants in the
ing dyes. The Chinese and Japanese discov- field and compressed into large bales. The
ered the beauties of silk fibers spun as bales often contain dirt, broken pieces of
thread and made as cloth. cotton boll, seeds, and other impurities, so
cleaning is a first step at the mill. The bale is
Sewing thread had at least two historical broken, the fibers are opened by a comb-like
heydays. In the Middle Ages, improvements device, mixed together, and cleaned. The
in shipping, wool production and process- cleaned cotton fibers are termed laps. The
ing, and the opening of the Silk Road to laps are fed into a carding machine that sep-
Asia provided fertile ground for the flower- arates the fibers. Further cleaning, combing,
ing of woven tapestries and needlework. Ta- and sorting readies the fibers for processing
pestries were an art form that allowed large into thread.
453
Cotton thread is produced from

large cotton bales that are
cleaned, combed, carded, twisted,
and spun. Polyester thread is de-
rived from petroleum that has
gone through a cracking process.
During the cracking process,
crude oil is broken down into a
number of components that will be
processed into a range of prod-
ucts from gasoline to plastics in-
cluding polyester. Xylene, a hy-
drocarbon compound, is
generated during cracking. Nitric
acid and glycol are added to
modify the xylene by a series of
chemical reactions. The fluid is
heated and condensed in an auto-
clave, and the molecules align to
form long molecules called poly-
ester. The resulting mass is extrud-
ed, cooled with water, and cut
into chips. These chips are
shipped from the refinery to the
thread manufacturer for spinning.
Polyester thread in the practical aspects of sewing, sewing

machine operation, and clothing manufac-
Polyester is a petroleum product. During the ture. When a new sewing thread is designed,
cracking process, crude oil is broken down the needs of the specific market are ana-
into a number of components that will be lyzed carefully, and a prototype thread is
processed into a range of products from produced and tested under actual use condi-
gasoline to plastics including polyester. Xy- tions. The best thread products are needed to
lene, a hydrocarbon compound, is generated meet the demands of new and everchanging
during cracking. Nitric acid and glycol are markets.
added to modify the xylene by a series of
chemical reactions. The fluid is heated and
condensed in an autoclave, and the mole- The Manufacturing
cules align to form long molecules called Process
polyester. The resulting mass is extruded,
cooled with water, and cut into chips. These Nett silk
chips are shipped from the refinery to the
thread manufacturer for spinning. Cocoons containing the pupas are heated
with air to keep the pupas inside.
2 The cocoons are immersed in water and
Design a brushing motion unwraps the silk
Engineers who design sewing thread are thread; a single thread can be up to 1,000 yd
called seam engineers. They are experienced (3,000 m) long.
454
Thread
There are two types of silk manu-
facture. Both use the cocoon of the
silk worm to produce silk thread,
however, one processes the co-
coons that still contain the pupa,
producing a soft silk called nett
I silk. The other ufilizes cocoons that
have already hatched to produce
schappe silk. To make nett silk hot
air is used to inhibit the growth of
the pupa inside the cocoon, the
cocoon is unraveled, and several
yarns are wound together to pro-
duce a thread. Since it is derived
from the older, hatched cocoon,
NEIT SILK THREAD schappe silk manufacture begins
with the soaking, softening, wash-
ing, and drying of the cocoons.
Next, the cocoons pass through
steel rollers with combs to produce
bundles of long, straight fibers of
silk, which are combed, twisted,
and spun into thread.
SCHAPPE SILK THREAD
Several threads from the same cocoon rollers. The emerging yarn is slightly twist-
vare wound together in long loops or ed and is called the roving.
hanks to produce a single yarn. Three of
these single yarns are twisted to produce 7 The roving is spun to form a single
nett silk thread. More than three single yarns thread, and several single threads are
can be used depending on the planned use of wound together, twisted, and fed onto a bob-
the thread. bin or cone.
Schappe silk Cotton thread

o Cleaned, combed, and sorted cotton is
A Schappe silk is made from cocoons from Ofed through a series of rollers in a
- which the silk moths have hatched. This
process called drawing that generates a nar-
matured material is tougher than nett silk
row band of cotton fiber.
cocoons and must be softened, washed, and
dried. The fiber is slightly twisted to form rov-
9 ing, and the roving is drawn and twisted
The cocoons are passed through steel again.
Jrollers with combs to produce bundles of
long, straight fibers of silk called combed It is spun to form a single thread that
top or peign6. is wound and twisted with others to
form the thread.
Several bundles are grouped together to
'Jform a band that is also combed into a Cotton thread is singed over an open
narrower band and fed through rotating flame and mercerized by immersion in
4 55
caustic soda. These processes strengthen the the spools are packed into boxes for ship-
thread and give it a lustrous finish. The ment. Optical devices monitor the spool
treated cotton thread is wound on bobbins or winding and packing processes.
cones.
Quality Control
Spun polyester thread
Thread must emerge from the factory with a
12 The chips of polyester received from great combination of performance charac-
the refinery are spun into long fila- teristics. During its lifetime, thread will be
ments that are banded together to form poly- passed through a number of metal guides on
ester tow. Tow contains more than 170,000 a sewing machine, held in tension by the
continuous, fine, parallel filaments in a long sewing machine needle and subjected to its
band. action, bent into position from the bobbin to
1 3 The tow is stretched to the breaking interlock with the thread from the needle,
stretched and abraded when the garment is
point so that weaknesses in the fila- worn, and laundered or dry cleaned many
ments are exposed. The weak points are cut times. Thread functions not only to clothe
out, and fibers that are 2.5-4.75 in (60-120 but to protect us. We count on the thread in
mm) are produced. products like shoes and automobile safety
belts to protect us throughout the life of the
1 4 These resulting strong fibers are band- product.
ed together again in parallel, and sev-
eral bands are combined until a narrow, Product manufacturers place considerable
even, high-quality band of parallel fibers re- demand on thread makers to improve the
sults. quality of thread and to adapt to demands of
1 5 These bands are further stretched and the workplace. For example, a lubricating
IJslightly twisted into roving, and the finish is applied to thread that is used to
roving is spun and twisted into single stitch thermoplastic materials so the sewing
thread. The drawing and twisting process machine needle is constantly lubricated to
stretches the fibers up to 10-20 times their prevent its frictional heat from rising and
length in the tow stage, and the spindles on fusing the material.
the spinning machines that do this work turn Production of almost all types of threads is
at 12,000 revolutions per minute. fully automated. A device called an Auto-
coner monitors the thread quality, cuts out
Dyeing and packaging finished imperfections, and rejoins the ends to pro-
thread duce an even thread without knots, joins, or
All types of thread may be finished in simi- weak areas.
lar ways.
16 After manufacture, the thread is dyed.
Byproducts/Waste
16Dye is mixed in large vats; several Cotton thread production results in more
waste than the manufacture of other types of
hundred colors can be produced, and dye
mixing is controlled by computer. Large thread because of the parts of the cotton that
cones or bobbins of manufactured thread are cannot be used. The volume is still relative-
lowered into pressurized vessels, and the ly minor but must be disposed. Imperfect
dye (and other additives) are released into fibers and fiber dust are generated in the
the vessels by computer. After it is removed early stages of production and, again, must
from the dyeing vessel, the thread is dried be disposed.
for 24 hours. About 6.6 tons (6 metric tons)
of thread can be dyed in one day; this equals The Future
66 million yd (200 million m) of sewing
thread or enough to circle the equator five In the future, the manufacture of thread
times. must continue to adapt to new types of fab-
ric and clothing design and production. Fu-
1 7 The dyed thread is wound on smaller turists may predict that clothing and its vari-
spools for industrial or home use, and eties will become obsolete; however, the
456
Thread
reality is that the consumer wants to express Other
personality through a closet filled with
clothing for a variety of activities. And this Coats & Clarke, North America. http://
clothing is sewn together with specialized www.coats.com.
threads.
Coats Viyella PLC, Thread Division. http://
www.coats-viyella.co.uk.
Where to Learn More
Books Giltermann of America, Inc., and Gutermann
AG, Germany. http:fl www.guetermann. com.
Cream, Penelope, ed. The Complete Book of
Sewing. New York: DK Publishing, Inc., Saunders Thread Company. http://www.
1996. saunders-thread.com/sewing.html.
Hollen, Norma and Jane Saddler. Textiles.
New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968. Synthetic Thread Company. http://www.
syntheticthread.com.
Tortora, Phyllis G. Understanding Textiles.
New York: The Macmillan Company, 1992. -Gillian S. Holmes
457
Toilet
The Old Testament Background the waste into a main sewer. A smaller
trench filled with fresh water flowed past
contains several A system for dealing with excrement is nec- the base of the stone toilets. This water was
essary in every human community, and the used for rinsing. Roman forts, which
references to toilets, from need becomes more pressing the more housed hundreds of soldiers, also boasted
laws about how to cover densely populated the area. Though simple impressive toilet facilities. The builders of
pit latrines are still common in many rural Housesteads, a Roman fort in northern Eng-
waste out of doors to areas today, more complex lavatory designs land dating to 122 A.D., diverted a river to
date back thousands of years. The Old Tes- flow underneath the latrine and carry waste
mention of King Eglon of tament contains several references to toi- out of the fort. The latrine itself was a large
Moab's indoor privy lets, from laws about how to cover waste room with benches built around three walls.
out of doors to mention of King Eglon of The benches had about 20 holes with no di-
chamber. Moab's indoor privy chamber. Some kind viders for privacy. Roman cities also took
of lavatory flushed with water is believed to care of the needs of travelers by erecting
have been used by residents of the Indus huge vases along the roadways for people
Valley by around 2000 B.C. Even earlier, in to urinate into, thus keeping waste off the
about 2750 B.C., the ancient Indian city of public streets.
Mohendro Daro was equipped with toilets
connected to a drain. Dating back to ap-
proximately 4000 B.C., the neolithic stone During the Middle Ages, lavatories drained
huts of the Scara Brae settlement in the with running water were common in British
Orkney Islands seem to have had indoor abbeys, which housed large groups of
lavatory provisions. Apparently used as toi- monks. Similar to the Roman forts, abbey
lets, stone chairs have also been unearthed latrines were usually meant for many peo-
from the site of the Sumerian city of Ash- ple to use at once, and drained over a river
nunnack, dating to around 4000 B.C. The or stone drain. Stone castles were often de-
palace of King Minos of Crete, from about signed with vertical shafts for the emptying
2000 B.C., had elaborate indoor plumbing, of waste. The waste flowed into a trench
including marble toilets that were flushed leading in most cases to the moat. Indoor
with water dumped from a vase in an ad- toilets consisted of wooden closets or cup-
joining room. boards, which concealed a seat over a
chamber pot. Servants emptied the pot into
the moat.
The remains of Roman lavatories are still
extant in many places. Some private Roman In Medieval European cities, common prac-
houses had their own toilets, which were in tice was to empty indoor chamber pots di-
most cases a seat located over a drain or a rectly into the streets, a foul practice that
cesspit. Roman public lavatories were more bred disease. Something akin to the modern
impressive. They were often built next to or flushing toilet first came into use in England
as part of public baths. Rows of stone or at the end of the sixteenth century. A water-
marble seats in pairs, divided by armrests, operated "water closet" was invented in
stood over a trench. Excess water from the 1596 by Sir John Harrington. Queen Eliza-
baths flowed into the trench, and washed beth I had Harrington's device installed in
458
Toilet
her palace, setting the vogue among the no-

bility. However, flushing toilets did not
catch on with the bulk of the population
until much later. The first British patent for
a water closet was awarded to Alexander
Cumming in 1775. His device used a pan
with a sliding door. The pan contained a few
inches of water. When finished, the user
would pull a lever that opened the pan, let-
ting the contents slide out into a drain, and
at the same time opening a valve that let
fresh water into the pan. The Bramah water
closet, patented by Joseph Bramah in 1778,
used a similar but more complex flushing
device that kept the water running for about
15 seconds. By about 1815, water closets of
this type had become common in London
households. A modern sewer system was
completed in London in 1853, and a large-
scale toilet manufacturing industry dates to
around this time.
R a w Materials
Toilet bowls and tanks are made from a
special clay called vitreous china. Vitreous
china is a mix of several kinds of clay,
called ball clay and china clay, silica, and a
fluxing agent. Clays are hardened by first
drying in air, then being fired (baked) in a
very hot oven called a kiln. Usually a shiny,
waterproof coating called a glaze is applied
only after a first firing, and the clay is fired
a second time. Vitreous china is an excep-
tion, in that clay and glaze can be fired to-
gether. The whole clay body vitrifies, or
turns glassy, so the toilet is actually water-
proof and stainproof through its entire
thickness.
Toilet seats are generally made from one of

two materials. Plastic toilet seats are made
from a type of thermoplastic called poly-
styrene. The less expensive and more com-
mon type of toilet seat is made from a blend
of wood and plastic. The wood is hardwood,
usually maple or birch, which has been The M a n u f a c t u r i n g
ground up into the consistency of flour. This Process
wood flour is blended with a powdered plas-
tic resin called melamine. Zinc stearate is a
third ingredient in wooden toilet seats. This Plastic seat
prevents the wood-resin mix from sticking to
the mold in the manufacturing process. The
metal tank fixtures are made of stainless steel
1 Plastic seats begin as pellets of poly-
styrene. A worker feeds the pellets into a
hopper attached to an injection molding
or copper, and the joints that hold the seat to machine. From the hopper, a precisely
the bowl are usually a rubber-like plastic. measured amount of pellets flows into a
459
A plastic toilet seat is made by a

process called injection molding,
where plastic pellets are melted
and injected into a mold. A wood-
en toilet seat is produced from a
mixture of wood powder and
melamine mixture that is heated to
3000 F (1490 C). Once both types
of seats are molded, they are
hung on an overhead conveyor
rack that moves them along to the
finishing area.
container that heats the material until it and cover. When the mold is full, it is
melts. Then the liquid polystyrene flows clamped together by a huge hydraulic
through a small hole in the center of a two- press. This exerts 10,000 lb per sq in
part mold. The mold is made of chrome- (4,540 kg per sq cm) of pressure on the
plated machined die steel. Its two halves mold, and heats the polystyrene to 4000 F
are hollowed in the shape of the toilet seat (204° C).
460
Toilet
2 The plastic in the mold begins to solidi- drilled, then sanded. Then, they are hung
2fy. Then cool water is pumped through a again on an overhead conveyor and taken to
channel system around the mold to bring the the painting area. The conveyor automatical-
temperature down. A worker releases the ly lowers the seats into a tank of paint. Then
hydraulic clamp and separates the two the conveyor pulls them up and passes them
halves of the mold. The worker removes the into an enclosed room called a vapor cham-
seat and cover from the mold, breaking off ber. A paint solvent is released as a vapor,
the extra plastic that formed in the water and this carries off any excess paint without
channel. Then, the worker places the seat leaving drip marks. Next, the painted seats
and cover into a water bath. pass along the conveyor into a drying oven.
The paint-vapor-drying process is repeated
3 After the seat and cover have cooled in four times. The first two coats are a primer,
3the bath, a worker takes them to a finish- and the second two are an enamel paint that
ing area for the final steps. Here holes are produces a smooth, hard, plastic-like surface.
drilled for the hinges. Then, a worker
smooths the rough edges at a sanding ma- 7Both plastic and wooden seats are as-
chine. The sander is a rotating wheel cov- 7sembled and packaged the same way.
ered with an abrasive material. The worker The seats and covers are screwed together
passes the seat or cover along the wheel and packed with the necessary mounting
until any plastic fragments from the drilling hardware. Then, they are boxed and moved
or from the mold are sanded off. A similar to a warehouse or distribution center.
machine with a softer surface may next be
used to give a final polish. Bowl and tank
Wooden seat O The toilet bowl and tank are made at a
Otype of factory known as a pottery. The
4 For wooden toilet seats, the first step is pottery receives huge amounts of vitreous
to mix the wood flour and the plastic china in a liquid form called slurry slip.
resin. Workers wearing protective masks slit Workers at the pottery first thin the slurry
open bags of wood flour and empty them slip to a watery consistency. Then, they feed
into a mix box. Then, the worker adds the it through very fine screens in order to sieve
powdered plastic resin that makes up 15% out any impurities. The purified slip is
of the formula. Last, a small amount of zinc thickened again, and pumped into storage
stearate is added. The mixture is passed to tanks in preparation for use in casting.
an attrition mill, which grinds the particles
down further. After milling, the powdered 9 Next, the slip is carried through hoses
mixture may be measured into boxes for 9 and pumps into the casting shop. Work-
loading into the molding press. Or it may be ers fill plaster of Paris molds with the slip.
set aside, and later measured and scooped The molds are in the shape of the desired
by hand into the press. piece, except they are about 12% bigger, to
allow for shrinkage. The workers fill the
5 The processed wood and melamine mix- molds completely with the slip, and let it sit
5ture is next emptied into the bottom half for about an hour. Then, the workers drain
of a mold. A worker makes sure the mix fills out any excess slip. This is recycled for later
the mold evenly and smooths the surface. use. The clay sits in the mold for another
Then the worker lowers the top half of the few hours. The plaster of Paris absorbs
mold and begins to heat the whole thing to water from the clay, and the clay dries to the
300° F (1490 C). While it heats, the mold is point where the mold can be safely re-
clamped at 150 tons of force. After 6.5 min- moved. At this point, the casting is semi-
utes, the wood flour and melamine have solid, and is called greenware. Workers use
fused together and hardened. Then, the hand tools and sponges to smooth the edges
worker opens the mold and hangs the seat of the casting and to make holes for drains
and cover on an overhead conveyor rack, and fittings.
which moves it along to the finishing area.
l The greenware castings are left to dry
6 Wooden seats are finished in the same V in the open air for several days. Then
6way as plastic seats. First, they are they are put into a dryer for 20 hours. The
46 1
Toilet bases are cast from a slurry

of vitreous china and molded into
the base shape. Once molded, the
greenware, as it is called, goes
through a series of drying, glaz-
ing, and firing steps until it reach-
es final inspection.
Casting
Drying and glazing
It
Firing
462
Toilet
dryer is set to 2000 F (930 C). After the and purified before it is pumped into the fac-
castings come out of the dryer, they have tory's tanks. Workers doing the manual fin-
lost all but about 0.5% of their moisture. At ishing of the castings check the pieces for
this point workers spray the greenware cast- cracks or deformities. After firing, each toi-
ings with glaze. Now, the pieces are ready let is tested individually. Random sample
for the kiln. checks are not a good enough gauge of qual-
ity: each piece must be inspected for cracks.
1 The kilns at a large industrial pottery There are several ways to do this. One test is
are warehouse-sized tunnels, and the to bounce a hard rubber ball against the
pieces move through the kiln on a con- piece. It should emit a clear, bell-like ring-
veyance called a car. Each car is loaded with ing sound. A cracked piece will give off a
a number of pieces, and then it moves auto- dull sound, indicating a crack that might not
matically through the hot kiln at a very slow have been visually obvious.
pace. Because rapid changes in temperature
will cause the clay to crack, the cars move Byproducts/Waste
leisurely through graduated temperature
zones: the first zone is about 4000 F (2040 The pottery is able to recycle much of its
C), and it increases in the middle of the kiln clay. As long as it has not been fired, all the
to over 2,2000 F (1,2040 C) degrees. The clay is reusable. Even the air-dried green-
temperature gradually decreases from there, ware can be scrapped, softened and re-
so that the final temperature is only about processed into the watery slip of the first
2000 F (930 C). The whole firing process step of the process.
takes approximately 40 hours.
1) When the pieces are removed from the Where to Learn More
I2 kiln and fully cool, they are ready for Books
inspection. After inspection, the flushing
mechanism is installed. This is either manu- Barlow, Ronald S. The Vanishing American
factured at the plumbing fixture company or Outhouse. El Cajon, Califomia: Windmill
bought from a contractor. The seat too may Publishing Company, 1989.
be installed at this time, or the parts may be
sold separately and assembled by a plumb- Hart-Davis, Adam. Thunder, Flush and
ing distributor. Thomas Crapper. North Pomfret, Vermont:
Trafalgar Square Publishing, 1997.
Quality Control Reyburn, Wallace. Flushed with Pride: The

Story of Thomas Crapper. Englewood
As with any industrial process, quality Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1971.
checks are taken at several points in the
manufacturing of toilets. The clay is sieved -Angela Woodward
463
Tuba
During the 1 820s, various A tuba is a brass instrument characterized by embraced by the music community. To sat-
its large size and deep sound. It consists of isfy the desire of bandleaders for a valved
instrument manufacturers vertically coiled tubing, three or four valves, brass instrument that was capable of playing
a wide conical bore, flared bell, and a cup- low notes the tuba was invented.
produced the ophicleide,
shaped mouthpiece. The different segments
a precursor to the tuba. It of the tuba are shaped and bent from machin- In 1835, the first bass tuba was patented by
able brass using standard techniques. The Johann Gottfried Moritz (an instrument
was a type of keyed-bugle pieces are then soldered together to complete maker) and Wilheim Wieprecht (a bandmas-
the instrument. First built in the early nine- ter) It was completely distinct from the
instrument that could keyed ophicleide in that it was equipped with
teenth century, the tuba was invented to pro-
reportedly produce a vide a bass sound in brass ensembles. a new type of short piston valve called the
Berliner-Pumpe. Their prototype tuba looked
pitch as low as F. different than the modem tuba but it shared
Background some key characteristics. For example, it
Tubas belong to a class of instruments was pitched in F, the standard pitch of or-
known as brass wind instruments. The chestral tubas. It had five valves that could
sounds that these instruments make are pro- lower the pitch of the instrument. It was also
duced by the buzzing of the musicians lips made from brass with silver fittings.
against the mouthpiece. This causes the col- Next, Moritz and Wieprecht designed a
umn of air inside the instrument to vibrate.
wider-bored instrument that they called a
As it exits the instrument through the bell, bombardon. It had the same general shape
audible sound is created. The tone that is as the ophicleide but also had valves. Their
heard is directly related to the length of tub- design was adopted by other instrument
ing through which the air traveled. By en- makers who modified them slightly and
gaging a valve, the tubing is shortened or began producing the bombardon in different
lengthened and the tone is changed. In an sizes and shapes. Within a few years, rotary
orchestra, the tuba is used to produce the valves were used instead of the Berliner-
lowest notes. Depending on the type of tuba Pumpe valves. In 1845, Adolfe Sax patented
it can reach notes as low as bottom D of the a family of sax-horns that ranged from so-
piano. It is often used to play quick staccato pranino to contrabass. The lowest member
solos but can also play sustained melodies. of these instruments closely resembled the
modem tuba.
History In 1849, the hellicon bass was introduced.
The development of the tuba began during This was an instrument with a circular coil
the early nineteenth century. During the that was designed to rest on a player's
1820s, various instrument manufacturers shoulder. It first gained popularity in Great
produced the ophicleide, a precursor to the Britain brass bands because of its ease of
tuba. It was a type of keyed-bugle instru- portability. In the 1860s the famous Ameri-
ment that could reportedly produce a pitch can bandleader, John Philip Sousa, com-
as low as F. However, these instruments missioned C. G. Conn to produce a more
were difficult to play and were never truly audience-friendly version of the hellicon.
464
Tuba
The instrument was later known as the that includes copper, zinc, and nickel is also
sousaphone. used.
When the tuba was first introduced, it rapid- The zinc in brass makes the alloy workable
ly replaced the ophicleide in bands and or- at lower temperatures. Some custom manu-
chestras in Germany. It was more slowly ac- facturers use special blends of brass for dif-
cepted by other countries, particularly ferent parts of the tuba. For example, a ma-
Britain and France. By 1880, the tuba had terial such as Ambronze which is composed
become the standard brass bass instrument of 85% copper, 13% zinc, and 2% tin, may
and the ophicleide was obsolete. be used to make the bell. This material gives
the instrument a unique sound.
Design Beyond brass, only a few other materials are
used to make the tuba. Most of the screws
The general design of the tuba has changed are composed of stainless steel. In some
little since the early days of its development. cases, certain surfaces on the instrument
It is a massive instrument with a large bell such as the valves or the sliding pipes are
of anywhere from 14-30 in (35.56-76.2 cm) coated with chromium or a nickel alloy.
in diameter. The main tubing is shaped in an This reduces friction and helps the pieces
elliptical coil with the bell pointing up. move more freely. During production, flux
There are numerous variations on this shape and solder are used to connect the various
however. For example, the sousaphone is a tubes. To reduce the possibility of damage,
circular shaped instrument with the bell valves are lined with felt where the valve
pointing forward. Certain upright tubas have button meets the instrument body. For deco-
also been made with a forward pointing bell. ration, a material such as mother of pearl is
Other tubas have left or right facing bells. used on the valve button. Cork may also be
The position of the bell is important because used to line the water key. To reduce
it affects the overall tone quality the instru- weight, the bulk of the sousaphone is com-
ment produces. posed of fiberglass.
Most tubas have four valves that are of the
piston variety. However, certain instruments The Manufacturing
have anywhere from two to six valves. Ro- Process
tary valves are also used for certain brands
of tubas. These valves are faster than piston The demand for tubas is much less than for
valves but less durable. A large, cup-shaped other brass instruments such as trumpets,
mouthpiece is used. Tubas are available in bugles, or trombones. Therefore, production
five different keys including double B flat, is not typically done in a highly automated
double C, E flat, F, and the double G contra- fashion. The three general steps of produc-
bass bugle. tion include piece forming, assembly and
final finishing.
Raw Materials Piece making

The primary raw material used for making The main body, valves, bell, and mouth-
standard tubas is brass. Brass is an alloy piece are produced separately during man-
composed of copper and zinc. Other metals ufacture. In some cases, these different parts
that may also be added to modify the char- may be made by various contractors who
acteristics include tin and nickel. The most ship them to the tuba manufacturer for as-
common type used in the construction of in- sembly. The main body is made by first
struments is yellow brass that contains a putting a tube of brass on a pole-shaped man-
70/30 blend of copper and zinc. This materi- drel. Lubrication is applied, and then a
al is yellow in color and malleable. Other doughnut shaped die is drawn down the man-
types of brass are also used when different drel to reshape the brass giving it a consistent
effects are desired. For example, red-gold shape and thickness. The tube is then heated
brass, which is composed of 80% copper to make it more workable. It is then soaked in
and 20% zinc, provides a more gold color sulfuric or nitric acid to remove the oxide that
and a slightly different sound. Silver brass is formed by the heating process.
465
A tuba is made up of a main body,

valves, bell, and mouthpiece. All
parts are manufactured from brass
in various drawing, hammering,
and bending operations.
2 The modified tubes are then moved to works much like the water forcing the walls
2another area where they are bent to form of the tube to conform to the die.
the appropriate curves and angles necessary
for the correct tone. Various bending meth- 3)The valve system is made using many
ods are employed. In one procedure, the Jof the same techniques as the main
tube is first placed in a die that matches the tube. The casing is first cut from a long
desired curve. This requires a small bit of piece of tubing. It is threaded on the ends
mechanical bending. Water is then pumped to allow the valves to be taken apart more
through the tube at high pressures, causing easily. Using computerized systems, holes
the metal to expand and automatically take are drilled into the casing which match up
on the shape of the die. Another bending exactly to the holes in the pistons. The pis-
technique employs a ball bearing that is sent tons are also constructed similarly. The
through the pipe. Here, the ball bearing knuckles, which are pieces of tubing that
466
Tuba
A tuba.
Large, flared bell
Wide, conical tube
connect the main tube to the valves, are it a more of a bell shape. A small wire is at-
bent into the different angles as required tached to the rim of the bell and the metal is
for the instrument. They are then heated, crimped around it.
or annealed, and washed in an acid bath to
remove oxides. The whole assembly is 5 While the mouthpiece may be made
held together in jigs and the joints are sol- using various metals, brass is often used.
dered together with a blow torch. It is then It is made by pouring molten metal into a
sent for another acid wash to remove ex- two-piece die. The die is brought together
cess solder and oxide, and then to a polish- and held under pressure for a set amount of
ing machine. time. It is then allowed to cool causing the
metal to harden. After a short time, the mold
halves are opened and the mouthpiece is
4 The bell is produced from a large brass
ejected.
sheet that is cut to a flat dress shaped
pattern. It is then wrapped around a suffi-
ciently wide pole and pounded into shape. Assembly
At the narrow end of the bell, the ends are
soldered together in a butt joint. Where the 6 All the parts of the tuba can then be as-
bell widens, the ends are designed to over- 6sembled. The valve assembly is joined
lap. They are connected using a lap joint to the main tube and soldered. The bell is
which is then brazed with high temperatures also soldered to the main tube. The pistons
to ensure the proper seal. The narrow end is are inserted into the valve casings and then
then drawn on a mandrel to make it the screwed onto the main tubing. Other pieces
same size as the end of the main tube. The such as the water key or thumb rings are
wider end is then hammered further to give also soldered on at this point.
467
Final finishing may employ professional musicians who

can verify that the tone and pitch are within
7 The tuba is then cleaned and polished. It standards set for the specific model of in-
may also be electroplated with a gold of strument. Depending on the thoroughness of
silver alloy to change its appearance. The these tests, the instrument may also be
company name is engraved on the metal checked under different acoustical settings
using automatic or manual techniques. The
instrument may then be put in a lightweight,
felt-lined case along with the mouthpiece and Where to Learn More
other accessories. These are further packed in
heavy boxes and shipped to customers. Books
Whitener, Scott. A Complete Guide to
Quality Control Brass. Schirmer Books, 1990.
The quality of each tuba part is checked dur- Phillips, H and W. Winkle. The Art of Tuba
ing the various phases of manufacture. The and Euphonium. Summy-Birc, 1992.
primary test method is visual inspection. In-
spectors check for things such as deformed Othmer, Kirk. Encyclopedia of Chemical
parts, inadequate welds, and other varia- Technology, 1992.
tions. In addition to visual checks, more rig-
orous measurements can also be performed.
Measuring devices such as a vernier caliper
Other
or micrometer as used to check the length, United States Patent 5,644,095. 1997.
width and thickness of each part.
United States Patent 5,012,714. 1991.
The sound quality of the instrument is also
checked prior to shipment. Manufacturers -Perry Romanowski
468
TV Dinner
TV dinners are frozen trays of pre-cooked around 1905. This early technology was TV dinners generate over
food. Also known as frozen dinners, they based on a process called slow freezing. In
are assembled automatically on a conveyor this method, food was processed and then put $4.5 billion in sales each
system. In this process, the food is initially into large containers. The containers were put year.
prepared and cooked. It is then placed on the in low-temperature storage rooms and al-
trays and rapidly frozen. The concept of a lowed to stay there until frozen solid. This
frozen dinner was first made popular in the could take anywhere from one to three days.
1950s. With the increased use of microwave Unfortunately, this technique had two signifi-
cooking, frozen dinners have become a cant drawbacks. First, for some products like
large part of the grocery market. They gen- vegetables, freezing was too slow. The veg-
erate over $4.5 billion in sales each year and etable's center would start to spoil before it
that number continues to grow. was frozen. Second, during freezing large ice
crystals would be produced throughout the
food. This lead to a break down in the food
History structure, and when it was thawed, the taste
The development of the TV dinner traces its and appearance became undesirable.
history back to the origin of the technology
for freezing food for later use. The practice Clarence Birdseye improved on this process
of freezing food has been known for cen- when he developed a quick-freezing
turies. No doubt, this technology was dis- method. During the early 1900s, Birdseye
covered accidently by people living in cold worked for the U.S. government as a natu-
climates such as the Arctic. However, it was ralist. Stationed in the Arctic, he had the op-
not until the nineteenth century that any real portunity to see how native Americans pre-
commercial use of frozen food technology served their food during the winter. They
was known. The earliest commercial at- used a combination of ice, low tempera-
tempts at producing frozen food were cen- tures, and wind to instantly and thoroughly
tered on meats. One of the first patents relat- freeze fish. When this fish was thawed, it
ed to freezing food was issued to H. looked and tasted as good as if it were fresh.
Benjamin in 1842. Later in 1861, a U.S. Birdseye returned from the Arctic and
patent was issued to Enoch Piper for a adapted this technology for commercial use.
method of freezing fish. The incidence of By using his method, Birdseye was able to
frozen food became much more widespread reduce the time it took to freeze food from
later in the century with the advent of me- three days to a few minutes. He perfected
chanical refrigerators. In 1861, the first meat the method and in 1924 began the Birdseye
freezing plant was established in Sydney, Seafoods company.
Australia. One of the first successful ship-
ments of frozen meats occurred in 1869. The product was a success and he turned his
attention to methods for freezing different
Success in the frozen beef market prompted types of foods. In 1930, after years of devel-
food manufacturers to develop freezing opment, he patented a flash-freezing system
methods for other food types. One method that packed meat, fish or vegetables in
was the "cold-pack" process that was used waxed-cardboard containers. He helped get
469
these products in the grocery stores by co- Design

developing refrigerated grocery display
cases in 1934. Since freezers were not wide- TV dinners are popular for a variety of rea-
ly available to consumers, this product did sons such as convenience, quality, and ease of
not succeed immediately. However, in 1945 preparation. One of the greatest appeal of
airlines began to serve frozen meals. In the frozen dinners is that they are so easy to pre-
early 1950s freezer technology had ad- pare. In fact, people who are not good cooks
vanced to the point that people could afford can enjoy nearly any type of dinner they want.
to have them in their houses. This led to the Typically, all that is necessary is for them to
introduction of TV dinners in 1954. Since heat up the product in the oven or microwave.
this time, they have been a convenient alter- These products require little preparation.
native to homemade meals. Today, there are thousands of different types
of frozen dinner products on the market, and
more products are being introduced each day.
Background The earliest TV dinners included a meat prod-
uct, potatoes and a vegetable and a dessert.
TV dinners represent a unique adaptation of This has been expanded to include pasta din-
frozen food technology. Most foods will ners, oriental dinners, ethnic and specialty
spoil over time depending on storage condi- plate dinners. There are also special dinners
tions. This degradation is the result of nat- for people who are watching their weight.
ural chemical reactions and microbial
growth. People discovered that food could The types of food sold in TV dinners has be-
be made to last longer was by freezing it. come quite varied. Different types of meats
When food is frozen, the food-spoiling include beef, chicken, turkey, and even
chemical reactions like oxidation by en- sausage. Any number of vegetable dishes
zymes are slowed. Also, the growth of mi- can include peas, com, broccoli, and cauli-
croorganisms such as bacteria and mold is flower. Mashed, whipped, and baked pota-
stopped because these organisms cannot toes can be included. Pasta dishes, such as
flourish in the cold temperatures. Since the lasagne, spaghetti, linguini, or fettuccini,
process does not kill all microorganisms, can make up the whole TV dinner. Typical-
those that survive a reactivated when the ly, desserts like apple strudel or cranberry
food is thawed. sauce are also included.
While frozen foods resemble fresh food A distinguishing characteristic of a TV din-

more closely than food preserved by other ner is the partitioned plate container in
techniques, they do undergo some changes. which it is sold. The first TV dinners used
The freezing process causes ice crystals to aluminum trays covered with cardboard.
form throughout the product. These crystals While they are still used, these types of trays
cause a certain amount of degradation in have given way to plastic and paper trays
texture and taste by disrupting the cell struc- which are more compatible with the mi-
ture of the food. This problem was signifi- crowave. The food is arranged in the differ-
cantly reduced by the development of the ent compartments to keep everything sepa-
quick-freezing method which produced rate. Dinners that are designed for home
much smaller ice crystals. consumption are generally sold in sizes
ranging from 10 oz to 1 lb (0.28 - 0.45 kg).
Not all foods are suitable to be frozen, par-
ticularly vegetables. For example, of the Preparation can be done either in a mi-
thousands of different types of peas that are crowave or conventional oven. The disadvan-
available, only a few varieties produce a tage to microwave cooking is that the meats
good tasting frozen product. A large amount do not get the baked texture. Everything
of research has been done to determine extends to be a bit soggy. However, ovens take
actly the types of food that are usable. It has much longer to cook than microwaves.
been found that most meats, fish, and poul-
try can be frozen. However, certain meats Raw Msaterials
and fish that are high in fat content tend to
breakdown slowly even when frozen. This The primary raw materials used in the pro-
limits the shelf life. duction of TV dinners are the food ingredi-
470
TV Dinner
Trays
I
Cooking
Testing
A unique adaptation of frozen

ents. To ensure good quality TV dinners, in the minimum amount of time. Most frozen food technology, the process for
only high quality food is used. Depending vegetables and fruits are prepared and frozen producing TV dinners is highly au-
on the variety of the TV dinner, this general- within four hours after harvesting. tomated and can can be broken
ly includes meats, potatoes, vegetables, down into three stages. First the
fruits, or pasta. Since tv dinners are prepared For making the cartons, various materials food is processed and prepared.
such as aluminum, cardboard, paperboard, Next, it is loaded into the packag-
foods other ingredients are also needed. ing and then frozen.
This includes such materials as flour, water, and plastic is used. These are typically pro-
and eggs. Flavoring ingredients such as salt, vided prefabricated to the TV dinner manu-
sugar, onion powder, pepper and various facturer. They are made by typical molding
spices help improve taste. Artificial col- processes. The carton also contains the
orants are used to improve appearance. A printed labels and directions. This is also
preservative like sodium benzoate is also typically done by contract manufacturers
added to maintain quality during storage. and shipped to the TV dinner maker.
Since TV dinners are a frozen product, it is The Manufacturing

imperative that the raw materials are avail-
able at the appropriate time. For certain man-
Process
ufacturers, harvesting is scheduled to take The process for producing TV dinners is
place at the same time so the maximum highly automated. It can be broken down
amount of food raw materials can be utilized into three stages. First the food is processed
471
For health and safety reasons, the

government sets strict guidelines for
minimum food quality. Raw ingre-
dients are checked to make sure
characteristics such as pH, odor,
taste, moisture content, and ap-
pearance are within accepted stan-
dards. While the food is processed,
it is tasted and analyzed to make
sure the ingredients are put in at the
proper proportions.
Inspection
Wrapping
and prepared. Next, it is loaded into the 2 Next, the different food dishes are pre-
packaging and then frozen. 2pared in large quantities. Meat is fla-
vored, seasoned, and put on trays. It is then
Food preparation cooked in an oven for a predetermined
amount of time. Vegetables may be further
The first step in the process involves the steamed or boiled, and mixed with flavoring
processing of the incoming food. De- ingredients. Potatoes are typically whipped
pending on the type of food, this will mean in large, stainless steel containers. Other in-
different things. For vegetables and fruits, gredients called for in the recipe are added
they are placed on a movable conveyor belt and then they are cooked. When this step is
and washed. They are then put into a con- complete, all of the food is cooked and
tainer and steamed or boiled for one to three ready to be packaged. It is then sent to the
minutes. This process, known as blanching, filling lines.
helps destroy enzymes in the food that can
cause the chemical changes that negatively Tray loading
affect flavor and color. Before meats can be
cooked, they are trimmed of fat and cut into 3 Trays are put at the beginning of the fill-
appropriate sizes. Fish is cleaned, scaled and ing line and the conveyor system is start-
cut into fillets. Poultry is thoroughly washed ed. As the trays pass under various filling
and dressed. machines, food is placed in the compart-
4 72
TV Dinner
ments. The amount of food placed on the teristics such as pH, odor, taste, moisture
tray is strictly regulated by the filling de- content and appearance are within accepted
vices. This ensures that every TV dinner standards. Next, the processing equipment
gets exactly the same amount of food. is sterilized and checked for microorgan-
isms before manufacture begins. While the
4After a tray is completely filled with food is processed, it is tasted and analyzed
food, it next moves to the packaging sta- to make sure the ingredients are put in at
tion. Here, dinners are covered with either the proper proportions. During the filling
aluminum foil, paper or some other topping. process, quality control workers are sta-
The food is packed tightly and a partial vac- tioned at various points of the production
uum is created to ensure that the container is line. At the filling section, they ensure that
airtight and no evaporation takes place. each compartment is filled correctly. At the
Evaporation can have a variety of negative end of the filling line, workers watch to
effects. For example, it can cause food to make sure that each tray is set before it is
dry out. It can also allow package ice to covered.
form which can result in freezer bum giving
food a dull, dried-out appearance.
Future
Freezing and shipping Future improvements in TV dinner manu-
facture will focus on improving quality,
5 From the tray loading station the dinners speeding production, and increasing sales.
5are moved to the freezing units. Today, A recent development has been the applica-
most manufacturers use one of three rapid tion of cryogenic freezing methods. This is
freezing methods: cold air blast, direct liq- a super fast freezing method that has al-
uid immersion and indirect contact with re- lowed the utilization of foods that had pre-
frigerated plates. For TV dinners, the cold viously been unsuitable for freezing. This
air blast method is most often used. In this method is also thought to produce a better
freezing technique, the trays are carried into tasting product. In addition to new freezing
a freeze tunnel and passed through a series methods, new packaging materials will be
of refrigerated coils. Fans inside the freeze used. Manufacturers are constantly trying
tunnel blow cold air around the trays. Since to solve the problems associated with mi-
the temperature can get as low as -75° F (- crowave heating. They have introduced
590 C) the dinners freeze instantly. special trays that give meat a baked tex-
6 As the dinners exit the freezers, they are ture. There may also be trays that allow
6stacked and put into cardboard cases. some components to be heated while other
These cases are put onto pallets and placed remain cool.
in a refrigerated storage facility. They are
then transported in a refrigerated truck and Where to Learn More
stored in the grocers freezer. Good quality
food that is prepared properly and frozen Books
will remain in nearly perfect condition if it
Bald, W.B. and A. Robards, ed. Food
is kept at O0 F (-18° C) during shipping and Freezing Today and Tomorrow. New York:
storage.
Springer-Verlag, 1991.
Quality Control Erickson, M. and Y. Hung. Quality in

Frozen Food. New York: Chapman and
In the United States, quality control is a Hall, 1997.
highly regulated and important aspect of
every food processing facility. For health Macrae, R., et al., ed. Encyclopedia of Food
and safety reasons the govemment sets Science, Food Technology and Nutrition.
strict guidelines for minimum food quality. San Diego: Academic Press, 1993.
Meat is particularly well regulated because
there can represent a significant health risk Mallett, C.P. Frozen Food Technology.
if poor quality meat is used. Quality con- New York: Routledge, 1993.
trol begins with the receipt of raw materi-
als. They are checked to make sure charac- -Perry Romanowski
4 73
Vegetarian Burger
By the close of the A vegetarian burger is a meatless patty tion of meat. For centuries, Catholics were
made of ground grains or soybean curd, and instructed to forgo meat on Fridays and even
twentieth century, vegetables. It is often referred to as a veg- now avoid it during the season of Lent. In
vegetarianism was gieburger. the 1800s, the Bible Christians sect was cre-
ated when a group separated from the
enjoying its strongest Church of England, citing the Bible's prohi-
Background bition of meat consumption as one reason
popularity, with an Americans' love affair with hamburgers for the split. William Metcalf, a Bible Chris-
estimated 15 million began sometime in the 1850s when German tian minister, and 41 followers, arrived in
immigrants introduced the Hamburg steak the United States in 1817. One of those fol-
practitioners in the United to their new country. Made with a mixture lowers was Sylvester Graham who traveled
of ground beef and seasonings and served the country extolling the virtues of vegetari-
States alone. anism. One of his particular favorite food-
on a roll, it quickly became the quintessen-
tial American meal. In fact, hamburgers stuffs was whole grain flour, and it is from
were the foundation for the proliferation of
him that we got Graham crackers.
fast-food chain restaurants in the United
States and eventually around the world. A By 1847, British Bible Christians had estab-
fat content of 15-30% supplies the juicy lished the Vegetarian Society of Great
taste that consumers love, but has also been Britain. The American Vegetarian Society
linked to health problems. This, and the rise followed in 1850. Up until this time, the pri-
in popularity of a vegetarian diet, led food mary impetus for following a vegetarian diet
processors to develop a meatless burger. was a concern for animal life . In the twenti-
eth century, the healthful benefits of a meat-
Although the term vegetarian did not exist less diet became another, equally com-
until the 1800s, the theory or practice of fol- pelling force. Once again, this came from
lowing a meatless diet can be traced as far within the religious community: the Church
back as the first millennium. The Buddhist of Seventh Day Adventists, which claims
religion forbade the killing of animals for that 50% of its members and nearly 100% of
food. Buddhist priests who had spent time in its clergy are practicing vegetarians.
China were responsible for introducing tofu,
a white cheeselike substance that results One of its most famous members was John
from the soaking or boiling of soybeans, to Harvey Kellogg of corn flake fame. Kellogg
Japan in the eighth century. The sixth centu- was physician-in-chief of the Adventist-run
ry B.C. Greek philosopher and mathematician Western Health Reform Institute in Battle
Pythagoras advocated a kinship between hu- Creek, Michigan. Kellogg believed that meat
mans and animals, and his followers often consumption was ruinous to the human colon
adhered to a vegetarian diet. Plato, Epicurus, and thus the Institute's kitchen was strictly
and Plutarch were other early vegetarians. vegetarian. Kellogg and his wife developed
the first meat substitute, a seasoned peanut
In the Christian religion, the avoidance of and flour mixture called nuttose. Worthing-
meat has often been viewed as a penance. ton Foods, the country's oldest vegetarian
Some monastic orders forbid the consump- foods company, was established in 1939. Its
4 74
Vegetarian Burger
initial target market was members of the beans, rice, whole wheat, black beans, corn,
Church of Seventh Day Adventists. Today, lentils, mushrooms, carrots, and zucchini.
the company produces a veggieburger under Some companies add stabilizers such as
its Momingstar Farms brand. tapioca starch and vegetable gum. These in-
gredients are purchased from outside suppli-
By the 1960s, vegetarian restaurants were ers and then processed in-house. When the
cropping up throughout the United States. grains and vegetables arrive at the plant,
In 1971, Diet for a Small Planet, by Frances they are examined for quality. Rotted speci-
Moore Lappe was published. Although mens are discarded.
Lappe's purpose was to alert the public to
the negative effects of animal farming on
the environment and people rather than to The Manufacturing
write a treatise on vegetarianism, her book Process
convinced many to drop meat from their
diet. Equally influential was the burgeoning Washing
animal rights movement, buoyed by the Grains and vegetables are loaded into
publication in 1975 of Animal Liberation separate machines for thorough cleansing
by Peter Singer, and the founding of People to remove dirt, bacteria created by spoilage,
for the Ethical Treatment of Animals chemical residue, and any other foreign ma-
(PETA) in 1980. terials that may exist. Some factories have
conveyer belts that move the food products
By the close of the twentieth century, vege- under high-pressure sprayers. Others use
tarianism was enjoying its strongest popu- hollow drums that tumble the food while
larity, with an estimated 15 million practi- water is sprayed on it.
tioners in the United States alone. An entire
industry devoted to the processing of high- Cooking the grains
protein vegetable foods to simulate the taste
of meat has evolved. 2 The base grain, whether it be whole
2wheat, rice, or beans, is cooked in large
One successful meatless burger company is vats of water until softened. The resulting
Gardenburger, Inc., founded by Paul Wenner. puree is strained, separating the product
Wenner became interested in the correlation from excess water, and any remaining for-
between nutrition and health in the 1960s. eign matter.
Chronically ill most of his life, Wenner ex-
perimented with various food combinations Dicing the vegetables
and ultimately became a vegetarian. After
working as a cooking teacher for a number of 3 The vegetables are diced into tiny
years, he opened the Gardenhouse restaurant pieces. In some factories, this is done by
and Gourmet Cooking School in Gresham, a machine that is calibrated to slice the veg-
Oregon. It was here that the original Garden- etables into uniform sizes. Other, smaller
burger, a mixture of mushrooms, brown rice, companies, still do this by hand.
onions, oats, and low fat cheeses, was creat-
ed. In 1985, he was forced to close the restau- Combining the grains and
rant. Undaunted, he established Wholesome vegetables
and Hearth Foods, Inc., and began to distrib- A Pre-measured amounts of the grain
ute his meatless burger nationwide. puree and the diced vegetables are com-
bined into an industrial mixing bowl that
Other major brands include Boca Burger blends the ingredients thoroughly.
and Harvest Burger. Although some of the
smaller firms produce their veggieburgers
by hand, most companies employ modem Forming the patties
food-processing machinery. 5 The mixture is then loaded into an auto-
5matic patty-making machine, or press.
Rav Materials The press is a cylindrical device with sever-
al stacks of round molds topped by a
Veggieburgers are created with a variety of plunger. When the plunger is depressed, the
ingredients including, but not limited to soy- ground mixture is formed into patties.
475
Once washed, grains and diced

vegetables are cooked separately
and then mixed together. The mix-
ture is loaded into an automatic
patty-making machine, or press.
The patties are loaded onto perfo-
rated baking trays and baked.
Next, the trays are loaded into a
freezing chamber, where the burg-
ers are quick frozen to retain con-
sistency and taste.
Baking the patties goal is to freeze the patties in 30 minutes or

less. Because vegetables contain a jelly-like
6 The patties are loaded onto perforated
protoplasm, the speedy processes promotes
baking trays, then placed in an oven for the formation of ice crystals through the tis-
about an hour and a half at a preset tempera- sues. When the patties are cooked, the water
ture. is reabsorbed as the ice crystals melt.
Patties are quick-frozen Patties are vacuum-packed and
7 The trays are loaded into a freezing packaged
chamber in which the temperature is 8 The patties are conveyed to a vacuum-
below the freezing point of 320 F (0° C). The 8packing machine which envelopes the
476
Vegetarian Burger
patties in pre-measured plastic sleeves, from 24-51% after it purchased advertising
drawing out the excess air and sealing each time on "Seinfeld," a popular television pro-
end. Then, they are loaded into pre-printed gram. However, most industry analysts
cardboard packages, usually four patties to a think that the real breakthrough will only
package. The frozen varieties are kept in occur if one of the major hamburger chains,
temperature-controlled refrigerated com- such as Burger King or McDonald's, puts a
partments before and during shipment. veggieburger on the menu.
Quality Control Where to Learn More

The Food and Drug Administration issues Books
strict standards for the commercial process-
ing of food. These regulations include steril- Messina, Virginia and Mark Messina. The
ization of factory equipment, quality of in- Vegetarian Way. New York: Harmony
gredients, and storage safeguards. Raw Books, 1996.
materials are tasted and judged visually
upon their arrival at the plant. Tasters also Wenner, Paul. GardenCuisine: Heal Your-
sample the product at various points along self. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997.
the processing line.
Periodicals
The Future "Veggieburgers Are Ringing Up Meaty
Sales." Chicago Tribune, 6 December
While the trend toward a more healthful diet 1998, sec. 5, p. 1.
is expected to continue, it is not readily ap-
parent that the veggieburger will become an
integral part of that diet. The primary chal- Other
lenge facing companies that produce meat- Boca Burger. http://www.bocaburger.com
less burgers is to create a patty that pleases (March 4, 1999).
palates accustomed to beef and the fat that
gives it its flavor. Gardenburger, Inc. 1997. http://www.garden
burger.com (March 4, 1999).
On the positive side, the products received
major media coverage toward the end of the Worthington Foods. http://www.moming
1990s. Boca Burgers were served at the starfarms.com (March 4, 1999).
White House and in the Senate. Garden-
burger's consumer market share jumped -Mary McNulty
477
Video Game
Recent statistics show that Background At the same time Bushnell and Dabney were
developing Pong, Ralph Baer, who was
70% of all children in the Video games are played at the arcade, at working for Sanders Associates, was de-
home on a television or personal computer, signing a home video game system called
United States have home and as a handheld portable game. They are The Odyssey. Developed in 1969, Baer's
video game systems. packaged in large consoles, game paks that system was finally manufactured and dis-
can only be played on the same manufactur-
tributed by Magnavox in 1972. The
er's hardware (i.e. Nintendo, Sega Genesis, Odyssey was a package of 12 different plug-
and Sony Playstation), and as CD-ROMs. in games that were housed on circuit cards.
Made up of a program that instructs the Each game came with plastic overlays that,
computer to display specific visual and when placed over the television screen, sim-
audio effects, video games utilize cutting- ulated the appropriate background. For ex-
edge technology in order to provide fast ample, a plastic overlay of a hockey rink
paced entertainment. Recent statistics show was included with the hockey game. The
that 70% of all children in the United States Odyssey also offered an electronic shooting
have home video game systems. Over four gallery with four additional games and an
billion dollars is spent on arcade video electronic rifle. Eighty-five thousand sys-
games annually.
tems were sold.
Rapid advances in electronics technology

History during the 1970s led to the development of
A precursor to the video game, pinball ma- more complicated games, such as Space In-
chines were introduced during the 1930s vaders and Pac-Man. Introduced in 1983 as
and remained popular through the 1970s. In a joint venture between the Namco Compa-
1971, a video arcade game was produced ny of Japan and Midway of the United
called Computer Space. Invented by Nolan States, Pac-Man has sold hundreds of thou-
Bushnell and Ted Dabney, Computer Space sands of games and remains one of the most
was the first real coin-operated video game, popular video games.
but for various reasons, it never became
popular. It did however, lay the groundwork When personal computers became available,
for the next video game that Bushnell and computer games were created. Many of
Dabney introduced: the phenomenally suc- these games were adaptations of arcade or
cessful arcade game Pong. Modeled after home video game systems, however unique
the game of ping pong, it was an electronic games were also developed. The computer
game in which players tried to hit a flashing game industry grew swiftly during the
dot passed their opponent's video paddle. 1980s powered by various companies, espe-
With the success of Pong, Bushnell and cially the Nintendo Corporation. In the late
Dabney started the Atari Company, and in 1980s, the CD-ROM was introduced. These
1975, they introduced a home version of disks could hold more information on them,
Pong. In 1976, Warner Communication pur- and allowed the development of more so-
chased Atari for $28 million and expanded phisticated, interactive games. In 1995, digi-
its home line of video game cartridges. tal video disks (DVDs) were first produced
478
Video Game
for home computers. Since they have a stor- digitization. Lifelike action is captured on
age capacity over twenty times greater than film and sound is recorded on digital audio
CD-ROMs, they promise to revolutionize tape (DAT).
computer games.
Once design is complete, a variety of raw
materials are used to produce video games.
Design This includes the materials that go into
Design is the key aspect of making all video making the storage medium, the acces-
games. It is typically done by a team of sories, and the packaging. The most com-
skilled computer programmers, writers, mon storage mediums are floppy disks and
artists, and other game designers. During CDs. These are made with hard plastics
this phase of development, they generate the such as polycarbonates. CDs have a thin
game's specifications, which includes game layer of aluminum or silver coating. Addi-
type, objective, and graphics. tionally, they are coated with a protective,
clear acrylic coating. Floppy disks are made
While creating a video game is rarely a step with a thin plastic that is coated with a mag-
by step process, there are a variety of tasks netic material. Plastics are also used to
that must be accomplished during the devel- make the accessory pieces that some com-
opment phase. In the beginning, the type puter games require. In each of the plastics
and objective of the game is determined. In used, a variety of fillers and colorants are
general, games fall within six categories, or incorporated to modify its characteristics.
genres, including fighting, shooting, strate- Typically, computer games are packaged in
gy, simulations, adventure, and run, jump highly decorated cardboard boxes.
and avoid (RJA). Fighting games require the
players to battle with each other or the com-
puter. Presently, they are the most popular The Manufacturing
and encompass such titles as Mortal Kombat Process
and Street Fighter. Shooting games involve Creating a video game is a long, multifac-
battles in which the player tries to destroy eted process that can take up to one year to
enemy tanks, ships, or planes. Strategy complete one game.
games include such classics as chess, bridge
or checkers. Simulations are games, which
reproduce real life situations such as flying Creating the story
or driving. Adventure games are computer- Typically, writers are responsible for cre-
ized versions of role-playing fantasy games. ating a game's story complete with a set-
The RJA games are those like the Super ting, characters, and plot. This gives the
Mario games in which a character tries to game a purpose and makes it more enjoy-
reach a goal while being impeded by various able for the player. It also provides an objec-
obstacles. tive for the player and a guideline for the
rules of the game. This information is then
The action of the game is dependent upon its used to create the game's manual. Often, the
intended venue. An arcade game must have inspiration for a story is derived from popu-
immediate action. A home version usually lar movies or books. The story is transferred
includes various skill levels in order to keep to storyboards, where preliminary drawings
the player interested over a longer period of are also added. Storyboards are a series of
time. A handheld version of a video game is one-panel sketches pinned to a board. Each
simplified to be played in miniature. sketch is accompanied by story dialogue
and/or character description.
Raw Materials
Although the most important raw material in Capturing action with art
creating a video game is imagination, a After the type of game and story are out-
number of supplies are necessary to bring lined, the game's format can be determined.
that imagination to life. Once the story has The format refers to what the player sees
been created, characters and background are when playing the game. A variety of for-
drawn on storyboards, then transferred to mats exist including platform, top-down,
electronic format directly by an artist or via scrolling, isometric, three dimension (3D),
479
Creating a video game is a long,

multifaceted process. A team of and text. Platform games are those that fea- 2 The artist adds drawings to storyboards,
designers, artists, and program- ture a side view of the player's character. 2including character descriptions and ar-
mers work together to create the Top-down games give a bird's eye view of rows showing how the characters will move.
final product. After the type of the player's character. They are often used
game and story are oudined, the for war games. The isometric format is a 3)Final pictures are created in two ways.
game's format can be determined. top-down game, which uses perspective JAn artist can render the final picture by
The format refers to what the play- tricks to give the illusion of 3D. True 3D creating converted graphics. Converted
er sees when playing the game games are just now becoming a reality with
and a game may utilize one or graphics are images that have been drawn
more of these formats. The artist the introduction of CDs and DVDs. These by the artist using a computer. More life-
adds drawings to storyboards, in- represent the future of computer game for- like images are created by filming the action
cluding character descriptions and mats. Text game formats have limited with an actor and then electronically digitiz-
arrows showing how the charac- graphics and are only used for interactive ing the image. The artist reviews the video-
ters will move. Sound and life-like fiction. In general, all games may use one or taped action on a RGB monitor that pro-
action is recorded. more of these formats. duces brighter images and chooses each
480
Video Game
After the programmer has written
the program for the game and the
recorded sound and action has
been digitized, the game code is
transferred to a master compact
disk. This disk will be used to mass
produce thousands of copies. The
disk is put into a laser-cutting ma-
chine. While the disk is spun, the
binary code from the computer
game's program sends a signal to
the laser. The laser will then cut
pits in the photo resistive coating
corresponding to the program.
The disk is then chemically etched
and given a metal coating.
Computer chip board
frame that will be used to create an action. similar programs and reduces the chances of
Typically, six to 10 frames are used to show serious errors. Each action can require many
a character running/walking one step. Four individual instructions written by the pro-
to five frames are needed to illustrate a grammer, and roughly 250,000 individual
punch or a kick. The background is also cre- commands are written to create a video
ated by the artist using both converted and game program. Sound and graphics must
digitized images. Though seemingly cohe- also be programmed separately.
sive to the viewer, the background is really a
collage of many different images. Testing
The testing phase of game development
Recording dialogue and sound Jhelps reveal fundamental design and
effects programming problems. Testing can be
4 Dialogue and sound effects are recorded completed in a number of ways. The pro-
A in a sound studio using various audio grammers can run the game and try to dis-
techniques. Once recorded on digital audio cover gross problems themselves. Addition-
tape (DAT), the sounds are computerized by ally, professional playtesters are used. These
a synthesizer-a computer that specifically are people who are specifically trained to
alters and translates sound into data. play the games and look for subtle errors.
They are typically game designers them-
Writing the program selves, and have experience with many
types of games. Beyond finding errors,
5 When all of the preliminary design ele- playtesters also give criticisms and sugges-
ments are determined, programming, or tions to make the game better. In some
coding, can begin. The first step in this cases, computer game developers use people
process is drawing a flowchart, which from the general population to test games.
shows the logical progression of the com- This gives them information about con-
puter program. A variety of programming sumer acceptance. The information obtained
languages are used such as C++, Java, or vi- from the testing phase is reviewed. Repro-
sual BASIC. The code is typically produced gramming is then done until the game is ap-
by a team of programmers, each working on propriately tweeked.
a different phase of the game, and can take
up to seven months to produce. To speed the Burning the disks
coding process, previously developed algo-
rithms are often modified and adapted to the 7When the programming is completed,
new game. This is more efficient because it 7the game code is transferred to a master
eliminates the need to continually rewrite compact disk. This disk will be used to mass
48 1
produce the thousands of copies needed. Quality Control

The master disk is composed of a smoothly
polished glass coated with an adhesive and a The process of transferring the computer
photo resistive material. This disk is put into game program to a compact disk, or DVD,
a laser-cutting machine. While the disk is must be done in a clean, dust-free environ-
spun, the binary code from the computer ment. This is because dust particles are
game's program sends a signal to the laser. much larger than the pits carved in a disk,
The laser will then cut pits in the photo re- and a single particle can ruin a disk. There-
sistive coating corresponding to the pro- fore, strict quality control measures are
gram. The disk is then chemically etched taken to control the environment around the
and given a metal coating. At this point, it is disk-making process. Other visual inspec-
an exact replica of a finished disk. tions are done at various points during the
disk manufacture. Random samples of fin-
8 A metal inverse copy of the master disk ished disks are also tested to make sure the
Ois then made through a process known as program is working properly. Beyond the
electroforming. Using an electrical current, checks involved in disk manufacture, the
metal is deposited on the master disk sur- other components of the game are also
face. This inverse copy is then used to make checked to ensure they meet the required
multiple metal masters through a similar specifications. At the end of the manufactur-
process. These metal masters are used to ing process, random samples of the finished
make multiple inverse stamping copies. product are checked to make sure it includes
all of the necessary components.
9 To mass produce plastic compact disks,
the stamping copies are put into a die in
an injection molding machine. In this ma- The Future
chine, polycarbonate pellets are placed in a Computer game programming continues to
hopper and drawn through a long screw de- become more sophisticated as the available
vice. While it is drawn, the plastic becomes hardware improves. The most important re-
molten. It is then injected into the die with cent advancement that promises to revolu-
the stamping copy. It is held under pressure tionize gaming is the development of DVD
for a few moments and then allowed to technology. This will allow a much greater
cool. As it cools, it hardens giving it exactly amount of information to be included in the
the same pattern of pits as the master copy. game's program. This should improve many
It is then released from the die and inspect- aspects of the game such as the artificial in-
ed for flaws. If any flaws are found, the telligence routines, the graphics, and the spe-
disk is rejected. cial effects. Things such as video clips will be
included to make the games more interactive.
1 The disk is then transferred to a ma-
chine, which punches a hole in its cen-
ter. It is then coated with a thin film of either Where To Learn More
aluminum or silver using a vacuum deposi-
tion technique. Next, a clear acrylic plastic Books
is applied. Finally, the disk is transported to
a silk screen assembly and a label is printed Gruber, Diana. Action Arcade Adventure
on it. Set. Coriolis Group, 1994.
Katz, Arnie and Laurie Yates. Inside Elec-

Packaging the game tronic Game Design. Prima Publications,
All the components of the game are 1997.
transported to the packaging line.
Here, each part of the game is placed in a Sawyer, Ben. The Ultimate Game Develop-
preprinted, cardboard box. This process may ers Sourcebook. Coriolis Group, 1997.
either be done by hand or by automated ma-
chinery. The game boxes are then convey- Periodicals
ored to a shrink-wrap machine that seals
them in plastic. They are cased and ready Bunn, Austin. "Joystick City." The Village
for shipment. Voice (December 30, 1997).
482
Video Game
Wright, Maury. "DVD: Breathtaking Sight
and Sound, Significant Challenges."EDN
(August 15, 1997).
-Perry Romanowski
483
Vodka
The concentrated vapors, Vodka is an alcoholic beverage distilled at a those regions, it was common to distill alco-
high proof from a fermented vegetable or holic beverages to a very high proof, elimi-
or fine spirits, contain 95- grain mash. Proof is a measurement of the al- nating any aroma or flavor.
100% alcohol. This cohol content. Each degree of proof equals a
half percent of alcohol. Thus, 100 proof is that Vodka remained primarily an eastern and
translates to 1 90 proof. In which contains 50% alcohol, 90 proof con- northern European preference for centuries.
tains 45%, and so on. Because distilled vodka It was not until the 1930s that it began to
order to make it drinkable, can have a proof as high as 145, all taste and gain popularity in Western Europe and
odor has been eliminated, making vodka a North America. A 1930 British publication,
water is added to the neutral spirit. Water is added to bring the the Savoy Cocktail Book, was the first to in-
spirits to decrease the proof down to a range between 80 and 100. clude recipes for vodka drinks. The "Blue
Monday" combined vodka with Cointreau
alcohol percentage to 40, and blue vegetable juice. A "Russian Cock-
and the proof to 80. Bcmckground tail" called for the addition of creme de
cacao and dry gin to the neutral spirit.
The practice of allowing certain grains,
fruits, and sugars to ferment so that they One the primary vodka producers, the
produce an intoxicating beverage has been Smirnoff family distillery began business in
around since ancient times. Fermentation is 1818 in Moscow. A century later the dis-
a chemical change brought about by the tillery was churning out one million bottles
yeast, bacteria, and mold in an animal or daily. However, after the 1917 Bolshevik
vegetable organism. In the production of al- revolution, the family lost control of the
coholic beverages, yeast enzymes act on the business. In 1934, a Russian immigrant
sugars in the mash (usually dextrose and named Rudolph Kunitt, bought the Ameri-
maltose) and convert them to ethyl alcohol. can rights to the Smimoff name. Kunitt
opened a distillery in Bethel, Connecticut,
It was in the tenth century writings of an and struggled along for five years, at best
Arabian alchemist named Albukassen that only producing 20 cases a day. He sold his
the first written account of distillation was business to the Heublein Company in 1939.
found. Distillation was also said mentioned
among the writings of the thirteenth century Heublein executive John C. Martin found
Majorcan mystic Ramon Llull. Distillation that vodka was especially popular in the
is a heating and condensing process that dri- California film industry and he cultivated
ves gas or vapor from liquids or solids to those customers. In 1946, he met the owner
form a new substance. Distilled spirits are of a Los Angeles restaurant, the Cock 'n'
also known as ardent (Latin for burn) spirits. Bull, who was trying to unload an overstock
of ginger beer. Since one of vodka's attrib-
There is disagreement among Russians and utes is its ability to mix with almost any-
Poles as to which country was the first to thing, the two men experimented with a
distill vodka. Most historical references vodka and ginger beer concoction. They
credit Russia. In any event, the drinking of added a slice of lime, called their invention
vodka has been documented since the fourth the "Moscow Mule," and had an instant suc-
century in eastern and northern Europe. In cess on their hands.
484
Vodka
By the 1950s, New Yorkers were drinking based, one-pot operation called batching.
vodka too. From 40,000 cases sold in the Heating potatoes or grains until the starch
United States in 1950, vodka sales jumped was released and converted to sugar made a
to just over one million in 1954. The follow- mash. The resulting liquid matter was al-
ing year, 4.5 million cases were sold. By the lowed to ferment, and then heating it at a
mid-1960s, vodka nudged out gin; by 1976, high temperature to release the intoxicating
it surpassed whiskey. By the end of the vapors distilled the liquid.
decade, the martini was more likely to be
made with vodka than withit original ingre- It was soon discovered that multiple distilla-
dient, gin. At the close of the twentieth cen- tions produced a spirit of a higher proof and
tury, vodka accounted for 25% of the dis- of greater purity. In 1826, Robert Stein in-
tilled spirits market. vented the continuous still that allowed for
repeated recycling of steam and alcohol
Until the middle of the eighteenth century, until all of the spirit has been extracted. Ae-
vodka production was essentially a home- neas Coffey improved Stein's design. Mod-
485
em continuous stills usually contain three Water

primary sections: still heads (where the va-
pors are collected), fractionating columns Water is added at the end of the distillation
(where the ethyl alcohol is broken down), process to decrease the alcohol content. This
and condensers (where the vapors are reis either purchased from outside suppliers or
converted to liquid). brought in from company-owned wells.
Louis Pasteur's development of pasteuriza- Malt meal

tion began when a French distiller asked
him for advice on fermentation. Pasteur's Because vegetables and grains contain
research led him to the discovery of lactic starches rather than sugars, an active ingre-
acid and its role in fermentation. Today, lac- dient must be added to the mash to facilitate
tic acid is used as an inoculation against the conversion of starch to sugar. These par-
bacteria in the production of vodka. ticular converted sugars, maltose, and dex-
trin respond most effectively to the enzyme
At first, charcoal filtration was the universal diastase that is found in malt. Therefore,
procedure used to purify the vodka. Then at malt grains are soaked in water and allowed
the beginning of the twentieth century, the to germinate. Then, they are coarsely
process of rectification was developed. In ground into a meal and added during the
rectification, the spirits are passed through mash process.
several purifying cylinders designed to
eliminate dangerous imperfections such as Yeast
solvents, fusil oil, and methanol.
A microscopic single-celled fungus, yeast
contains enzymes that allow food cells to
Raw Materials extract oxygen from starches or sugars, pro-
Vegetables or grains ducing alcohol. In the manufacturing of al-
coholic beverages, the yeast species Saccha-
Because it is a neutral spirit, devoid of color somyces cereviseal is used. It is purchased
and odor, vodka can be distilled from virtu- from outside suppliers.
ally any fermentable ingredients. Originally,
it was made from potatoes. Although some
eastem European vodkas are still made from Flavorings
potatoes and com, most of the high quality In the latter part of the twentieth century,
imports and all vodka made in the United flavored vodkas became popular. Thus,
States are distilled from cereal grains, such herbs, grasses, spices, and fruit essences
as wheat. Distillers either purchase the grain may be added to the vodka after distillation.
from suppliers, or grow it in company- These are usually purchased from an outside
owned fields. supplier.
486
Vodka
The Manufacturing Distillation and rectification

Process 4 The liquid ethyl alcohol is pumped to
stills, stainless steel columns made up of
Mash preparation vaporization chambers stacked on top of
1 The grain or vegetables are loaded into an each other. The alcohol is continuously cy-
cled up and down, and heated with steam,
automatic mash tub. Much like a washing
machine, the tub is fitted with agitators that until the vapors are released and condensed.
This process also removes impurities. The
break down the grain as the tub rotates. A
ground malt meal is added to promote the vapors rise into the upper chambers (still
conversion of starches to sugar. heads) where they are concentrated. The ex-
tracted materials flow into the lower cham-
bers and are discarded. Some of the grain
Sterilization and inoculation residue may be sold as livestock feed.
2 Preventing the growth of bacteria is very
2important in the manufacture of distilled Water added
spirits. First, the mash is sterilized by heat- 5 The concentrated vapors, or fine spirits,
ing it to the boiling point. Then, it is injected Jcontain 95-100% alcohol. This trans-
with lactic-acid bacteria to raise the acidity lates to 190 proof. In order to make it drink-
level needed for fermentation. When the de- able, water is added to the spirits to de-
sired acidity level is reached, the mash is increase the alcohol percentage to 40, and the
oculated once again. proof to 80.
Fermentation Bottling
3 The mash is poured into large stainless- Alcoholic beverages are stored in glass
3steel vats. Yeast is added and the vats 6bottles because glass is non-reactive.
are closed. Over the next two to four days, Other receptacles, such as plastic, would
enzymes in the yeast convert the sugars in cause a chemical change in the beverage.
the mash to ethyl alcohol. The bottling procedure is highly mecha-
487
nized as the bottles are cleaned, filled, Where to Learn More

capped, sealed, labeled, and loaded into car-
tons. This can be done at rates as high as Books
400 bottles per minute. Grimes, William. Straight Up or On the
Rocks: A Cultural History of American
Quality Control Drink. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.
Although tasters draw off quantities of Grossman, Harold J. Grossman's Guide to
vodka for sampling throughout the distilling Wines, Beers and Spirits. 7th edition, re-
process, most of the controls on vodka qual- vised by Harriet Lembeck. New York:
ity come from local, state, and federal gov- Charles Scribner's Sons, 1983.
ernments. At the federal level, the Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms issues strict
guidelines for production, labeling, importa- Other
tion, advertising, and even plant security. Lancut Distillery. http://www.lancutdistill
For example, charcoal-filtered vodka im- ery.euro-index.com.pl/spiritproduction. htm
ports are not permitted. Flavored vodkas (March 9, 1999).
must list the predominant flavor (pepper,
lemon, peach, etc.) on the label. The rela- -Mary McNulty
tionships between suppliers and producers
are strictly regulated as well.
488
Voting Machine
The term voting machine encompasses a va- chanical voting device ever used in a U.S. Prior to the paper ballot,
riety of mechanical devices used for record- election when it was adopted by the city of
ing votes. The voting machines commonly Lockport, New York, in 1892. Several com- voters in colonial America
used in the United States may operate using panies developed and marketed similar vot- recorded their choices by
punch cards, mechanical levers, optical ing machines, which were known as me-
scanning, or direct electronic recording. chanical lever devices. They were placing balls, coins,
widespread across the United States by
1930. More than half the nation voted on bullets, or beans in a
Background lever machines by the 1960s. The voter en- container.
In colonial America, voters recorded their abled the machine by pulling a lever that also
choices by placing balls, coins, bullets or closed the privacy curtain around the booth.
beans in a container. Paper ballots did not To mark candidate choices, the voter pulled
come into use until around 1800. At first, down pointers next to his or her selections.
paper ballots were usually supplied by the The pointers moved counter wheels inside
political parties, and each party used a dif- the machine. The machine re-set every time
ferent color. The voter would typically hold the curtain lever was raised, and at the end of
his ballot up in the air for all to see which the day, its counter wheels revealed how
color he chose. Municipalities also used many votes had been cast for each candidate
voice votes, where the voter simply spoke on the ballot. These machines were thought
the name of his candidate or answered "yea" to reduce the possibility of ballot tampering,
or "nay." Some communities in the United though apparently those inclined to rig elec-
States continued to hold elections based on tions still found ways to do so.
voice votes until after the Civil War. A new
system of paper ballots was first used in the Two more voting systems were developed
Australian state of Victoria in 1856. The by entrepreneurs in the 1960s. The first per-
ballot was made from a uniform size, weight son to develop a voting machine using com-
and color of paper, and it listed all the candi- puter punch cards was a Mr. Martin A.
dates from any parties. Voters marked their Coyle, who marketed his machine in Ohio
choices by checking a box next to their pre- beginning in 1960. A University of Califor-
ferred candidate's name. Then, they dropped nia political science professor, Joseph P.
the ballot into a sealed ballot box. This be- Harris, took out a patent for a punch card
came known as the Australian ballot, and it voting system called Votomatic in 1963.
was adopted in the United States in the Computer giant International Business Ma-
1870s. The Australian ballot obviously of- chines bought the rights to manufacture Vo-
fered confidentiality that the earlier voting tomatic machines in 1965. Close to 40% of
systems lacked. all votes in the 1996 presidential election
were cast on punch card machines. A sec-
The famed inventor Thomas Edison took out ond method of recording votes, using opti-
a patent on a mechanical voting machine in cal scan equipment, was also developed in
1869, but his device was never used. Anoth- the 1960s. In the late 1990s, almost a quarter
er inventor, Jacob H. Myers, developed a of all registered voters used some kind of
similar machine, which became the first me- optical scanning machine. These are similar
489
to the readers used for grading standardized manipulate election outcomes. For example,
tests. The voter marks his or her vote by fill- when Jesse Jackson became the first black
ing in a dot or completing an arrow with a presidential candidate to run in a primary in
number two pencil, and the machine reads New York in 1984, outraged supporters
and tallies the pencil marks. claimed that Jackson lost thousands of votes
because voting machines in poor repair had
A smaller, but growing segment of the pop- been selected for neighborhoods with strong
ulation votes on machines known as Direct Jackson followings. The National Bureau of
Recording Electronic (DRE). This is essen- Standards (now called the National Institute
tially the electronic version of the mechani- of Standards and Technology) worked with
cal lever system. By touching keys or but- the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to
tons, voters enter their choices into an study the feasibility of implementing nation-
electronic memory in the machine. It tallies al voting machine standards. A report was
its votes automatically, and a district using released in 1982, and in 1990 the FEC is-
these machines can have its election results sued its first voluntary standards for punch-
in as little as half an hour. Many DRE ma- card, optical scanning and DRE voting sys-
chines use buttons next to a printed ballot. tems. As of 1998, 31 states had adopted the
Others use a liquid crystal display to show standards, meaning the remaining states ei-
the ballot, and the voter can push buttons or ther had their own standards or used none.
touch the display. Using these machines is However, voting system reliability is thought
similar to using an automatic teller machine. to have improved substantially since the im-
plementation of the voluntary standards,
Whatever the system the device uses, all which ask manufacturers to submit their de-
voting machines have similar constraints. vices to independent testing authorities.
They are used, for the most part, only twice
a year, and in the meantime they sit in stor-
age. They need to be simple to operate, and Ravv Mcaterials
also simple to maintain and repair. Relative- The raw materials for the direct recording
ly untrained and unskilled poll workers or electronic voting machine are light metals
election administrators need to be able to set and plastics. It uses printed computer circuit
them up and keep them working during boards, control panels, printers, lights, and
polling, and yet they need to be highly reli- memory cartridges made of the materials
able. In general, large municipalities buy most often used for these components in
more advanced equipment first, and the other electronics such as computers or video
technological gains trickle down to smaller games.
cities as they buy used equipment from their
bigger neighbors.
The Manufacturing
Process
Staindards
The various components for the voting ma-
During the 1970s, many small companies chine are assembled separately at different
were making voting machines, some with work stations or assembly lines. Then the
dubious reliability. A document from the components are assembled and the device is
Federal Election Commission states that at tested. Typically, the manufacturer makes
this time "nearly anybody could cobble to- many of the components under one roof,
gether a 'voting machine' in their garage and buys others from sub-contractors ac-
(and some of them looked like they had cording to specifications.
been)...." Purchase of voting equipment was
done by municipalities or counties, usually Electronics assembly
with no state standards to guide them. The
National Bureau of Standards first issued a The manufacturer maintains one area of
report on computers and vote tallying in the factory for assembling the electronic
1975, and concluded that there were ram- components of the voting machine. These
pant problems with the technology, and few are the printer module, the circuit boards,
people running local elections were trained and the memory cartridges. Workers at ta-
to handle them. Unscrupulous election offi- bles or put together the small electronic
cials could use technological problems to parts according to directions, snapping and
490
Voting Machine
Voting machine
A portable voting machine system.

soldering pieces together. All of the elec- weight plastic, and is about the size of a
tronics components are tested individually large suitcase. A typical manufacturer sub-
as they are completed. contracts this to another company that spe-
cializes in this type of part. The cases arrive
Other components from the sub-contractor made according to
the original design, with holes for screws
2 Workers assemble other components at and bolts. Workers on the production line
separate stations. These include the bal- drop the components into the case and affix
lot frame, which is the panel that holds the them with screws or rivets. Other hardware
buttons voters push to select candidates, and is attached to the case at this point, includ-
the control panel used by the election judge ing the privacy panel or curtain, and light
to set the machine. When all the interior fixtures.
parts are assembled, they are sent to a con-
veyor belt that winds through a final assem- The chassis
bly area.
A Once everything is assembled inside and
The case on the case, workers take the case to an-
other assembly line. Here, the case is screwed
3 The case that houses the workings of the onto the chassis, which is the table-like stand
voting machine is made from light- that holds the machine up. Now, the machine
4 91
A typical data punch system used

to cast votes in an election.
is fully assembled. It goes through a diagnos- Quality Control

tic and testing step before it is packed up
ready for storage or distribution. Since the Federal Election Commission is-
sued its voluntary voting systems standards
in 1990, manufacturers usually work with
Diagnostics national guidelines for what the machine
5 It is extremely important for voting ma- should be able to do. The guidelines don't
chines to be able to work after long peri- specify how the machine should work, but
ods of sitting on a shelf or in a warehouse. ask that it meets technical standards for its
DRE machines have a built-in self-diagnos- hardware and software, that it proves it is
tic system designed to make sure the ma- secure from tampering, and that it provides
chine is ready to work every time it is taken adequate documentation in cases of chal-
out for an election. After the machine is as- lenged election results. Though not every
sembled at the plant, workers start the self- state has adopted these standards, and they
diagnostic system, and the machine checks are voluntary, it behooves the manufacturer
itself to make sure its electronics are func- to be able to state that its machines meet or
tioning. Then, workers actually run through exceed FEC standards. Independent testing
a sample election on the machine. They fit it authorities run tests on voting machines sub-
with a dummy ballot, and vote on it from ten mitted by manufacturers, to determine
to a hundred times. If it passes this test, the whether they conform to the FEC's stan-
machine can be stored for later sale. Before dards. The testing authority examines and
the machine is shipped to a customer, it goes evaluates the machine's software and looks
through one more diagnostic and setting at its documentation (how it shows what
step. The manufacturer plugs the machine happened, in case of a contested vote). The
into a laptop computer and sets options on testing lab also simulates the conditions the
it, such as whether lights will blink or not, machine is subjected to in storage, transport,
what county it is going to, and entering any and in operation, to make sure it works or is
passwords the voting district wants to use. easy to repair in varying circumstances. The
The computer also does a further diagnostic, testing authority documents how the ma-
testing the internal electronics such as the chine holds up under "normal and abnormal
setting of the clock. conditions," meaning that it subjects the ma-
492
Voting Machine
chine to a variety of stress tests. The testing Internet might be a convenient and techno-
authority also works with manufacturers to logically feasible future development. Yet
see that they learn to perform similar tests given the history of the voting machine in
themselves. However, the independent test- the United States, it seems unlikely that any
ing authority does not certify entire voting new system would gain a foothold quickly.
machine companies. It only evaluates the Even in the face of a proven better technolo-
particular model. It may provide guidance to gy, the older systems will likely persist, with
the company so that it can run its own tests smaller and more rural districts lagging be-
and make sure its internal quality control hind urban centers.
system is up to par.
Where to Learn More
The Future
Voting machine technology lags behind that Books
of many other industries. For example, opti- Moloney, Martha A. Mechanized Vote
cal scanning was used in many areas long Recording: A Survey. Frankfort, Kentucky:
before it was applied to voting machines in Legislative Research Commission, 1975.
the 1960s. And the most modern, electroni-
cally advanced machines actually make up National Clearinghouse of Election Admin-
the smallest portion of the voting machines istration. Voting System Standards. Wash-
in use at the turn of the twenty-first century.
Voting machines must be simple, durable, ington, DC: National Clearinghouse of
and easy to use by even the most unsophisti-
Election Administration, 1990.
cated voter, and municipalities are for the
most part reluctant to change and upgrade Periodicals
expensive machines that are used only twice
a year. People in the industry have some- Baquet, Dean, with Martin Gottlieb. "Poli-
times suggested sweeping innovations, such tics of Voting Machines: A 6-Year Fight for
as systems that allow voters to call in their $50 Million." New York Times. (October
votes by telephone. However, this raises 20, 1990.)
daunting security issues. In the late 1990s,
there has been speculation that voting on the -Angela Woodward
4 93
Wheelbarrow
The modern wheelbarrow Background barrow for construction, while the Romans
might have adapted it for agriculture. After
was invented in China, A wheelbarrow is a carrier, usually having Rome fell, the wheelbarrow could have re-
only one wheel, consisting of a tray bolted mained in use in Byzantium until the Cru-
possibly as early as to two handles and two legs. While known saders learned of it during their joumeys.
100 B.C. mostly as a device for carrying small loads However, it is most likely that it was an in-
for the household gardener, a wheelbarrow dependent invention of the late middle ages,
is often also used in construction and indus- created by putting a wheel on the two-per-
try for carrying larger loads.
son handbarrow already in use for carrying
The birthplace of the modem wheelbarrow such items as stones or sheaves of corn.
was China, possibly as early as 100 B.C. One
early version consisted of a large single The first use of the wheelbarrow in Europe
wheel at or near the front of a platform. The was probably in agriculture; then, it spread
load would be placed behind the wheel, and to construction, transportation of goods,
the operator would lift the heavy end and mining, and brick making. Some wheelbar-
push the load. Sometimes a small basket rows had a wooden, box-like body with feet.
would be used to carry the load, and if it was Others had a flat slatted or wicker frame-
heavy, a second operator could pull from the work with feet. French, Flemish, and Dutch
front. Another type, probably invented by wheelbarrows usually had a rack to rest the
Chuko Liang in 300 A.D., had a carrying sur- load or basket against. Swiss wheelbarrows
face that was basically a large wheel hous- had solid wheels, while English ones had
ing that encased the top half of the wheel. A four feet and spoked wheels. Bohemians of
flat platform projected out from both sides the time also used spoked wheels, but no feet
at axle level could then carry large loads, were used to help lower the load. To assist
people and goods in pannier fashion while when moving loads, European wheelbarrows
the operator steered it. Loads were higher of around 1200 A.D. had leather straps that
off the ground than those carried in modem wound around the handles. Operators would
wheelbarrows. Chinese wheelbarrows were slip the straps around their necks.
hence similar to rickshaws in that the goal
was to carry heavy loads long distances. The wheelbarrow's advantages were that
Tseng Min-Hsung in 1200 A.D. boasted that loads could be lifted and carried close to the
"ways which are as winding as the bowels ground, as opposed to two-person handbar-
of a sheep will not defeat it." rows that required carrying to be done at
waist level. A wheelbarrow carrying a bas-
Unlike Chinese wheelbarrows, European ket of goods could be unloaded quickly and
wheelbarrows were designed to carry small put back into action, although it was too un-
loads over short distances. It is difficult to wieldy at this date to be emptied by simply
trace the progression of the wheelbarrow tilting and twisting it. One person using a
from China to Europe. Possibly, Arab wheelbarrow cuts labor costs in half, and
traders brought it to the Middle East and Eu- it's easier than two people coordinating their
ropeans learned of it during the Crusades. movements as they carry a load. Wheelbar-
Ancient Greeks might have used the wheel- rows quickly became items crafted by car-
4 94
Wheelbarrow
penters to be sold to construction workers. into a long chain. Ethylene is a hydrocarbon
In 1222, records for the king of England's which is found in petroleum and natural gas.
works show that eight wheelbarrows were For industrial purposes, however, ethylene
purchased from the town of Canterbury for is usually obtained by heating heavier hy-
construction at Dover. drocarbons, obtained from petroleum, in the
presence of a catalyst. This process, known
The modem wheelbarrow can have one, as cracking, transforms larger molecules
two, or four wheels. These wheels can be ei- into smaller molecules, such as ethylene.
ther in front or beneath the load. Other con-
veniences include storage space compart- 2 The process of combining numerous
ments or side clips to carry tools. small molecules into a long chain is
Wheelbarrows are considered a necessity known as polymerization. Ethylene can be
for the backyard gardener as well as indus- polymerized into two types of polyethylene.
try, for they are considered simple, unmo- Low density polyethylene, made by subject-
torized, yet effective ways for one person to ing ethylene to very high pressure, is gener-
carry a heavy load. ally used in the form of a thin, flexible film,
as in plastic bags. High density polyethylene
Raw Materials is much stiffer and is used to make wheel-
barrow trays and other rigid items. High
A wheelbarrow consists of a tray or bed density polyethylene is polymerized by sub-
composed of steel, wood, or plastic. A steel jecting ethylene to a pressure of about 250-
brace attaches this bed to steel support legs 500 lb per sq in (18-35 kg per sq cm) in the
and to a steel or plastic wheel, with a rubber presence of a catalyst.
tire around it. In two- or four-wheeled mod-
els, the wheels may be similar to bicycle ')High density polyethylene can be
tires, complete with inner tubes. Some han- v formed into a wide variety of shapes
dles are metal with foam or hard plastic using various techniques. For wheelbarrow
grips, while some wheelbarrows intended trays, it is generally produced in the form of
for the home gardener have solid wooden a thick sheet. This can be done by extrusion.
handles with no grips. This process involves melting granules of
polyethylene into a liquid and forcing it
through a nozzle. The opening of the nozzle
The Manufacturing has the width and thickness of the desired
Process sheet. As the liquid polyethylene emerges
Because wheelbarrows exist in a variety of from the nozzle it cools into a sheet that can
forms, made from many different materials, be cut to the desired length.
manufacturing procedures vary widely de-
pending on the exact kind of wheelbarrow 4 Sheets of polyethylene are shipped to the
being made. Some wooden wheelbarrows wheelbarrow manufacturer and inspect-
are simple enough to be made with hand ed. They are then shaped into trays using a
tools used by weekend hobbyists with mod- technique known as vacuum forming or ther-
est carpentry skills. Some heavy-duty mo forming. This process involves heating
wheelbarrows, intended for industrial use, the sheet until it is soft. The soft plastic is
are manufactured with heavy machinery then placed on top of an open box. The box
which shapes thick steel sheets. In order to contains a mold in the shape of the wheelbar-
discuss several different techniques used for row tray. Air is removed from the box, and
making wheelbarrows, the following outline the resulting vacuum causes the air pressure
will describe the manufacturing of a typical outside the box to force the sheet against the
garden wheelbarrow, with wooden handles, mold. The plastic cools into the wheelbarrow
steel legs and braces, a rubber tire, and a tray and is removed.
plastic tray.
Making the legs and braces
Making the tray 5 The support legs and braces are usually
A typical plastic used to make wheelbar- made of steel. Steel is made by combin-
row trays is polyethylene. Polyethylene is ing iron ore and coke (a carbon-rich sub-
formed by linking molecules of ethylene stance made by heating coal in the absence
4 95
A typical wheelbarrow.
of air) and heating them with very hot air in cover the steel evenly and completely. The
a blast furnace. The resulting mixture of paint is then baked onto the steel in an oven.
iron and carbon is known as pig iron. Oxy-
gen is blasted into molten pig iron to re-
move most of the carbon. The resulting Making the wheel and tire
molten steel is cooled into a variety of
shapes. 8 The wheel may be made of steel or plas-
8tic. It is made using methods similar to
those used to make other steel parts or the
6 Strips of steel arrive at the wheelbarrow plastic tray.
6manufacturer and are inspected. Sharp
dies are used to punch various components 9 The tire is usually made of natural or
out of the steel strips using large, powerful 9 synthetic rubber. Natural rubber is made
presses. Holes are punched into these com- from latex, a substance secreted by rubber
ponents to allow them to be bolted into trees. The latex is filtered to remove foreign
place. substances, and water is added to make the
liquid latex thinner. A dilute acid is added to
7 The steel components are usually paint- cause solid rubber to be deposited out of the
ed for protection. A degreasing solution liquid mixture. Synthetic rubber can be
is used to clean the components, which are made from a wide variety of chemicals. The
then dried. Paint is applied using an electro- most common form of synthetic rubber is
static process. The steel and the paint are styrene-butadiene rubber. This substance is
given opposite electrical charges. The oppo- made by mixing styrene and butadiene, both
site charges attract, causing the paint to derived from petroleum, in an emulsion of
4 96
Wheelbarrow
soap and water. The two chemicals combine bolts to ensure that there are enough includ-
to form synthetic rubber. ed to assemble the wheelbarrow, the manu-
facturer can save time by weighing a batch
0 The natural or synthetic rubber is of bolts on an accurate scale. A batch of
heated until it melts into a liquid. It is bolts of the correct weight will contain the
then poured into a mold in the shape of the correct number of bolts.
tire. The rubber cools and the tire is re-
moved from the mold. The tire is shipped to A sample wheelbarrow can be tested by as-
the wheelbarrow manufacturer and is placed sembling it, filling it with a load, and mov-
around the wheel. ing it around. Factors to be considered in
order to produce a wheelbarrow that will
Making the handles satisfy consumers include ease of assembly,
ease of motion, stability, ability to be
11 Lumber arrives at the wheelbarrow steered accurately, and ability to carry a
manufacturer and is inspected. The
wood is stored and allowed to dry. It is then heavy load with minimal effort on the part
cut and shaped by woodworking equipment of the user.
such as saws and lathes. Holes are drilled to
allow the handles to be bolted into place. The Future
The wooden handles are then coated with
varnish for protection. The wheelbarrow has changed over thou-
sands of years from handheld carriers with
Packaging and shipping no wheels to modem lawn carts with four
wheels. The increasing popularity of gar-
1 Wheelbarrows are generally not as- dening as a hobby, combined with the aging
I2sembled until they reach the con- of the American population, suggests that
sumer. Instead, the components are pack- wheelbarrows will continue to evolve in
aged in strong cardboard boxes and shipped ways that will make them more versatile and
to retailers. By not being fully assembled, easier to use.
the wheelbarrows take up much less space
during shipping and storage.
Where to Learn More
Quality Control Periodicals
The most important factor in the quality Lewis, M. J. T. "The Origins of the Wheel-
control of wheelbarrows is ensuring that all barrow." Technology and Culture (July
the components fit together correctly. Dur- 1994): 453-475.
ing the shaping of steel components, each
part is compared to a standard part of the
same type that is known to be correct. In a Matthies, Andrea L. "The Medieval Wheel-
similar way, the plastic tray is compared to a barrow." Technology and Culture (April
standard tray. Wooden handles are com- 1991): 356-364.
pared to a drawing or to a sample handle.
The most critical part of this comparison Randolph, Jeff. "Wheelbarrows." Flower
process is ensuring that holes are drilled in and Garden (April/May 1995): 26-28.
the correct positions to allow bolts to hold
the wheelbarrow together. Shelton, Will. "Will's Indestructible Week-
end Wheelbarrow." Mother Earth News
Because a wheelbarrow is generally assem- (December 1997/January 1998): 76-77.
bled into its final form by the consumer, it is
critical that all necessary components are in- Other
cluded in the shipping container. Instruc-
tions for assembly must also be included. Erie Products. http://www.new-form.com/
Large components and instruction sheets are erie.html/ (15 August 1998).
inspected individually to ensure that they
are all present. Instead of counting all the -Rose Secrest
4 97
Wind Chime
Bells were first invented in Background the hundreds from the eaves of shrines,
pagodas, temples, and in caves. In Japan,
prehistoric times, and the The wind chime is a musical instrument that China, Tibet, and Bali, the religious custom
harnesses the wind as its player and compos- was adopted in the secular world, and many
earliest evidence of them er. The wind chime is also called a wind bell,
homes were similarly decked with the dis-
and it is made in three basic configurations:
dates from 3000 B.C. and tinctive chimes. In Japan, wind chimes are
cluster of similar objects (metal tubes, calledftirin.
was found at * a
seashells, glass pieces, lengths of bam- Where bamboo grows easily, wind chimes
archaeological sites in boo, or fragments of pottery) that hang made of lengths of bamboo may be even
from a central support and tinkle when more ancient. In Bali especially, large sets
Southeast Asia. moved by the wind; of bamboo chimes are hung in the rice fields
where they perform the practical services of
* a cluster of objects including a clapper startling birds and animals, as well as
suspended from the support that chimes charming the spirits.
as the breezes blow against a flat plate or
wind catcher at the end of the clapper; Metal sets of tuned, tubular bells were per-
fected for use in orchestras in the nineteenth
* a bell with a long clapper attached to a century. Precisely tuned, high-quality wind
wind catcher that plays as the wind chimes seemed to follow the development
strikes the clapper against the bell. of instrumental chimes and have been aided
by technology that allows precision cutting
History and tuning to both ancient and modem mu-
sical scales.
The wind chime is a product of many cul-
tures and many times. Bells were first in- Wind bells and chimes became a decorative
vented in prehistoric times, and the earliest art as well that used a wide variety of mate-
evidence of them dates from 3000 B.C. and rials and ranged from simple to extremely
was found at archaeological sites in South- elaborate in size, construction, and orna-
east Asia. By 2000 B.C., bells had been de- mentation. The double attraction of sound
veloped independently along the shores of and appearance helped the wind chime
the Mediterranean and were being cast from spread to the Western world during the nine-
bronze by the Egyptians. teenth and twentieth centuries.
The ancient civilizations of Asia can claim Ravwv Materials

the musical and artistic refinements of the
wind chime as theirs. The Chinese were The traditional or percussion wind chime is
casting bells by 1100 B.C., and they created of the simplest in appearance but the most
the wind bell that they call feng-ling. Wind precise in design. Its material requirements
chimes were considered religious objects include wood pieces for the top or support
that were believed to attract kind spirits and and the wind catcher, metal pipes or tubes
drive away evil ones. The Buddhists espe- that are usually made of aluminum, a top
cially revered wind bells and hung them by ring for suspending the whole chime, metal
498
Wind Chime
Wood tops are sawed, shaped,

fasteners or nails, and braided nylon string and scales that are musically tuned by com- sanded, and weatherproofed.
for stitching the pieces together. The wood puter. They looked to other cultures to find Holes are drilled through the wood
can be of many types, and it is treated with historical scales on which to base wind to accommodate support strings.
oil as the only weatherproofing. chime melodies and designed chimes with Aluminum tubing is cut using con-
the feel and tone of the chimes of Bali in In- ventional milling process.
Novelty wind chimes are made with brass, donesia or the Gregorian chant mode.
bronze, copper, or bamboo tubes. In place of
tubes, they may make music with suspended Durability is also an issue because most
shells, clay pottery shapes, die-cut metal chimes are designed for outdoor display, so
pieces, glass, or other tinkling objects. Their they must withstand not only the wind but
supports and clappers may be equally di- sun, temperature extremes, and precipitation.
verse. Driftwood, metal shapes, and resin
ornaments are among hundreds of available
choices. Paint, glue, many varieties of The Manufacturing
string, and hangers of different styles and Process
materials are used for this school of wind The type of chime described here is a tradi-
chime design. tional, percussion wind chime made of alu-
minum tubes, any of a variety of types and
Design shapes of wood as the top, braided nylon
string that is used to attach the tubes to their
Wind chimes come in every size and shape. top and the top to the hanger, and metal fas-
The tiniest can be worn as earrings, and an- teners or nails to clip the strings to the wood.
other mini model fits in the palm of the hand
and has three pipes. The largest has tubes 1 The wood top is fabricated by cutting it
that are 58 in (147 cm) long and resonates into the selected shape, machining and
like the bells in Big Ben's clock tower. sanding the cut piece, and treating it with oil
Some are mounted on magnets or plant to protect it against the elements. Holes are
stakes, and most are hung from ornamental drilled through the wood to allow for the
shapes or objects. supporting strings to pass through.
The emphasis among many designers and The manufacturer buys long lengths of
manufacturers today is the quality of the aluminum tubing from a specialty sup-
sound produced by the chimes. Woodstock plier. The tubes are 8-12 ft (2.4-3.7 m) long,
Percussion, Inc., began a design revolution depending on the diameter of the tube cho-
in wind chimes in 1979 when the firm began sen to suit the overall size of the design. The
to produce chimes with distinctive sounds tubes are precisely cut to initial or working
499
Four to eight tubes are used in a

typical wind chime. Each tube is
then tuned with the help of a com-
puter that has been programmed
to compare the sound when the
tube is struck to the pitches from
the original design. If necessary,
the tubes are trimmed slightly to
adjust the sound.
U.
Computer tuning
lengths by using a lathe or a milling ma- end of the center string, the clapper is at-
chine. Four to eight tubes are used in a typi- tached; some manufacturers call the clapper
cal wind chime. Each tube in a precision in- a feather or wind catcher. A hang tag is tied
strument is then computer tuned; the to the completed wind chime.
computer has been programmed to know the
material and compare the sound when the 4 The finished product is given a final vi-
tube is struck to exact pitches for the musi- sual inspection and packaged for sale or
cal scale that, again, is part of the chosen de- shipment.
sign. If necessary, the tubes are trimmed
slightly to adjust the sound. Holes are then Quality Control
drilled near the tops of the cut pipes so they
can be suspended; these holes are counter- Quality inspections are performed through-
sunk so there are no sharp, extemal edges. out the manufacturing process. Skilled wood
and metal workers handle these materials
3 In the assembly area, the wind chime is and reject any that have cuts or nicks. In the
3put together by hand in what is essential- assembly area, the assembly crew is also re-
ly a sewing operation. The braided nylon sponsible for rejecting materials and work-
line is strung through the tubes and the top. manship that are substandard. The final
The top is linked to the hanger, and the cen- quality inspection occurs just before the
ter string assembly is added. At the bottom complete wind chime is packed.
500
Wind Chime
Byproducts/Waste nology began to make it possible to produce
an in-tune and truly musical wind chime.
Wind chime manufacturers do not make The instrument's ties to music and many
byproducts, per se, but they often produce cultures make it universally loved.
many varieties of wind chime or versions of
their designs. They also generate very little
waste. Aluminum waste is minimized by Where to Learn More
careful machining techniques. The small
amount of waste aluminum that does result is Books
recycled. Hazards associated with wind Sadie, Stanley. The New Grove Dictionary
chime production are also extremely limited. of Musical Instruments, 1984.
Periodicals
The Future
Zetlin, Melinda. "A ringing success." Na-
Like many products with a long history, the tion's Business(February 1996): 12+.
wind chime seems to have prospects for an
equally long future. Gardening is the num-
ber one hobby in the United States, and Other
wind chimes are pleasing accessories for Woodstock Percussion, Inc. http://www.
gardens, decks, and patios. The wind chime wodstockchimes.com/ (June 29, 1999).
also experienced a renaissance in interest
starting in about 1979 when computer tech- -Gillian S. Holmes
50 1
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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What are the steps involved in manufacturing a wind chime?

What are the steps involved in manufacturing a wind chime?

II

Ja c q uelineo L. Lon go, Edito r

Jacqueline L. Longe, Editor

Jacqueline L. Longe, Editor

Holiday Lights .... ... . . . 263 Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

Every entry is accompanied by illustrations. Uncomplicated and easy to understand,

About this Volume

AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission: Suspension Bridge. Deegan,

Aluminum is manufactured in two

Most early ambulances were simply intend-

Interior cabinets are usually made

Solid Hollow case

Antiperspirant sticks are packaged

Batching Quality Control

substitute seemed to improve that it was

Another potential substitute was salt or

Other materials that were tried during the

A significant breakthrough in the develop-

Blood transfusion research did not move

Artificial blood can be produced

ous blood substitutes all suffer from certain Periodicals

The manufacture of high-quality

Miscellaneous parts and acces-

Peggy Gallagher Enterprises, Inc. http:H/

Cotton fibers are produced from

Weaving is done on high-speed

Quality Control Byproducts/Waste

There are two types of billboards.

Where To Learn More

Bioceramic applicafions. A. Cra-

properties of interest for most implant appli- ed in a simulated environment relevant to

The ceramic powder is manufac-

The manufacture of bisque fig-

The unglazed pottery is polished,

A typical bow. In order to form a

During bow manufacture, the limb

The bowstring section in the center of the bowstring and a

The manufacture of brassieres in-

Castanets are commonly shaped

Right hand Left hand

1 1 If the set of castanets consists of a bass Where to Learn More

are used in 75% of applications in North aluminum oxides), mullite (a combination

Ceramic filters are manufactured

Drying The Future

Firing the ceramic Ceramic filters will continue to play an im-

Where to Learn More

Outen, John. "Reduce defects with direct

History Raw Materials

The extruded cheese curls can be

Chicken processing begins at the

The manufacture of a child safety

Effective in 2002, the "universal

Yard waste Tub grinder

Diogram depicting the commer-

Beneath the outer, hard plastic