How Products Are Made

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PRODUCTS
A='MADE
A=eMADE
An Illustrated Guide to
Pro du c t Manufacturing
NILVAE.-M
Jacqueline L. Longe, Editor
GGALE GROUP
TS
Detroit
Now York
San Francisco
London
Boston
Woodbridge, CT
How Products Are Made, volume 6
STAFF
Jacqueline L. Longe, Coordinating Editor

Chris Jeryan, Managing Editor
Stacey L. Blachford, Associate Editor
Deirdre S. Blanchfield, Melissa C. McDade, Assistant Editors
Mary Beth Trimper, Manager, Composition and electronic prepress
Evi Seoud, Assistant Manager, Composition and electronic prepress
Nikkita Bankston, Buyer
Kenn Zorn, Product Design Manager
Michelle DiMercurio, Art Director
Bernadette M. Gornie, Page Designer
Mike Logusz, Graphic Artist
Barbara J. Yarrow, Manager, Imaging and Multimedia Content
Robyn V. Young, Project Manager, Imaging and Multimedia Content
Dean Dauphinais, Senior Editor, Imaging and Multimedia Content
Kelly A. Quin, Editor, Imaging and Multimedia Content
Leitha Etheridge-Sims, Mary K. Grimes, David G. Oblender, Image Catalogers
Pam A. Reed, Imaging Coordinator
Randy Bassett, Imaging Supervisor
Robert Duncan, Senior Imaging Specialist
Dan Newell, Imaging Specialist
Christine O'Bryan, Graphic Specialist
Maria Franklin, Permissions Manager
Margaret A. Chamberlain, Permissions Specialist
Since this page cannot legibly accommodate all copyright notices, the acknowledgments constitute an
extension of the copyright notice.
While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publica-
tion, Gale Group neither guarantees the accuracy of the data contained herein nor assumes any respon-
sibility for errors, omissions or discrepancies. Gale accepts no payment for listing, and inclusion in
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imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and ver-
ified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions.
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard
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This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by mis-
appropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of
this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the fol-
lowing: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the
information.
All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended.
Copyright i 2001
Gale Group
27500 Drake Rd.
Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher,
except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages or entries in connection with a review written
for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper.
ISBN 0-7876-3642-8
ISSN 1072-5091
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Gale Group and Design is a trademark used herein under license.
Contents
Introduction . ........ vii Corkscrew . . . . . .122
Contributors ..... ix ....... Cotton . . . . . .126
Acknowledgm4 ants xi ........ Cuckoo Clock . . . . .131
Action Figure . . . ... . 1 . . . . Dis hwas h er . . . . .136
Air Freshener ........ 5 DNA Synthesis . . . . .140
Angioplasty Bc Iloor ....... 9 Draw Bridge... . . . . .145
Artificial Heari \3 ....... .13 D uct Tape .... . . . . .150
Artificial Heari Valv ,e ...... 1 8 Electric Blanket . . . . .154
Baby Carrier ... . . . . 22 E lectro n ic In k . . . . .158
. ..
Baby Wipes .....27 Evaporated and

Backhoe ..... . .. ..... 31 Condensed Milk .162
Bagpipes .... ....... 37 Faucet. .165
Baking Powder
. ..
..... 43 Ferris Wheel .. .171

Basketball ... .. .
. 47 Flashlight. .176
Boomerang ... 54 Footbag .180
........ 59 Geodesic Dome .184
. ..
Boxing Gloves
Brass ....... c . . ... 63 Gyrosco pe . ..
. . . .
.190
Breath Mint . . . .. ... 67 H alogen Lam p
. . . .
. .194
Broom ...... ........73 Hard Hat . .200
. ..
Canal and Lock ... 78 H a rpsic h o rd

. . . .
.205
Candy Corn . . . .. ... 84 H ockey Pu ck ...
. . . . .212
Caramel. . .. ... 88.
H orses h oe .
. . . .217
Cherries ..... ... 92 H u la H oop . . . .
. . . . .220
. ..
Chess ....... ....... 97 Ice C ream Cone .224

Clothes Iron . . ... 10 2
. Ind igo .
. . .230
Cognac ..... ...... 107 . Industrial H em p .234
Coir ........ ... 111. Jawb rea ke r
. . .239
Comic Book . . ..... .116
Kaleidoscope .243
v
How Products Are Made, Volume 6
Litmus Paper ...... ...

249 Silicon .......... ..... 357
Lollipop ......... ...
253 Skateboard ...... ..... 360
Matryoshka Doll ... ...
257 Skyscraper ....... ..... 365
Mayonnaise ... ...
262 Slime ........... ......372
Mouthwash ...... ...
265 Snowshoe ....... ..... 376
Natural Gas ...... ...
269 Sodium Chlorite ... ......380
Needle-Free Solid State Laser ... ......384
Injection System ...
274
Spam ........... ......388
Paintball ........ ...
278
Springs ....... ......392
Patent Leather ..... ...
282
Steel Wool ....... ......397
Pillow ........... ...
288
Storm Shelter ..... ......401
Pinball .......... ...
292
Teeth Whitener .... ......406
Polyurethane ... ...
298
Thomson Submachine Gun .410
Pool Table ....... ...
302
Toilet Paper ...... ......4 15
Popsicle ......... ...
307
Toy Model Kit ..... ......419
Raincoat ...... .....311
... Trophy .......... ......425
Roller Coaster ..... 316
322
Tunnel ........ ......429
Rubber Cement ....
Sailboat ......... ...
325 Ukulele ... ......435
...
332 Vaccuum Cleaner . . ......439
Salad Dressing ....
Saxophone ....... ...
335 Vermiculite ....... ..... 444
Seedless Fruits Water Gun ....... ......448
and Vegetables ... ...
340 Wood Stain ...... ......452
Semiconductor Laser ...
344 Wrapping Paper . . ......456
Shoelace ........ ...
349 Xylophone ....... ......461
Shortbread ....... ...
353 Index ..... ......467
v i
Introduction
About the Series
Welcome to How Products Are Made: An Illustrated Guide to Product Manufactur-
ing. This series provides information on the manufacture of a variety of items, from
everyday household products to heavy machinery to sophisticated electronic equip-
ment. You will find step-by-step descriptions of processes, simple explanations of
technical terms and concepts, and clear, easy-to-follow illustrations.
Each volume of How Products Are Made covers a broad range of manufacturing
areas: food, clothing, electronics, transportation, machinery, instruments, sporting
goods, and more. Some are intermediate goods sold to manufacturers of other prod-
ucts, while others are retail goods sold directly to consumers. You will find items
made from a variety of materials, including products such as precious metals and
minerals that are not "made" so much as they are extracted and refined.
Organization
Every volume in this series is comprised of many individual entries, each covering a
single product. Although each entry focuses on the product's manufacturing process,
it also provides a wealth of other information: who invented the product or how it has
developed, how it works, what materials are used, how it is designed, quality control
procedures, byproducts generated during its manufacture, future applications, and
books and periodical articles containing more information.
To make it easier for you to find what you're looking for, the entries are broken up
into standard sections. Among the sections you will find are the following:
* Background * Quality Control
* History * Byproducts/Waste
* Raw Materials * The Future
* Design * Where To Leam More
* The Manufacturing Process
Every entry is accompanied by illustrations. Uncomplicated and easy to understand,
these illustrations may follow the step-by-step description of the manufacturing
process found in the text, highlight a certain aspect of the manufacturing process, or
illustrate how the product works.
A cumulative subject index of important terms, processes, materials, and people is
found at the end of the book. Bold faced volume and page numbers in the index refer
to main entries in the present or previous volumes.
v Ii
This volume contains essays on 100 products, arranged alphabetically, and 15 special
boxed sections, describing interesting historical developments or biographies of indi-
viduals related to a product. Photographs are also included. Bold faced terms found
in main entries direct the user to the topical essay of the same name.
Contributors/Advisor
The entries in this volume were written by a skilled team of technical writers and
engineers, often in cooperation with manufacturers and industry associations. The
advisor for this volume was David L. Wells, PhD, CMfgE, a long time member of the
Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) and Professor and Chair of the Industrial
and Manufacturing Engineering Department at North Dakota State University.
Suggestions
Your questions, comments, and suggestions for future products are welcome. Please
send all such correspondence to:
How Products Are Made

Gale Group, Inc.
27500 Drake Rd.
Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535
viii
Contributors
Nancy EV Bryk Mary McNulty
Chris Cavette Annette Petruso
Michael Cavette Perry Romanowski
Sandy Delisle Randy Schueller
Loretta Hall Laurel M. Sheppard
Gillian S. Holmes David L. Wells
Angela Woodward
ix
Acknowledgments
The editor would like to thank the following individuals, companies, and associa-
tions for providing assistance with Volume 6 of How Products Are Made:
Artificial Heart: Jay Caplan, Thermo Cardiosystems Inc., Wobum, Massachusetts.

Artificial Heart Valve: Mark Spindler and Brett Demchuk, ATS Medical Inc., Min-
neapolis, Minnesota. Backhoe: Richard L. Hall and Roger Zuehl, Case Corporation,
Racine, Wisconsin. Bagpipes: Mark Cushing, Cushing Bagpipe Company, Andover,
New York. Basketball: Steven L. Johnson and Elizabeth Daus, Rawlings Sporting
Goods Company, Fenton, Missouri. Breath Mint: Jason Ford, American Chicle
Group, Warner Lambert; Dr. John Flanyak, Brach and Brock Confections Inc. and
Confectionery School, University of Wisconsin; John Lux, Brach and Brock Confec-
tions Inc., Chicago, Illinois. Broom: Dan Koshnick, Cedar Brand Brooms. Candy
Corn: John Lux, Brach and Brock Confections Inc., Chicago, Illinois. Cuckoo
Clock: Rosemary Y. Sharp, Linden Clocks, North Smithfield, Rhode Island. Dish-
washer: Karl Lanes and Russ Maheras, Amana Appliances, Amana, Iowa. Footbag:
Wham-O Inc., San Francisco, California. Gyroscope: Dick Vaughn, Humphrey Inc.,
San Diego, California. Hard Hat: Robert Mundell, E. D. Bullard Company, Cynthi-
ana , Kentucky. Harpsichord: John Phillips and Janine Johnson, John Phillips Harp-
sichords, Berkeley, California; Fred Palmer, Music Department, California State
University, Hayward, California. Hula Hoop: Greg Lehr and Scott Masline, Wham-
0 Inc., San Francisco, California. Kaleidoscope: Carolyn Bennett, C. Bennett
Scopes Inc., Media, Pennsylvania. Matryoshka Doll: Ellana and Yuri Burlan, Russ-
ian World, New York, New York. Pillow: Mike Rodriguez, Royal Pillow, Miami,
Florida. Popsicle: Doug Grieve, Wilcoxson's Ice Cream Manufacturing Company
Inc., Billings, Montana; Elizabeth Snyder, The Ice Screamers, Warrington, Pennsyl-
vania. Sailboat: Scott Flick, Ranger Fiberglass Boat Company, Kent, Washington (a
subsidiary of Martini Marine Inc.). Shoelace: Tom Goltermann, St. Louis Braid
Company. Silicon: Hayes Kern, Global Metallurgical Sales Inc., Cleveland, Ohio.
Steel Wool: Paul Bonn, International Steel Wool Corporation. Toy Model Kit: Dean
Milano, Lewis Nace, and David Carlock, Revell-Monogram, Morton Grove, Illinois.
Trophy: Catherine Garcia, PDU Plastic Dress Up Company. Vacuum Cleaner: Glo-
ria Howard, Castro Valley Vacuum, Castro Valley, California. Wood Stain: Richard
Boracko, ZAR Wood Stains. Wrapping Paper: Laurie Henrichsen, American
Greetings, Cleveland, Ohio. Xylophone: Gilberto Serna, Century Mallet Instrument
Service, Chicago, Illinois; Fred Palmer, Music Department, California State Univer-
sity at Hayward, California.
Photographs appearing in Volume 6 of How Products Are Made were received from
the following sources:
AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission: Artificial Heart. Jarvik, Dr.

Robert (holding mechanical heart), photograph; Canal and Lock. Gorgas, William
x i
Crawford (standing, in military uniform), photograph; Hockey Puck. Gretzky,

Wayne (handling puck), 1994, photograph by Reed Saxon.
Archive Photos Inc. Reproduced by permission: Basketball. Jordan, Michael, Ward,
Charlie (Jordan, leaping up over Ward), New York City, 1998, photograph by Ray
Stubblebine; DNA Synthesis. Mullis, Kary (seated, legs crossed, two cameras film-
ing him), photograph; Sailboat. Mighty Mary (America3) with its all-women crew,
photograph; Tunnel. Two men shake hands at the English Channel Tunnel entrance,
1990, photograph.
The Library of Congress: Boxing Gloves. Howard Cosell talking with Muhammad
Ali, photograph; Comic Book. Schulz, Charles M. (drawing cartoon of Charlie
Brown), photograph; Geodesic Dome. Fuller, R. Buckminster (at head of classroom,
feet resting on bottom rung of stool), photograph; Saxophone. Coltrane, John (hold-
ing saxophone), photograph; Skyscraper. Empire State Building, New York City,
New York, photograph; Thompson Submachine Gun. Gatling, Richard Gordon,
photograph.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Storm Shelter. NOAA
Historical Photo Collection. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/
Department of Commerce.
Tony Freeman/Photo Edit. Reproduced by permission: Bagpipes. Scottish Ameri-
cans (bagpipers), photograph.
All line art illustrations in this volume were created by Electronic Illustrators
Group (EIG) of Morgan Hill, California.
x II
Action Figure
Background In 1977, Twentieth Century Fox gave a toy The term action figure
license to the Kenner company to manufac-
An action figure is a doll-like toy designed ture action figures based on its new movie was first used in 1964 by
to resemble characters from movies or liter- Star Wars. The success of the movie greatly
ature. The figures can be articulated to hold the Hasbro Company's
expanded the toy market and ensured the
a variety of poses and may come equipped popularity of licensed action figures. Before Don Levine to describe
with accessories, such as clothing, tools, Star Wars, action figures were typically 8-
weapons, and vehicles. Action figures are their new G.I. Joe toy.
12 in (20-30 cm) tall, but Kenner designed
created by assembling molded plastic parts their figures to be only 3.75 in (9.5 cm) in
made based on hand-sculpted prototypes. height. Other manufacturers quickly adopt-
ed the smaller figure style. A host of other
History movie and TV show-based toys soon fol-
lowed, including Star Trek, Battle Star
The term action figure was first used in
1964 by the Hasbro Company's Don Galactica, and Buck Rogers in the Twenty-
Levine to describe their new G.I. Joe toy.
fifth Century.
Levine preferred the name action figure in- In 1983, federal regulations prohibiting the
stead of doll because it was more inviting to creation of children's programming based
young boys. In concept, the original Joe on toys were lifted. This opened a new era
was similar to Mattel's Barbie doll, which in action figures. The Mattel Company took
had been introduced five years earlier. advantage of this opportunity and created a
However, the action figure had better artic- cartoon series based on their 1981 action
ulation, a feature that made it more appeal- figure line called "He-Man and the Masters
ing because the soldier could be bent into a of the Universe." These toys were extremely
variety of poses. Furthermore, Joe came successful and sold over 55 million units
equipped with numerous accessories and that year. These figures continued to sell
outfits based on real-life military equip- through 1990, generating a total of over $1
ment. G.I. Joe was a huge success and addi- billion in revenue. Several other toys that
tional characters were added to the line. were made into cartoons achieved similar
The franchise has remained a strong seller success and, thus, began a long standing
for almost 40 years. practice of linking toys and cartoons.
G.I. Joe was followed in 1966 by Captain With the 1984 introduction of the "Trans-
Action, which was noteworthy because it formers" series, action figures reached a
was a single figure that could be played new level of this sophistication. Transform-
with as multiple characters. The figure was ers were robots able to transform themselves
sold with costumes and accessories from into other objects, such as fighter jets, tanks,
many famous characters including the or racecars. Since 1984, the Transformers
Phantom, Captain America, Batman, Super- series has debuted several different genera-
man, and Spiderman. Captain Action was tions of toys that continue to be popular.
the first figure to combine superhero char-
acters with action figures, a trend that con- With the 1994 introduction of a line of char-
tinues today. acters based on Todd McFarlane's comic
1
Once conceived, a prototype of

the proposed action figure is creat-
ed with wire and clay-an arma-
ture. The head and facial features
of the action figure are created
separately and with more detail.
WIRE FORM FORM
WORKER ASSEMBLING
ACCESSORIES
ARTIST WORKING ON HEAD
book Spawn, the action figure industry ad- of the arms and legs posed in the general
vanced yet again. These figures were note- stance that the figure will assume. The
worthy because they were made with a sculptor then adds clay to the armature to
much higher degree of detail than any previ- give the basic weight and shape that is de-
ous toys. This is credited to having the cre- sired. The clay may be baked slightly during
ator of the comic book directly involved the prototyping process to harden it. Then,
with the design of the toys. McFarlane's in- the sculptor uses various tools, such as a
fluence on the development of action figures wire loop, to carve the clay and shape de-
based upon his comic book has resulted in tails on the figure.
the detailed toys of today.
After creating the basic form, the sculptor
Design may choose to remove the arms and work on
them separately for later attachment. This
Once the character has been selected, the ac- gives the sculptor more control and allows
tual design process begins with sketches of him to produce finer details on the proto-
the proposed figure. The next step is the cre- type. Working with blunt tools, the sculptor
ation of a clay prototype. This model is shapes the body with as much detail as is
made by bending aluminum wires to form desired. During this process, photo and
the backbone of the figure, known as an ar- sketch references are used to ensure the fig-
mature. The wire form includes the outline ure is as realistic as possible. Some sculp-
2
Action Figure
tors may even use human models to guide The Manufacturing
their design work. Process
After the general body shape is complete, the Creating the mold
sculptor adds the finer details, paying close
attention to the eyes, nose, and mouth that A master mold, or series of molds, are
give the figure its life-like expression. The made from the finished clay prototype.
designer may attach a rough lump of clay on These molds are used for mass producing
the main figure as a temporary head while the the finished parts for the figure. Approxi-
real head is sculpted on a separate armature. mately two-thirds of the time required to
This allows the sculptor to finish the figure's make an action figure is involved in cre-
facial expressions independently of the body. ation and operation of the molds. Pattems
At this point, the finished head can be at- based on the prototype are made for each
tached to the main armature and joined to the individual piece and sent out for assembly
body with additional clay. Once the head is line production. This stage may take sever-
attached, the neck and hair are sculpted to al months because the manufacturing
properly fit to the figure. Then, depending on plants are typically located overseas, such
the design of the figure, the costume may be as Asia.
sculpted directly onto the body. However, if a
cloth costume or uniform will be added later, 2The designers must figure out how to
the prototype is sculpted without any cos- best tum the three dimensional figure
tume details. During this process, parts of the into a series of plastic parts. Some figures
clay may be covered with aluminum foil to are simply molded from a single piece of
keep it from prematurely drying out. Once plastic and contain a wire skeleton, allow-
everything is completed, the entire figure is ing limited movement. For figures with
baked to harden the clay. greater articulation, each moveable part is
molded as a separate component. For exam-
The sculpted prototype is then sent for apple, the Star Wars Storm Trooper toys are
proval to the manufacturer. Once all design designed with a hollow chest and solid
details have been finalized, the prototype is vinyl limbs. The entire figure is built with
used to make the molds that will form the swivel joints that allow the limbs to move.
plastic pieces for the mass-produced figure. Instead of a wire frame, this type of figure
The entire sculpting process may take about contains small gears and washers in the
two weeks, depending on the skill and speed joints of the arms and legs that allow the
of the sculptor. This process may be repeat- figure to be bent to any angle and to hold
ed several times if revisions must be made that pose.
to the figure. Several months are typically
allowed for this design phase.
Molding the parts
3 Several molding processes can be used to
Rawv Materials 3create the plastic parts components. For
Aluminum wire, modeling clay, and various example, Hasbro originally considered a ro-
sculpting tools are used to create the proto- tational molding process to give its Star
type. The actual figure is molded from a Wars figures a smooth, seamless look. How-
plastic resin, such as acrylonitrile butadiene ever, the size of the pieces caused them to
styrene (ABS). This is a harder plastic used lose some detail and this process was unac-
to form the main body. Softer plastics, like ceptable. Another problem with rotational
polypropylene and polyethylene, are com- molding is that it is a slower process and
monly used to mold smaller accessory and therefore more expensive for the manufac-
costume pieces. Various fabrics, such as turer. Instead, Hasbro elected to use an in-
rayon and nylon, may be used for costume jection molding process. In this process,
components including body suits, capes, and molten plastic is pumped into a two-piece
face masks. As a final decoration, acrylic mold. Pressure is then applied to hold the
paints of various colors may be used to dec- mold together while the plastic cools and
orate the figure. In addition, more elaborate hardens. The mold is then opened and the
toys may contain miniature electronic com- plastic component is ejected. Each piece of
ponents that provide light and sound effects. the figure is made in this fashion.
3
Assembly back to the manufacturer for approval. Then

a series of stringent safety and quality tests
4 After all the individual plastic compo- must be conducted to ensure the figures are
nents have been molded, they are assem- safe for small children and that they will not
bled to form the finished figures. Instead of fall apart during play. A month or two is re-
glue, some pieces may be bonded together quired to test each figure's articulation
by an ultrasonic sealing method that uses many times and to stress test the packaging.
high frequency vibrations to fuse the plastic Transit tests are used where they actually
together. This process provides a tighter seal ship a toy in its box. Additional tests involve
between pieces and gives a very thin, almost dropping the package on the floor and
invisible seam. Hasbro uses this process to bouncing it around to replicate rough han-
create figures with a high level of detail dling it may receive before it arrives on the
without sacrificing manufacturing speed. store shelf.
Glue is used to attach some auxiliary pieces
such as chest plates and boots.
The Future
Finishing details Action figures are continually evolving de-
5A figure may be molded entirely from pending upon the latest trends in movies and
plastic or the figure's clothing may be books. Children's programming remains a
made of fabric and attached to the body in a major source of inspiration, including popu-
separate process. Hasbro makes action fig- lar teen shows such as Buffy the Vampire
ures' costumes from real fabric, just like in Slayer. A couple of new trends have emerged
the movies. In their Star Wars series, Admi- in the late 1990s. One is a movement toward
ral Ack Bar has a vinyl belt insignia, while very realistic, voluptuous female action fig-
the character Boba Fett has a canvas-like ures based on comic book characters. Anoth-
cape. These pieces are prepared separately er is the area of sports figures particularly
from the main figure and added after the fig- those based on the World Wrestling Federa-
ure is complete. tion (WWF).
Packaging and shipping Other advancements in action figures are

coming from new computer technology.
6While the figure itself is being created, Modem action figures can have sound chips
the packaging is being designed as well. and batteries that allow them to play taped
The package typically consists of a box with sound effects at the press of a button. Simi-
a clear plastic window or a cardboard back- larly this technology can be used to give the
ing covered with a plastic blister shall. figure flashing weapons or eyes that light
Well-designed packaging graphics can in- up. As computer technology advances, ac-
crease the value of the figure and, in fact, tion figures will become increasingly inter-
some collectors never open figures that they active and may even be capable of addition-
purchase so the artwork stays in mint condi- al functions controlled remotely from a desk
tion. After the package design is completed, top computer.
it is mass-produced and sent to the produc-
tion facility where the figures are made. The
figures are inserted in the package, which is Where to Learn More
then glued or taped shut. The finished units Periodicals
are packed in shipping cases and sent to the
United States, usually by boat. From there Brady, Mathew. "Toy Making." Toyfare
the toys are distributed to various retailers. (December 1997).
Palmer, Tom, Jr. "Rallying the Troups."
Quality Control Toyfare (October 1997).
The quality of toy action figures is con- Rot, Tom. "Rack 'em Up." Toyfare (March
trolled throughout the manufacturing 1999).
process. As the molds are created and tested
at the production sites, samples are sent -Randy Schueller
4
Air Freshener
Background opposed to simply masking them with fra- By the late 1 990s, sales
grance. Perfumery houses showed these ac-
An air freshener is a product designed to tive chemicals were capable of reducing a of air fresheners in the
mask or remove unpleasant room odors. variety of unpleasant odors, such as ciga-
These products typically deliver fragrance United States had
rette smoke, urine and fecal odors, cooking
and other odor counteractants into the air. smells, and amine odors typically associated exceeded several hundred
They do so through a variety of product for- with fish. Compounds used for this purpose
mats, including aerosols, candles, potpourri, included various unsaturated esters, long- million dollars per year.
and gels. By the late 1990s, sales of air chain aldehydes and a few pre-polymers.
fresheners in the United States had exceeded
several hundred million dollars per year.
One the most successful new products are
Over the next 25 years, aerosol air freshener
formulas were modified to improve perfor-
Glade Plug-Ins, which use heat generated by
mance and reduce formula costs. But by the
electric current to vaporize air-freshening
1970s, the market significantly shifted away
ingredients.
from aerosols, due to concerns about de-
struction of the ozone layer by chlorofluoro-
carbons (CFCs). While reformulation by the
History aerosol industry has kept this product form
Fragrance compounds have been used since from disappearing completely, altemate air
antiquity to freshen air and mask odors. For freshener delivery forms have become in-
example, the ancient Egyptians were known creasingly popular. In the 1990s, a resur-
to use musks and other natural materials to gence in potpourri and candles lead to a host
scent their tombs. Over the last 2,000 years of new air freshening products. For exam-
a variety of compounds, including numerous ple, Kalib Enterprises Ltd.'s Potpourri,
spices and floral extracts, have been used which contains a blend of dry spices and
for their ability to impart a pleasant aroma. herbs, uses a battery-operated fan to circu-
However, it was not until 1948 that the first late fragrance throughout the room. Arizona
modem air freshener was introduced. This Natural Resources Inc.'s Crystal Candle di-
product, using technology developed by the vision has introduced candles that kill odors,
military to dispense insecticides, was a pres- as well as aromatherapy candles that have
surized spray containing about 1% perfume, specific therapeutic uses.
24% alcohol or other solvents, and 75%
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) propellant. This One of the most innovative, and popular,
was able to deliver a fine mist of fragrance new formats is Glade Plug-Ins, manufac-
that remained suspended in the air for a long tured by S. C. Johnson of Racine, Wisconsin.
period of time. This format of the product Plug-Ins use heat generated by electricity to
became the standard in the industry and spread fragrance through the air. It consists
sales grew tremendously. In the early 1950s, of a tiny plastic tray containing a gel-like fra-
many companies began to add odor-counter- grance concentrate. The consumer simply
actant chemicals to their formulas. These peels a multilayer barrier film from the top
were chemicals that were intended to actual- of the tray, leaving a permanent membrane
ly destroy or neutralize offensive odors, as layer that allows the fragrance to diffuse into
S
An example of an electrical plug- performance. During testing, S. C. Johnson

in air freshener. researchers further refined the formulations
as they learned how they behave with films.
Their suppliers also learned a great deal
about improving their film technology. The
film structure is applied in a one step
process during a form-fill-seal operation. An
angled piece of the film allows the con-
sumer to easily peel off the outer film/foil
barrier layer. The inside membrane, howev-
er, remains securely sealed to the tiny tray.
As the fragrance is warmed, the membrane
allows a continuous and regulated fragrance
release. As fragrance is released, the con-
centrate cracks and dries out, visually sig-
naling the consumer to replace the refill
tray. The tray also features a patented ridge
down its middle, which is used as a guide
the air. The tray is inserted into a warmer for inserting the tray into the warmer unit.
unit, which then is plugged into an electrical
outlet. As the warmer unit heats up, fra- Even the carton that contains the product is
grance permeates at a controlled rate through unique. This innovative one-piece package
the film membrane, dispersing into the air. went through more than 25 design modifica-
tions before fulfilling all marketing and
Design manufacturing requirements. Specifically, it
contains a special fifth panel, which secures
Plug-Ins consist of a small, plastic tray that the warmer unit and fragrance pack during
holds a gel-like mixture of fragrance. This packaging and point of purchase display.
tray is inserted in a plastic unit equipped The carton features a polyester window that
with electrical prongs that plug into a stan- wraps around the side of the folding carton,
dard outlet. The electric current causes a so the consumer can see the electrical blades
heating element to warm up, vaporizing the of the warmer unit. The carton is designed
volatile fragrance components. The fra- to show off the warmer unit and its blades,
grance in the tray lasts several weeks, at to display the fragrance pack, to easily fit on
which time the consumer simply inserts a store shelves, to run on high-volume ma-
fresh tray. The product is designed with a chinery, and to be reasonably priced.
variety of fragrance types to appeal to a
wide consumer audience, including Honey-
suckle, Mountain Meadow, Country Breeze, Raw Materials
Powder Fresh, and Country Garden.
The perfume oils used in preparing fragrance
The lid stock of the fragrance tray is special- concentrate in the air fresheners can be divid-
ly designed to both hold in the scent and let ed into a variety of types. These include alde-
it out at a controlled rate. Utilizing patented hydes, which are members of the synthetic
technology, the proprietary laminated film is fragrance group. When concentrated, aldehy-
made with a multilayer barrier and a perme- des smell soapy or fatty; however, when
able membrane. S. C. Johnson Wax licensed mixed in the proper proportions with water,
patented film technology from American they develop a sweet, flowery smell. Green
National Can that involves a removable bar- fragrances are fresh, having an odor similar
rier and a permanent membrane. The lid ma- to cut grass or plant stems and are also usual-
terial, combined with the proper heat-seal- ly produced by synthetic perfume oils. How-
ing temperature, pressure, dwell time, and ever, natural sources of green notes such as
seal design, is designed for easy use by the galbanum, a tropical resin, or violet leaf oil
consumer. are also used. Floral notes are some of the
oldest and most popular fragrance compo-
Compatibility between the fragrance formu- nents. Examples include jasmine-rose com-
lation and the lid material is key to product plexes blended with lilac and lily of the val-
6
Air Freshener
ley. Herbal-spice fragrance notes are also im- electrical plug apparatus is typically made
portant components. Lavender, sage, moss, from a thermoplastic, such as phenol-for-
cinnamon, cloves, sandalwood, and cedar are maldehyde, epoxy, polyphenylene sulfide,
used to provide these notes. Lastly, oriental polyphenylene oxide, polycarbonate, and
fragrance notes may be included. These are polyimide. Some components may be made
sweet, heavy, and strong, and are often found from thermoplastic polymers, such as poly-
in natural animal materials, such as musk. ethylene, polypropylene, and polyamide. To
Specific examples of fragrance ingredients reduce costs of the unit and keep assembly
used in Plug-Ins include bergamot, bitter or- times to a minimum, the electrical plug hous-
ange, lemon, mandarin, caraway, cedar leaf, ing and the prongs comprise a single struc-
cloverleaf, cedarwood, geranium, lavender, ture that is molded together, and the surface
patchouli, lavandan, rose absolute, and many of the prongs are given a metallic coating to
others. These can be mixed with a variety of allow them to conduct electrical current.
synthetic fragrance components, such as
aldehydes, ketones, esters, alcohol, terpenes, Final assembly and packaging
and so forth. These components are blended
together, and mixed with a variety of gelling 3)The fragrance tray and the heater unit are
ingredients. The gel matrix that contains the 3packaged in a cardboard carton using
fragrance can be an organic or inorganic sys- machinery at Warren Industries. The folding
tem. These are typically prepared hot, and the cartons are manually loaded every 20 min-
fragrance is added as the product cools to utes into magazines on the carton former.
preserve the integrity of the fragrance. Three cartons are erected simultaneously
and sent to a Kliklok custom-designed fifth-
panel folder. Two flaps on the fifth panel
The Manufacturing extend over the carton's sides to help sup-
Process port the panel during loading of the fra-
grance pack and warmer unit.
Fragrance pack construction
Plug-Ins' fragrance trays are made on 4The packing cartons are rotated as the
form-fill-seal machines at multiple loca- move down the assembly line and a line
tions, including S. C. Johnson's Waxdale of hot-melt adhesive is applied to each side.
plant. This disposable cartridge is construct-
ed of a transparent, vapor-impermeable 5 The fragrance packs are loaded into two
polyvinyl film and from a variety of other 5machines that orient the packs for inser-
thermoplastics, such as polyethylene, tion into the assembled carton. These ma-
polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chlo- chines are loaded with fragrance trays every
ride, and polyvinyl acetate. These thermo- 30 minutes to keep the packaging line oper-
plastics are made from different polymers. ating at its optimal rate. As the carton passes
These manufacturing lines can run either the by the feeder bowl, the machines place a
primary package or the refill package. When fragrance pack in every other carton.
running the refill package, a collating/casing 6 The electrical warmer units are then
machine built by Warren Industries is uti-
lized. This manufacturing arrangement al-
6placed into the cartons manually. Ship-
ping cases are erected and fed to the line.
lows the manufacturer to quickly and easily
Finished packages are manually collated
change between different fragrance types. into two rows of six and loaded. Cases are
Hand wheels on the carton-assembling ma-
hot-melt sealed, manually palletized, and
chine move the counters to preset numbers stretch wrapped.
when switching between the primary pack-
age and the refill carton. This allows
changeover between fragrances to be com- Quality Control
pleted in a matter of minutes.
Quality control occurs at several stages dur-
ing the manufacturing process. Incoming
Heater construction raw materials used in the fragrance and the
2The electrical warmer units are produced gel matrix are assayed to ensure they meet
for S. C. Johnson by Heaters Engineering specifications and provide the appropriate
and Constar Industrial. The housing for the odor. The fragrances themselves must com-
7
ply with regulations established by the Cali- ingredients allowed for use in other air
fornia Air Quality Board (CARB), which is freshener products. Furthermore, advances
responsible for reducing the emission of in packaging and dispersing technology will
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which result in improved products to control room
include the chemicals used in fragrances. By odors. For example, next generation of
definition, VOCs have vapor pressures of Plug-In type products are being developed
more than 0.1 mm Hg-degrees (68°F or at the time of this writing. These products
20°C), or, if the vapor pressure is unknown, are designed with a refillable chamber for
contain 12 or fewer atoms of carbon in the fragrance oil.
molecule. Other states, including New York,
have passed similar legislation. These regu-
lations have dramatically impacted the for- Where to Learn More
mulation of a variety of air freshener formu- Books
lations. In addition, plastic components are
inspected after molding to ensure they are Umbach, Wilfried, ed. Cosmetic and Toi-
free from sharp edges and cracks, which letries. New York: Ellis Horwood, 1991.
could compromise the package integrity.
Periodicals
The Future McMath, Robert. "Whether the Cover or
Kill, Air Fresheners Smell like Big Busi-
The future of Plug-Ins, and other air freshness." Brandweek 34, no. 8 (February 22,
ener products, will be determined in part by 1993):34.
the consumer product regulatory environ-
ment. Just as aerosol sprays were signifi- Packaging 36, no. 3 (March 1991): 40.
cantly impacted by VOC regulations, simi-
lar legislation could effect the fragrance -Randy Schueller
8
Angioplasty Balloon
Background surgeon guides the balloon-tipped catheter In the late 1 990s, about
into the narrowed artery. The doctor inflates
An angioplasty balloon is a medical device the balloon for a few seconds. It reaches a 500,000 people a year
that is inserted into a clogged artery and in- diameter of about an eighth of an inch (0.3
flated to clear blockage and allow blood to cm). If the patient does not feel any pain,
underwent angioplasty.
flow. The full medical name for the angio- then the doctor proceeds to inflate the bal-
plasty procedure is percutaneous translumi- loon for a full minute. This clears the arteri-
nal coronary angioplasty. With extensive al blockage, and then the catheters are re-
use in the United States since 1980, it can moved. The patient is treated with
relieve angina (chest pain) and prevent heart prescription drugs to thin the blood and pre-
attacks in people with coronary artery dis- vent clots, and should recover from the op-
ease. Before angioplasty, bypass surgery eration within weeks.
was the only option for people with clogged
arteries. In bypass surgery, doctors must In the late 1990s, about 500,000 people a
open the patient's chest to reroute blood year underwent angioplasty. Medical re-
vessels to the heart. Angioplasty is less in- searchers continued to compare the benefits
vasive, as the balloon is fed in through the of angioplasty versus bypass surgery. The
blood vessels, and the chest remains closed. principal drawback of angioplasty is that up
Patient recovery time is also generally faster to half of all patients who undergo the proce-
with angioplasty, than with bypass surgery. dure eventually require a repeat procedure.
However, new methods are being conducted
Angioplasty is performed under local anaes- that prevent some of the scar tissue build-up
thetic, and the patient is kept awake so the that can narrow arteries after the procedure.
doctor can ask if he or she feels any pain
during the procedure. The surgeon opens the History
femoral artery at the top of the leg, and pass-
es a catheter threaded on a thin guidewire A German physician, Werner Forssmann,
into the blood vessel. The catheter, which is was the first known doctor to enter the heart
a tubular medical device, is about 3 ft (91 with a catheter. He performed this operation
cm) long. The surgeon feeds the catheter on himself in 1929, when he was 25 years
through the blood vessels into the coronary old. Forssmann worked at a small clinic in
artery. The catheter releases dye, so its pre- the town of Eberswald. He was interested in
cise position can be seen on a fluoroscope, researching a catheter for the heart, but his
which is an instrument used for observing superior at the clinic forbade him to investi-
the internal structure by means of x ray. gate anything so dangerous. Undeterred, he
When the first catheter is in place at the decided to experiment without his superior's
clogged artery, the surgeon feeds a smaller, consent. But he did not have access to sterile
balloon-tipped catheter through it. This instruments without the permission of a
catheter is about the width of a pencil lead, nurse. Forssmann persuaded a nurse to get
and the length of the balloon itself corre- him the instruments, convincing her he
sponds to the length of the affected section would use the catheter on her. The pliant
of artery-usually less than an inch. The woman agreed to let him operate on her. But
9
The angioplasty balloon is formed

through blow molding, a process
that uses heated jaws and com- Adapter Metal taper
pressed air to mold and shape the
balloon into its correct form. Heated jaw
L..
_MMMMW8=W=00==L 1, ,
=
.
Heated jaw
Glass tube
when she was lying on the operating table of angioplasty, the procedure was being per-
waiting to be operated on, Forssmann formed on over 200,000 patients annually.
strapped her down so she could not inter- That number rose over the next decade as
fere, and then instead performed the opera- the technique was refined, and better pre-
tion on himself. He anaesthetized his arm, scription drugs were found to prevent scar-
then slid a catheter 26 in (66 cm) up a vein ring after the dilation.
and into his heart. An x ray verified that the
tube was actually inside his heart. In 1956,
Forssmann was awarded the Nobel Prize for Rawv Materials
his work, shared with two other doctors, The key requirements of angioplasty bal-
Andre Frederic Coumand and Dickinson W. loons are strength and flexibility. A variety
Richards, who had extended his ideas. of plastics has been used that combine these
traits. The first angioplasty balloons in use in
An Oregon doctor, Charles Dotter, investi- Gruentzig's time were made of flexible PVC
gated the dilation of narrowed arteries by (polyvinyl chloride). The next generation of
means of catheters in the 1960s. Dotter balloon technology used a polymer known as
opened narrowed leg arteries by passing cross-linked polyethylene. The materials
progressively larger catheters through them. typically used in the twenty-first century are
Dotter's work was taken up in Europe, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or nylon.
though it received little attention in the Unit- PET is the kind of plastic commonly used in
ed States. A balloon catheter for opening the plastic soda bottles. It is somewhat stronger
iliac artery (at the top of the leg) was devel- than nylon, but nylon is more flexible. So ei-
oped in 1973 by a Dr. Porstmann. Dr. An- ther material is used, depending on the man-
dreas Gruentzig, working at the University ufacturer's preference. Some angioplasty
Hospital of Zurich in Switzerland, is credit- balloons are coated for lubrication, for abra-
ed with performing the first balloon angio- sion resistance, or to deliver an anticoagula-
plasty to open a clogged coronary artery. tory drug. In these cases, an additional raw
Gruentzig worked throughout the 1970s per- material is required.
fecting a balloon catheter that was thin and
flexible enough to do the job. In 1977, he
performed his first procedure. The patient The Manufacturing
suffered angina due to a single blocked Process
artery. Gruentzig performed the operation Angioplasty balloons are made by extruding
with a team of doctors standing by to do an material into a tube shape, and then forming
emergency bypass if the operation failed. the tube into a balloon through a process
But the angioplasty was successful. Gru- known as blow molding.
entzig taught the technique to others, and
brought his technology to the United States Extrusion
when he emigrated to Atlanta, Georgia, in
1980. Gruentzig died in a plane crash in The raw materials for the balloon arrives
1985, but within 10 years of his introduction at the manufacturing facility in granulat-
10
Angioplasty Balloon
An angioplasty balloon is inserted

ed form. Workers empty the raw materials controlled by a computer with sensors that into a clogged artery and inflated
into a heated, barrel-shaped vat. As the determine when the material has reached the to clear 6lockage and allow blood
granules melt and liquify, a rotating screw optimum temperature for the next step of to flow.
mixes the materials into a homogeneous pressure forming.
blend. The liquid plastic is then pumped
through an extrusion device. This is a nozzle 4After the warmup, the computer signals
with one hole cut in it. The liquid comes out the compressed air machine to switch to
the extruder as a long tube. The tube is a high-pressure mode. The balloon is inflat-
pulled by a mechanical puller through a ed at this high pressure for a specified
cooling bath, which freezes the tubing so amount of time. Shortly after the high-pres-
that it is solidified. Next, a mechanical cut- sure stage begins, the heated jaws stretch the
ter chops the tubing to its specified length. material. Then the formed balloon is cooled,
At this point, the tubing is called a pre-form. again with compressed air. Now it is ready
for removal from the glassform, inspection,
and packaging.
Balloon forming
2 Next, the balloon is formed through Inspection
2blow molding. Though many tubes are 5 Angioplasty balloons go through a series
cut, blow molding takes place one piece at a 5of inspections for quality control purpos-
time. A worker inserts the pre-form into a es. Balloons are checked both by visual in-
device called a glassform. The manufacturer spection and by machines.
may have various glassforms that corre-
spond to different finished diameters of the
product. Next, one end of the tube is welded Packaging
shut. The open end is connected to a supply 6If the manufacturer makes only angio-
of compressed air. Then two heated jaws plasty balloons, and not the catheters that
close around the part. go with the device, the balloons are individ-
ually boxed, the boxes are bagged, and then
The compressed air is switched on, and it shipped to a larger manufacturer. This man-
Jkeeps the pre-form at a constant inner ufacturer then assembles an angioplasty kit
pressure. The heated jaws warm the piece. by wrapping the balloon around a catheter
This warmup time prepares the plastic for and sterilizing it. First, the balloon is col-
the next step. The blow molding process is lapsed by a vacuum pump. Then a worker
1 1
glues or heat bonds it to a catheter shaft. The clogging is known medically as stenosis,
balloon is tested again at this point. Then the and when it happens after angioplasty, it is
worker deflates the balloon again, wraps it called restenosis. Most research into angio-
around the shaft, places a protective wrap- plasty at the beginning of the twenty-first
ping over it, and sends it to be sterilized, century concentrates on ways of preventing
making it ready for hospital use. restenosis. Some angioplasty balloons are
coated with prescription drugs, such as he-
parin, to prevent arterial buildup. Such a
Quality Control drug is routinely given to patients after the
Quality control is, of course, extremely im- procedure, but with coated balloons, the
portant in medical devices. Angioplasty bal- drug can be delivered directly to the affected
loons are manufactured one at a time, and artery. Some surgeons are also experiment-
typically each piece is inspected once it is ing with a device called a stent, which can
formed. A worker inspects the balloon visu- be placed in the artery during angioplasty to
ally for any marked flaws. Then the worker prevent the vessel clogging again. Stents are
loads the balloon into a machine that tests its small metal tubes that may be either stain-
wall thickness. Next, the balloon is placed in less steel or some kind of flexible steel
another machine, which inflates it and mesh. The newest angioplasty technology is
checks the internal pressure. involved with combining the balloon with
the stent for the best results for both the pa-
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) tient and the surgeon.
oversees quality control for the medical de-
vice industry. A federal study in 1970 re-
vealed thousands of injuries and a signifi-
Where to Learn More
cant number of deaths related to medical Books
devices. As a result, in 1976 Congress
amended the Food and Drug act to give the Friedman, Steven G. A History of Vascular
FDA authority over medical device manu- Surgery. Mt. Kisco, NY: Future Publishing,
facturing. The FDA is required to be noti- 1989.
fied of every medical device before it can be Fries, Richard C. Reliable Design of Med-
marketed, and manufacturers must prove the ical Devices. New York: Marecel Dekker,
device is safe and effective. Because of the Inc., 1997.
importance of quality in angioplasty balloon
manufacturing, the companies that make Klaidman, Stephen. Saving the Heart: the
them are generally not aiming for economy Battle to Conquer Coronary Disease. Ox-
of scale, or making a lot of balloons as fast ford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
as they can. Instead, the balloons are made
in a labor-intensive fashion, one at a time, Periodicals
with step-by-step inspection. Sauerteig, Knut, and Michael Giese. "The
Effect of Extrusion and Blow Molding Pa-
The Future rameters on Angioplasty Balloon Produc-
tion." Medical Plastics and Biomaterials
Angioplasty is simpler and easier on the pa- Magazine (May 1998).
tient than bypass surgery, the procedure that
it, to some extent, replaced. Its biggest Stone, John. "Balloon Man." New York
drawback is that some 30-50% of patients Times Magazine (October 16, 1988): 61.
undergoing the procedure need to repeat it
because their arteries clog again. The initial -Angela Woodward
1 2
Artificial Heart
Background slower depending on the activity of the pa- According to the
tient without causing either infection or
A natural heart has two pumps, each with blood clots. American Heart
two chambers. The right atrium pumps oxy-
gen-depleted blood from the body into the The two major types of artificial hearts are
Association, an estimated
right ventricle, which pumps it to the lungs. the heart-lung machine and the mechanical
The left atrium sends aerated blood from the
five million Americans are
heart. The first type consists of an oxygena-
lungs into the left ventricle, which pumps it tor and a pump and is mainly used to keep living with heart failure
out to the body. With each heart beat, the blood flowing while the heart is operated
two atria contract together, followed by the on. This machine can only operate for a few
and over 400,000 new
large ventricles. hours since the blood becomes damaged cases are diagnosed
after longer times.
Congestive heart failure, which is the steadi- every year.
ly declining ability of the heart to pump A mechanical heart is designed to reduce the
blood, is one of the leading causes of death. total work load of a heart that can no longer
This disease is caused by sudden damage work at its normal capacity. These hearts
from heart attacks, deterioration from viral consist of equipment that pulses the blood
infections, valve malfunctions, high blood between heart beats or use an artificial aux-
pressure and other problems. According to
iliary ventricle (left ventricle assist device,
the American Heart Association, an estimat- LVAD) that pumps a portion of the normal
ed five million Americans are living with cardiac output. Because such devices usual-
heart failure and over 400,000 new cases are ly result in complications to the patient, they
diagnosed every year. About 50% of all pa- have generally been used as a temporary re-
tients die within five years. Heart disease placement until natural hearts can be ob-
cost the United States health industry about
tained for transplantation. Worldwide about
$95 billion in 1998. 4,000 LVADs have been implanted. The
Though medication and surgical techniques market for these devices is estimated at $12
can help control symptoms, the only cure billion per year in the United States.
for heart failure is an organ transplant. In
1998, around 7,700 Americans were on the History
national heart transplant list but only 30%
received transplants. Artificial hearts and Since the late nineteenth century, scientists
pump-assist devices have thus been devel- have tried to develop a mechanical device
oped as potential alternatives. that could restore oxygen to the blood and re-
move excessive carbon dioxide, as well as a
An artificial heart maintains the heart's pump to temporarily supplant heart action. It
blood circulation and oxygenation for vary- took almost 100 years before the first suc-
ing periods of time. The ideal artificial heart cessful heart-lung machine was used on a
must beat 100,000 times every 24 hours human being by John H. Gibbon Jr. in 1953.
without requiring either lubrication nor Four years later the first artificial heart (made
maintenance and must have a constant from plastic) in the westem world was im-
power source. It must also pump faster or planted inside a dog. The National Heart In-
1 3
Eccentric inlet port
Pneumatic drive line

A B
0 ARTIFICIAL HEART
A. A pneumatic artificial heart. B.

A gyro centrifugal artificial heart. stitute established the artificial heart program Perhaps the most famous scientist is Dr.
in 1964, leading to the first total artificial Robert Jarvik, who invented an artificial
heart for human use implanted in 1969. heart called the Jarvik-7. This device, made
from aluminum and plastic, replaced the
The emphasis shifted to left ventricular as- two lower chambers of the natural heart and
sist systems and blood compatible materials used two rubber diaphragms for the pump-
in 1970. During that same year, a LVAD ing action. An external compressor the size
was used successfully. However, blood of a refrigerator kept the artificial heart beat-
pump development continued and devices ing. Barney Clark was the first patient to re-
became smaller, lighter, more acceptable, ceive this heart. He survived 112 days be-
and clinically successful. A number of fore physical complications caused by the
polyurethane and plastic pumps of long- implant took his life. In 1986, William
life time were also developed. During the Schroeder became the second Jarvik-7 re-
1980s, the Food and Drug Administration cipient, surviving for about 20 months.
(FDA) imposed more restrictive rules to the
Medical Devices Standards Act, leading to The medical community realized that a
higher development costs. Many research completely implantable heart could avoid
groups had to drop out, with only a few re- the mobility and infection problems caused
maining today. by the Jarvik-7. In 1988, the National Insti-
14
Artificial Heart
tutes of Health began funding development
of such hearts and was supporting such a
program in 1991 totaling $6 million. Three
years later, an electric and battery-powered
implantable LVAD became available. In
1999, Charlie Chappis became the first pa-
tient ever released from a hospital with such
a device. Other artificial hearts of various
designs are currently being tested.
Rawv Materials
An artificial heart or LVAD is made out of
metal, plastic, ceramic, and animal parts. A
titanium-aluminum-vanadium alloy is used
for the pump and other metal parts because it
is biocompatible and has suitable structural
properties. The titanium parts are cast at a
specialized titanium processor. Except for
blood-contacting surfaces, the titanium is
machined to a specific finish. Blood-contact-
ing surfaces receive a special coating of tita-
nium microspheres that bond permanently to
the surface. With this coating, blood cells ad-
here to the surface, creating a living lining.
A blood-contacting diaphragm within the
pump is made from a special type of
polyurethane that is also textured to provide
blood cell adherence. Two tubular grafts are
made from polyester (which are used to at-
tach the device to the aorta) and the valves
are actual heart valves removed from a pig.
Other parts that make up the motor are made
from titanium or other metals and ceramics.
Design
There are several critical issues when de-
signing a LVAD. Fluid dynamics of the
blood flow must be understood so that
enough blood is pumped and no blood clots
are created. Materials must be chosen that
are biocompatible; otherwise the pump
could fail. The efficiency of the motor must
be optimized so that minimal heat is gener-
ated. Because of possible rejection, the total
volume and surface area of the entire device
should be kept as small as possible. A typi-
cal LVAD weighs around 2.4 lb (1,200 gm)
and has a volume of 1.4 pints (660 ml).
The Manufacturing facturers, including machine shops and

Process printed circuit board manufacturers. The
porcine valves are sewn inside the grafts
Most of the components are made to cus- with sutures at a medical device firm that
tom specifications by third party manu- specializes in heart valves.
15
Once all components are obtained, the Quality Control

LVAD system is assembled and tested, to
ensure that each device meets all specifica- Most components have already passed in-
tions. Once tested, the LVAD can be steril- spection before they arrive at the heart man-
ized and packaged for shipment. ufacturer. Some components are still in-
spected dimensionally since they require
tight tolerances-on the order of millionths
Forming the polyurethane parts of an inch, which requires special measuring
2 Some artificial heart manufacturers make tools. To meet FDA regulations, every com-
2their own polyurethane parts. One ponent (including adhesives) used in the
process uses a proprietary liquid solution process is controlled by lot and serial num-
that is poured on a ceramic mandrel layer ber so that tracking problems is possible.
by layer. Each layer is heated and dried
until the desired thickness is reached. The
part is then removed from the mandrel and Byproducts/Waste
inspected. Otherwise, a third party manu- Scrap titanium is recovered and recycled
facturer uses an injection molding or vacu- after remelting and recasting. Otherwise, lit-
um molding process combined with radio tle waste is produced since most components
frequency welding. have passed inspection before leaving the
various manufacturers. Other defective parts
Assembly are discarded. Once a device has been used
3 Each artificial heart takes several days
by a patient, it is sent back to the heart manu-
vto put together and test. The assembly
facturer for analysis to improve the design.
process is performed in a clean room to
avoid contamination. Each artificial heart The Future
consists of up to 50 components that are put
together using special adhesives. These ad- Within the next decade, a number of new
hesives require curing at high temperatures. devices will come on the market. Pennsyl-
Several assembly operations happen in par- vania State University researchers are devel-
allel, including the assembly of the motor oping an electromechanical heart powered
housing and components, the assembly of by radio-frequency energy that is transmit-
the percutaneous tube and the attachment of ted through the skin. A motor drives push
the pusher plates to the polyurethane di- plates, which alternate in pressing against
aphragm. These subsystems are individual- plastic blood-filled sacs to simulate pump-
ly inspected, then final assembly of the ing. Patients carry a battery pack during the
complete system occurs. The grafts are as- day and sleep with the device plugged in to
sembled separately and attached during op- an electrical outlet. This artificial heart will
eration. be tested in humans by 2001.
Several research groups are developing
Testing pumps that circulate blood continuously,
4After assembly is completed, each de- rather than using a pumping action, since
vice is tested using special equipment these pumps are smaller and more efficient.
that simulates pressures in the body. All In Australia, Micromedical Industries Limit-
electronic components are tested with elec- ed is developing a continuous-flow rotary
tronic test equipment to ensure the proper blood pump, which is expected to be im-
function of all circuitry. planted in a human by 2001. The Ohio State
University's cardiology department is de-
Sterilization/packaging veloping a plastic pump the size of a hockey
puck that is self regulating. This pump is
5 After the artificial heart is tested and implanted in patients for several weeks until
passes, it is sent to an outside service for their own heart recovers.
sterilization. Each device is sealed in plastic
trays and returned to the heart manufacturer. Thermo Cardiosystems, Inc. is also working
It is then packaged in custom suitcases to on a LVAD with a continuous flow rotary
protect it from contamination and prevent pump), expected to be implanted sometime
damage. in 2000, and a LVAD with a continuous
1 6
Artificial Heart
flow centrifugal pump. The latter is still in Hall, Celia. "Thumb-Sized Pump Can Cut
an early development phase, but is planned Heart Deaths." The Daily Telegraph (Sep-
to be the world's first bearingless pump, tember 13, 1999): 11.
meaning that it won't have any parts that
wear. This is accomplished by magnetically Hesman, Tina. "Pump Brings New Expec-
suspending the rotor of the pump. Both tations for Artificial Heart." Omaha World-
these devices will be available with transcu- Herald (December 12, 1999).
taneous energy transfer, meaning that the Hopkins, Elaine. "Device Lets Heart Pa-
devices will be fully implantable. tient Await Transplant at Home." Journal
Star (November 30, 1999).
With fewer donor hearts becoming avail-
able, others are also developing an artificial Kinney, David. "Effective Artificial Heart
heart that is a permanent replacement. These Seems Within Reach." The Los Angeles
replacements may be in the form of a left Times (January 23, 2000).
ventricle assist device or a total artificial
heart, depending on the patient's physical
Kolff, William. "Early Years of Artificial
condition. LVADs are being developed by Organs at the Cleveland Clinic: Part II:
inventor Robert Jarvik and renowned heart
Open Heart Surgery and Artificial Hearts."
ASAIO Journal (May-June 1998): 123-128.
surgeon Michael DeBakey. Total artificial
hearts are being jointly developed by the Kolff, William. "The Need for Easier Manu-
Texas Heart Institute and Abiomed, Inc. in facturing of Artificial Hearts and Assist De-
Massachusetts. In Japan, researchers are devices and How This Need Can Be Met by
veloping total artificial hearts based on a sil- the Vacuum Molding Technique." ASAIO
icone ball valve system and a centrifugal Journal (January-February 1998): 12-27.
pump with a bearing system made from alu-
mina ceramic and polyethylene components. Kunzig, Robert. "The Beat Goes On." Dis-
cover (January 2000): 33-34.
Alternatives to artificial hearts and heart-as- M2 Communications. "Successful Blood
sist pumps are also under development. For Compatibility Tests for Micromedical's Ar-
instance, a special clamp has been invented tificial Heart." M2 PressWIRE (March 26,
that changes the shape of a diseased heart,
which is expected to improve the pumping 1999).
efficiency by up to 30%. Such a device re- Phillips, Winfred. "The Artificial Heart:
quires minimal invasive surgery to implant. History and Current Status." Journal of
Biomechanical Engineering (November
1993): 555-557.
Where to Learn More
Takami, Y. et al. "Current Progress in the
Periodicals Development of a Totally Implantable Gyro
Bonfield, Tim. "Device to Help Hearts." Centrifugal Artificial Heart." ASAIO Jour-
Cincinnati Enquirer (November 7, 1999). nal (May-June 1998): 207-211.
Castor, Tasha. "Ohio State University Car- Wilson, Steve. "A Life and Death Race
diology Unit Set to Try Heart Pump." The Against Time. " Arizona Republic (Novem-
Lantern (May 6, 1999). ber 14, 1999).
"Electric Hearts by 2005." Popular Me- Yambe, T. et al. "Development of Total Ar-
chanics (March 1997). tificial Heart with Economical and Durabil-
ity Advantages." The International Journal
Gugliotta, Guy. "Upbeat on Man-Made of Artificial Organs (1998): 279-284.
Hearts: Improved Devices Save Those Too
III for Transplant." The Washington Post Other
(June 28, 1999): AOl.
"Progress on Development of an Artificial
Guy, T. Sloane. "Evolution and Current Heart." http://www.uts.edu.au/new/archives/
Status of the Total Artificial Heart: The l999/February/02.html (December 29,2000).
Search Continues." ASAIO Journal (Janu-
ary- February 1998): 28-33. -Laurel M. Sheppard
17
Artificial Heart Valve
In the United States, more Background alloy. When the valve opens, blood flows
through a primary orifice and a secondary
than 80,000 adults A heart valve acts as a check valve, opening orifice between the ball and housing. About
and closing to control blood flow. This 200,000 of these have been implanted.
undergo surgical cycle occurs about 40 million times per year
or two billion in an average lifetime. Natural
procedures to repair or valves can develop several problems, either
The tilting disk valve uses a circular disk re-
tained by wire-like arms that project into the
replace damaged heart the valve opening becomes narrow or may orifice. When the disk opens, the primary
not close completely. The first condition de- orifice is separated into two unequal ori-
valves every year. creases the pumping efficiency and limits
fices. About 360,000 of these valves have
the amount of blood pumped to the body. been implanted. The current design consists
The second condition can reduce the amount of two semicircular leaflets connected to the
of blood to the rest of the body, as well as orifice housing by a hinge mechanism. The
result in excess pressure in the lungs, also leaflets separate during opening, producing
limiting their efficiency. In the United three flow areas in the center and on the
States, more than 80,000 adults undergo sur- sides. Over 600,000 bileaflet valves have
gical procedures to repair or replace dam- been implanted.
aged heart valves every year.
Artificial heart valves consist of an orifice, History
through which blood flows, and a mecha-
nism that closes and opens the orifice. There The first recorded surgical operation on a
are two types of artificial heart valves: me- heart valve took place in 1913. Replacement
chanical devices made from synthetic mate- of diseased valves did not take place until
rials; and biological or tissue valves made 1962, when the first successful biological
from animal or human tissue. In general, bio- valves were invented using human tissue
logical valves are used for patients who are from a donor. Ball valves were the first type
over 65 or cannot take anticoagulants. Me- of mechanical valves and were developed
chanical valves are used for patients that around the same time. Miles Edwards, an
have a mechanical valve in another position, electrical engineer who founded a medical
have had a stroke, require double valve re- device company called American Edwards
placement, and usually are recommended for Laboratories in the 1950s, is credited with
those under 40. These type of valves require co-inventing the first commercially avail-
the patient to take anti-coagulating drugs. able artificial heart valve. Disk valves be-
came popular in the 1970s after the first suc-
Mechanical valves can be further broken cessful design was introduced in 1969. The
down into three types based on the opening reduced height improved clinical perfor-
and closing mechanism. These mechanisms mance. The bileaflet design was first intro-
are: a reciprocating ball, a tilting disk, or duced in 1977 and became more popular
two semicircular hinged leaflets. The first during the 1980s.
type is based on a ball-in-cage design,
which uses a rubber ball that oscillates in a Advances in materials also helped spur the
metal cage made from a cobalt-chromium development of mechanical valves. In 1965,
18
Artificial heart valves consist of an
orifice, through which blood flows,
and a mechanism that closes and
opens the orifice.
scientist Dr. J. C. Bokros from the General valued at over $700 million. About 60% of
Atomic Company was investigating pyrolyt- these are mechanical valves, with a market
ic carbon materials for nuclear fuel applica- value of around $400 million. Over two mil-
tions. Because the material's properties were lion mechanical valves have been implanted
suitable for biomedical applications (durabil- in patients around the world during the last
ity, blood compatibility), he looked at it for several decades.
making artificial heart valves. Today, about
90% of all mechanical heart valves implant-
ed have at least one pyrolytic carbon part. Raw Materials
In 1976, medical devices (including pros- Most artificial valves are made of titanium,
thetic heart valves) came under the jurisdic- graphite, pyrolytic carbon, and polyester.
tion of the Food and Drug Adminstration The titanium is used for the housing or outer
(FDA). FDA then issued guidelines for Pre- ring, graphite coated with pyrolytic carbon
market Approval (PMA) applications for is used for the bileaflets, and 100% pyrolyt-
heart valves. In 1993, FDA issued a guid- ic carbon is used for the inner ring. The py-
ance document based on objective perfor- rolytic carbon is sometimes impregnated
mance criteria. This set the minimum with tungsten so that the valve can easily be
amount of follow-up required for a PMA seen following implantation). The sewing
study at 800 valve-years. cuff, used to attach the valve to the heart, is
made out of double velour polyester.
The performance of mechanical valves has
been noteworthy. The ball valve, in use for Titanium is used for its strength and biocom-
over 30 years, has had only a dozen structural patibility. The outer rings come already fab-
problems that caused no major harm to the ricated from an outside manufacturer and are
patient. The tilt valve had fewer than 1% of made from machined bar stock. Lock rings
failures after 15 years of experience. The most and wire, used to hold the cuff in place, are
popular type of bileaflet valve only reported also made from titanium. The polyester
several dozen failures to the FDA. However, comes in the form of tubes. All plastic com-
in early 2000, one valve manufacturer re- ponents are deburred by the supplier, which
called silver-coated valves because of a leak- involves removing any bumps from the sur-
ing problem in 2% of patients. In all, there face. Occasionally the valve manufacturer
have only been about 50 failures out of the ap- may have to deburr some parts.
proximately one million valves in service.
The pyrolytic carbon coating is produced by
Approximately 265,000 prosthetic valves depositing gaseous hydrocarbons (usually
are now implanted worldwide each year, methane) onto a heated graphite substrate at
1 9
temperatures of 3,272-4,172°F (1,800- assigned a size, which is then matched to the

2,300°C) in a chamber. These gases break appropriate bileaflet to make sure they will fit
down into carbon. The inner rings are made together. Microscopic analysis using high
from 100% pyrolytic carbon using a flu- power magnification is used to check compo-
idized bed process at another manufacturer. nents for scratches. In total, up to 50 inspec-
This material's atomic microstructure helps tions are made during the assembly process.
resist cracking, making it ductile. However,
the processing method can still introduce Proof testing is used to determine the struc-
microcracks that must be detected. tural quality of potentially flawed heart
valves. In this method, a valve is loaded to a
certain stress level using a special pressur-
The Manufacturing ization fixture to see if it will fail at this
Process stress. During the stress test, acoustic emis-
l The majority of components are made by sion technology is used to detect minute
a third party, except for the polyester cracks that might go undetected so that these
cuffs. These are made by a sewing process valves can be rejected. Once the valves are
that includes various looping, folding, and sterilized and packaged, they are inspected
stitching steps. The manufacturing process to make sure the labels are accurate.
therefore consists mainly of various assem-
bly and inspection steps. Byproducts/Waste
Due to the stringent quality control proce-
Assembly dures, there is little or no waste produced
Assembly takes place in a clean room to during the assembly process. Any scrap ma-
avoid contamination. The leaflets are at- terial is recycled if it is feasible. Defective
tached to the inner rings, which are then components are returned to the manufactur-
placed in the housing or outer ring. er. Some chemicals used for cleaning must
be disposed of properly following safety
3 While this is being down, the sewing regulations.
cuffs are being made. A special pressur-
ized heating process is then used to form the
cuffs around the valve, which takes place at The Future
several hundred degrees. The valves are Blood clotting is still a problem with me-
then mounted into a rotator assembly, which chanical valves and manufacturers continue
the surgeon uses for implanting. to improve designs, sometimes using super-
computing modeling tools, as well as surgical
Sterilization and packaging procedures. The shape of the orifice is being
improved to reduce pressure losses, turbu-
4 After the valves are assembled and test- lence and shear stresses. Flow area is maxi-
A ed, they are sterilized in a double plastic mized by using stronger materials, which
container. Steam sterilization is used, which minimizes wall thickness. Tapering the sides
involves temperatures up to 270°F (132°C) of the valve pumps blood more efficiently.
and times of 15 minutes or more. To make Operations are also being developed that only
sure the sterilization process has worked, a require a 3-4 in (8-10 cm) incision instead of
biological indicator is placed inside. If the 12 in (30 cm). Manufacturing efficiencies
indicator shows no growth of bacteria or will continue to improve.
other viable organisms, the valves and its
packaging have been properly sterilized. Researchers are looking at making heart
Each plastic-encased valve is then packaged valves out of plastic material that are flexi-
in a box for shipping. ble enough to simulate the opening and clos-
ing action. This approach may not require
anticoagulation drugs. Others are working
Quality Control on developing artificial heart valves made
All components are inspected visually, di- from a patient's own cells. Experiments
mensionally and functionally prior to assem- have been successful using sheep. Both de-
bly to make sure they meet specifications. velopments may take decades before they
The diameter of each ring is measured and are put in practical use.
20
Where to Learn More "Researchers Grow Artificial Heart Valves
in Sheep." Reuters Ltd (November 7, 1999).
Periodicals
"Baxter Announces Name of Cardiovascular Stemnberg, Steve. "In Medicine, a Shortage
Spin-Off." PR Newswire (January 14, 2000). Prevented." USA Today (August 3, 1998):
06D.
Dolven, Ben. "Take Heart." Far Eastern
Economic Review (November 4, 1999). Other
Lankford, James. "Assuring Heart Valve Re- "Medtronic Announces First Implant."
liability." Technology Today (Summer 1999). Medtronic, Inc. http://www.medtronic.com
(December 29, 2000).
"Maker Recalls Heart Valves." Newsday
(January 25, 2000): A49. "St. Jude Medical Announces One-Mil-
lionth Mechanical Heart Valve Implant."
"Medical Carbon Research Institute An- St. Jude Medical, Inc. (April 6, 2000).
nounces On-X Prosthetic Heart Valve CE
http://www.pmewswire.com (May 2000).
Mark Approval." Business Wire (July 24,
1998). -Laurel M. Sheppard
Reed, Stephen. "Sarasota Doctors Trying
Out a Better Artificial Heart Valve." Sara-
sota Herald Tribune (June 5, 1998): IA.
2 1
Baby Carrier
In 1997 alone, over Background Side- and hip-balanced carriers are used by
fathers and brothers who hunt and harvest
8,700 children were Family members have carried babies in a va- with the baby. Other relatives can baby-sit,
riety of carriers since the beginning of human thanks to the convenience of baby carriers.
brought to the emergency civilization. Baby carriers keep the baby The closeness of the baby carrier is not only
close and provide the infant with comfort and
room and treated for falls security while allowing the carrier some free-
a convenience but a way of nurturing the
whole family.
from carriers. dom to work and care for other members of
the family. The most basic form of baby car-
rier is the sling. In South America, woven History
shawls are used to carry babies in front of
their mothers. The shawl is anchored over The invention of the cloth infant carrier
one shoulder, wrapped under the other arm, grew out of one woman's service in the
and tied around the back. The baby is free to Peace Corps. Ann Moore, a pediatric nurse
nurse and sleep, and is cooled or warmed by who worked in Togo, Africa, in the 1960s
the weave and wool of the shawl. In Asia, the observed the native women carrying their
sling is tied over one arm but carried lower babies in slings. After she retumed to the
on the opposite side so the baby rests on the United States, Moore and her mother, Lucy
hip. African cultures use the sling in this Aukerman, designed a fabric pouch to re-
fashion or with the sling tied in front around semble these slings but also to be rugged
the chest with the baby balanced behind. The and to have adjustable shoulder and waist
front-tied sling is also practical for older ba- supports for the parent. Moore and Auker-
bies who need to nurse less often and are man patented the Snugli in 1969.
more settled in their routine.
In 1978, a Nigerian child care professional
named Toritse Onuwaje moved to the United
Other Asian cultures tie a woven cloth States. She was dismayed at the amount of
around the infant in a complex series of crying American babies did compared to
wraps and ties that isolate the child's legs on their Nigerian counterparts. She patterned a
the mother's sides and allow the baby to carrier she called the Baby Wrap on the
move its arms freely against the mother. In ukpoma, a cloth carrier worn by members of
cold climates where mothers wear hooded her native Itshekiri tribe. The women of her
coats or parkas, the hood doubles as a sling tribe work all day with their babies wrapped
that gives the baby room to see around its on their backs, and the babies seldom cry be-
mother's head or cuddle deep in the hood to cause the mothers' closeness is comforting.
nap. Hot climates feature baby carriers of
loosely woven airy cloth and even net bags The rigid, molded plastic carrier grew out of
that can be hung from the shoulders or bal- the invention of the child safety seat for use
anced on the head. The cradle boards used in automobiles (and, later, airplanes). The
by many tribes of Native Americans are an- first child safety seats were patented in the
cient forerunners of today's framed back- late 1970s. In the period from 1982 through
pack that provides rigid strength to carry the 1985, a number of designs of molded plastic
child and cloth wrapping for comfort. carriers were patented with varying configu-
22
Baby Carrier
Different types of 6a6y carriers.

rations for carrying a reclining infant. The flexible, and durable. Manufacturers receive
shape was contoured to support the child's the plastic in pellets. Metal components are
back and seat and incorporated an adjustable made of steel by specialized metal fabrica-
handle that could be raised and locked into tors. These parts may include buckles, lock-
place while the child is being carried and ing clips, and hardware for adjusting har-
lowered to lift the baby in and out. Various nesses. Rivets and fabric fasteners may be
types of fabrics cushion the child; some car- made of other metals but are also supplied
riers use fabric mesh that is suspended in the by specialty contractors.
frame to support the infant, while others are
fitted out with padded cloth inserts that fas- Fabrics used to make infant cariers include
ten in the plastic carrier securely but can be durable fabric like denim and nylon mesh
removed for cleaning. and webbing for hamesses. All fabrics have
to be specially treated to meet standards for
flammability, but they also have to be wash-
Rawv Materials able. Chemical cleaning methods and even
strong detergents can break down the treat-
Slings and cloth carriers are manufactured ments used to make the material flame-re-
from fabrics and polyester fiber or foam for
sistant, so these fabrics must be cleaned
stuffing or padding. The fiber is purchased with water and mild soap. The fabrics are
in 500-lb (227-kg) bales. Velcro fasteners, also chosen for their appeal, so color and
woven fabric webbing for straps, and metal fashion trends are observed by designers in
buckles and fasteners for supports around selecting these materials.
the parent are used to hold cloth carriers in
place. Backpack-type carriers can be made Foam padding and fiber fill are also required
mostly of cloth, but a second type consists to be flame resistant. For manufacturers of
of an aluminum frame with a cloth support molded plastic carriers, most of the cloth
for the baby and padded cloth straps that ad- liners and pads are sewn by outside suppli-
just to the parent. ers to the specifications of the carrier manu-
facturers.
The rigid or molded infant carrier is made of
polypropylene, a medium-impact plastic. It All infant carriers bear manufacturers' la-
has the advantages of being lightweight, bels, and printers make paper and adhesive-
23
backed labels according to the manufactur- slip through. To the manufacturers' defense,
ers' requirements and Federal standards for many more problems have been cited relat-
consumer information. ed to misuse of the carriers by the adults
caring for the infants. Sitting a rigid carrier
on a soft surface like a couch permits the
Design baby's movements to tip the carrier over. In
There are three basic designs of infant carri- 1997 alone, over 8,700 children were
ers. The first is the sling of which the Snugli brought to the emergency room and treated
and Baby Wrap are best known. The second for falls from carriers. Also, a number of
is a modification of an aluminum-framed medical reports show that infants are left in
backpack in which the pack portion is fitted one position in the carriers for too long. In
to carry a baby and padded straps are pro- the supine or reclining position, the back of
vided for the parents' comfort. The third the baby's head flattens as it rests against
type is the molded plastic carrier that resem- the carrier. Babies held upright in cloth car-
bles an automobile safety seat with a plastic riers or backpack-type carriers are subject to
back, seat, and handle and a padded interior spinal stress that complicates the natural de-
but without the devices needed to secure the velopment of curves in the spine. Sling-type
carrier in an automobile. carriers have been found to hold the baby in
the best position for its growth.
Factors influencing the design of infant car-
riers are many and relate to how the individ-
ual consumer is most comfortable carrying The Manufacturing
their child. Safety is, of course, the overrid- Process
ing concern. The infant must be comfortably
held or restrained in the carrier, a soft carrier Cloth carriers
must have openings for the child's legs but Following initial design, prototypes are
not so large that the baby will fall out, and a sewn by hand and checked for fit on both
rigid carrier designed to sit on solid surfaces infants and parents of a range of sizes and
must not tip over. Comfort for the baby is weights. When the final design is approved,
the second leading design factor. All forms the pattern on blueprints or computerized
of carriers have some type of cloth liner or drawings is transferred to paper patterns.
insert to cushion the baby, and this must be The patterns are tacked to the fabric with
comfortable as well as durable and easily pins and stacked together. A fabric cutter
cleaned. And, finally, the person carrying that looks much like a band saw is used to
the child must also be comfortable. Cloth in- cut through all the layers at once so the
fant carriers and backpack-type carriers pieces for many carriers are produced at the
have to adapt to different body types so the same time.
baby can be carried with equal comfort.
This is usually accomplished with a set of 2 The fabric pieces are stitched together by
straps that cross the shoulders and fit around workers operating industrial-quality
the waist or on the hips. Carriers made of sewing machines. Typically, each worker is
molded plastic must strike the right balance responsible for one section of the carrier
between the weight and strength needed to such as the back or the straps. The pieces are
support the child adequately and light stitched together inside out with the seams
weight for the parent to carry. exposed then turned right side out. Sections
that will be padded are left with small open-
These combinations of characteristics have ings in the seams where the padding can be
not been easy for manufacturers to produce added.
successfully. Consumer protection groups
like the Consumer Product Safety Commis- 3The sections to be padded are stuffed
sion list a number of carriers that have been 3with polyester fiber or foam padding.
recalled. The molded plastic carriers have The fiber is purchased by the manufacturer
had notable problems such as failure of the in tightly packed bales that are fluffed up
handle locks that can cause the carrier to re- with a machine called a picker. The fiber is
lease and tip the baby out. But the cloth car- selected for the packing by the quality of the
riers have also been made with leg openings fibers, and, when it is inserted into the cami-
that are too large and allow tiny babies to er section as padding, it will be stuffed to
24
Baby Carrier
the proper density. At the stuffing machine, process, and even the finished texture of the
air pressure blows the fiber into the fabric carrier has been designed in the interior of
section. The operator manipulates the sec- the mold. The shells are extracted from the
tion to disperse the fiber throughout the sec- dies, cooled, trimmed of flashing (excess
tion and to the desired density. The open- bits of plastic), and cleaned.
ings through which the stuffing has been
added are then stitched together. 2At the assembly line, the molded shells
and all other parts are distributed to work
4 The sections of the carrier are assembled stations. Each worker is responsible for fit-
Ito create the finished product at another ting the carrier with one item or type of item
set of sewing machines. Any restraining and handing it to the next worker who adds
straps and webbing are stitched securely in another piece. The padded insert that forms
place. Hardware and fasteners (if any) are the cushion for the baby is a completed item
also stitched on or driven into place by spe- that has been sewn and stuffed. It is attached
cial machines, and labels are sewn in place to the carrier by Velcro or other fasteners.
at joins between two fabric sections. A final Alternatively, the nylon mesh used to make
inspection is performed to check all the a hammock-like support for the infant in
seams and fasteners, and the carrier is some types of carriers is attached to sections
packed in a plastic bag and boxed. Multiple of the plastic shell that were designed to trap
boxes are packed in shipping cartons for the mesh and lock it in place. Straps, har-
storage or transport. nesses, buckles, and labels are added in turn.
Backpack-type carriers 3 In the packing department, the infant

camiers are individually packed in car-
The cloth sections of the backpack-type tons. The cartons are significant sources of
carriers are designed, cut, stitched, and information for consumers and are preprint-
padded like the cloth carriers described ed with consumer data as well as company
above. information and bright designs. The cartons
are stacked and bulk-wrapped in plastic for
2 The aluminum frames used to support the storage and distribution.
carriers are made of tubing formed by
aluminum fabricators to the sizes, shapes,
and curves specified by the carrier manufac- Quality Control
turer. They are received by the carrier manu- Hands-on assembly is key to the construc-
facturer in bulk lots that are distributed to tion of the three types of infant carriers de-
bins along the assembly line. Assembly line scribed here. Workers are highly skilled in
workers pair a cloth carrier to a metal frame their own and related parts of manufacture
and attach it; methods of attachment vary of carriers, and they are rewarded for identi-
widely among makers but can include Vel- fying errors and rejecting imperfect carriers.
cro and metal buckles and fasteners. Some Molded plastic carriers are nominally the
frames also have plastic feet or pads where most complex to manufacture; the shell is
they balance against the parent or so they can carefully checked for uniform thickness and
be stood on the ground or a solid surface strength and compared to a master copy for
while the infant is placed in the carrier. correctness. Because manufacturers usually
These feet are inserted into holes in the make several different lines or models of
frame and fastened in place. carriers, each product has a bill of materials
3 The frame/carrier assembly is inspected listing the part numbers of all the parts mak-
3and packaged like the cloth carrier. ing up that model. Assembly workers moni-
tor these, and line managers periodically
Molded plastic carriers pull carriers from the assembly line to check
the materials, review the overall quality, and
Molding of the carrier's plastic shell is test the products.
the first step in manufacture of this type
of carrier. Plastic pellets stored in bulk are
melted and injected into specially machined Byproducts/Waste
dies or forms for the shell. The dies are the The making of infant carriers results in little
highly detailed product of the design waste because most of the materials used
2.5
can be recycled. The molded plastic shells physical changes to babies, particularly flat
can be reground into pellets that are mixed spots on their skulls and improper spinal de-
with new plastic pellets for melting and in- velopment, that may be attributable to infant
jection molding. The percentage of reground carriers. Recalls, errors, and skeletal stress
plastic is kept to a minimum in any single sound like negative reasons for a product's
batch of new plastic. Sewn linings of the future, but all these negatives are strong mo-
plastic shells are returned to the supplier and tivators toward the best possible products for
can often be resewn; similarly, cloth carriers the most babies.
can be resewn, assuming the error is not
picked up and corrected immediately by the Where to Learn More
sewing machine operator. Metal parts are
also recycled by suppliers. Books
Safety concerns are important in several as- Bernhard, Emery. A Ride on Mother's
pects of carrier manufacture. Sewing ma- Back: A Day of Baby Carrying Around the
chines, fabric cutters, and power hand tools World. New York: Gulliver Books, Har-
have automatic emergency shutoffs, safety court Brace & Company, 1996.
guards, and other protections. Operation of
the injection molding machinery is automat- Periodicals
ed, and workers seldom have reason to ap- Karvonen, Karen. "Child Carriers." Women's
proach these machines with their high oper- Sports and Fitness 14, no. 5 (July-August
ating temperatures. Mold operators wear 1992): 112.
protective gloves. Fabric cutters, sewing
machine operators, and those who handle Quindlen, Anna. "A Mother's Nominees
the polyester fiber and foam padding wear For the Nobel Prize." New York Times
masks over their mouths and safety glasses. (September 21, 1986).
Sommars, Jack. "Oh Baby!" Colorado Busi-
The Future ness Magazine 23, no. 3 (March 1996): 16.
The concept of the infant carrier may be as
old as civilization, yet the "modem" baby Other
carrier is less than half a century old. De- Consumer Product Safety Commission.
spite this new or reborn acceptance, the car- http://www.cpsc.gov (September 18, 2000).
rier has become an essential part of every
baby's layette. This is not surprising be- "43 Reasons to Carry Your Baby." Nutur-
cause every parent's first priorities are the ing Magazine (1998). http://www.nurtur-
safety and comfort of that new baby. The ing.ca/carrybaby.htm (January 2001).
alarming aspect of infant carriers may be the
number of product recalls. Perhaps this The Lemelson-MIT Prize Program:
should not be surprising either, because the Women's History Month. http://web.mit.
manufacture of carriers is an attempt for an edu/invent/www/inventorsR-Z/whm3.html
industry to fit a standard to tiny babies and (September 27, 2000).
an even wider variety of sizes and shapes of Loving Attachment. Choosing a Carrier:
parents and care givers. Infant Carriers and Spinal Stress. http://
www.lovingattachment.com (September 27,
Manufacturers are conscientious about doing
2000).
their part to keep improving and varying
products to prevent child injury and provide The Mayo Clinic. Misshapen Infant Heads:
security. Responsibility for proper use of in- Not an Epidemic (May 22, 1999). http://
fant carriers is beyond the manufacturers' www.mayohealth.org/home?id=CC0OO 10
purview, yet they try to design out opportu- (September 27, 2000).
nities for consumer error. Doctors are also
adding to the information base by studying -Gillian S. Holmes
26
Baby Wipes
Background from $251.4 million in 1996 to $263.9 mil- Total supermarket sales of
lion in 2000.
Baby wipes are disposable cloths used to pre-moistened towelettes
cleanse the sensitive skin of infants. These
cloths are made from non-woven fabrics Design jumped 5% from $251.4
similar to those used in dryer sheets and are million in 1996 to
saturated with a solution of gentle cleansing Baby wipes are designed to be durable
ingredients. Baby wipes are typically sold in enough for heavy duty cleaning tasks, yet $263.9 million in 2000.
plastic tubs that keep the cloths moist and still be disposable. The fabric used for the
allow for easy dispensing. cloths is chosen on the basis of durability,
cost, and absorbency. This fabric is then
saturated with a cleansing solution de-
History signed to be mild yet effective. Packaging
The technology to create disposable non- is also an important design component and
woven towelettes was developed in the late several patents have been granted for con-
1970s, and the first baby wipe products ap- tainers made specifically for pre-moistened
peared on the market soon after. Originally, towelettes. These packages are designed to
due to the expense of the specialized equip- easily dispense single sheets while keeping
ment required to produce these products, the towelettes moist until ready for use.
major brands like Kimberly-Clark's Hug- Thermo-formed plastic tubs are most com-
gies and Proctor & Gamble's Pampers dom- monly used to package wipes in different
inated the market. As the technology ma- amounts ranging from a few dozen to sev-
tured and became more affordable, smaller eral hundred.
brands began to appear. By the 1990s, many
large supermarket chains had their own pri- Marketers are continually designing new
vate label brand of wipes made by contract styles, sizes, and fornulations of baby
manufacturers. These private label brands wipes. Large-pack refills and attractive
entice consumers with their lower prices and graphic labels are some of the recent inno-
increase profits for the supermarkets. vations in the category. One private-label
manufacturer uses Jim Henson's Muppet
Baby wipes are sold in the diaper section of Babies to differentiate its product from com-
supermarkets and generally run from three petitors. Some products even have character
to five dollars for a 64-count tub. They are outlines imprinted on the actual wipe. In
important to retailers because they help off- Canada, premium quality wipes are market-
set the small profit margins that diaper sales ed as having the advantages of being thick-
generate. They are merchandised near dia- er, more absorbent, greater stretchability,
pers in the hope that consumers will pur- hypo-allergenic, alcohol-free, pH-balanced,
chase wipes along with their other infant and/or unscented. Another factor that has
care products. Wipes are available in differ- impacted baby wipe design is the trend to-
ent sizes and styles, and a typical store may ward natural products. Marketers routinely
carry between 10 and 20 different stock add a variety of natural ingredients, such as
keeping units. Total supermarket sales of aloe vera and oatmeal, to increase the con-
these pre-moistened towelettes jumped 5% sumer appeal of their products.
27
An example of a typical box of moisturization. In addition, some formulas

baby wipes. incorporate oils such as mineral oil, lanolin,
or silicones that help to soften skin. Thick-
eners, such as cellulose derivatives like hy-
droxymethyl cellulose, control the viscosity
of the finished product and keep it the right
consistency.
Other ingredients include preservatives,
such as methyl and propyl paraben, to en-
sure the solution does not support microbial
growth. Fragrance is usually added to in-
crease consumer appeal and to help over-
come body odors, but fragrance-free prod-
ucts are also offered. Featured ingredients
may also be added to increase consumer ap-
peal. These include natural ingredients that
are known to be kind to the skin such as aloe
vera or oatmeal extract.
Rawv Materials Packaging components
Non-woven fabric Packaging used in baby wipes must keep the
The material used in baby wipes is a non- cloths free from contamination, yet allow for
woven fabric similar to the type used in dia- easy dispensing. The package must also pre-
pers and dryer sheets. Traditional fabrics are vent the towelettes from drying out. Thermo-
made by weaving together fibers of silk, cot- molded plastic tubs are the packaging choice
ton, polyester, wool, and similar materials to for most manufacturers. One common de-
form an interlocking matrix of loops. Non- sign features a hinged lid that allows easy ac-
woven fabrics, on the other hand, are made cess to the towelettes. These tubs are pro-
by a process that presses a single sheet of duced on injection molding equipment by
material from a mass of separate fibers. pumping molten polyethylene plastic into a
Fibers, such as cotton and rayon, are used in two part mold. Pressure is applied to the
this process, as well as plastic resins like mold externally until the plastic cools. When
polyester, polyethylene, and polypropylene. the mold is opened, the plastic tub is ejected
and stored until ready for filling.
Cleansing ingredients
The Manufacturing
Water is the main ingredient and serves as a Process
carrier and diluent for the other ingredients.
Baby wipes also contain mild detergents Non-woven preparation
mixed with moisturizing agents, fragrance, There are two primary methods of assem-
and preservatives. The detergents most com- bling non-woven fabrics: the wet laid
monly used are known as amphoteric sur- process and the dry laid process.
factants, similar to those found in baby
shampoos. Sodium diamphoacetate and One dry laid process is the "meltblown"
coco phosphatidyl PG-dimonium chloride method, which is used to make non-
are primary surfactants used in wipes. These woven fabrics from plastic resins. In this
chemicals don't strip the skin of natural oils method, plastic pellets are melted and then
and also decrease skin irritation potential. extruded, or forced through tiny holes, by
Mildness is a prime consideration given that air pressure. As the stream of fibers cools, it
the wipe solution may be in contact with condenses to form a sheet. Hot metal rollers
delicate skin around the anus and genitals. are used to flatten the fibers and bond them
together.
Humectants such as propylene glycol and
glycerine are added to prevent premature 2 A wet laid process is typically used for
drying of the solution and contribute to skin softer cloths, like diaper wipes, that use
28
Baby Wipes
cotton blends. In this wet process, the fibers Packaging operations
are made into liquid slurries with water and
other chemicals. The resultant paste is 7The finished cloths are automatically
pressed into flat sheets by rollers and then 7folded, stacked, and transferred to their
dried to form long rolls of fabric. These rolls final package. In one patented method em-
are then further processed and slit into nar- ployed by Rockline Inc. of Sheboygan, Wis-
row widths and then perforated or cut into consin, the towelettes are folded and stacked
individual sheets. The finished cloths are so that they can easily be removed one at a
classified by their dry weight that is at least time and then the stack is placed in an inner
1.4 oz/in2 (40 g/m2). Absorbency of the plastic pack. This inner pack is subsequently
wipes is also an important requirement inserted into an outer tub with a hinged
(quality wipes can absorb between 200% cover.
and 600% of their weight in solution).
Quality Control
Formula preparation Each component used in baby wipes must
pass a series of quality check points during
3 The ingredients used in the wipe solution the manufacturing process. The plastic
are prepared in large batch tanks. De- packaging must be free from mold defects
pending on the formula requirements, the that could cause leakage or improper clo-
tank is charged with the first ingredient sure. The non-woven fabric must be uni-
which is usually water. The tank may be formly formed and must meet specific tear-
heated during manufacturing to facilitate strength requirements. Furthermore, prior to
blending of powders that must be dissolved manufacture, the cleansing solution must be
or other solids that must be melted. The thoroughly tested. Development chemists
other the ingredients are added sequentially evaluate the product to ensure that it is shelf
and mixed until homogenous. stable and will not undergo any undesirable
chemical reactions. They must also test the
formula to ensure that it satisfies the re-
Non-woven treatment quirements for mildness. The most reliable
4Onced prepared, the non-woven cloth is method used to test mildness is known as
A4fed from storage rolls onto coating ma- the Human Repeat Insult Patch Test
chinery, where the cleansing solution is ap- (HRIPT). In this test an ingredient, or series
plied. Several methods can be employed in of ingredients, is applied to human volun-
teers (usually on the inside of the forearm).
this process. The cleansing solution can be
added by running the fabric through a The area is then occluded with a patch mate-
trough of the solution, or sheets of fabric rial and the spot is evaluated by dermatolo-
may be sprayed with the formula from a se-
gists or clinicians after a specified time. Any
ries of nozzles. redness or irritation is assigned numerical
value and the scores of all the panelists are
averaged. A low average score, such as 0 or
5 Alternatively, individual towelettes may 1, indicates that the product is essentially
5be packaged in sealed foil pouches. In non-irritating.
this process, sheets of laminated foil are fed
into automated equipment which folds them Before ingredients are added to the batch
into a small pouch and heat seals three sides tank, they are assayed to ensure they con-
to form an open envelope. Simultaneously, form to all relevant specifications. During
another conveyor line feeds the non-woven manufacture, each ingredient is check
cloths into the pouch. A liquid feed mecha- weighed before it is added to the batch.
nism, including conduits extending through Then final batch is tested again for basic
the stuffing bars, injects moisturizing liquid specifications such as pH, viscosity, and mi-
into the towelette packet simultaneously crobial content.
with the stuffing of the towelette material.
Immediately following this operation,

The Future
VJanother heat sealer closes the pouch From a marketing perspective, baby wipes
tightly. are continually evolving. Supermarkets are
29
planning to boost their declining margins on Where to Learn More

baby food and national-brand diapers by ef-
ficiently promoting private-label baby wipes Periodicals
sales. The market trend is leaning toward Cramp, Beverly. "Scott Worldwide Person-
larger, more economical size. For example, al Care and Cleaning's Packaging of Its
Huggies recently introduced a 160-count re- Baby Fresh Products." Marketing (January
fill package. Smaller travel size packages 19, 1995): 21.
are also available from some manufacturers.
From a technical perspective, as chemists Moore, Amity. "Clean and Mean: Super-
develop new and improved surfactants, fu- markets are Using a Dual Strategy of Private
ture versions of baby wipes will contain Label and Price Sensitivity to Beat Mass
milder and more effective cleansing ingredi- Merchants in Baby Wipe Rings." Supermar-
ents. Trends in fragrance and featured ingre- ket News 47, no. 21 (May 26, 1997): 33.
dients will also impact future formulations.
-Randy Schueller
30
Backhoe
Background the front. The operator effectively makes ei- The backhoe's standard
ther device the working end by simply rotat-
The backhoe is one of the most commonly ing his chair and operating a different set of equipment is a narrow
seen pieces of construction equipment be-
controls. Typically, if the bucket is being bucket on the rear end
cause of its adaptability. Its cousin, the front-
used, the flat front end of the loader is set
end loader, is also a smaller piece of equip- down on the ground to stabilize the vehicle. and a loader on the front.
ment that has a broad bucket like the one on
the front of the backhoe for hauling soil, de-
bris, and materials, and lifting them up into History
trucks. These two machines have some much
larger relatives, including the road grader The history of heavy excavating machinery
(with a large blade that smoothes soil sur- began in 1835 when the dipper shovel was
faces), roller compactor (equipped with a invented to excavate hard soil and rock and
heavy roller that compacts soil and asphalt to load trucks. The dipper shovel was steam-
during construction), the bulldozer and powered and mounted on rails like a train.
crawler tractor (big loaders that move earth by Rail lines were laid into mines and large ex-
digging, ripping, and blading, with traction cavations so the dipper shovel could move
from rolling tracks, not tires), the excavator (a around and load materials into railroad cars
track-mounted vehicle with a much larger or horse-drawn trucks. The dipper shovel
bucket than the backhoe), and the scraper had a short boom (lifting arm), a dipper
(with a large bowl in the center of the ma- stick (a beam that pivoted out from the
chine that cuts into the earth and carries the boom and gave the shovel its name), and an
material it has cut in that bowl). More distant attached bucket for digging. The dipper
members of the vast construction equipment shovel was modified in many ways to create
family are cranes, dump trucks, pipe layers, the familiar construction equipment of
draglines, truck-mounted drills, and shovels. today; the boom was changed, different at-
tachments were added, the weight and bal-
The key to the power of the backhoe is hy- ance of the equipment were changed, and
draulic pressure. Hydraulic lines, a reservoir the type of tires or tracks were chosen to suit
of hydraulic fluid, a pump, and a series of the equipment's primary jobs. Of course,
pistons allow the machine's operator to ex- with the invention of gasoline- and diesel-
tend its arm and cut through soil with a powered vehicles, construction equipment
toothed bucket. The pump exerts pressure became even more adaptable. Most con-
on the hydraulic fluid, and operating the struction equipment is powered by diesel
levers opens a valve that releases the oil into engines, although electric power, battery
a piston. The piston expands to lift the arm, power, and propane tanks are used on spe-
swing the bucket, press the bucket into the cialized equipment.
soil, and lift it out of the excavation. Revers-
ing the valve causes the oil to flow out of The backhoe is one of the smaller and more
the piston and return to the reservoir. versatile descendants of the dipper shovel.
The backhoe became an important piece of
The backhoe's standard equipment is a nar- equipment with the large-scale construction
row bucket on the rear end and a loader on of highways and increased underground
3 1
A backhoe with highlights of its

gear-driven track and bucket. placement of utilities. Backhoes and pipes or utilities), and grading projects re-
trenchers are used to excavate trenches for quired a compact machine capable of a vari-
drainage and utilities. But, from the early ety of tasks. By 1957, Elton Long, an engi-
1900s until the late 1950s, the backhoe re- neer who had retired from the Case
mained a large piece of equipment, and agri- Corporation, reinvented the backhoe in the
cultural tractors were often called into ser- form of the loader/backhoe that combined
vice for smaller, limited access construction two pieces of equipment in one and allowed
projects. Kits were available to adapt the the agricultural tractor to return to farming.
tractors to construction tasks, but sometimes Long's loader/backhoe had rubber tires for
the right connections or attachment points mobility and the right swing mechanism and
were not provided, and the strains of con- buckets for specialized work. The loader on
struction were unsafe for the tractor's design the opposite end of the machine from the
and the operator. backhoe bucket provided weight and bal-
ance when the backhoe was used; likewise,
In the late 1950s, a boom in residential de- the teeth of the backhoe bucket could be dri-
velopment sparked another spurt of changes ven into to the ground to provide anchorage
in backhoe design. Excavation of footings as the loader lifted heavy materials. By
for house foundations, trenching, backfilling 1965, other evolutions of the backhoe had
(replacing soil in a trench to cover drain- created machines exclusively for the con-
32
Backhoe
struction industry; diesel power, improved composite plastic is used for the air-cleaner
hydraulic linkages, four-wheel drive, and housing. Seals are made of a high-grade
other features were added or improved in elastomeric plastic that can withstand high
the 30 years from 1965 to 1995. temperatures and pressures. A lower grade
of plastic is formed into the fender and the
By 1995, Case added its L Series loader/ cab trim. A subcontracted foundry uses duc-
backhoes to its product line. The six models tile iron to cast the backhoe and loader
in this series have improved hydraulics, buckets.
more comfortable cabins for the operators,
fuel-injection pumps, better cooling effi-
ciency, better access for servicing, improved
road performance, improved cycle times (al- Design
lowing the operator to shift the transmission By late in the twentieth century, the func-
and accomplish the full cycle of lowering, tion, and so the basic design, of the backhoe
digging, and raising the bucket), larger fuel was clearly defined by the construction in-
tanks, and increased performance of both dustry that uses it. Design improvements
the backhoe and loader. They range in continue to be made, but they are in features
power from 73 to 99 horsepower (54 to 74 and performance characteristics, rather than
kW), and their loaders are able to lift from radical design changes. Leading manufac-
about 5,300-7,300 lb (2,400-3,300 kg). The turers like Case Corporation rely on surveys
backhoe on the largest L Series machine can among their customers to collect data lead-
excavate to a depth of almost 16 ft (5 m), ing to design modifications. The company
and the Extendahoe (an adapter that increas- defines the product based on a list of attrib-
es the length of the stick) increases that to utes, and these attributes are ranked in im-
about 20 ft (6 m). portance and in actual performance or deliv-
ery by the customers. Case routinely
Rawv Materials surveys its customers globally to obtain data
over the broadest range of operating condi-
Backhoe manufacturers purchase many of tions; it hopes to leam that the design con-
its parts as subassemblies, or partially as- cepts behind its backhoe exceed their cus-
sembled smaller units, that the manufacturer tomers' expectations.
then completes. The manufacture of sub-
assemblies may be done by a number of in-
dependent firms that specialize in metal fab- After collecting survey results and opinions
rication, hydraulics, or other specialties. The from its customers, Case uses a technique
subassemblies that are commonly purchased called Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
by backhoe builders include the chassis to boil down the input and create a new
(body), drive line (the engine, transmission, model or series of models with the requested
and front and rear axles), and the loader and characteristics. Three or four prototypes of
the backhoe (the buckets themselves plus the new design are built, and customers are
the boom, stick, and other attachments). The invited to visit the manufacturing plant for
hydraulic system is supplied as a package "customer clinics," during which the proto-
including the pump, valves, and hydraulic types are examined and tested. Construction
cylinders. The operator's station may be an operations are simulated over two or three
open, canopy type or an enclosed cab; these days, and the customers evaluate the perfor-
may also be provided by outside suppliers. mance of the prototypes and the new fea-
tures. For example, the operator's comfort
Raw materials purchased by the manufac- may be evaluated in a series of as many as
turer and included in many of the subassem- 50 questions and a kind of competition be-
blies includes medium-strength alloy steel tween the earlier design and the prototype.
in the form of thin sheets and as thicker With this detailed input, the manufacturer
plates that are about 1 in (2.5 cm) thick. The then performs its own durability, reliability,
thicker steel plates are used for structural and other tests and analyzes cost and manu-
parts of the backhoe, and the thin steel is for facturability of the redesigned product. Fur-
housings and cosmetics. Plastics comprise ther intemal quality evaluations are done be-
the trim in the interior and around the exteri- fore the product is actually launched in the
or of the cab, and a temperature-resistant marketplace.
33
The Manufacturing able to observe where paint is needed and

Process use their judgment in applying it; that is,
manual painting is more flexible than the
Receiving and assembling the electrical process. The painted subassem-
subassemblies blies are conveyed to curing ovens where
Manufacturing begins at the receiving the metal is heated to cure the paint.
docks of the factory. Purchased sub-
assemblies and components are unloaded, Hydraulic cylinders and radiator
inventoried, and stored at a number of docks
and then directed toward subassembly cells.
5A parallel subassembly is the cylinder
These cells are a number of work areas 5factory. The cylinder rods are usually re-
where components and subassemblies are ceived in precut lengths that have already
put together in more complete units or sub-
been internally machined and chromed. Fit-
assemblies. tings are added in a subassembly area, and
the cylinders are processed through their
2 For example, the components of a own dedicated paint system where they are
canopy-type cab will go to one cell e-coated, hand-painted, and oven-cured. The
where the steel canopy components are completed cylinders are carried by forklift
cleaned of oil. One side of the canopy is to the assembly area. The radiator is also a
tack-welded together by a robotic welder finished assembly, but connections are
and then final welded. While the robot added so that water lines may be attached to
welds, the subassembly operator loads the the radiator and, from it, to the engine.
components for the other side. It is welded Other subassemblies for the cooling, fuel,
in two steps, and the parts of the canopy are and lubrication systems are fumished with
welded together, also in a tack and final appropriate connections, attached lines, and
weld. The completed canopy shell is then sometimes, pumps and valves. Larger com-
loaded on a conveyor to carry it to the next ponents like cylinders and tanks for fluids
operation. are added later during the assembly of larger
components.
The backhoe casting (poured by an inde-
3pendent foundry) has not been machined. Final assembly
In a subassembly cell, it is machined in a
flexible machining center that is computer 6 All of the subassemblies meet each other
controlled. Bushings (the bearings that are Oin the assembly area. The subassemblies
required at pivot points) are fitted to the ma- are transported to and delivered at the point-
chined casting, and the backhoe subassem- of-use on the assembly line, so there is no
bly is fed through the painting center to the lost motion for the assemblers. Each chassis
next assembly area. Similarly, the loader is set on its on assembly cart with its front
arn components are machined, equipped and rear axles and built up from the deck
with fittings, and moved through the paint- (bottom or base) to the cab. The cab and
ing center. canopy are assembled at another area; when
each unit is finished, it is carried to the chas-
Painting and curing sis assembly line and attached to the com-
pleted chassis.
The material handling system consists of
A
conveyors that are both electrically pow-

1
7The engine, radiator, transmission, and
ered and free to move as subassemblies are hydraulic system are mounted onto the
placed on them or removed. As the structur- chassis. Other systems like the fuel, coolant,
al subassemblies are completed, all are con- and exhaust components are also mounted
veyed through the painting center, which on the chassis. Hoses and other fittings are
has two processes. The pieces are primed attached, and supporting flanges or brackets
using an electrical deposition process that are added as appropriate. When the cab is in
provides a generous protective paint layer. place, the controls are linked to the engine,
This is called an "e-coat" for the electrical hydraulics (for moving the buckets), and
method and is also termed a robust process other systems controlled by the operator.
for its vigorousness. The final coat of paint The two buckets-the backhoe and the
is applied manually because the painters are loader-are the last of the large components
34
Backhoe
to be put in place, using large pins that fit points of inspections, and maintain the high
the inset lugs and bushings. Their hydraulics standards established by the manufacturer.
are fitted, tightened, and tested.
A final check is performed on each backhoe.
8 The electrical system is the last to be The inspector uses a checklist to validate a
8connected; all of the fluid-bearing sys- set of criteria for the machine's function; for
tems are attached and tested first. Batteries, example, there should not be any leaks,
electrical connections for lighted controls in torque levels should be appropriate to the
the cab, and lighting are hooked up. Final pieces, and moving parts should move ac-
body rails and handles are bolted in place, cording to a set of clearly defined motions
and trim is added. and limits of motion.
9Although all the major parts were pre-
painted in the subassembly stage, the fin- Byproducts/Waste
ished backhoe makes a last visit to the paint Backhoe manufacturers do not produce true
booth for a final coat. Detailing is the last byproducts, but they make lines with several
step; decals and warning labels are applied different models (called derivatives) and ac-
to specific locations based on a template, cessories. The derivatives are not identical,
and each completed backhoe is driven off but they may have a number of features in
the assembly line on its own power to the common to keep costs down and to ease the
testing area for evaluation. manufacturing process. The derivatives or
models may differ in size, scale, horsepow-
er, or engine displacement. Case's current
Quality Control line of backhoes includes a model that is a
Quality begins outside the backhoe factory loader only. With a three-point hitch and
with each of the subcontracted suppliers. landscaping tools that are manufactured as a
They are given product specifications as separate set of accessories, the loader be-
well as lists of key or critical characteristics comes a loader/landscaper, and its uses are
(end results) that might not be immediately multiplied.
obvious from the specifications. The suppli-
ers perform their own quality inspections The process for manufacturing backhoes
and certify their products with data from produces little if any waste. Scrap is not
those inspections. generated in the assembly process. In accor-
dance with directives formulated by the U.S.
As the components are received, they begin Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
a history of documentation, called station for clean air, paint systems are carefully reg-
control documentation, that travels with ulated so they produce little airborne waste.
them through each stage of manufacture. An internal wastewater treatment system
First, they are logged in and inspected at the treats water that is used to clean materials,
receiving dock, then the assemblers inspect product parts, manufacturing equipment,
them to make sure they meet the specified and the factory itself. This internal system
criteria at each stage of assembly. Each as- discharges into the local city wastewater
sembler on the line has the authority to re- system, so an external monitor confirms that
ject parts or subassemblies throughout the there are no contaminants in the discharged
process. A welder may reject parts for fit or water. Other materials-principally card-
rust, and an assembler can stop the entire as- board packaging and wooden pallets-are
sembly line if he or she sees a flaw in mate- reusable or can be recycled.
rials, subassembly, or appearance.
Independent of the assembly line, the manu- Safety Concerns
facturer also performs random audits. In- Safety is a primary concern in the factory.
spectors may look at components, entire Assembly processes are designed to be er-
systems, or subassemblies and pull them off gonomic (that is, they allow workers to
the line for inspection. The purposes of move without stress or strain), lifting is lim-
these audits are to check the items against ited, and safe work zones are built into the
specifications, confirm the observations of assembly line. Overall, the industry estab-
the assemblers, train assemblers in the finer lishes and rewards safe work practices, and,
35
through training, workers are constantly cluding maintenance, durability, fuel effi-
made aware of safe work issues. A major ciency, and resale value. The backhoe is its
manufacturer should have millions of work- own best guarantee of a secure future. It is a
er hours without any safety-related losses. versatile machine that is becoming even
more flexible, thanks to modern technology
The Future linked with a proven track record.
Despite the backhoe's well-established posi-
tion in the construction industry, there is al- Where to Learn More
ways room for improvement. Design modi- Books
fications are driven by customer demand.
As of 2000, the two primary areas where Adkins, Jan. Heavy Equipment. New York:
customers would like to see more improve- Charles Scribner's Sons, 1980.
ments are in the ease of operation and the
operator's comfort. The need for simple op- Nichols, Herbert L., Jr. Moving the Earth:
eration is forced by the fact that there are The Workbook of Excavation. Greenwich,
fewer skilled operators in the marketplace. CT: North Castle Books, 1976.
And operations and reliability are both im- Singh, Jagman. Heavy Construction: Plan-
proving because of the continuing integra- ning Equipment and Methods. Rotterdam,
tion of electronics, automation, better en- The Netherlands: A. A. Balkema, 1993.
gine technology, and on-board diagnostics.
It is now up to the manufacturers to cost-ef- Other
fectively incorporate improvements.
Case Corporation. http://www.casecorp.com.
The future of the backhoe depends not only (December 14, 2000).
on cost-effective design changes but cost
consciousness in all aspects of operation in- -Gillian S. Holmes
36
Bagpipes
Background History The oldest references to
The bagpipe is a wind instrument with a Although the familiar bagpipe of the parade bagpipes appear in
number of pipes and a bag. The melody band is the Scottish Great Highland bagpipe,
pipe, or chanter, has finger holes that are bagpipes in many different forms are folk in- Alexandria, Egypt, in
played to produce the tune. Three other struments in many cultures around the
pipes, called drones, have bass and tenor world. Reputedly, the bagpipe arose in
about 100 B.C.
pitches (with one bass and two tenor Sumeria or China in about 5,000 B.C., but
drones). They are called drones because this has never been substantiated. The oldest
they produce single notes only that are tuned references to bagpipes appear in Alexandria,
to the chanter. The piper puffs air by mouth Egypt, in about 100 B.C. The bagpipe may
into a blowpipe that fills the bag. The bag is have traveled west through Europe along
made of animal skin and is held by the play- with spreading populations and the develop-
er between the side of the chest and arm. ment of individual cultures. Both Roman and
The piper's lungs and diaphragm provide air Greek writings mention bagpipes in about
and air pressure to make the reeds vibrate in A.D. 100, and they were known over most of
the chanter and drones to produce one Europe by about the ninth century. The bag-
melody and three harmonies with one in- pipe probably evolved from a double pipe
strument. When the piper needs to take a made of two canes; both were single-reed
breath, squeezing on the bag provides the pipes but one played the tune and the other
supplemental air supply to keep the bagpipe was the drone. The bags were made of whole
playing its continuous sound. The five pipes skins of goats or sheep (without the
join the bag at wooden sockets called hindquarters). More sophisticated instru-
stocks. In the stock where the mouthpiece is ments had bags that were made of pieces cut
attached to the bag, a leather non-return from animal skins and stitched together.
valve keeps air from escaping back up the These types of simple bagpipes are still
pipe. Some bagpipes are heavily ornament- found on the Arabian and Greek Peninsulas
ed with sterling silver fittings, a velvet or and in North Africa and Eastern Europe.
tartan bag cover, and braided silk cords. The
colors match those of the Scottish clan (fam- Illustrations from Geoffrey Chaucer's Canter-
ily), military regiment, or other organization bury Tales show that several of the pilgrims
to which the piper belongs. were pipers; Shakespeare also mentions the
bagpipe in his play The Merchant of Venice.
From about the thirteenth through to the six-
The sound that a bagpipe produces is con- teenth century, England had many forms of
tinuous as the bag is constantly filled by bagpipes with versions for the common folk
the piper and rhythmically squeezed to and more elaborate forms for the royal courts.
feed air to the chanter and drones. To give The popularity of the pipes at court died out
the effect of detached notes, bagpipe music around 1560, and the more common forms
is written with grace notes that the piper also lost followers in the south and east.
plays rapidly. The range of a set of pipes is
limited, so music must be arranged specifi- In Western Europe, the cornemuse of France
cally for the bagpipe. and the zampogna of Italy are folk bagpipes
37
Bagpipes.
drones
' Bag
with character. The comemuse has a chanter though bagpipes were known long before this
and a tenor drone and is blown with an ann- time). The French musette may have been the
pumped bellows instead of a bag. It is still parent of a class of small pipes known as
played today in folk bands or accompanied British small pipes, of which the best known
by a hurdy-gurdy (a three-stringed instru- is the Northumbrian small pipe that is still
ment). The musette is also a well-known played today. The Northumbrian pipe has a
French bagpipe that became popular while cylindrical chanter like a clarinet (rather than
Louis XIV was king. The musette had two a conical one like many other pipes and other
chanters and four drones, but all the drones wind instruments like the oboe), only seven
were in a single pipe. The Italian zampogna keys, four single-reed drones that are held in
is played with two hands with a chanter for one stock, and a closed bottom end on the
each hand. The two chanters play melody chanter. When all the finger holes are cov-
and harmony, and the instrument also has ered, the chanter makes no sound, so this fin-
two drones. All four pipes emerge from a gering is used for staccato (short, rapid) notes
single stock. All of these instruments be- and closed phrasing; that is, grace notes are
came popular before 1700. not needed to suggest separate notes. Like the
musette, the Northumbrian small pipe dates
Although many other varieties of bag- and from about 1700; the chanters for the come-
bellows-blown pipes are part of European muse, musette, Northumbrian small pipes,
musical history, the bagpipe found its real and zampogna all use double reeds.
home in the British Isles-primarily in Scot-
land, Ireland, and northern England-achiev- Another product of about 1700 is the Irish
ing cultural popularity after about 1700 (al- uilleann or union pipe, one of the most com-
38
Bagpipes
plicated bagpipes and a bellows-blown in-
strument. The Irish union pipe has a chanter,
three drones, and three companion pipes
called regulators. The regulators look like
chanters, but they are closed at the bottom
and have only four or five keys. The piper
plays them like chords with the wrist of the
right hand. The chanter itself is articulated
by stopping it against the piper's knee. This
also pushes the reed to a higher octave, so
the Irish pipe has a broader melodic range
than other pipes.
The Scottish versions of the bagpipe are the
Highland small pipe, the "hydrid union
pipe" (also called the Pastoral pipe), the
Lowland pipe, the Scottish Border pipe, and
the Scottish Great Highland bagpipe. The
Highland small pipe was rare early in the
twentieth century but is experiencing a re-
birth in interest; its small size and soft sound
makes it suitable for indoor use. It may be
blown by mouth or bellows and has three
drones, although they can be tuned differ-
ently than drones on other pipes. The hybrid
union pipe is also small, has a conical bore,
is used in doors, and is able to play two oc-
taves (like the union pipe). The Lowland
pipe is bellows-blown, has a cylindrical
bore and reeds related to the Northumbrian
small pipe, and carries three drones in one
stock. It is about half the size of the Scottish
Great Highland bagpipe, and, although it The Highland bagpipe is a large instrument.
went out of fashion in the nineteenth centu- Five stocks for the three drones (two tenor
ry, it has been revived by makers of antique- and one bass), the chanter, and the blowpipe
type instruments. Finally, the Scottish Bor- are tied into the bag. The blowpipe is long,
der pipe, which is closely related to the so the piper can both play and march with
Great Highland bagpipe, has a conical bore, his head erect; the other types of smaller
is bellows blown, has the drones tied in a Scottish pipes are often clutched against the
common stock, and has toned-down reeds chest and require the piper to bend over
that produce a quieter sound. them slightly to blow into the blowpipe and
play the chanter. The drones spread apart
The Scottish Great Highland bagpipe is like a fan from the piper's left shoulder and
called the piob mh6r in Scottish Gaelic. It out and are held apart by decorative silk
was used as a martial instrument to inspire cords; the bass drone is the one resting on
troops to battle since the sixteenth century, the piper's shoulder. The two tenor drones
but, when warring against the English, the are about 16 in (40 cm) long and are tuned
Highland clans were accompanied by solo to one octave below the chanter. The bass
pipers, not bands. Solo pipers also played drone is 31.5 in (80 cm) long and is tuned to
laments at funerals and folk music for other two octaves below the chanter. The drones
occasions. The rise of the pipe band did not are cylindrical bores (like oboes).
occur until the rebellious clans were solidly
put down, and Scottish regiments were The chanter has nine holes including one
raised under Queen Victoria. Pipe bands double-vent hole and eight fingered holes. It
quickly became symbols of their regiments is a wide conical bore (like a clarinet) that
and have remained highly visible represen- produces a penetrating, loud sound.
tatives of Scottish culture to this day. Whether this sound is loved or hated, it has
39
migrated with British imperialism, settle- of endangered species. In the 1700s, ivory
ment and immigration, and Scottish regi- from elephants, walruses, and narwhals (an
ments in wars from the American Revolu- Arctic-dwelling whale species) was the
tion through World War II to almost every most common material for ornamentation
part of the world. In some places, it has be- because it can be worked and turned into
come so popular that it has pushed aside na- beautiful artwork. Animal horn was also a
tive folk instruments. Piping schools, Scot- source. Today, antlers from elk and moose
tish Highland Games including pipe band are commonly used as is imitation ivory.
contests, and highly trained manufacturers Celluloid was an early manmade material to
of Great Highland bagpipes can be found in be carved for decoration, but plastics are
many countries outside the former British generally worked now.
Commonwealth.
The bagpipe maker purchases wood and
antler in log form. Plastic is supplied in
Raw Materials sheets or rods, and metal for ferrules (bands
Scottish Great Highland bagpipes dating that are put around the shafts of the pipes to
from the 1700s had pipes made of bog oak. support and strengthen them and caps that
With imperialism and the rise of the "three protect the pipe ends) is received as metal
corner trade" among Africa, America, and tubing or castings and may consist of alu-
Britain, tropical hardwoods became avail- minum, brass, nickel, or sterling silver.
able and have become the woods of choice
for constructing pipes. African Blackwood
and Brazilian rosewood are ideal for pipes. Design
A brown hardwood called cocus wood is The basic design of the Scottish Great High-
mentioned as a wood for pipes; this was true land bagpipe was established in the 1700s,
until the 1920s, but cocus wood is not used and its straight, simple lines have been the
now. Many of raw materials used in the standard since then. In Victorian times,
manufacture of bagpipes are dictated by the more combing and beading on the wood
humidity of the region where the bagpipe is came into fashion, and this ornamentation
to be played. Some tropical hardwoods used has also become traditional. The pipe maker
to make the chanter and drones, particularly does have some leeway in the design of the
ebony, are ideal for the dampness of the cli- bores of the chanter and drones, but the
mate in the British Isles but don't work well range of internal dimensions is still limited
in the drier parts of the United States. Plas- to maintain the traditional sound. Because
tics, particularly acetyl homopolymers, are each bagpipe is hand-crafted, there are cer-
used by some makers for pipes to avoid the tainly subtle differences among manufactur-
complications of climate. ers. Perhaps the greatest changes in design
Bags also require consideration for climate. have been in other families of pipes in
They must be air-tight and water absorbent. which everything old is new again; many
Sheepskin is used in Great Britain, but it is pipe makers are reviving antique styles and
not as durable in drier regions. In the United early forms of bagpipes.
States elk or cow hide is used, and Aus-
tralian pipe makers use kangaroo hide. Gor- The Manufacturing
tex is a modern material that is sometimes Process
substituted for native hide.
Reeds are the constant in pipe production
The wood drones and chanter
since the earliest known bagpipes. The 1 The pipe maker imports African Black-
water-reed was originally used for pipes as wood for the chanter and drones in the
well as the reeds. Today, it is used to make form of logs. These are sliced into planks
both single and double reeds. Plastics such and then into squares and are stockpiled for
as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), metals, and air-drying for a period of three to seven
brass are source materials for reeds for years. Some manufacturers have begun re-
some manufacturers. Ornamentation on bag- ducing drying times because of the related
pipes may have experienced the greatest expense, and there are methods for kiln-dry-
changes because of concern for preservation ing the wood.
40
Bagpipes
2 When the moisture content of the wood needles; stitching a single bag takes approx-
2makes it suitable for working, the pipe imately two hours.
maker can use a single-flute drill, twist drill,
reamer, or gun drill to bore out the cylindri-
cal drones. The single-flute drill makes the Assembly
cleanest bore, although the carbide-tipped
7The 14 pieces comprising a Great High-
gun drill is a state-of-the-art tool because it
uses a coolant hole to blow air or fluid in the
land bagpipe are assembled by tying.
The five stocks are tied into the bag using
bore to clean out chips. waxed linen, hemp, or nylon. Some makers
use corked joints much like those in clar-
3 The completed bore becomes the center inets, but they are generally not as popular
for turning the outside shape of each in pipe manufacture. The chanter and drones
drone on a lathe. The ferrules (protective are connected to the stocks; only the reeds
metal bands and tips) are press-fit and glued have to be added to complete the pipes.
in place, and projecting mounts are threaded
on. The drones are finished with applica-
tions of wax, oil, lacquer, or varnish. The 8 The final finish is applied to the wood
surface finish depends on the type of wood Vpipes by smoothing them with 80- to
used, considerations such as humidity, and 120-grit sandpaper and working up to 400-
the pipe maker's style and preferences. grit wet sandpaper. Heated oil or wax is then
applied by hand using a fine cloth.
4 The chanter is made like the drones with
1
two major exceptions. First, the bore of If the maker chooses to finish the pipes with
the chanter is conical, so it is step-drilled lacquer or varnish instead of oil or wax,
with twist drills then reamed with a single- 220-grit sandpaper is used to smooth the
flute tapered reamer that is 13 in (33 cm) wood before the lacquer or varnish is ap-
long. The narrow end of the reamer is about plied with camel-hair brushes. The lacquer
0.13 in (0.32 cm) in diameter and the wide or vamish may be sprayed on in a spray-
end is approximately 0.87 in (2.22 cm) in di- paint booth.
ameter. Proper boring of the cone inside the
chanter is critical to the tone it will produce.
The second process exclusive to the chanter Reeds
is the drilling or milling of finger holes into 9 The reeds are hand-made from metal tub-
the turned bore. After the finger holes are 7ing and water reed. The chanter takes a
complete, the chanter is surface-finished to double reed that is begun with a brass of
match the drones. copper tube. The tubes may be cylindrical or
conical. Two slices of reed are placed
5 The stocks are made along with the against the tube and wrapped in place. Reeds
wood pipes. They are simply straight for the drones use tubular lengths of cane or
holes with tie-in grooves at the bottoms. The reed instead of slices. On the cane, nodes
stocks have to be long enough to accommo- mark the places where leaves sprouted when
date the reeds for the drones. Each stock is the reed was growing. Above a node on the
equipped with a ferrule at the top to prevent cane, the pipe maker cross-cuts a slice and
it from splitting. then makes two parallel cuts perpendicular
to the slice. The small tongue made by the
three cuts is raised up with the node as a kind
The bag of brace at its base. The tongue is about one-
6 The bagpipe bags are cut from elk or quarter to one-half of the diameter of the
6cow hide; typically, four or five bags can reed. As air passes through it, this tongue
be cut from a single side of a cow hide. The will vibrate to produce its tone. The opposite
hide is folded, and the bag sides are cut out end of the cane length is tapered and at-
as a mirror image. The seam is glued with tached to the drone. If modem materials are
contact adhesive to hold it temporarily until used, a plastic tube is used for the drone reed
a leather welt can be put in place and the with a separate piece of plastic for the
welt and seam are stitched together. The tongue. Insertion of the reeds in the pipes
seam and welt are hand stitched with double completes the bagpipes.
4 1
Byproducts/Waste ciations throughout the United States and

Canada that provide lessons, encourage-
Dust from the wood used to manufacture ment, and a ready audience. Thanks to the
bagpipes is highly toxic, and the pipe maker swirl of the kilt and the skirl of the bagpipe,
must wear a respirator, not a dust mask, to pipe makers anticipate a lasting and loving
keep from inhaling the wood dust. Most of future for their artistry.
the natural products used in making bag-
pipes are biodegradable. Plastic waste re-
sults in very small amounts and is disposed Where to Learn More
in a landfill. Thinners and other organic Books
compounds are used with lacquer or varnish
finishes; but these are usually stored in Baines, Anthony. Bagpipes. University of
small quantities with little waste. The pri- Oxford, England: Oxford University Press,
mary hazard in bagpipe manufacture is to 1999.
the pipe maker who must protect himself Baines, Anthony. The Oxford Companion
from the dust hazard and must also wear to Musical Instruments. New York: Oxford
hearing protection because he works closely University Press, 1992.
with noisy machinery.
Cannon, Roderick D. The Highland Bag-
Qucality Control pipe & Its Music. New York: John Donald,
2000.
Quality control is a constant issue in the pro-
duction of bagpipes. The pipe maker crafts Collinson, Francis. The Bagpipe: The His-
each bagpipe individually and so is monitor- tory of a Musical Instrument. Boston, MA:
ing his own work until the product is com- Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975.
plete. Tolerances in boring and turning the Dearling, Robert, ed. The Illustrated Ency-
pipes are tiny; the sound will suffer if these clopedia of Musical Instruments. New
are not strictly observed. The internal di- York: Schirmer Books, 1996.
mension is critical and can only err by plus
or minus 0.0005 in (0.013 mm). The exteri- Sadie, Stanley, ed. New Grove Dictionary
or diameter can only err by plus or minus of Musical Instruments.London: Macmillan
0.1 in (0.25 mm). These tolerances are per- Press, 1984.
haps the greatest single issue in the quality
manufacture of bagpipes. The pipe maker's Other
reputation rests on his ability to create uni-
formly excellent bagpipes in appearance and Cushing Bagpipe Company. http://www.
more importantly in sound quality. lightlink.com/mcushing (January 2001).
J. Dunbar Bagpipe Maker Ltd. http://www.
The Future dunbarbagpipes.com (January 2001).
Interest in the bagpipe is growing steadily K. Pettigrew Bagpipes. http://www.bagpipes.
especially in the United States and Canada, co.uk (January 2001).
which are the two largest markets in the
world. The demand for well-made instru- MacLellan Bagpipes. http://www.highland-
ments has been steady for a number of pipemaker.com (January 2001).
years, but the number of bagpipers is grow- The Bagpipe Web. http://www.bagpiper.com
ing now. Master pipe-maker Mark Cushing (January 2001).
credits the interest in the pipes to two fac-
tors. Ethnic interest is prompting people to The Piping Center, Glasgow, Scotland. http://
study pipe-playing because of its connection www.thepipingcentre.co.uk (January 2001).
to their family history. Still more players are
attracted by the sound of the pipes and the Uileann Pipes. http://www.uileannpipes.com
strong feelings they stir. No matter what the (January 2001).
basis for their interest might be, these pipers
are encouraged by the many pipe band asso- -Gillian S. Holmes
42
Baking Powder
Baking powder is a solid mixture that is History In 1834, Dr. Austin
used as a chemical leavening agent in baked
goods. It can be composed of a number of The development of baking powders began Church developed a
materials, but usually contains baking soda with the discovery of carbonate materials.
(sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3), cream of One of the first carbonates was potash process for making
tartar (potassium bitartrate, C4H5KO6), and (potassium carbonate, K2CO3), a material baking soda from soda
cornstarch. (A base, an acid, and a filler re- that was extracted from wood ashes. During
spectively.) Baking powder is made by gen- the eighteenth century, potash production ash. This product is still
erating these solids, combining them in had become a major commercial industry.
unique proportions, and then transferring American colonies exported huge amounts sold today under the Arm
them to packaging. First developed in the to England where it was used by glass facto-
ries and soap manufacturers.
& Hammer name.
mid 1 800s, baking powder formulations
have changed little since. Potash's usefulness to the baking industry
was discovered during the 1760s. Prior to this
Background time bakers had to hand knead dough for
long periods to get the proper amount of air
To modify the final characteristics of baked mixed throughout. For recipes which called
goods, leavening agents such as baking for sourdough, pearlash (concentrated
powder or yeast are added to recipes. A potash) was added to offset the sour taste. By
leavening agent is a material that releases chance, bakers found that these types of
carbon dioxide (CO2) under certain condi- dough rose quickly. Evidently, the pearlash
tions. This creates gas bubbles in the dough reacted with the natural acids in the sour-
making it expand. When the product is dough to produce carbon dioxide gas. This
baked, air pockets are created resulting in discovery revolutionized the baking industry.
food that is light and crispy. Baking powder
is generally preferred to yeast because it Over time, wood sources became scarce in
produces bubbles much faster. Yeast leav- England and other sources of carbonates
ened dough takes anywhere from two to were sought. In 1783 the French Academy
three hours to rise. Baking powder dough of Sciences ran a contest for inventors who
takes about 15 minutes. could develop a process for converting salt
(sodium chloride, NaCI) to soda ash (sodi-
Baking powder is a white solid that typically um carbonate, Na2CO3). This contest was
has three components, including an acid, a won by Nicolas LeBlanc in 1791. In his
base, and a filler. When water is added to process, salt was reacted with sulfuric acid,
the baking powder, the dry base and acid coal, and limestone to produce soda ash.
dissolve into a solution. In this form, the The soda ash was tried by bakeries as a
compounds react to produce carbon dioxide leavening agent and found to be equivalent
bubbles, however, the amount of carbon to potash. Baking soda was soon after ex-
dioxide produced by this reaction varies. tracted from soda ash and used to sooth
Baking powder determines the final texture stomach acids. The superior leavening prop-
of the food and can affect the flavor, mois- erties of this material were discovered by
ture, and overall palatability. American bakeries by the 1830s. It released
43
The Solvay ammonia process.
gas quicker and the aftertaste was not as bit- filler. Each of these materials can have a
ter as soda ash. significant impact on the texture and taste of
the finished product.
Another important development in America
was the development of potassium bicar- The most common dry base used in baking
bonate (CHKO3) by Natha Read in 1788. He powders is baking soda, also called sodium
suspended lumps of pearlash over ferment- bicarbonate. It is a water soluble white crys-
ing molasses. This converted the potassium
talline material, and produces carbon diox-
carbonate into potassium bicarbonate. Un- ide gas by itself when heated above 122°F
fortunately, this process resulted in a less (50°C). In addition to its use in baking, it is
dependable leavening agent when compared also used in the production of effervescent
to that manufactured in Europe. In 1834, Dr. salts in medicine to prevent excess stomach
Austin Church developed a different process
acidity and in various types of fire extin-
for making baking soda from soda ash. This guishers.
product is still sold today under the Arm &
Hammer name.
The type of acid used in a baking powder
During the 1860s, various companies intro- formula is more varied. The first baking
duced other ingredients in their baking soda powders used cream of tartar, a powdered
formulas and sold them as baking powders. acid. It was quick reacting and had to be put
These ingredients behaved in a more con- in the oven quickly or the gas would be
trolled way in recipes. Over time, different spent. This material was perfect for products
carbonate and acid mixtures have been sold like pancakes or muffins. Today, there are
as baking powders. Today, sodium bicar- four major acids used in commercial baking
bonate and tartaric acid mixtures remain the powders including monocalcium phosphate
most popular. (CaHO4P), sodium acid pyrophosphate
(H2Na207P2) sodium aluminum phosphate
Raw Materials (H304P), and sodium aluminum sulfate
(NaAl08S2). Monocalcium phosphate is a
As suggested, the primary components of a fast reacting acid which produces a large
baking powder are a dry acid, base, and amount of gas within three minutes of its ad-
44
Baking Powder
dition to baking soda. This is about twice baking powders have two acids, one which
the speed of other acids. Sodium acid py- reacts immediately and one that reacts when
rophosphate is a slower reacting acid and is heated.
used in refrigerated biscuit dough recipes.
Sodium aluminum phosphate and sodium A less often used third type of baking pow-
aluminum sulfate are also slow reacting der is baker's ammonia. It results in a light,
acids which generate gas when heated. airy product but can impart an ammonia fla-
While these compounds are used, most bak- vor if not used properly. It is best used in the
ers prefer aluminum-free baking powders production of flat cookies, helping to dissi-
due to the unpleasant flavor the aluminum pate the ammonia odor during cooking.
can cause in the baked good.
The Manufacturing
The third major component of baking pow- Process
ders is an inert filler. The most common of
these is cornstarch. The cornstarch has three Baking powder is made in a batch process
purposes. First, it helps keep the product dry and involves production of the component
and easily flowing. Without it, containers of raw materials, blending, and packaging.
baking powder could bind up and form one
large mass. Second, it keeps the acids and Production of raw materials
bases separated and prevents them from re- The manufacture of baking powder be-
acting during storage. Finally, it adds bulk gins with the production of sodium car-
to the powder to make it easier to measure bonate. Known as the Solvay ammonia
and standardize. process, it was first developed in 1861. In
this process ammonia and carbon dioxide
Design are passed through a saltwater (NaClH2) so-
lution in an absorption tower. This results in
While a variety of baking powders are avail- a compound called ammonium bicarbonate
able, all of them meet basic standards and (CH5NO3) which reacts with the salt to pro-
generate almost identical amounts of carbon duce crude sodium bicarbonate crystals and
dioxide. The basic difference between all ammonium chloride (ClH4N).
types is the reaction time. There are two cat-
egories of baking powders: single acting and 2 The bicarbonate crystals are filtered out
double acting. using vacuum filters or centrifuges. They
are then washed with water to remove any
Single-acting baking powders immediately residual chloride. The resulting solid is then
produce most of their gas when mixed with conveyed to the calcining operation. Here,
a liquid. They are classified by the type of the material is heated and reacted with car-
acid they utilize. Those that contain cream bon dioxide to produce sodium carbonate,
of tartar and tartaric acid (C4H606) create or soda ash.
gas rapidly when mixed with baking soda
and a liquid. These batters must be cooked 3The soda ash is dissolved, carbonated,
quickly or they will go flat. Slower single- and cooled which results in crystallized
acting baking powders are phosphate baking sodium bicarbonate. This solid bicarbonate
powders that contain either calcium phos- material is of a purer concentrate than the
phate (Ca3O8P2) or disodium pyrophosphate intermediate bicarbonate formed earlier in
(H2Na2O7P 2). Aluminum sulfate (AI2012S3) the process. It is then laid out on driers to re-
powders react more slowly at room temper- move most of the moisture. The product is
ature but give a bitter taste to the batter. passed through metal screens to produce the
desired particle size and filled into drums
Most commercial baking powders are dou- for storage.
ble-acting. These means that initially a
small amount of gas is released when it is 4 The solid acid for many baking powders
mixed with a liquid. The primary generation 1 is tartaric acid. This material is made
of gas occurs when the batter is heated dur- using potassium hydrogen tartrate, which is
ing cooking. These types of powders allow a a waste product from wine making. The
batter to be left in an unbaked condition for potassium hydrogen tartrate is first purified
long periods of time. Often double-acting and converted to calcium tartrate. Using sul-
45
furic acid, the calcium tartrate is hydrolyzed Some of the characteristics that are tested
to produce calcium sulfate and tartaric acid. include pH, appearance, and density. The
These materials are then separated and the finished product is also tested. Typically,
resulting tartaric acid is purified and dried. the particle size is checked as are the micro-
biological characteristics of the powder.
Blending the powders
5 The sodium bicarbonate, tartaric acid, The Future
5and cornstarch are transferred to a blend- While baking powders have changed little
ing area. Compounders pour the appropriate over the last 100 years, manufacturers are
amount of each solid into mixing containers. always looking for new ways to make a
These mixers have large, stainless steel greater profit. The baking powders of the fu-
blades that thoroughly combine the powders ture may be blended with different ingredi-
into a single, homogeneous blend. This ma- ents to enhance flavor. They may also be
terial is then transferred through vacuum specially formulated for specific types of
tubing to the filling machine. batter to accentuate characteristics such as
gas evolution speed, residual flavor, or
Filling and packing blending ease. Certainly, in the future manu-
facturers will find less expensive production
6 The baking powder is placed in a covered
methods.
hopper and dispensed into the desired
package. Baking powders are packaged in a
variety of ways depending on the manufac- Where to Learn More
turer. For home use it is typically sold in a 4
or 10 oz (113 or 264g) can. Restaurants can Books
get baking powder in 5 or 10 lb (2.3 or 4.5 Ciullo, Peter. Baking Soda Bonanza. New
kg) metal cans. Industrial bakeries buy it in York: Harper Perennial, 1995.
50 or 100 lb (23 or 45 kg) fiber cartons. Fill-
ing is typically performed by a rapid, Kirk-Othmer. Encyclopedia of Chemical
carousel filler which forces a specific Technology. Vol. 1. New York: John Wiley
amount of baking powder into the package & Sons, 1992.
which is then sealed. The sealed containers
are placed into cardboard boxes and stacked Macrae, R. et al. ed. Encyclopedia of Food
on pallets. The pallets are transferred to Science, Food Technology and Nutrition.
trucks or railroad cars and shipped to local San Diego: Academic Press, 1993.
grocery stores or commercial bakeries.
Periodicals
Quality Control "Is Your Baking Powder Still Potent?" Dia-
betes Forecast 50, no. 10 (October 1997).
To ensure the quality of each batch of bak-
ing powder manufacturers monitor the prod- Lutzow, Susan. "Baking-powder Power."
uct at each stage of production. The starting Journal Information Bakery Production
raw materials are subjected to various physi- and Marketing (November 1996).
cal and chemical tests to determine if they
meet previously determined specifications. -Perry Romanowski
46
Basketball
Background rebound to a height (measured to the top of The basketball Wilt
the ball) of 49-54 in (1.2-1.4 m) when it is
Basketball can make a true claim to being dropped on a solid wooden floor from a Chamberlain used to
the only major sport that is an American in- starting height of 6 ft (1.80 m) measured
vention. From high school to the profession- score 100 points in a
from the bottom of the ball. The factory must
al level, basketball attracts a large following test the balls, and the air pressure that makes game was sold in the
for live games as well as television coverage the ball legal in keeping with the bounce test
of events like the National Collegiate Athlet- is stamped on the ball. During the intensity 1990s for $551,844.
ic Association (NCAA) annual tournament of high school and college tourneys and the
and the National Basketball Association professional playoffs, this inflated sphere
(NBA) and Women's National Basketball commands considerable attention.
Association (WNBA) playoffs. And it has
also made American heroes out of its player
and coach legends like Michael Jordan, History
Larry Bird, Earvin "Magic" Johnson, Sheryl
Swoopes, and other great players. Basketball is one of few sports with a
known date of birth. On December 1, 1891,
At the heart of the game is the playing space in Springfield, Massachusetts, James Nai-
and the equipment. The space is a rectangu- smith hung two half-bushel peach baskets at
lar, indoor court. The principal pieces of the opposite ends of a gymnasium and out-
equipment are the two elevated baskets, one lined 13 rules based on five principles to his
at each end (in the long direction) of the students at the International Training School
court, and the basketball itself. The ball is of the Young Men's Christian Association
spherical in shape and is inflated. Basket- (YMCA), which later became Springfield
balls range in size from 28.5-30 in (72-76 College. Naismith (1861-1939) was a phys-
cm) in circumference, and in weight from ical education teacher who was seeking a
18-22 oz (510-624 g). For players below the team sport with limited physical contact but
high school level, a smaller ball is used, but a lot of running, jumping, shooting, and the
the ball in men's games measures 29.5-30 in hand-eye coordination required in handling
(75-76 cm) in circumference, and a a ball. The peach baskets he hung as goals
women's ball is 28.5-29 in (72-74 cm) in gave the sport the name of basketball. His
circumference. The covering of the ball is students were excited about the game, and
leather, rubber, composition, or synthetic, Christmas vacation gave them the chance to
although leather covers only are dictated by tell their friends and people at their local
rules for college play, unless the teams YMCAs about the game. The association
agree otherwise. Orange is the regulation leaders wrote to Naismith asking for copies
color. At all levels of play, the home team of the rules, and they were published in the
provides the ball. Triangle, the school newspaper, on January
15, 1892.
Inflation of the ball is based on the height of
the ball's bounce. Inside the covering or cas- Naismith's five basic principles center on
ing, a rubber bladder holds air. The ball must the ball, which was described as "large,
be inflated to a pressure sufficient to make it light, and handled with the hands." Players
47
A typical basketball is 30-31 in ketball was made of laced leather and

(75-78 cm) in circumference. weighed less than 20 oz (567 g). The first
molded ball that eliminated the need for
laces was introduced in 1948; its construc-
tion and size of 30 in (76 cm) were ruled of-
ficial in 1949.
The rule-setters came from several groups
early in the 1900s. Colleges and universities
established their rules committees in 1905,
the YMCA and the Amateur Athletic Union
(AAU) created a set of rules jointly, state
militia groups abided by a shared set of rules,
and there were two professional sets of rules.
A Joint Rules Committee for colleges, the
could not move the ball by running alone, AAU, and the YMCA was created in 1915,
and none of the players was restricted and, under the name the National Basketball
against handling the ball. The playing area Committee (NBC) made rules for amateur
was also open to all players, but there was to play until 1979. In that year, the National
be no physical contact between players; the Federation of State High School Associations
ball was the objective. To score, the ball had began governing the sport at the high school
to be shot through a horizontal, elevated level, and the NCAA Rules Committee as-
goal. The team with the most points at the sumed rule-making responsibilities for junior
end of an allotted time period wins. colleges, colleges, and the Armed Forces,
with a similar committee holding jurisdiction
Early in the history of basketball, the local over women's basketball.
YMCAs provided the gymnasiums, and
membership in the organization grew rapid- Until World War II, basketball became in-
ly. The size of the local gym dictated the creasingly popular in the United States espe-
number of players; smaller gyms used five cially at the high school and college levels.
players on a side, and the larger gyms al- After World War II, its popularity grew
lowed seven to nine. The team size became around the world. In the 1980s, interest in
generally established as five in 1895, and, in the game truly exploded because of televi-
1897, this was made formal in the rules. The sion exposure. Broadcast of the NCAA
YMCA lost interest in supporting the game Championship Games began in 1963, and,
because 10-20 basketball players monopo- by the 1980s, cable television was carrying
lized a gymnasium previously used by many regular season college games and even high
more in a variety of activities. YMCA mem- school championships in some states. Play-
bership dropped, and basketball enthusiasts ers like Bill Russell, Wilt Chamberlain, and
played in local halls. This led to the building Lew Alcindor (Kareem Abdul-Jabbar) be-
of basketball gymnasiums at schools and came nationally famous at the college level
colleges and also to the formation of profes- and carried their fans along in their profes-
sional leagues. sional basketball careers. The women's
game changed radically in 1971 when sepa-
Although basketball was born in the United rate rules for women were modified to more
States, five of Naismith's original players closely resemble the men's game. Televi-
were Canadians, and the game spread to sion interest followed the women as well
Canada immediately. It was played in with broadcast of NCAA championship
France by 1893; England in 1894; Australia, tourneys beginning in the early 1980s and
China, and India between 1895 and 1900; the formation of the WNBA in 1997.
and Japan in 1900.
Internationally, Italy has probably become
From 1891 through 1893, a soccer ball was the leading basketball nation outside of the
used to play basketball. The first basketball United States, with national, corporate, and
was manufactured in 1894. It was 32 in (81 professional teams. The Olympics boosts
cm) in circumference, or about 4 in (10 cm) basketball internationally and has also
larger than a soccer ball. The dedicated bas- spurred the women's game by recognizing it
48
Basketball
3.9h (1.20m)
9h (2.
A standard basketball court.

as an Olympic event in 1976. Again, televi- the National Basketball Association (NBA)
sion coverage of the Olympics has been ex- in 1949. A rival American Basketball Asso-
ceptionally important in drawing attention ciation (ABA) was inaugurated in 1967 and
to international teams. challenged the NBA for college talent and
market share for almost ten years. In 1976,
The first professional men's basketball this league disbanded, but four of its teams
league in the United States was the National remained as NBA teams. Unification came
Basketball League (NBL), which debuted in just in time for major television support.
1898. Players were paid on a per-game Several women's professional leagues were
basis, and this league and others were hurt attempted and failed, including the
by the poor quality of games and the ever- Women's Professional Basketball League
changing players on a team. After the Great (WBL) and the Women's World Basketball
Depression, a new NBL was organized in Association, before the WNBA debuted in
1937, and the Basketball Association of 1997 with the support of the NBA.
America was organized in 1946. The two
leagues came to agree that players had to be Rawv Materials
assigned to teams on a contract basis and
that high standards had to govern the game; The outside covering of a basketball is made
under these premises, the two joined to form of synthetic rubber, rubber, composition, or
49
used to label the ball, or foil is used to im-
print label information. Zinc and copper
plates are used in a press to either affix the
decals or imprint the foil.
Design
The actual configuration of most basket-
balls is dictated by the rules or standards of
the type of game in which the ball will be
used. NBA, WNBA, and other professional
leagues have specified dimensions for reg-
ulation balls, as described above, and even
the imprinted information is specified. Am-
ateur sports bodies have also developed
rules and specifications, and there are spe-
cialized basketballs made for junior players
(younger than high-school age), intermedi-
ate players (high-school age), and for in-
door, outdoor, or combination play. Pro-
motional basketballs that are much smaller
in diameter are also made as souvenirs of
many events such as the NCAA Champi-
onships.
Basketball designers are always trying to
improve the product and build a better bas-
ketball. Inventor Marvin Palmquist created
the "Hole-in-One" basketball to improve a
player's grip; the ball has dimples, much
like a golf ball, and can be easily palmed
Michael Jordan-style by players with small-
er-than-Jordan hands. Even the most skilled
NBA star copes with sweaty palms, and this
obstacle is addressed in another modifica-
tion consisting of microscopic holes in the
surface, which is made of absorbent
polyurethane. This is the same material
that forms the grip on a tennis racket, but it
has been strengthened to withstand the abra-
sion of bouncing on a wooden basketball
court. It absorbs moisture to keep the ball's
hide less slippery.
Still other inventors feel the size of the ball
is a disadvantage to proper handling and
have suggested increasing the circumfer-
ence from 30 to 36 in (76 to 91.4 cm), re-
sulting in an increase in diameter from 9.6
to 11.5 in (24.4 to 29.2 cm). The so-called
Bigball still fits through a regulation hoop
and has been used in training sessions by
leather. The inside consists of a bladder (the both college and NBA teams. The Bigball
balloon-like structure that holds air) and the must be shot with a higher arc to fall
carcass. The bladder is made of butyl rub- through the hoop, and, after practicing with
ber, and the carcass consists of treads of the larger basketball, the regulation ball
nylon or polyester. Preprinted decals are seems easier to handle.
50
Basketball
The Manufacturing strands determine the cost and quality of the
Process ball. The typical street-quality basketball
has a carcass made of multiple wraps of
Forming the bladder three strands of polyester thread. The balls
1 The making of a basketball begins with used by professional teams have carcasses
the interior bladder. Black butyl rubber in constructed of nylon thread that is wrapped
bulk form (and including recycled rubber) is using four strands of thread. The same over-
melted in the hopper of a press that feeds it head conveyors continue carrying the car-
out in a continuous sheet that is 12 in (30.5 cass-encased bladders by their air tubes to
cm) wide and 0.5 in (1.3 cm) thick. A guil- the next step in the process where the car-
lotine-like cutter cuts the long strip into casses and covers will meet.
sheets that are 18 in (45.7 cm) long, and
they are stacked up. A hand-controlled ma- Crafting the covers of the balls
chine selects the sheets one at a time and, 5 Meanwhile, the exteriors or covers of the
using a punch press, punches a 1-in-diame- 5balls have been in production as the
ter (2.54-cm-diameter) hole that will hold
the air tube for inflating the bladder. bladders and carcasses have taken shape. On
60-inch-long (152-cm-long) tables, colored
2 The sheets are carried on a sheet elevator rubber is unrolled from a continuous roll.
or conveyor to an assembly line where The smooth rubber does not have pebbling
the air tube is inserted by hand. A heated (small bumps) that characterizes the surface
melding device bonds it to the sheet, which of a finished basketball so that the outlines
is folded into quarters. Another punch press for the panels can be clearly marked on the
stamps out a rounded edge and, at the same rubber. A silk screen is moved along a series
time, binds the edges to make the seams of of metal markers that are guides marking the
the bladder. This bladder is not perfectly length of the rubber sheet needed for each
shaped. ball. The silk screen operator moves the
screen by hand and imprints the outlines of
3 The odd-shaped bladder is taken to a vul- the six panels making up the ball. Only one
canizing machine. Vulcanization is a color is used at a time, and, depending on
process for heating rubber under pressure the design, multiple silk screenings may be
that improves its properties by making it needed to color the six panels with all the
more flexible, more durable, and stronger. colors on the ball.
In the vulcanizer, the bladder is inflated.
Heating by vulcanization uniformly seals 6 A hand-operated punch press-equipped
the rubber so it will hold air. Completed 6with specially designed and tooled
bladders are stored in a holding chamber for dies-punches the rubber outlines to create
24 hours. This quality control measure tests six separate panels per ball. The same die
their ability to hold air; those that deflate are has a hole that is punched in one of the six
recycled. panels to make an opening for the air tube.
The excess rubber surrounding the panels is
Shaping the carcass lifted off the line and deposited in a bin for
recycling.
4 The bladders that withstand the 24-hour
1 inflation test are conveyed from the 7The assembly worker picks up the six
holding chamber to the twining or winding panels for a single ball in a specific order
department. They make this joumey sus- and carries them to the vulcanizer. The inte-
pended from a conveyor system by their air rior of the vulcanizer for this process is dif-
tubes. Machines loaded with spools of either ferent from the one for the bladders. It is
polyester or nylon thread or string wrap form-fitted to hold the six panels, to create
multiple strands at a time around each blad- the channels between the panels, and to add
der; this is the same process used to make any embossed information. The assembler
the inside of a golf ball. The irregularly fits the panels individually into specified
shaped bladders now begin to take on a bet- sections in the vulcanizer. A bladder/carcass
ter, more rounded shape as the precisely is taken off the overhead conveyor, covered
controlled threads build and shape the balls. with a coating of glue, and placed inside the
The quality of the thread and the number of chamber of the vulcanizer that is lined with
51
the cover panels. When the ball emerges completed ball is inspected again. The in-
from the vulcanizer, most of its surface is spector removes the production run tag, and
still smooth (there are no bumps, called peb- the ball is deflated so it can be easily packed
bling), but the channels and any embossing and shipped. Each flattened ball is packed in
are formed into the surface. a polyethylene bag, and the bagged balls are
boxed for bulk shipment to the distributor.
8 Decals and foil decoration and informa- The distributor also inspects the balls when
8tion (if any) are applied by hand with they are received and is responsible for rein-
small heat presses after the smooth ball is flating them to the correct pressure and pack-
retrieved from the vulcanizer. Each ball is aging them in display boxes for sale. The
carefully inspected for gaps between the display boxes may also be packed in bulk for
panels. These can occur, but each gap is distribution to retailers.
filled during this inspection with a small
piece of rubber that is hand-cut to fit the
gap. The ball then is fitted into another vul- Byproducts/Waste
canizer that unifies the finished surface, No byproducts result from the manufacture
blending in any gap fillers, and is specially of basketballs, but most makers have a vari-
molded to form the surface pebbling. The ety of lines and may also make balls for
vulcanized balls are stored again for 24 other sports. Waste is limited. Dies for cut-
hours in a second test to make sure they ting panels of rubber, synthetic laminate,
hold air. and leather are carefully designed to space
the panels closely and limit the material
Synthetic laminated covers and used. This is especially critical for leather
leather covers because of the cost; some leather waste is
inevitable, though, because leather is a nat-
9 The covers for basketballs that are made ural material and has irregularities in color,
7of synthetic laminated rubber or leather thickness, and surface. All rubber materials
are also made in panels that are die-cut like can be recycled, and they represent the bulk
the rubber panels. The synthetic laminated of material used in making a basketball.
panels are shaved or trimmed along the
edges, fitted and glued together by hand,
and laminated to the carcass to create chan- Quality Control
nels. They are also embossed by a heating Throughout the manufacturing process, in-
process and decals are added. Any glue spections occur regularly to make sure the
traces around the edges are removed, and finished basketball will hold air and to cor-
any imperfect panels are replaced in the rect any surface variations. Machines like
final inspection of synthetic laminated cov- punch presses, dies, vulcanizers, and print-
ers. Leather covers are made of full-grain, ing tools are carefully designed initially to
genuine leather and are stitched with heavy- maximize use of materials and to create per-
duty machines; instead of indented, formed fect pieces. The assembly process includes
channels, the stitching forms the channels in many steps that are performed by hand, and
leather balls. They are printed by silk the assemblers are trained to watch for im-
screening and foil stamping, and their in- perfections and reject unsuitable products.
spection includes a review of the uniformity Inspections and tests also include weight-
and color of the leather. control testing of the completed carcasses
and the panels, regardless of material.
Final testing, inspecting, and Whenever the completed products are stored
packing for any length of time, they are randomly in-
spected for appearance, size, inflation, and
1 Balls that pass the second 24-hour air any wobble.
pressure test are "bounce tested" to
meet the regulation for inflation pressure that Some distributors have special tests for
results in each ball bouncing a prescribed products bearing their name. For example,
height. Balls that pass the bounce test are Rawlings Sporting Goods Company tests
numbered to show the production run, and the basketballs they produce for the NCAA
the decals and other artwork are inspected Tournament with a unique "Slam Machine"
and touched up by hand as needed. Each that simulates the workout a ball will get in
52
Basketball
four games in just five minutes. The ma- Where to Learn More
chine works by propelling the ball down a
chute between two wooden wheels that Books
launch it at about 30 mph (48 kph) toward a The Diagram Group. The Rule Book: The
backboard that is angled to direct the ball Authoritative, Up-to-Date, Illustrated Guide
back to the chute. Rawlings also uses this to the Regulations, History, and Object of
machine to test new designs, materials, All Major Sports. New York: St. Martin's
glues, and other changes. Press, 1983.
Jacobs, A. G., ed. Basketball Rules in Pic-
The Future tures. New York: Perigee Books, 1966.
Basketball sales have escalated dramatically
with the sport's popularity. Figures from Periodicals
1998 show that 3.6 million balls were sold
in the United States alone for a total of Feldman, Jay. "A Hole New Ball Game."
about $60 million. Given the record number Sports Illustrated 18, no. 26 (December 26,
of television viewers for the 1999-2000 1994): 102.
NBA Championships, many parents and
children are likely to purchase basketballs to Jaffe, Michael. "For Better Shooting, Think
test their own slam-dunking skills. Partici-
Big: A Team of Ohio Entrepreneurs Insists
that Their Oversized Basketball Will Im-
pation in the sport and sale of basketballs prove Your Touch." Sports Illustrated 74,
shows no sign of slowing down.
no. 15 (April 22, 1991): 5.
Another aspect of the worldwide popularity
of basketball is that it has sharpened collec- Mooney, Loren. "Get a Grip." Sports Illus-
tors' enthusiasm for souvenir balls, auto- trated (November 30, 1998): 16.
graphed balls, and those from key moments Tooley, Jo Ann. "On a Roll." U.S. News &
of the great players' games. An example World Report 107, no. 8 (August 21, 1989):
with a high price tag is the basketball Wilt 66.
Chamberlain used to score 100 points in a
game; it was sold in the 1990s for $551,844.
Other
Rawlings Sporting Goods Co., Inc. http://
www.rawlings.com. (December 14, 2000).
-Gillian S. Holmes
53
Boomerang
The record for maximum Background ing a whip. The release angle should be be-
tween horizontal and 150 above. If there is
time aloft (MTA) is two A boomerang is an aerodynamically shaped any breeze, the boomerang must be thrown
object designed to fly efficiently through the between 300 and 90° to the right of the on-
minutes, 59.94 seconds; air when thrown by hand. The term usually coming wind (or to the left for a left-handed
the unofficial MTA record, refers to an object made to follow a circular thrower; right- and left-handed boomerangs
flight path that returns it to the thrower. are mirror images of each other).
which was witnessed but (Some sources describe all aerodynamic
"throwing sticks" as boomerangs, separating As the boomerang flies forward, it begins to
not thrown in a them into "returning" and "nonreturning" slowly roll over (counterclockwise for a
sanctioned competition, is categories.) Traditional designs are V- right-hander), ultimately flying horizontally
shaped, but newer versions may have irreg- with its flat side down. When it returns to
an astounding 17 ular shapes or more than two arms. the thrower, it is caught safely at chest
minutes, six seconds. Two design components give the boomerang height, trapping it between open hands in a
sandwich fashion.
the capability of circular flight. One is the
arrangement of the arms, and the other is the
Recreational throwers simply enjoy playing
airfoil profile shape that allows the arms into
a solitaire game of catch. Those who are in-
wings. During flight, the boomerang spins
terested in competition can choose from a
rapidly (about 10 revolutions per second). variety of events, including precision (re-
The wing profiles create the same lift effect
turning as close as possible to the launch
that makes airplanes fly. In addition, the
point) and endurance (making the most
spinning motion creates gyroscopic preces-
catches in a five-minute period). The inter-
sion, which pulls the boomerang into a circu-
national record for distance traveled before
lar path. A similar effect can be seen with a
returning to the thrower is 780 ft (238 m), in
spinning top: if the top's axis is not quite
a flight that lasted nearly 22 seconds. The
vertical, the upper portion of the toy travels
record for maximum time aloft (MTA) is
in a circle around the axis.
two minutes, 59.94 seconds; the unofficial
For a successful flight, the boomerang must MTA record, which was witnessed but not
also be thrown correctly. It should be held thrown in a sanctioned competition, is an as-
near the end of one wing with the top tounding 17 minutes, six seconds.
(curved) surface facing the thrower's body.
The boomerang should be almost vertical,
with the thrower holding the lowest arm. History
Depending on wind conditions and the de- Boomerangs developed as a refinement of
sign of the particular boomerang, the upper carved throwing sticks (kylies) that were
portion may be inclined up to 300 outward. used as weapons, primarily for hunting. The
After drawing the arm backward, the throw- oldest kylie found to date is one formed
er hurls the boomerang with an overhand from a mammoth tusk. Discovered in
motion, much as a pitcher would throw a Poland in 1987, its age has been carbon-
baseball. At the moment of release, the dated at about 20,300 years. This 2-ft (60-
thrower adds a snap of the wrist, as if crack- cm) long, 2-lb (0.9 kg), gently curved im-
54
Boomerang
plement was probably thrown to kill rein- the section where the tree trunk joins a large
deer. A plastic replica of it has been found root, making an angle of 95-1 10°. If neces-
to travel an average of 90 ft (27 m) when sary, the angle between the wings was ad-
thrown, although throwing it into a head- justed by heating the boomerang over a fire
wind increases its range to an average 123 ft and bending it. The aerodynamic profiles
(38 m). were carved from the wood with an axe,
smoothed with a flint, and polished with
Kylies were used by prehistoric people in all sand. Designs might be carved into the sur-
parts of the world. Usually made of wood, faces, either for decoration or to improve the
they were banana shaped; both faces of each flight characteristics. The wood was sealed
arm were carved into curved, airfoil sur- with fish oil or paint.
faces. When thrown, they traveled parallel
to the ground for distances up to 650 ft (200 Boomerangs remained a relatively obscure
m), spinning furiously toward their target. curiosity until about 1970. A workshop
Typically 3 ft (0.9 m) long and weighing 5- about how to make and throw boomerangs
10 lb (2.3-4.6 kg), they were effective hunt- was presented by the Smithsonian Institu-
ing tools. tion in Washington, DC. It sparked great en-
thusiasm for the sport, and the Smithsonian
There is some evidence that boomerangs began sponsoring annual tournaments on the
were developed in several cultural groups. National Mall. The first international cham-
For example, a boomerang-shaped object pionship tournament was held in 1981.
found in Germany was made of ash wood.
Carbon-dated to an age of 2,400-2,800 years,
it is preserved enough to allow archaeologists Rawv Materials
to reconstruct its entire shape. The replica has A wide variety of materials can be used to
been thrown left-handed to produce a com- make a boomerang. Wood remains one of
plete boomerang trajectory; however, the the most popular because it produces good
wing profiles were less than optimal, making results, is relatively inexpensive, and is easy
it difficult to throw successfully. Evidence to work. Generally preferred is aircraft-
suggests that boomerangs may also have grade Finnish or Baltic birch plywood,
been developed in Egypt and India. which is laminated from very thin layers of
wood. A 0.2-in (5-mm) thick sheet will have
In all areas except Australia, hunters de- between five to 10 layers. To protect the
vised spears for throwing and bows for wood from moisture, it is usually sealed
shooting arrows, and they stopped using with a polyurethane coating.
kylies. The Australian aborigines, however,
continued to hunt with throwing sticks. Ex- Among the synthetic materials that may be
perimenting with designs, the residents of used for boomerangs are polypropylene,
the eastern and southern parts of that conti- acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) plas-
nent developed boomerangs, which they tic, fiberglass, carbon fiber, linen-phenolic
used primarily for sport. At major tribal resin laminates, and Kevlar para-aramid
gatherings, they held competitions based on fiber. Toy boomerangs made from urethane
such qualities as the precision of the return foam or cardboard can be used indoors.
and the speed and quality of the flight.
Boomerangs were not thrown at animals of
prey, although they were sometimes thrown Design
as decoys to lure birds into a net. Because proper spinning action is crucial to
the performance of a boomerang, there are
The oldest boomerang found in Australia some fundamental concepts that must be
dates to about 14,000 years ago. The origin followed during the design process. How-
of the word is uncertain, although it may de- ever, those basic elements leave a great deal
rive from the cry "boom-my-row" ("return, of room for creativity, and boomerang mak-
stick") that British colonizers heard Dharuk ers frequently experiment with innovative
tribesmen shout when throwing the instru- shapes.
ments in 1788. The traditional method for
making a boomerang was to select an appro- When creating a new pattern, the designer
priately curved piece of wood, usually from marks a point in the middle of a sheet of
55
A boomerang.
Trailing edge
Wingspan
Top
Trailing edge __ ~ ' Leading edge
Bottom
sturdy paper. This first guide mark denotes The Manufacturing

the center of gravity of the boomerang. As Process
the designer continues to sketch the
boomerang, he or she must take care to bal- The following description focuses on mak-
ance the shape around the center of gravity ing a V-shaped plywood boomerang. Syn-
point. The other important consideration is thetic materials are worked in a similar man-
that the centerlines of each wing of the ner, but some generate dangerous dust or
boomerang must point generally toward the fumes when being cut or sanded. In this
center of gravity (i.e., within 100 in either case, dust masks and protective clothing are
direction). So the second set of guide marks essential.
the designer makes on the paper are the
centerlines of the wings. Within the limita- Forming
tions set by the guide marks, the designer
can then sketch as basic or whimsical de- The plywood sheet is checked for flat-
sign as desired. ness. If it is not completely flat, it is ori-
ented so the concave side will correspond to
After the design is completely drawn, the the top surface of the boomerang. This sig-
designer cuts it out from the sheet of paper. nificantly increases the boomerang's
By hanging the pattem successively from strength, and it raises the wingtips slightly
the end of each wing, the designer can veri- for better aerodynamics.
fy that the planned center of gravity has
been adequately preserved. This will be true 2 The pattem is placed on the plywood so
if the centerline of each wing hangs within 2that the wood grain runs across from the
30° of vertical. tip of one arm of the boomerang to the tip of
the other arm. The outline of the pattem is
Serious designers who seek more precise traced on the plywood with a pencil.
methods can use more sophisticated tech-
niques, including computer-aided design 3 A scroll saw, jigsaw, coping saw, band-
software. saw, or fret saw is used to cut the
56
Boomerang
boomerang shape out of the plywood. This Another tuning technique is to bend
basic cutout is called the blank. the wings, raising their tips about 0.12
in (3 mm) above the plane of the vertex; this
A As an alternative to cutting a single- is called giving the boomerang a positive di-
A4piece blank, two separate wings can be hedral. It may be necessary to heat the
cut, allowing a section of overlap where boomerang to make it flexible enough for
they will be joined. Using a router, half the bending and to make the adjustment perma-
thickness of this overlap section is cut away nent. This can be done with steam or even in
from each wing. The overlapping sections a microwave oven.
are joined with wood glue and clamped to-
gether until the joint hardens. 1 Twisting the wings to raise or lower
ILthe leading edges can also affect the
5An outline is drawn on the top of the boomerang's performance.
5blank to show the areas to be shaped for O
the leading and trailing edges of the wings. Other tuning techniques include
I3drilling holes through the wings, cut-
6The profiles of the wings are shaped ting slots in the leading edges of the wings,
or drilling shallow holes into the underside
with a belt sander or by hand with a rasp
or a plane. The top of the leading edge of
of the wings and inserting lead or brass
plugs to add weight.
each wing is decreased at a 450 angle, while
the rear of the wing is angled down to leave
a 0.04-0.08 in (1-2 mm) thick trailing edge. Quality Control
The bottom face of the leading edge is cut
back slightly. The tips of the wings are Throughout the manufacturing process, the
shaped down to the same thickness as the quality of the boomerang is periodically
trailing edge. The various layers of the ply- checked. Any unevenness in the boomerang
wood serve as contour lines that help the such as unequal sides or bumps will take
worker achieve uniform slopes. away from the aerodynamic design. Boom-
erangs are sanctioned by comities such as
the World Boomerang Association and the
7A shallow section may also be cut out
7from the bottom surface of each wing. United States Boomerang Association
For example, this might consist of a 2-in (5-
(USBA). These groups set the standards and
rules that any boomerang competitions must
cm) long strip near the wing tip and behind
adhere to such as safety, skill, and timing.
the leading edge.
The Future
Finishing
Boomerang innovations can be developed in
8 Using progressively finer (80-250 grit) two areas: materials and design. As new ma-
8sandpaper, the surface of the boomerang terials are developed that are strong,
is smoothed carefully with an orbital sander durable, and lightweight, boomerang mak-
or by hand. ers will try using them individually or in
combination. For example, the boomerang
9After spraying the surface with sanding that flew for more than 17 minutes consisted
9 sealer, fine steel wool is used to further of a two-layer outer shell of carbon fibers
smooth the surface. A coat of paint or wood and Kevlar; the shell was filled with epoxy
stain is followed by one or more coats of resin mixed with phenolic microballoons.
clear polyurethane finish.
Two recent innovations suggest ways that
designs can be modified to improve aerody-
Tuning namics. One involved making the upper and
1 The boomerang is thrown several lower surfaces of the trailing edges of a
Otimes to test its flight capabilities. boomerang's wings slightly concave. Nor-
Several types of adjustments may be made mally, these surfaces are flat or slightly con-
to tune the boomerang for better perfor- vex. This design was used for the
mance. For example, the wing profiles boomerang that set the current world record
might be adjusted by additional sanding. for distance. In the other example, a
57
boomerang's wing tips were cut at an angle Periodicals

that made them perpendicular to imaginary
lines leading to the center of rotation. Usual- Drollette, Daniel. "Field Notes: Return to
ly, the wing tips are perpendicular to the Sender." The Sciences (May/June, 1998):
centerline of the wings. This modification 16- 19.
was created by the holder of the unofficial Lane, Marke. "Classic Boomerang." Work-
MTA record. bench (June/July 1996): 36.
Where to Learn More Valenti, Michael. "The Return of the

Boomerang." Mechanical Engineering (De-
Books cember 1993): 68.
Mason, Bernard Sterling. Boomerangs: How
to Make and Throw Them. Mineola, NY: Other
Dover, 1985. Amateur Boomsmith. http://www.uku.fi/
-hniskane/workmain.html (October 27,
2000).
-Loretta Hall
58
Boxing Gloves
Background codified the first modem rules of boxing. Boxing was first put on
Strangely, his rules make no mention of
Fist fighting has existed as a form of enter- gloves. Then in 1867, John Graham Cham- the Olympic program in
tainment since the early days of human civi- bers, a member of London's Amateur Ath-
lization. Some form of the sport appeared as 688 B.c.
letic Club, published the Marquis of
long as 6,000 years ago in present-day Queensberry rules. Line eight of the rules
Ethiopia. From there it spread across the an- reads, "The gloves to be fair-sized boxing
cient world. Throughout the sport's history, gloves of the best quality, and new." (The
segments of society deemed that it was too rules also mention that no shoes with
brutal and have lobbied to restrict or ban it springs are to be used.) The rules were grad-
altogether. Partly in deference to those ef- ually adopted for amateur competition, and
forts and partly in recognition of the frailty the use of thinly padded or skintight leather
of the human body, practitioners and pro- mitts became more widespread. Still, most
moters have developed defenses for use in public and professional bouts were fought
the sport. The oldest and most little changed with bare knuckles.
of these has been the boxing glove.
American fighter John L. Sullivan is said to
History have been one of first to popularize the
wearing of gloves in public bouts. Sullivan
Boxing was first put on the Olympic pro- reigned as World Heavyweight Champion
gram in 688 B.C., and it was there that one of from 1882-1892, but many historians do not
the earliest records of hand protection ap- consider him to be the first modem champi-
pears. Olympic fighters wrapped their hands on as all the fights in which he won his title
and wrists in leather strips. Initially, the were waged under the old Prize Ring rules,
leather was used as protection. Later, the which did not require gloves. Ironically,
leather was hardened, making these early Sullivan did wear gloves in his last fight, in
gloves into weapons. The Romans called which he lost to the first champion under the
these strips cestus and added iron or brass Marquis of Queensberry Rules, James
studs. Sometimes a large spike called the "Gentleman Jim" Corbett.
myrmex was also attached; both instruments
could kill an opponent.
It is generally acknowledged that the inven-
Ravv Matericals
tor of the modem boxing glove was an Eng- The skin of a boxing glove is top grain tanned
lish champion fighter named Jack leather, most often cowhide or goatskin be-
Broughton. Broughton fought, as did all cause of their durability and flexibility. Less-
boxers of his day, with bare knuckles. er-quality gloves will be made from vinyl, but
Broughton developed his gloves-known as most sanctioning bodies-amateur and pro-
mufflers-so that the gentry could practice fessional-require leather gloves. Some man-
boxing at the gymnasium without inflicting ufacturers line their gloves with another layer
serious damage. The gloves were reserved of leather, but the majority use nylon taffeta.
for such uses; all public contests were still Gloves are stitched with nylon thread and
fought with bare fists. In 1743, Broughton padding is of high-density polyurethane,
59
A pair of boxing gloves. quires that all gloves either be thumbless or

have the thumb compartment attached to the
body of the glove so that boxers cannot jab
each other in the eye. In addition, gloves
used for international competition, such as
the Olympics, must have a portion of the
leather covering the knuckle area dyed
white for scoring purposes.
The Manufacturing
Process
Paterns and cuffing
All boxing gloves are cut, assembled,
stitched, stuffed, and finished by hand. The
manufacture of a glove begins with a pattern
Latex, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foam de-
of the individual pieces. While every manu-
livered in sheet form. Historically, cotton bat-
facturer has a different pattern, the basic
ting has been used as padding and many man- pieces are the palm, which is cut with a slit
ufacturers still use this material to pad some
down its middle that will eventually form
portion of their models. Some manufacturers the closure section of the glove; the knuckle
also use horsehair. area, which is always made from a single
piece of leather to avoid seams; the thumb,
which is made from two halves; the cuff,
Design which is cut as a wide strip; and a thin strip
The primary design consideration involves that will be folded over and sewn onto the
the glove's padding. In order for a padding edge of the cuff and the closure area to fin-
material to be effective, it must absorb energy ish the glove. The knuckle piece is cut to be
by compressing. The more it compresses, the larger than its finished size so that space is
more energy it absorbs. If a material com- left for stuffing.
presses too much, it ceases to be useful be-
cause it becomes simply a thin layer of dense Leather arrives from the tannery in large
material. Partly because of this, different pieces and is laid out on large cutting ta-
weight classes require gloves of different bles. The patterns are placed on the leather
weights. A glove's weight is changed by and arranged to make the most efficient use
adding or removing layers of padding. If the of that piece. The patterns are then traced
same glove weight was required for all onto the leather and the pieces are cut with
weight classes, blows thrown by the largest large scissors. Meanwhile, similar patterns
and heaviest boxers would compress the are traced onto the lining material and
padding beyond its useful range, while blows those pieces are cut. Pieces are made to
thrown by the lightest boxers would barely line the palm, the thumb, the cuff, and the
compress the material at all. In addition, knuckle area.
many materials that offer excellent energy
absorption also display a characteristic Assembly and stitching
known as memory. Once compressed, these 2The leather shell of a boxing glove is
materials maintain their deformed state for an Lfirst sewn together inside out. Stitching
extended period of time so that the initial is often done on an industrial sewing ma-
blow with a glove offers normal protection, chine with some of the smaller pieces and
but subsequent blows are virtually unpadded. finish work being completed by hand. Many
of the higher quality gloves are stitched en-
Other design criteria stem from rules and tirely by hand, and double stitching is used
regulations of the various sanctioning bod- throughout all quality gloves.
ies. For example, USA Boxing, which regu-
lates much of the amateur competition in the 3The oversized knuckle piece is stitched
United States and sanctions all Olympic- to the palm piece. The two pieces are fit-
style competition in the United States, re- ted over a buck to assure the correct shape
60
Boxing Gloves
and the seam is gathered so that the knuckle
piece balloons slightly. Gathering the seam
also causes the glove to take on its trade-
mark clenched fist shape.
A Then, the liner pieces are stitched onto
1+this assembled section and the palm is
stuffed with padding. The liner is left open
at the bottom of the glove, where the cuff
will be attached. On many models, the back
halve of the thumb piece is cut as part of the
knuckle piece, and the inner half is sewn
onto the knuckle and palm pieces. On oth-
ers, the thumb is stitched together separate-
ly; its lining is attached, and its padding is
stuffed. The assembled thumb piece is then
stitched onto the glove.
Stuffing the glove

5 The entire glove assembly is now turned
right side out. As it is more economical
for manufacturers to purchase padding ma-
terial in standard sheet form, the padding for
the knuckle area is made by layering sheets
of the material and then cutting it to the de-
sired shape. This also allows glove makers
to use one standardized thickness of padding
for many glove weights and specifications
rather than purchasing or manufacturing a
different molded piece for every glove
model.
6The pattern for the glove being made is

traced onto the padding material and it is
cut. Depending on the manufacturer, pattern
pieces may be cut in mass beforehand and
kept in stock for assembly.
7The cut pieces are layered to the speci-

fied thickness and are stuffed into the
pocket between the knuckle area and its lin-
ing.
Finishing the glove

8 The last piece to be stitched to the glove
Vis the cuff. The cuff and its lining are
stitched together, and the piece is stuffed.
The ends of this assembly are not stitched
together as the piece will eventually form
part of the gloves closure area.
1OnIf the glove is to be closed with laces,
oThe assembly is stitched to the open end I Va template is laid over the opening
lof the glove piece, closing off all the now formed on the glove's underside by the
open pockets and sealing the glove's slit in the palm and the open ends of the
padding. cuff, and laces holes are punched with an
6 1
awl. Each hole is strengthened with stitch- The Future

ing, and the entire lace area is finished with
several rows of stitching. The most surprising aspect of boxing gloves
is how little they have changed. The first
If the gloves are to be closed with gloves were leather mitts with little or no
hook and loop material, the loop side padding. Today's gloves have added
is sewn onto the outside face of the cuff, and padding to a greater or lesser degree but not
the hook side is stitched onto the cuff's op- much else. Boxing in general seems to be
posite edge. highly resistant to both change and regula-
tion. For over a hundred years, fighters re-
1 A single thin strip of leather is folded sisted wearing gloves at all. And since then,
l2over the open edge of the cuff and the they have thwarted most efforts at innova-
lace area and is stitched in place to finish the tion. The movement to remove the thumbs
glove. The maker's label and any required from gloves, for example, has only succeed-
sanctioning body labels are sewn onto the ed in a few arenas. Gloves have become
back of the cuff and the finished gloves are more heavily padded in recent years and the
packaged for shipping. padding materials themselves have grown
more resilient, but many experts insist that
Quality Control this simply allows fighters to punch harder
and inflict more damage.
Virtually every country and state has a box-
ing commission that regulates professional
bouts. Every one of these commissions has Where to Learn More
its own rules and regulations governing the Books
conduct and equipment of a boxing match.
Most amateur competitions in the United Blewett, Bert. The A-Z of World Boxing: An
States are governed by USA Boxing or Authoritative and Entertaining Compendi-
Golden Gloves, and each of these bodies um of the Fight Game from Its Origins to
specify particular requirements for gloves the Present Day. New Jersey: Parkwest
used in their bouts. What most gloves used Publications, 1997.
today have in common is that they have Myler, Patrick. Gentleman Jim Corbett:
been tested by the Wayne State University The Truth Behind a Boxing Legend. Robson
Sports Biomechanics Department in Detroit, Books, Ltd., 1999.
Michigan. The University tests a boxing
glove by fitting it onto a maple block in the Ward, Nathan. The Total Sports Illustrated
approximate shape of a human fist. The Book of Boxing. Total Sports, 1999.
block is attached to a hydraulic ram that can
be fired at predetermined rates of accelera- Other
tion. The gloved block is fired at a biometric
human form (a test dummy) that has been Hickock Sports.com. http://www.hickok-
fitted with sensors that measure impact. The sports.com (April 1, 2000).
impact readings for various accelerations
are translated onto a scale called a severity International Boxing Hall of Fame.
index and gloves must fall within a certain http://www.ibhof.com (May 30, 2000).
range to be acceptable.
USA Boxing. http://www.usaboxing.org
(March 16, 2000).
-Michael Cavette
62
Brass
Background and tin ore, they still didn't understand that Brass is easy to form into
zinc was a metal. It wasn't until 1746 that a
Brass is a metal composed primarily of cop- German scientist named Andreas Sigismund various shapes, a good
per and zinc. Copper is the main component, Marggraf (1709-1782) identified zinc and conductor of heat, and
and brass is usually classified as a copper determined its properties. The process for
alloy. The color of brass varies from a dark combining metallic copper and zinc to make generally resistant to
reddish brown to a light silvery yellow de- brass was patented in England in 1781.
pending on the amount of zinc present; the corrosion from salt water.
more zinc, the lighter the color. Brass is
The first metal cartridge casings for firearms Because of these
stronger and harder than copper, but not as were introduced in 1852. Although several
strong or hard as steel. It is easy to form into
various shapes, a good conductor of heat,
different metals were tried, brass was the properties, brass is used
most successful because of it's ability to ex-
and generally resistant to corrosion from salt pand and seal the breech under pressure to make pipes and tubes,
water. Because of these properties, brass is when the cartridge was first fired, then con-
used to make pipes and tubes, weather-strip- tract immediately to allow the empty car-
weather-stripping and
ping and other architectural trim pieces, tridge casing to be extracted from the other architectural trim
screws, radiators, musical instruments, and firearm. This property led to the develop-
cartridge casings for firearms. ment of rapid-fire automatic weapons. pieces, screws, radiators,
musical instruments, and
History
Ravv Materials carfridge casings for
Ancient metalworkers in the area now
known as Syria or eastern Turkey knew how The main component of brass is copper. The firearms.
to melt copper with tin to make a metal amount of copper varies between 55% and
called bronze as early as 3000 B.C. Some- 95% by weight depending on the type of
times they also made brass without knowing brass and its intended use. Brasses contain-
it, because tin and zinc ore deposits are ing a high percentage of copper are made
sometimes found together, and the two ma- from electrically refined copper that is at
terials have similar colors and properties. least 99.3% pure to minimize the amount of
other materials. Brasses containing a lower
By about 20 B.C.-A.D. 20, metalworkers percentage of copper can also be made from
around the Mediterranean Sea were able to electrically refined copper, but are more
distinguish zinc ores from those containing commonly made from less-expensive recy-
tin and began blending zinc with copper to cled copper alloy scrap. When recycled
make brass coins and other items. Most of the scrap is used, the percentages of copper and
zinc was derived by heating a mineral known other materials in the scrap must be known
as calamine, which contains various zinc so that the manufacturer can adjust the
compounds. Starting in about 300 A.D., the amounts of materials to be added in order to
brass metalworking industry flourished in achieve the desired brass composition.
what is now Germany and The Netherlands.
The second component of brass is zinc. The
Although these early metalworkers could amount of zinc varies between 5% and 40%
recognize the difference between zinc ore by weight depending on the type of brass.
63
Scrap Zinc Other
copper- / materials
_
alloy
I .
Electric
turnace
11
I'
POURING THE CAKES
Il
I
/
Mold~
I Cake /_ Reheating furnace
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
HOT ROLLING
I
XAnnealing furnace n Coil
I +T IOr Stack
ANNEALING AND COLD ROLLING FINISH ROLLING
A diagram depiding typical manu-

facturing steps in 6rass production. Brasses with a higher percentages of zinc are material or the intended use. For example,
stronger and harder, but they are also more red brass contained 15% zinc and had a red-
difficult to form and have less corrosion resis- dish color, while yellow brass contained
tance. The zinc used to make brass is a com- 35% zinc and had a yellowish color. Car-
mercial grade sometimes known as spelter. tridge brass contained 30% zinc and was
used to make cartridges for firearms. Naval
Some brasses also contain small percentages brasses had up to 39.7% zinc and were used
of other materials to improve certain charac- in various applications on ships.
teristics. Up to 3.8% by weight of lead may
be added to improve machinability. The ad- Unfortunately, scattered among the tradi-
dition of tin improves corrosion resistance. tional brass names were a number of mis-
Iron makes the brass harder and makes the nomers. Brass with 10% zinc was called
intemal grain structure smaller so that the commercial bronze, even though it did not
metal can be shaped by repeated impacts in contain any tin and was not a bronze. Brass
a process called forging. Arsenic and anti- with 40% zinc and 3.8% lead was called ar-
mony are sometimes added to brasses that chitectural bronze, even though it was actu-
contain more than 20% zinc in order to in- ally a leaded brass.
hibit corrosion. Other materials that may be
used in very small amounts are manganese, As a result of these sometimes confusing
silicon, and phosphorus. names, brasses in the United States are now
designated by the Unified Numbering Sys-
tem for metals and alloys. This system uses
Design a letter-in this case the letter "C" for cop-
The traditional names for various types of per, because brass is a copper alloy-fol-
brass usually reflected either the color of the lowed by five digits. Brasses whose chemi-
64
Brass
cal composition makes them suitable for an electric furnace where it is melted at about
being formed into the final product by me- 1,920°F (1,0500C). After adjusting for the
chanical methods, such as rolling or forging, amount of zinc in the scrap alloy, an appro-
are called wrought brasses, and the first priate amount of zinc is added after the cop-
digit of their designation is I through 7. per melts. A small amount of additional zinc,
Brasses whose chemical composition makes about 50% of the total zinc required, may be
them suitable for being formed into the final added to compensate for any zinc that vapor-
product by pouring molten metal into a izes during the melting operation. If any other
mold are called cast brasses, and the first materials are required for the particular brass
digit of their designation is 8 or 9. formulation, they are also added if they were
not present in the copper scrap.
The Manufacturing 2The molten metal is poured into molds
Process about 8 in x 18 in x 10 ft (20 cm x 46 cm
The manufacturing process used to produce x 3 m) and allowed to solidify into slabs
brass involves combining the appropriate called cakes. In some operations, the melt-
raw materials into a molten metal, which is ing and pouring are done semi-continuously
allowed to solidify. The shape and proper- to produce very long slabs.
ties of the solidified metal are then altered 3When the cakes are cool enough to be
through a series of carefully controlled oper- moved, they are dumped out of the
ations to produce the desired brass stock. molds and moved to the rolling area where
Brass stock is available in a variety of forms they are stored.
including plate, sheet, strip, foil, rod, bar,
wire, and billet depending on the final appli- Hot rolling
cation. For example, brass screws are cut 4 The cakes are placed in a furnace and are
from lengths of rod. The zigzag fins used in Areheated until they reach the desired
some vehicle radiators are bent from strip. temperature. The temperature depends on
Pipes and tubes are formed by extruding, or the final shape and properties of the brass
squeezing rectangular billets of hot brass stock.
through a shaped opening, called a die, to
form long, hollow cylinders. 5 The heated cakes are then fed through a
series of opposing steel rollers which re-
The differences between plate, sheet, strip, duce the thickness of the brass step-by-step
and foil are the overall size and thickness of to about 0.5 in (13 mm) or less. At the same
the materials. Plate is a large, flat, rectangu- time, the width of the brass increases. This
lar piece of brass with a thickness greater process is sometimes called breakdown
than about 0.2 in. (5 mm)-like a piece of rolling.
plywood used in building construction.
Sheet usually has the same overall size as 6The brass, which is now much cooler,
plate, but is thinner. Strip is made from passes through a milling machine called
sheet that has been cut into long, narrow a scalper. This machine cuts a thin layer off
pieces. Foil is like strip, only much thinner. the outer faces of the brass to remove any
Some brass foil can be as thin as 0.0005 in oxides which may have formed on the sur-
(0.013 mm). faces as a result of the hot metal's exposure
to the air.
The actual manufacturing process depends on
the desired shape and properties of the brass Annealing and cold rolling
stock, as well as the particular machinery and
practices used in different brass plants. Here 7As the brass is hot rolled it gets harder
is a typical manufacturing process used to and more difficult to work. It also loses
produce brass sheet and strip. its ductility, or ability to be stretched fur-
ther. Before the brass can be rolled further,
it must first be heated to relieve some of its
Melting hardness and make it more ductile. This
The appropriate amount of suitable copper process is called annealing. The annealing
alloy scrap is weighed and transferred into temperatures and times vary according to
65
the brass composition and desired proper- Quality Control

ties. Larger pieces of hot-rolled brass may
be placed in a sealed furnace and annealed During production, brass is subject to con-
together in a batch. Smaller pieces may be stant evaluation and control of the materials
placed on a metal belt conveyor and fed and processes used to form specific brass
continuously through a furnace with air- stock. The chemical compositions of the raw
tight seals at each end. In either method, the materials are checked and adjusted before
atmosphere inside the furnace is filled with melting. The heating and cooling times and
a neutral gas like nitrogen to prevent the temperatures are specified and monitored.
brass from reacting with oxygen and form- The thickness of the sheet and strip are mea-
ing undesirable oxides on its surface. sured at each step. Finally, samples of the
finished product are tested for hardness,
8 The annealed pieces of brass are then fed strength, dimensions, and other factors to en-
through another series of rollers to fur- sure they meet the required specifications.
ther reduce their thickness to about 0.1 in
(2.5 mm). This process is called cold rolling The Future
because the temperature of the brass is much
lower than the temperature during hot Brass has a combination of strength, corro-
rolling. Cold rolling deforms the internal sion resistance, and formability that will
structure of the brass, or grain, and increases continue to make it a useful material for
its strength and hardness. The more the many applications in the foreseeable future.
thickness is reduced, the stronger and harder Brass also has an advantage over other ma-
the material becomes. The cold-rolling mills terials in that most products made from
are designed to minimize deflection across brass are recycled or reused, rather than
the width of the rollers in order to produce being discarded in a landfill, which will help
brass sheets with near-uniform thickness. ensure a continued supply for many years.
9Steps 7 and 8 may be repeated many Where to Learn More

times to achieve the desired thickness,
strength, and degree of hardness. In some Books
plants, the pieces of brass are connected to- Brady, George S., Henry R. Clauser, and
gether into one long, continuous sheet and John A. Vaccari. "Brass." In Materials
are fed through a series of annealing fur- Handbook, 14th ed. New York: McGraw-
naces and rolling mills arranged in a vertical Hill, 1997.
serpentine pattern.
1 At this point, the wide sheets may be Hombostel, Caleb. "Brass." In Construction
V slit into narrower sections to produce Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications.
brass strip. The strip may then be given an New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1991.
acid bath and rinse to clean it. Kroschwitz, Jacqueline I., and Mary Howe-
Grant, eds. "Copper Alloys." In Encyclope-
Finish rolling dia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed. New
The sheets may be given a final cold York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1993.
rolling to tighten the tolerances on the
thickness or to produce a very smooth sur- Other
face finish. They are then cut to size, Metalworld. http://www.metalworld.com
stacked or coiled depending on their thick- (June 19, 2000).
ness and intended use, and sent to the ware-
house for distribution. -Chris Cavette
2The strip may also be given a final
Lfinish rolling before it is cut to length,
coiled, and sent to the warehouse.
66
Breath Mint
Background that avoid the detergents and sugar found in Over 70,000 acres
commercial products.
Aromatic herbs have been used throughout (28,328 hectares) of
history in a number of ways; fragrant soaps, Parsley, fennel, watercress, alfalfa, and pul-
pomanders, bath-water fresheners, potpour- verized nettle leaves all contain chlorophyll
farmland in Indiana,
ri, sachets, incense, scented candles, and
natural herbs to sweeten sour breath are
that is used in many commercial breath Michigan, Washington,
fresheners like Clorets. Chewing a bud of
common in most cultures and popular today. clove immediately relieves bad breath (es- and Oregon produce
Aromatic herbs have the advantage of dri- pecially after eating garlic-laden foods) and
ving away insects, and the mint family has aids digestion, as does clove chewing gum.
spearmint and peppermint
an especially excellent reputation for keep-
ing pests away from people and other plants.
for a wide range of
It is often grown among other plants, like History commercial uses.
members of the cabbage family. Spearmint
is grown most commonly, but peppermint, Over 4,000 years ago, people sucked on
and apple, lemon, and pineapple mint are fa- whole cloves to cleanse their breath.
miliar occupants of many gardens. Clove-rather than mint-is probably the
oldest and most common herb used for fresh
Mints are perennials that spread rapidly and breath. The Pharisees collected tithes in
grow quickly. The mint family is called mint and other sweet-smelling herbs, and
Labiatae and includes about 160 genera, of the Hebrews and Christians spread it on the
which Mentha includes the true mints. floors of synagogues and churches as a sym-
Spearmint and peppermint are grown exten- bol of cleanliness and hospitality. In the
sively in a surprisingly robust health mint Middle Ages, anise seed was chewed slowly
industry that produces mainly oil. Over as a breath freshener (and to cover up odors
70,000 acres (28,328 hectares) of farmland from liquor consumption). Cardamon seeds
in Indiana, Michigan, Washington, and Ore- are also natural breath sweeteners that have
gon produce these two types of mint for a been chewed both in the Orient and in Eu-
wide range of commercial uses. rope since ancient times. In colonial North
America, settlers discovered that small bits
For natural solutions to the problem of of calamus (sweet sedge) root and pieces of
maintaining sweet breath, a small piece of dried orris root (the root of the Florentine
nutmeg or angelica root can be chewed, or a iris) had similar sweetening effects.
piece of the herb called mace can be placed
in the mouth for several minutes. Obviously, In modem times, breath mints were a logical
the most common herbal breath mints are progression from hard candies and chewing
the mints. A leaf or two from any of the gum-it was gum that really launched breath
commonly grown mint plants, including mints as a separate market segment. Hard
peppermint, can be eaten to freshen the candies, made from boiling sugar to a hard
breath and aid digestion. Many references rolling boil, have been made over the kitchen
about herbs provide recipes for making fire since ancient times; commercially, hard
toothpaste and mouthwash from peppermints like peppermints and glacier mints
mint and other herbs and natural ingredients (clear candies) were made in Victorian Eng-
67
Tablet-shaped mints are made in a

rotary tablet press, consisting of
four punch and dies that move Adjust Die
along belts. Large rollers continu- weight fill
ously move the belts and the punch-
es and dies are pushed up and
pulled down by adjustable cams.
land, on the European continent, and in the still has a strong grip on the breath-mint
United States. But the candy market was as market in 2000. Ten years later, in 1998, the
volatile in the 1800s as it is today, and manu- breath-freshener market grew by 13% in one
facturers have always searched for some- year, while all other gum and candy expand-
thing new. In 1869, Thomas Adams, an ined by only 2.3%, according to the National
ventor from New York, stumbled on the idea Confectioners Association.
of replacing paraffin wax that was used like
chewing gum with chicle, a rubbery fluid Breath mints have not been without contro-
produced by some trees. The pelletized chi- versy. The Nutrition Labeling and Education
cle was sold in boxes, and new flavors of the Act requires that every food product have a
chewing gum were introduced over the next serving size and the equivalent number of
100 years. Many of these flavors had breath- calorie stated on the package. Breath mints
and health-enhancing properties; examples posed a significant problem for the Food and
are pepsin (a digestive aid) in Beeman's Drug Administration (FDA), which took six
gum, sassafras and licorice, cloves, Dentyne years to study how to classify serving size
(the first gum aimed at dental hygiene), Sen- and associated calories. Hard candies have a
Sen and chlorophyll, cinnamon, and many single serving of 0.5oz (15 g), and the FDA
varieties of mint. initially lumped breath mints in the hard
candy category; but 0.5oz (15 g) equals a
In the 1950s, American Chicle introduced whole packet of breath mints. The FDA then
Certs. The need for a mint dedicated to fresh decided 0.07oz (2 g) (about the same as a
breath had been identified in consumer re- single Certs or Breath Saver) would be a
search. Toothpaste and mouthwash were suitable single serving. The mini-mint pro-
simply not convenient or portable, and ducers objected. Lawyers for Tic Tac
candy mints had no proven association with claimed that this single serving would be
fresh breath. Certs combined both candy five of their mints. The argument shifted
and a breath freshener in a small package. back and forth until the FDA finally ruled
The breath-freshening ingredient was "Ret- that a single serving should equal a single
syn," a mixture of copper gluconate and cot- unit-one mint-regardless of size. Effec-
tonseed oil that was trademarked by Ameri- tiveness of breath-freshening was left to be
can Chicle. A sugar-free product was determined by the consumer.
introduced in 1982 and reformulated in
1987 with NutraSweet; 1988 retail sales of
both the sugar and sugar-free versions of Raw Materials
Certs topped $190 million. Also in 1988, the
company introduced Sugar Free Certs Mini- The bulk of all breath mints is some form of
Mints, and this began the mini-mint fad that sugar or a sugar substitute. Sugar is present
68
Breath Mint
as sucrose or dextrose, and the most com- These mints are larger in diameter than the
mon sugar substitutes are sorbitol or mini-mints, and they have a hard outer shell
zilotrol, (chemists classify both of these as with a chewy center. Recent additions to the
polyhedric alcohols). Binders hold the parti- mint marketplace include Testamints (with
cles of the other dry ingredients together. Bible verses on the tins) and Web Fuel (tins
Common binders are corn syrup, natural shaped like computer mice bearing Internet
gums like gum arabic, and gelatin. Tablet- web site addresses).
type mints also include lubricants that help
the dry materials flow through the press, Many of the leading mints manufactured in
prevent them from sticking to the machinery Europe were originally aimed at the chil-
faces, and pop out of the dies after they have dren's candy market, but this market has
been compressed. Magnesium stearate, very rapid shifts as children's interests
stearic acid, and calcium stearate are lubri- change. When sales began to decline among
cants in many candies and breath mints. children in Europe, the manufacturers shift-
Some mints also include disintegrants that ed their attention to the adult market in
help the mint dissolve, disperse, and become America and the preoccupation with sweet
absorbed during digestion. Natural or artifi- breath. Some of the designs stayed the same
cial flavors and the breath-freshener com- despite the shift in market; the bright or-
plete the raw materials. Most companies anges, reds, and greens of some of these
closely guard the secret ingredients of the mints themselves and especially their pack-
breath-freshener itself. The outside of the aging are holdovers from targeting Euro-
mint may look polished; carnuba wax is the pean children.
secret to the gloss.
The adult market in the United States for
candy generally has grown steadily since
Design about 1980. By a simple shift in emphasis,
Ferrero, the European chocolate company
Breath mints come in three basic configura- that makes Tic Tacs, was able to keep its
tions. The mini-mints like Tic Tac and Blitz eye-catching colors and packaging but mar-
mints are tiny tablets or compressed mints ket the mint as a "1.5-calorie breath mint."
that have a hard outer shell made by a The low calories, breath protection, and cute
process called panning. The design of the presentation appeals particularly to young
mint itself is tiny with a compressed center women; from 1980 to 1990, Tic Tac's mar-
that is easy to manufacture and an attractive ket share rose from 2% to 12% with this
shell with a bright color, cute shape, or shiny change in advertising approach.
finish. They are packaged in small, conve-
nient, eye-catching boxes; several of these
have won international design awards, show- The Manufacturing
ing that packaging is just as important in the Process
design process as the contents. Roll mints
like Breath Savers and Certs are shaped like Tableted or compressed mints
Life Savers but the holes in the centers may Tableted candies and mints are an offshoot
be filled. These mints are hard; the filled of the pharmaceutical industry that makes
center is usually brightly colored. They are pills. The same accuracy that produces just
also made by the tableting or compressed the right dose in a lozenge or tablet for med-
process. The packages are convenient rolls icinal purposes also makes mints efficiently
and have the familiarity of Life Savers. with the right distribution of flavor and
breath freshener. Tablets are made with ro-
Other hard mints include square-shaped Ve- tary presses that use a rotating die table and
lamints from West Germany, which are compression rollers to turn out as many as
packaged in squared tubes, and Altoids from 10,000 mints per minute.
England in their collectible mini-tins; these
mints are made from an extruded dough. The ingredients for mints arrive at the
Mints with soft centers are the third class; factory in powder form. They are granu-
they can be made in a batch process or by lated in a mixing and bonding method that
panning. Mentos from Holland and Vikings helps them flow through a tablet press. The
from Denmark are the leaders in this field. process involves pulverizing (pounding)
69
them to a fine consistency, mixing (most 4 The bin funnels the compressed mint
often in a dry process, although wet mixing vItablets to the next process. This may be
can be used), compacting the ingredients, panning or packaging.
sizing the finished grains (sorting out the
coarse particles), mixing the ingredients, Extruded or batch process mints
and flowing them into the tableting ma-
chine. The moisture content is controlled 5Some mints are made much like hard
throughout the process (whether it is wet or candies, and are cooked as a batch that
dry), and the granules are dried on bed dry- flows in a continuous process that shapes
ers (flat systems) or rotary dryers. Mixing- and sizes the batch ingredients into the
one of the last steps-is the process in shape of the mint. In a dry, uncooked
which flavors and active ingredients like process, a dry dough with a sugar base is
breath fresheners are added for the most uni- made. The batch or the dry dough is fun-
form distribution. Lubricants are mixed last neled through a roller with a general shape
so they coat all the other ingredients well. much like a pointed ice cream cone but
with the opening shaped to the desired form
2 The prepared, granulated, mixed ingredi- of the candy, perhaps a triangle, a diamond,
ents are conveyed to the tableting ma- or a barrel. Either the cooked batch or the
chine. While this sounds straightforward, extruded dry dough is forced through this
the conveyors cannot have any bends or roller, and each candy length is cut as the in-
turns that might sort the materials, and tem- gredient emerges. Extruded dough mints can
perature and moisture have to be strictly be recognized by their irregular surface.
controlled along the route. Some ingredi-
ents, particularly the lubricants, begin to The panning process
separate from the other ingredients if condi-
tions aren't correct. Some flavors like grape 6 Panning is not usually used to make an
react with sugars if there is too much mois- 6entire candy or mint but to give a mint a
ture in the air and begin to turn brown; finished coating. Hollow globe-shaped pans
gelatin also browns if conditions are too with a hole in one side are made of copper
warm or dry. and are rotated much like small cement mix-
ers so the hole stays angled upward. Mints
3 The rotary tablet press consists of four made by compression, batching, or extru-
punches that move along an upper belt sion are placed in relatively small quantities
paired to four dies that move along a bottom in the pans. Sugar, flavors, and colors are
belt. The belts themselves are continuously added; as the pan rotates, a hard shell of the
turned around large rollers. The punches sugar forms on the outside of the mint. In
and dies are pushed up toward each other the same process or another panning opera-
and pulled down by adjustable cams. As the tion, wax or a polishing agent may be put in
ingredients enter the rotary tablet press, the the pan with the mints to give them an at-
granulated ingredients are channeled into a tractive luster. The rotation of the pan can
feeder (the upper punch) that fills a die seat- also help develop the finished shape of the
ed in the bottom of the pair. The cavity of mint; the oval shape of many of the mini-
the die has to be filled with the volume of mints is created during panning.
granulated ingredients. The second stage of
the press adjusts the weight and scrapes ex-
cess material off the top of the die. In the Packaging
third, compression stage, the cams drive the When the mints are finished by the
upper punch and the lower die together, 7processes described above, they are car-
compressing the ingredient into a tablet. The ried to packaging machines to be wrapped.
punch and die have been designed to have Usually, they are carried a short distance on
the shape of the breath mint and possibly its conveyors, and inspectors watch the passing
name cut into it, so the compressed result flow of mints and pick out broken or imper-
has the identity of the mint firmly stamped fect examples. Depending on the type of
in place. In the fourth step, the lower cam packing, the mints may be simply channeled
pushes out (ejects or extrudes) the stamped into a funnel that deposits them in small
mint and the upper part pushes it out of the boxes or tins. If they are wrapped in tubes of
press where it is collected in a bin. paper, they are vibrated and gently pressed
70
Breath Mint
into line and wrapped with the preprinted be given samples to assess wider appeal. If
packaging. The packages must also be care- the new breath mint passes that test, large-
fully designed to protect the product; an inner scale sales and marketing campaigns are
paper of foil, a foil/wax paper laminate, or launched. The explosive sales of mini mints
odor-free plastic is needed for roll mints. Cel- show both the present and the future of the
lophane wraps over paper, tin, or plastic nov- breath mint; clever, eye-catching packaging
elty boxes may be needed to keep the mints that makes breath mints portable and trendy
inside isolated from air and moisture. have helped and will help consumers and
manufacturers alike breathe easily.
The plastic novelty packs were made possi-
ble by the uniformity of compressed candies
and mints. Pez-Haas originated the famous Where to Learn More
Pez dispenser because the square candies fit
so neatly. Similarly, high-speed wrapping of Books
roll-type candies was pioneered by the Life- Bremness, Lesley. The Complete Book of
Saver Company. Herbs. New York: Viking Studio Books,
1988.
Quality Control
Castleman, Michael. The Healing Herbs:
Quality control of breath mints begins with The Ultimate Guide to the Curative Powers
chemistry when the food scientists who de- of Nature's Medicines. New York: Bantam
vise a new mint select the combination of Books, 1991.
ingredients, processes, and machinery that
can produce the desired product. Through- Hylton, William H., ed. The Rodale Herb
out the process, few hands touch the opera- Book: How to Use, Grow, and Buy Nature's
tion but many eyes watch. The machines are Miracle Plants. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press
maintained and cleaned with great attention Book Division, 1976.
to detail, not only for health and safety but
because some materials are abrasive to the Kowalchik, Claire, and William H. Hylton,
expensive dies that form the mints. Rooms eds. Rodale's Illustrated Encyclopedia of
for various processes have controls for tem- Herbs. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press Book
perature, light, and humidity; dust is also Division, 1976.
carefully controlled because the very fine
dust generated from pulverizing ingredients Thomas, Lalitha. 10 Essential Herbs.
can actually explode in the right combina- Prescott, AZ: Hohm Press, 1996.
tion of conditions. Skilled observers watch
the high-speed presses, the turning pans, and
the sorting and packaging machines. Mints Periodicals
are rejected for the slightest flaws, yet there Edmondson, Brad. "But Candy is Dandy."
is little waste because they can be reground American Demographics 9, no. 5 (May
and mixed back into the powders to form 1987): 22.
later batches.
Gordon, Raymond. "Invaders in Small Pack-
The Future ages." Forbes 135 (April 22, 1985): 122.
Breath mints seem to have a secure place in Poniewozik, James. "It's Not Just a Breath
American life because of the importance of Mint, It's a Web Portal." Fortune 138, no. 4
appearance, good health, and cleanliness in (August 17, 1998): 40.
our modem lifestyle. Mints, however, are
part of the volatile candy and confection mar- Skrzycki, Cindy. "Sizing Up Breath Mints
ket and frequently change face to match the Leaves a Bad Taste in Some Mouths."
latest trends. The breath-mint manufacturers Washington Post (January 16, 1998).
smell out the latest trends by testing their
ideas-from new packaging to actual mint Other
samples-among focus groups of actual con-
sumers. If the focus groups endorse the prod- American Chicle Group. Pioneering the
uct, a mini test market, like a small town, will Confection Industry. 1990.
71
Enrique Bemat F.S.A., manufacturer of

Smint. http://www.smint.com (December
22, 2000).
Ragold, Inc., manufacturer of Velamints
and Dilbert Mints. http://www.ragold.com
(December 22, 2000).
-Gillian S. Holmes
72
Broom
Background The production of broomcom brooms is still Brooms were often used
largely a craft production with a single oper-
Brooms have been used for centuries to ator working quickly at a machine, making in matrimony rituals to
sweep up, in, and around the home and
brooms by hand. There have been some symbolize a union.
workplace. They may be made from a vari- changes in the manufacture of broomcom
ety of materials, both man-made and natural.
brooms within the last several decades, but
Man-made bristles are generally of extruded those changes have been very minor. Essen-
plastic and metal handles. Natural-material tially, the handcraft has changed little since
brooms may be constructed of a variety of mid-twentieth century.
materials, including brush, but generally in-
clude stiff grasses such as broomcorn and/or Brooms were often used in matrimony rituals
sotol fiber. Broomcom brooms have been to symbolize a union.. Enslaved African-
made for at least 200 years and are consid- Americans married one another in a civil cer-
ered superior brooms. Plastic brooms merely emony referred to as "jumping the broom" in
move dirt around, however, broomcom
which the couple would literally jump over a
stalks actually absorb dirt and dust, wear ex- broom to signify matrimony. Today, African-
tremely well, and are moisture-resistant. Americans occasionally recreate this custom
Broomcom brooms are the most expensive by jumping over a broom at weddings, using
of the manufactured brooms. specially handmade and decorated brooms
Broomcom is actually a variety of upright for this purpose. These brooms then become
grass of the species sorghum referred to as a centerpiece within the new household.
Sorghum vulgare, or S. bicolor variety tech-
nicum, belonging to the family Gramineae History
and cultivated for its stiff stems. Broom
bristles are derived when these stiff, tasseled Ashes and dirt were moved around and out
branches-that bear seeds on the ends-are of the house using bundled branches and
harvested and dried. The seeds are edible, brush for centuries. Native grasses were
starchy, and high in carbohydrates. They dried and bundled together, often decorative-
can be used for human consumption (in ce- ly woven at the top or tied tightly with yarn
reals) or for animal feed. The tasseled stalks, or fabric to keep the brooms together. South-
used in the manufacture of brooms, can erners have used native sweet grass and
grow 2-8 ft (0.61-2.4 m) tall. Sorghum is es- other grasses for their long stalks with tas-
pecially valued in hot and arid climates due seled ends for broom bristle. The course of
to its resistance to drought. American broom history was altered in the
late eighteenth century, when some say that
Mexico grows and processes most of the in 1797 Levi Dickenson, a farmer from
broomcom and sotol fiber used in American Hadley, Massachusetts, used a bundle of tas-
broom production. Sotol fiber, a yucca fiber, seled sorghum grass (also called broomcom)
is sometimes used on the inside of the to make a broom for his wife. It is likely
broom and is wrapped with more expensive these early broomcom brooms were simply
broomcom, thus lowering the price of the lashed or woven together, resulting in the
natural-bristle broom. fact that they often fell apart. Other experi-
73
Examples of brooms.
ments with attaching the circular bundles of The bundles were put into a vice, flattened,
broomcom led to wooden handles. By about and sewn in place.
1810, wooden handles with holes drilled into
them were used to lash the broomcom to the The Shakers led the way in improving the
handle using wooden pegs. broomcom broom. They appear to be the
first to find that wire more effectively se-
Whether Levi Dickenson was the first cured the broomcom to the wooden handle
American to use sorghum to make brooms is rather than tying or weaving. They devel-
in contention. However, nearly all acknowl- oped treadle machinery to wind broomcorn
edge that the United Society of Believers, around the handle while securing it tightly.
familiarly called the Shakers, quickly They developed special vices to flatten the
moved into the broom-making business broom for sewing into the requisite flat
about 1798 by growing broomcom and shape. Still other machinery was devised to
making brooms. The Shakers' Watervliet, quickly separate the seeds of the broomcom
New York, community took the lead in from the tassel bristles. Using foot-powered
manufacturing brooms, although nearly all machinery, the Shakers could make two
the Shaker communities constructed and dozen brooms per person per day-quite a
sold them throughout the century. The feat for the early nineteenth century.
Shakers are credited with inventing the flat
broom. They recorded that Theodore Bates Today, the machinery is electrically pow-
of Watervliet examined the circular bundled ered. However, in even the largest American
broom and determined that flat brooms broom factory, the production of broomcom
would move dust and dirt more efficiently. brooms is still remarkably a hand craft.
74
Broom
(One factory foreman in a large broomcom The raw material for the broom, the
factory says he can pick up a broom and tell broomcorn, comes into the factory al-
who amongst his staff made it because each ready processed and bundled. The bundles
one is made according to the skills and pref- are sorted by length and are sorted by the
erences of the maker.) A single machine and color of the fiber. Bundles are grouped to-
operator sits at a machine and constructs a gether in a bale weighing about 120 lb (54
broom. The machines, and the methods, kg). Broomcom must be wet in order to be
have not changed in over 40 years. worked effectively and must be quickly
dunked in water before being delivered to
The most significant development in the his- the operator. Each bale is lifted with a crane
tory of the product resulted from the North and submerged in a tank of water for 10 sec-
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) onds. The bundles are then removed from
in 1994 when tariffs were lifted from broom- the water using the crane.
corn brooms imported from Mexico. Cheap-
er than American brooms (labor is cheaper 2Workers break apart the wet bales and
and broomcorn is grown there in huge quan- separate the smaller bundles within the
tities), the Mexican-made broom importation bales. The bundles are placed on racks and
obliterated many American broomcom man- rolled to operators who sit at broom-manu-
ufacturers. American broomcom manufac- facturing equipment.
turers pressed for more restrictive tariffs, but
such tariffs were overruled. Today, there are 3 An operator sits at a broom-making ma-
only about 15 broomcorn manufacturers left chine and has the broomcom and solid
in the United States. handles there to work. An individual handle
is picked up by the operator. The operator
inserts a metal wire into a hole drilled near
Raw Materials the bottom of the handle. Then, the insides
The material used is broomcom, which is are first applied to the broom. In this
shipped bundled in large bales. The bun- process, the lowest-grade grass is pressed
dles are grouped according to the length of around the wooden handle, forming the
the grass and color. Sotol fiber from the center of the broom. This thick bundle of
yucca plant may be used in cheaper broom- grass is secured tightly to the handle using
corn brooms. White metal wire, of approxi- the wire attached to the handle through the
mately 18 gauge, is used to secure the hole.
broomcom and sotol to the handle. A small 4Then, the shoulders and sides of the
nail or two is used to secure the wire to the
broom are given shape as smaller bun-
handle. The handles are generally of wood.
dles of lesser grade grasses are placed along
Sometimes American hardwood is used,
each side of the center bundle of grass. This
but more likely the wood used is ramin side corn is secured to the central bundle of
wood, an imported wood of dense, heavy,
grass using more tinned wire that is wrapped
coarse grain. Thick twine is used to sew the
by hand tightly around the side corn as well
brooms flat using a sewing machine. Final-
as the central body of grass.
ly, water is necessary in that the broomcom
must be wetted completely in order to be 5 Next, the grass is cut off in a straight line
worked. just above the wire by the operator using
a knife.
The Manufacturing Over this foundation of lower-grade
Process dbroomcom or other grasses is now added
It is important to note that brooms made the outside of the broom, or the broomcom
from broomcorn are made at a station, using we see when we look at a broom. The hurl,
a single piece of machinery. Using this ma- the best grade of broomcom used in a
chine, brooms are largely still assembled by broom, is attached to the broom. It is laid
hand. The process described below is used atop the center section and shoulders, com-
by the largest manufacturer of brooms and pletely covering it. The hurl is physically at-
the factory uses about 28 makers to produce tached to the broom using the same piece of
6,000 brooms per day. white metal wire used earlier in the process.
75
7The final construction step is referred to must be in good shape as well. Each individ-
7as the run down. The operator runs the ual broom-making machine is maintained,
wire that secures the hurl down to the handle and the craftsman at each machine knows
and nails it off, thus securing the cut end to instantly when the machine is amiss. Other
the wooden handle. The grasses and broom- machinery such as the hydrostatic dryers or
corn are now completely secured to the the seed removers are carefully monitored to
broom. ensure they perform efficiently. However, it
is the broom makers themselves who are the
8 The brooms are now constructed but are key to monitoring quality of broomcorn
Onot finished yet. In order to complete the brooms. Because the manufacture is com-
broom, the broomcom must be dried out pleted using one operator per station who
completely. The brooms are moved by rack works from beginning to end on the product,
or palette into a very large drying room that he or she is sees and handles the product for
is thermostatically controlled. Depending on nearly the entire process (except the sewing
the weather, the brooms are left in this large, process). Each operator can tell whether the
hot room for five to six hours. When instru- product has gone awry and can set aside
ments inside the room indicate that no more such a broom so that it will not make it to a
moisture is being released from the brooms, retail outlet.
the heat kicks off and the broomcom has
completely dried.
9The brooms are now seeded, meaning Byproducts/Waste
that cylinders roll vertically over the There is little waste as the processing of the
broomcom, thus removing all the seeds and broomcorn and sotol occurs in Mexico.
small pieces of broomcorn not secured to However, there are still seeds to remove and
the handle that will fall out quickly upon the shorter grasses captured within a bundle
use. of grass is hauled away immediately. These
grasses and seeds can be a fire hazard and
The seeded brooms are taken to do not stay long in the factory. (Broomcom
I 0sewing machine operators who run is a bit difficult to catch afire but once it be-
the brooms through a heavy-duty sewing gins burning it is difficult to stop.)
machine with two needles that is threaded
with thick twine. The brooms are put
through the machine and the broom is flat- The Future
tened and its shape is maintained through
the double, triple, or quadruple rows of The broom model has changed little over
sewing (depending on the machine and the past 200 years. Today, there are brooms
company) that holds the grasses tightly. It with synthetic fibers that attract dirt and
takes about 45 seconds to sew the brooms dust. There are also brooms made of finer,
into a flat shape. polypropylene fibers with angled bristles.
Smaller whisk brooms are also available as
The brooms are moved by cart to final are brooms with easy to grip rubber han-
finishing, where they are trimmed dles. The Internet has brought broomcorn
across the bottom so they are even, pack- brooms to every home with easy ordering
aged, and sent for distribution. and delivery.
Quality Control
Where to Learn More
Broomcom is carefully graded so that the
manufacturer understands the quality of the
product that is shipped in the bale. Broom- Books
corn is categorized by length and by color, Andrews, Edward Deming. The Community
with the brown-red broomcorn considered Industry of the Shakers. Albany, NY: The
inferior. Inferior broomcom may be used on University of the State of New York, 1993.
the inside of the broom close to the handle
and the operator ensures that the inferior Nylander, Jane. Our Own Snug Fireside.
product remains out of sight. Machinery New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.
76
Broom
Other
Broom Shop. http://www.broomshop.com
(January 2001).
Organization of American States Website:
NAFTA Dispute Settlement: Broomcorn
Brooms. http:www.sie.oas.org (January
2001).
R.E. Caddy & Company, Inc. http://www.
recaddy.com (January 2001).
-Nancy E.V. Bryk
77
Canal and Lock
The first canal designed to Background The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers oversees
some 25,000 mi (40,234 km) of commer-
accommodate seaworthy A canal is a man-made waterway. Canals cially navigable waterways and about 240
are built for a variety of uses including irri- lock chambers. Half of these locks are more
ships was built by the gation, land drainage, urban water supply, than 50 years old, and some are too small
Pharaoh Sesosteris 14,000 hydroelectric power generation, and trans- for the large collections of barges that are
portation of cargo and people. Navigation commonly linked and moved by a single
years ago, linking the Red canals may be shallow facilities designed modem tugboat. With the expected increase
for barge traffic, or they may be deep in waterborne cargo transportation, it will be
Sea to the Nile River and enough to accommodate ocean-going ships. necessary to refurbish, replace, and enlarge
thus to the Mediterranean many locks. Canal construction, which in-
To conserve water and to facilitate two-way cludes not only transportation waterways
Sea. Remnants of this travel, canals are built level. If there is a dif- but also channels designed for environmen-
canal, which was ference in elevation between the ends of a tal purposes, will also continue.
canal, the channel is built as a series of level
alternately neglected and sections linked by locks. A lock is a rectan-
History
gular chamber with gates at both ends; with
rebuilt half a dozen times, both gates closed, the water level within the Canals
suggest that it was about lock can be adjusted to match the canal
water level on either side. Thus, a vessel en- Reportedly, canals were built in Egypt as
150 ft (46 m) wide, 16 ft tering the lock can be raised or lowered in much as 6,000 years ago. The first canal de-
order to enter the next level canal section. signed to accommodate seaworthy ships was
(5 m} deep, and 60 mi (97 Alternative types of locks are occasionally built by the Pharaoh Sesosteris I 4,000 years
built to traverse large elevation changes; the ago, linking the Red Sea to the Nile River
km) long. entire lock chamber, containing boats float- and thus to the Mediterranean Sea. Rem-
ing on water, is hoisted vertically or moved nants of this canal, which was alternately ne-
up an inclined section of rail line. glected and rebuilt half a dozen times, sug-
gest that it was about 150 ft (46 m) wide, 16
ft (5 m) deep, and 60 mi (97 km) long.
In the United States, about 15% of the inter-
city freight (measured as a combination of The oldest canal still in use was begun in
distance and weight) is carried by water, on China in the fourth century B.C. for the pur-
either artificial canals or navigable rivers. poses of collecting grain taxes and trans-
(Straightening or deepening a river to ac- porting troops. Rebuilt and enlarged about
commodate vessels of a certain desired size A.D. 600, the channel became known as the
is called canalizing the waterway.) In 1997, Grand Canal; its latest extension, completed
1.2 billion tons (1.1 billion metric tons) of about A.D. 1280, brought its length to 1,114
cargo was transported on United States wa- mi (1,795 km). It remains the longest navi-
terways; by 2020, the annual tonnage is ex- gable canal in the world.
pected to be twice that amount. Transporta-
tion of cargo by barge costs about half as For centuries, canals were dug using only
much as moving it by rail and about one- hand tools. While building the Canal du Midi
eighth as trucking it. between 1665 and 1681 to link the Atlantic
78
Canal and Lock
An aerial view of a canal and lock
system.
Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea across provement came in A.D. 984, when the first
southern France, gunpowder was first used to double-gate lock was built on China's Grand
blast a tunnel. The invention of steam-pow- Canal. Also called a pound lock (because it
ered machinery at the end of the seventeenth impounds water) this was the predecessor of
century helped fuel the "canal eras" in Eu- modem conventional locks. Its gates were
rope and North America in the eighteenth panels that lifted vertically. A similar lock
and nineteenth centuries during which thou- with vertical-lift gates built in the Nether-
sands of miles of canals were built. Horse- lands in 1373 also controlled its water level
drawn plows continued to be used especially by partially opening either the upstream or
for final trimming of the channel to desired the downstream gate. Pound lock operation
slopes and depths. Full mechanization of was greatly improved in 1485 when an Ital-
canal construction was achieved in 1946, ian lock was built with smaller, valve-con-
when an American company built the first trolled openings in the gates.
canal trimming and lining machines.
Leonardo da Vinci invented the miter gate
in 1480. Two gates, each more than half as
Locks wide as the lock, swing on vertical hinges.
Flash locks, the first attempts to carry boats In the open position, they are flush with the
over difficult elevation changes on rivers or lock's walls. In the closed position, they
canals, date from the third century B.C. meet in a V pointed upstream so that the
Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, writing higher water level presses against them to
200 years later, described how Ptolemy II promote a tight seal.
had improved the Nile-to-Red Sea canal by
building a type of lock. Consisting of a sin- The base of the upstream gate in a lock is
gle gate, flash locks carried boats down- higher than the base of the downstream gate.
stream on a rush of water; boats headed up- If the lock was very deep, water filling the
stream could be pulled forward while chamber through an opening in the upper
floating on the torrent released by opening gate would create turbulence or even swamp
the gate. a boat in the chamber. This problem was
solved in France during the seventeenth cen-
Flash locks were hazardous, and they used tury, when valve-controlled water channels
large amounts of water. A significant im- for filling and emptying a lock were built
79
A lock is a rectangular chamber

with gates at both ends; with both
gates closed, the water level with-
in the lock can be adjusted to
match the canal water level on ei-
ther side. Thus, a vessel entering
the lock can be raised or lowered
in order to enter the next level
canal section.
into the lower portion of the chamber's the lock exposes bedrock, the floor need not
stone lining. be lined. The gates are made by welding to-
gether steel plates and reinforcement beams.
Until the early nineteenth century, lock The vertical edges of the gates are fitted
gates were made of wood, and lock cham- with effective sealing materials such as
bers were lined with wood, stone, bricks, or white oak. In 1999, a French company de-
turf. In 1827, cast iron was first used to veloped lock gates made of glass-fiber rein-
build both a lock and its gates in Cheshire, forced plastic laminate mounted in stainless
England. Following the development of the steel frames.
Bessemer process for mass production of
steel, that material was utilized for construc-
tion of locks and gates, both as primary ele- Design
ments and as reinforcing bars for concrete. Early canals followed the most level surface
route possible because large-scale earth-
moving was so difficult and expensive. Bet-
Rawv Materials ter excavation equipment and lock construc-
Waterproof linings keep a canal's water tion capabilities permit the construction of
from seeping into the ground. For many shorter, more direct canal routes. Because of
years, the best choice was puddle, a mixture geographic obstacles, sections of some
of sand, clay, and water that dried to a wa- canals are built in tunnels or on aqueducts
terproof state. Modem materials and addi- (water-carrying bridges).
tives that are more durable include concrete,
fly ash, bentonite, bituminous materials, and It is important to fill and empty a lock
plastic sheeting. chamber while producing minimal water
turbulence. Modern designs place sluices in
Locks are usually made of concrete, occa- the gate sills or in the chamber's floor or
sionally lined with steel. If construction of walls. A lock may also be equipped with a
80
Canal and Lock
submerged bubbler that releases air below
the gate closure area; the resulting gentle
turbulence keeps the area clear of debris
that might prevent the gate from sealing
properly.
Various gate designs are available for mod-
em locks, and different types may be used
on the upstream and downstream ends of a
single lock. Miter gates are one of the most
popular choices. Another common choice is
the Tainter gate, a curved plate that rotates
vertically. In this efficient design, which is
used for valves in water-transfer culverts as
well as main lock gates, water pressure ac-
tually assists in the gate's rotation. Flat
gates that slide up, sideways, or down into
the lock floor are other options, as are flat
gates that are hinged at the bottom and
curved gates that rotate horizontally into
wall recesses.
The Manufacturing
Process
Canal
A thorough survey of the canal route
must be made, not only for correct align-
ment but also for accurate depths of cuts and
fills.
Primary excavation is done with earth-

2moving equipment like bulldozers and
excavators.
A crawler-track mounted trimming ma-
3Jchine is used to remove the final 12-18
in (30-46 cm) of soil to create the desired
wall slopes and flat bed for the canal. Exca-
vated soil is carried by conveyor and loaded
onto trucks that will haul it away.
4 A layer of highly permeable material
may be spread over the walls and floor
to promote drainage of groundwater under
the canal.
5Grids of reinforcing steel are built and
l1ifted into place on the canal walls and
floor. Concrete blocks hold the grids above
the surface so concrete can flow under them.
that slowly moves forward; the concrete
6Concrete is mixed, vibrated to remove hardens quickly enough to retain its shape
6air pockets, and applied with a slipform by the time the form moves out of contact
machine, encasing the reinforcing steel. with it. Specialized machines place trans-
Slipforming means pouring concrete be- verse and longitudinal expansion joints in
tween the canal surface and a form (mold) advance of the slipform machine.
8 1
Lock Lock operation uses large amounts of water;

for example, it takes 3.5 million gal (13 mil-
7A temporary cofferdam is built around the lion L) of water to fill a 600-ft (1 80-m) long,
7proposed lock site. Steel sheet piles are 110-ft (34-m) wide lock with a 7-ft (2.1-nm)
driven into the ground to form a series of ad- lift. On some canals and rivers, water sup-
jacent, vertical cells that extend above the plies are limited and conservation is impor-
waterline. The cells are filled with sand. tant. Rather than being released downstream
Water is pumped out of the enclosed space to as the lock is emptied, some of the water
create a dry construction area. The lock site is may be diverted to a side pond, where it can
excavated. If necessary, piles are driven into be stored and used to help fill the chamber
the ground to support the lock structure. for its next operation.
8 Wooden forms are built to shape the floor
°and walls of the lock. Space for culverts The Future
and valve chambers is included within the
forms, as are slots for the gate hinges and re- Because of the significant need to recondi-
cesses to contain open gates. Additional tion or replace locks as well as build new fa-
forms are built to shape the approach walls cilities, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
that will guide vessels into the lock. sponsors and conducts research on water-
way construction. Scale models of proposed
9 After reinforcing steel cages are con- designs can be tested at its Waterways Ex-
structed in the forms, concrete is poured. periment Station. Through its Innovations
When the concrete has cured (hardened), the for Navigation Projects (INP) Research Pro-
forms are removed. gram, it supports the development of new
ways to build, repair, and operate canals and
1 O Control valves for filling and empty- locks. Recent topics included improvements
V ing the lock are installed, along with in underwater concrete and grout placement
hydraulic and mechanical equipment for op- and development of low-density, high-
erating the valves and gates. strength concrete for building modular lock
sections that can be installed without con-
1 1 Gates are prefabricated and shipped struction of a cofferdam. Other current re-
to the site. Very large gates may be search topics involve protection devices for
shipped in sections, which are welded to- lock walls and gates from barge impacts,
gether as they are installed in the lock. improved designs for water intake and dis-
charge systems, better equipment and con-
1 2 Accessories such as guardrails, moor- trol devices for operating gates, and tech-
ing posts, and escape ladders are in- niques for enlarging (rather than replacing)
stalled on the lock walls. existing locks that have inadequate capacity.
Byproducts/Waste Where to Learn More

Disposing of the excavated material is one Periodicals
of the challenges of canal and lock construc-
tion. It may be used to construct embank- "Pakistan Project Requires World's Largest
ments or be spread over the surrounding Canal Machines." Engineering News-Record
countryside where it is carefully landscaped Magazine (December 20, 1999): B-3.
for erosion control as well as appearance.
Construction of the Divide Cut, a 29-mi (46- Other
km) canal on the Tennessee-Tombigbee "The ABC's of Lock Building." Trent-Sev-
Waterway, in the early 1980s required the em Waterway. http://collections.ic.gc.ca/
disposal of 150 million cubic yards (115
million cubic meters) of dirt. waterway/rg_eng_i/abc.htm (May 16, 2000).
"Canal Machinery." Guntert and Zimmer-
During lock construction, excavated materi- man. http://www.guntert.com/Canal/Canal.
al can be used to fill cofferdam cells. When htm (May 26, 2000).
the cofferdam is removed, the material may
be used to fill in behind the riverbank side International Canal Monuments. http://www.
of the lock wall. icomos.org (May 17, 2000).
82
Canal and Lock
"Lock Construction Project." U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers. http://www.lrl.usace.
army.mil/olmsted/cd-pics/9605 1 7ad.htm
(May 26, 2000).
Tennessee Tombigbee Waterway. http://
www.tenntom.org (May 10, 2000).
-Loretta Hall
83
Candy Corn
One candy company Background In the early twentieth century, candy corn
became the company's single best seller.
alone estimates it produces Candy corn are the small pieces of triangu- Goelitz is now not the sole candy corn pro-
lar candy made primarily from corn syrup, ducer in the country, nor is it the largest. No
4.3 billion pieces a year honey and sugar (it is usually fat-free) and is matter who makes candy corn, the process
and that Americans eat traditionally colored in a specific pattern of has remained largely unchanged. Originally,
three stripes. It is recognized by the white candy slurry was cooked as a fondant and
about 20 million lb (9. 1 tip, orange in the center, and yellow at the poured, from large ladles or buckets, into
widest end. separate triangular-shaped molds. Each
million kg), or about 8.3 color was poured into the mold separately.
Candy corn has been remarkably popular in
billion kernels. America for well over a century. The The colorful kernels were allowed to dry be-
amount of these sweet kernels consumed in
fore packaging. Now, however, the process
a single year is staggering. One candy com-
is entirely mechanized.
pany alone estimates it produces 4.3 billion
pieces a year and that Americans eat about Major recent changes have included the
broadening of the use of candy corn to other
20 million lb (9.1 million kg), or about 8.3
billion kernels.
times of the year. Thus, these candy kernels
take on color combinations suited to the
Candy corn is considered a "mellow time of year they are slated for consump-
creme," a candy that has virtually no oils or tion-red, pink, and white for Valentine's
fats in it but has a marshmallow flavor. It is Day, and green and white for St. Patrick's
also of a variety of candies that are made Day, for example. Green and red candy corn
using the process confectioners refer to as is referred to as reindeer corn and is becom-
starch casting, in which the candy is formed ing a popular Christmas treat.
in a machine using cornstarch as the mold-
ing agent. This particular kind of cooked
candy must set for at least a day before it Raw Materials
may be packaged for sale. Candy com ingredients vary with the manu-
facturer. However, the most important ingre-
dients for the production of candy corn in-
History clude corn syrup and sugar. Gelatin and soy
Candy corn has been around for over a cen- protein are added to produce a firm-bodied
tury. Some believe that it was homemade at candy. Also often used in the production of
one point, but others think that it has largely candy corn is salt, honey, artificial flavors
been mass-produced since its invention in and colors, and a confectioner's glaze of oil
the late nineteenth century. No one is quite and wax that gives the candy a sheen. Corn-
sure who invented these little morsels. How- starch, essentially a corn flour, is an extreme-
ever, it is believed that Americans knew of ly important part of the molding process as
the candies in the 1880s. By the turn of the the candy is injected or squirted into molds
century, the Goelitz Candy Company in Illi- made of damp cornstarch. However, the
nois, run by German immigrants, was mak- cornstarch is simply the molding agent and
ing significant quantities of the confection. does not become part of the candy itself.
84
Candy Corn
MAKING SLURRY MOLDING
DRYING POLISHING
A candy-making machine called a

The Manufacturing 48 hours, depending on the moisture of the Mogul deposits the slurry in com
Process batch of candy and ambient humidity within starch molds. Each colored section
the factory. of candy com is deposited at differ-
Candy corn is manufactured using a process ent stages-first, the white tip,then,
referred to by confectioners as starch cast- A stacker puts trays into the Mogul via the orange stripe; and finally, the
ing. In this process, the shape of a candy or conveyor belts. The Mogul puts corn- yellow stripe at the wide end.
a candy center is formed by making impres- starch into these plastic trays. This corn-
sions in a powder called cornstarch. The fill- starch is specially treated so that it adheres
ing of each of these separate impressions is to itself and is conducive to molding. Then a
filled with liquid candy. Starch is an effec- leveler, made of plastic, brushes over the top
tive material because it easily retains specif- of the trays and levels off the cornstarch that
ic shapes. Cornstarch also helps to remove had been placed within the trays.
moisture from the candy as it dries. Much of
the candy making process, including the 2 The plastic trays advance to the dye
starch casting, occurs within a special within the Mogul. Here, several hundred
candy-making machine called a Mogul. The triangles leave hundreds of impressions in
candy is made and then must be left to dry. the cornstarch in these trays. The liquid
Thus, it is at least a 24-hour process from candy is prepared in three separate colors in
the beginning to end of the production three separate candy kitchens in large kettles
process. Occasionally, it may be as long as in which the sugar, corn syrup, salt, honey,
85
soy protein, gelatin, and flavors are beaten shaped vessels called polishing pans into
together with mixers. This slurry is cooked which confectioner's glaze (made of oil
to specific temperatures and is then deliv- and wax) is added. The candy is then sent
ered to the depositors separately so the col- to large revolving drums. As the drums re-
ors are not inadvertently mixed. volve, the pieces of candy corn gently rub
against each other, so each piece is pol-
3 Next, the Mogul is ready to deposit liq- ished as it tumbles, much like a rock tum-
uid candy into each cornstarch impres- bler.
sion. Each separate cornstarch impression
has a nozzle into which liquid candy is 8 After the candy is polished to a bright
loaded and deposited. Thus, if there are 300 8sheen, the candy is ready for packaging.
triangular molds, there are 300 nozzles It is removed from the polishing apparatus
above the tray ready to squirt in the liquid and sent to the packaging machines, which
slurry. The candy is deposited in three phas- automatically weigh the candy, put it in
es. First, the nozzle injects the white tip into bags, seal each bag, and put the candy into
the top end of each triangle. Then, it de- cases that may be shipped.
posits the center, or orange stripe against the
white tip. Finally, the depositor finishes off Quality Control
the candy corn with the yellow stripe at the
wide end. Everyone within a candy company is re-
sponsible for quality control. There is, of
4The filled trays of wet candy corn are course, the human eye and human hand that
now conveyed to the end of the Mogul looks at the product after it is dumped from
and automatically stacked. When there are the trays before polishing and discards the
enough trays stacked together, they are misshapen pieces. Next, machinery is metic-
moved from the Mogul and sent to the "dry ulously maintained because if one part
rooms" to set. breaks down, the entire mechanized process
is completely set back. The Mogul, a large
5These wet candy corns must have the and complex starch casting machine, re-
_moisture removed from them in order to ceives great care and inspection.
be separated easily from the molds. Thus,
the trays sit in the dry rooms between 24-36 All materials are visually inspected before
hours, depending on the batch of candy and accepted for production, but they are also
the weather or humidity surrounding the examined using microtests by microbiolo-
factory. The longer the candy sits in these gists within the company. They are carefully
rooms, the drier they become. Moisture lev- checked for dangerous contaminants and
els are tested to ensure the candy corn in- health hazards such as E. coli, salmonella,
cludes just the right amount of water. and staph. The liquid candy slurry is also
checked for several properties. The color of
6The candy corn, still in the trays, is con- each of the three candy batches must be just
veyed back to the Mogul. This machine right because batches that are not of the cor-
then turns the trays completely over, dump- rect color are rejected for depositing within
ing the candy and the cornstarch out of the the corn starch molds. The slurry is also
trays. Then, the candy and the cornstarch are checked for density, weight, and viscosity
separated from one another. The candy is so that the candy moves to the depositor eas-
sent to the next processing point. However, ily, is deposited easily, and will set correct-
the cornstarch is transferred to a sifter that ly. Similarly, the melting point of the sugar
removes any bits of candy corn, then is sent is monitored. Finally, the moisture of the
to the drying drum, which removes the drying candy corn is carefully monitored so
moisture from the starch. The corn starch is that the candy is neither too hard nor too
sifted a final time, then is sent back to the soft.
Mogul for use in molding other candies.
7The candy corn is rather dull-looking Byproducts/Waste

and lackluster at this point and must be There is virtually no unused material or
polished to give it an appealing sheen. The scrap left after the production of candy corn.
candy corn is conveyed to hollow globe- Most significant, the cornstarch is complete-
86
Candy Corn
ly sifted out separately from the product, Herman Goelitz Inc. "The Goelitz Family:
dried, and sifted again so that it may be Candy Corn & Jelly Belly." German Ameri-
quickly reused. Generally, any candy slur- can Corner (1996-2000). http://www.german
ries that are not of the correct color are easi- heritage.com/biographies/atol/goelitz.html
ly corrected. Candy corn that is somehow (December 2000).
misshapen or considered inferior may be
melted down and reused. Of course, any Inglis, Margaret. "Candy Corn, Your Friend
candy that falls on the floor is never reused. and Mine." CuisineNet Cafe (October 22,
1997). http://www.cuisinenet.com/cafe/you-
gonna_eat_that/1997/00008-1 .shtml (De-
Where to Learn More cember 2000).
Other National Confectioners' Association. http://
Herman Goelitz, Inc. "Jelly Belly Factory www.candyusa.org (December 2000).
Tour." (2000). http://www.jellybelly.com
(December 2000). -Nancy E.V. Bryk
87
Caramel
Milk is the essential Background and brown color) in a browning kettle. The
confectioner can watch the chemical reaction
ingredient that Caramel is often eaten as little brown, take place in the kettle as the batch turns
sweet, buttery nuggets wrapped in cello- from a milky white color to rich brown. The
distinguishes a caramel phane, but it is also delicious in candy bars nose can smell the slight burning of the milk
from a hard candy. It is and on top of fresh popcorn. The best solids, too-and a pleasant odor it is. If
caramels are sweet and just a bit chewy. cooked even further, to about 290°F
the milk solids that Caramels can, in fact, have a variety of tex- (143°C), the mixture essentially becomes
tures. Caramel manufacturers use the term toffee, a hard-crack caramelized candy.
chemically change to "short" to characterize a caramel that is too
produce the caramel. soft (perhaps too moist) or "long" for a There is no question that chocolate is a won-
caramel that is quite chewy. Caramels are, derful ingredient in candies, but what would
in some ways, rather similar to other candies a Snickers bar, a caramel apple, or Milk Duds
in that the basis for candy is generally sugar, be without caramel? If not used in a bar, the
com syrup, and water. However, caramels caramel batch may be poured into a pan,
vary in an important way in that they also
scored, and cut apart in squares for plain con-
contain milk and fat. While hard candies are sumption. Vanilla caramels, the type most
plastic or malleable at high temperature, but frequently eaten, are flavored with vanilla;
glass-like (clear and easily cracked) when chocolate caramels have a bit of chocolate
cooled, caramels are plastic at both high added to the batch, turning it a deep brown
temperature and room temperature. color. However, maple caramels, those with
Caramels are softer because they have been molasses and brown sugar, and cream
cooked to a lower temperature than hard caramels are other delicious varieties. Most
candies (to approximately 245°F [118°C], Americans have only tasted mass-produced
or the firm ball stage) and contain more
caramels. However, many small confec-
moisture. Because of this soft texture, tioneries are springing up that manufacture
caramel may be extruded at lower tempera- caramels in fairly small quantities, making
tures, inserted into a mold, and put into a va- them gourmet treats. Caramels are fairly easi-
riety of other candies or candy bars to add ly made at home as well.
flavor, binding, and texture.
What makes a caramel a caramel? The action

History
of the heat on the milk solids, in conjunction It is difficult to know when humans first
with the sugar ingredients, imparts a typical craved the sugar that gave them that extra
caramel flavor to these sweets. Essentially, bit of energy and satisfied their sweet tooth
the entire batch of candy undergoes a chemi- cravings. Many believe that the earliest
cal reaction referred to by chemists as the sweet treat was honey-simple to acquire
Maillard reaction. In a conventional and needs no processing. The Arabs and the
caramelization process, the sugar syrups are Chinese prepared candies of fruits and nuts
cooked to the proper moisture level, added to dipped in honey. But during the Middle
the fat and milk, heated, and then allowed to Ages, refined sugar of any kind was very
caramelize (develop the characteristic flavor expensive and a rare treat. Even in the New
88
Caramel
MII M*
BATCHING/DISSOLVING CARAMEL SYSTEM BATCH COOLING
During the caramel production,

World sugar was an expensive commodity, fectioner who used a candy thermometer to ingredients are 6atched, machine
and refined sugar was purchased in a cone monitor the temperature, and poured out the mixed, cooked steadily, cooled,
or a loaf and pieces were carefully cut off cooling caramel batch onto a marble slab or extruded, and formed into small
with sugar nips. But by about 1650, Ameri- a water-cooled table and scored it into caramel squares.
cans were boiling water and sugar and mak- squares. The heavy, deep candy kettles (that
ing hard candies in deep kettles in the fire- some gourmet caramel-producers still swear
place. Surely someone added fat and milk to by) have given rise to batch cookers with
these concoctions and made caramels. vacuum systems for quick cooling of the
caramel syrup that run with little assistance
By the early nineteenth century, Americans from a machine operator. Brach's Confec-
used sugar beet juice to make new candies. tions, Inc. is among the largest caramel
Still, hard candies were the primary confec- manufacturers in the country, with caramels
tions. By the mid-1800s, there were nearly being a staple of their output.
400 American candy manufacturers that
were producing primarily the hard candies
often sold in general stores-they were Rawv Materials
cheap to make, easy to transport, and did not
spoil easily. Caramels were made at these The raw materials vary with the manufactur-
small confectioneries as well. In fact, Milton er and type of caramel under,,production.
Hershey began his chocolate empire not with However, the most frequently made
chocolate, but with caramel. Hershey was caramel, the vanilla caramel, contains many
born in 1857 in Pennsylvania, and rather than ingredients if it is mass-produced. The in-
become a printer, he founded a candy-mak- gredients include milk, sometimes sweet-
ing business in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. By ened condensed milk, corn syrup, sugar, oil,
1886, he had founded the Lancaster Caramel whey, calcium carbonate, salt, flavor, butter,
Company, surely utilizing traditional recipes another type of fat such as vegetable oil,
that were found in many regional cook- molasses, and corn starch. Milk is essential
books. He leamed about chocolate-making to distinguish the caramel from a hard
because he sought new coatings for his fa- candy, and it is the milk solids that change
mous caramels. Other long-lived candy com- chemically to produce the caramel. Corn
panies were founded upon caramels, includ- syrup lends additional sweetness to the
ing Goetze's Candy Company, which began candy batch but also keeps the mixture from
in 1895 and is still going strong making becoming grainy, which would indicate
cream caramels, among other things. there is too much sugar in the batch (graini-
ness will ruin a batch of caramels). Corn
Originally, the production of caramels oc- syrup also lends body to the slurry. At least
curred using copper pots over direct gas one fat is added to the mixture as well. But-
flames, watched carefully by a master con- ter is often the only fat added by gourmet
89
caramel-makers as it provides superior taste, gravity-fed into a steam-jacketed carameliz-

but this proves to be very expensive for ing tank where the caramelizing is ensured
mass-production. So other fats are added by exposing the batch to steam. The
along with a fairly small amount of butter. caramelizing mixture is re-circulated from
As maple caramels or other flavored the bottom to the top of the tank, with in-
caramels are produced, the ingredients vary coming syrup mixing with the caramelizing
accordingly. slurry, promoting homogeneity of the prod-
uct. A discharge valve directs the mixture
into the next processing machine, the cool-
The Manufacturing ing wheel.
Process
There are a number of different caramel- 5 This caramel candy, now at about 240°F
making systems used for the mass-produc- (1 16C), has to be cooled. There are
tion of these candies. The process described many ways to cool the caramel, including
below utilizes one of the many different sys- moving it into cool rooms and running it
tems for this purpose. The process is essen- through cooling tunnels. The system de-
tially the same, however-the batch is ma- scribed above utilizes as cooling wheel. The
chine mixed, cooked steadily, cooled, caramel is water-cooled on the outside sur-
extruded, and formed into small squares. face of a large wheel that is four feet wide
and twelve feet in diameter. The caramel is
1 All of the ingredients listed above are au- laid in a film about 1/8-inch (3.2-mm) thick
tomatically batched and weighed using a on this wheel. The wheel completes a half-
batching and dissolving machine made ex- turn and the caramel comes off the wheel,
pressly for the manufacture of caramels. becoming solid and of a consistency so that
The liquid and the dry ingredients are the candy may be cut and packaged.
loaded into the machine. Then, the ingredi-
ents are weighed with great precision by 6 A batch roller takes the caramel film and
computer in the upper weigh tank. The in- Oshapes it into a rope. The rope is then
gredients are mixed by propellers in this shaped and sized into the thickness of a fin-
upper weigh tank. ished caramel. Caramels are not molded; in-
stead, they are shaped by being cut from the
2After blending, this milky slurry drops thick rope. As the caramels are cut they are
automatically to the lower mixing and automatically individually wrapped. From
dissolving tank. Steam heat brings the mix- there, the caramels may weighed and placed
ture up to a pre-determined temperature. In in a sealed bag and packed into cartons for
the mix tank, gear-driven agitation equip- shipping. If caramels are cooked to just the
ment dissolves the ingredients thoroughly. correct temperature, they can be shipped
Surface scrapers skim along the bottom and easily in any type of weather and will hold
sides where bumed protein solids have a their shape. If they are undercooked just by
tendency to accumulate. These burned a few degrees, they may do poorly after
solids are redistributed and mixed back into packaging and become too soft.
the slurry to ensure that the whole mixture is
a homogeneous batch. Quclity Control
3 The heated mixture is then sent to the The machinery involved in the process of
3heated surge tank. An operator's com- candy making is automated. The making of
mand transfers the batch into a stainless caramels requires precise measurements of
steel scraped surface heat exchanger for the ingredients, since too much sugar makes the
final evaporation. Here a small variable- candy grainy (the sugar does not entirely
speed gear motor drives a scraping system dissolve in the liquid) and makes it an inferi-
within the evaporator. The syrup is forced or product. If there is too much moisture in
through a small space that is jacketed with the product, the caramel will be too gooey in
steam, thus forcing evaporation within the warm weather. Too little moisture and
mixture. cooked at too high a heat, and a "long" or
chewy caramel is the result. So, the machin-
4 The batch has now had much of its mois- ery must be very carefully checked and cali-
1 ture removed and is thickening. It is brated for accuracy in the mixing and
90
Caramel
weighing of materials. Temperature con- Where to Learn More
trols, too, must be extraordinarily accurate,
since just a few degrees can affect the con- Books
sistency of caramels. Human operators on Rombauer, Irma S., and Marion Rombauer
the floor use their eyes and hands in order to Becker. The Joy of Cooking. Indianapolis:
maintain quality. Master caramel-makers Bobbs-Merrill, 1953.
are essential to the production of gourmet
caramels, made in smaller batches of 30-50 Other
lb (14-23 kg) at a time. Their experience can
detect any slight variation that may result in Hershey Foods Corporation. http://www.
an inferior batch just by the look, smell, and hersheys.com (December 13, 2000).
feel of the batch.
National Confectioners Association. http://
As with all food manufacture, the quality of www.candyusa.org (December 13, 2000).
all consumable ingredients must be checked
-Nancy E.V. Bryk
for quality. Corn syrup must be of the high
quality needed for this candy manufacture.
All other ingredients must be tested for
quality as represented by the suppliers.
91
Cherries
Together, 10 countries Background and carefully prepare teas with them for the
treatment of colds or coughs. Others have
produce over 1. 1 million Cherries may be either deliciously sweet experimented with cherry stalk tea in the
and deep brown-red, or quite tart and bright treatment of kidney diseases. The cherry has
short tons (over one red. The two most common are the sweet also been associated with virginity from an-
million metric tons) of cherry, Prunus avium L., and the sour (often cient times to the present day. The associa-
referred to by growers as the pie or tart) tion may be derived from the fact that the
cherries annually. cherry Prunus cerasus L.. Sour cherries red colored fruit that encircles a small seed
have a lower sugar content and a higher acid symbolizes the uterus of Maya, the virgin
content than its sweet counterpart. Not sur-
mother of Buddha, who was offered fruit
prisingly, sour cherries are slightly less and succor by a holy cherry tree while she
caloric than sweet cherries, containing about was pregnant.
60 calories per 3.5 oz (100 g) portion com-
pared to 80 calories for sweet. Cherries are
high in vitamin C, carbohydrates, and water, History
and include trace amounts of fiber, protein,
vitamin A, vitamin B1 (thiamin), vitamin B2 The sweet cherry originated in the area be-
(riboflavin), niacin, calcium, phosphorus, tween the Black and Caspian Seas in Asia
iron, and potassium. Minor. It is likely that bird feces carried it to
Europe prior to human civilization. Greeks
Cherries are found in the wild and have been probably cultivated the fruit first. Romans
domesticated for centuries. There is a myri- cultivated the fruit as it was essential to the
ad of cherry types, resulting from new vari- diet of the Roman Legionnaires (their use
eties and hybrids developed for hardiness likely spread the fruit throughout Western
and flavor. This fruit is found in Asia, Eu- Europe). It is believed that English Colonists
rope, and North America, with Iran, Turkey, brought the fruit to the New World prior to
United States, Germany, and Italy leading in 1630, but they do not seem to have flourished
the production of cherries. Together, 10 in the eastern United States. Spanish Mis-
countries produce over 1.1 million short sionaries brought sweet cherries to Califor-
tons (over one million metric tons) of cher- nia, and varieties were brought west by pio-
ries annually. neers and fur traders as well. Sour cherries
also are native to Asia Minor, and were
Cherry trees offer products other than the brought over to the New World by settlers
fruit itself. The lovely, fragrant cherry blos- rather early as well.
soms are a rite of spring and are actually a
tourist draw in places such as Washington, Today, the United States probably produces
DC, and Door County, Wisconsin. In addi- more tart cherries than sweet because the
tion, parts of the tree itself have long been former are easier to grow. They are simply
used for medicinal purposes. The bark, less fussy and are affected less by bad
leaves, and seeds of the cherry trees contain weather. Thus, they flourish in greater num-
cyanogenic glycosides-poisons that are bers. Now, cherry growers are able to pur-
lethal if ingested by children or animals. Na- chase a variety of cherry types that best suit
tive Americans and others use the leaves the soil and climate in which they operate.
92
Cherries
Cherries are mechanically har-
vested using a tree shaker that
knocks the fruit from the tree.
Once picked, cherries are quickly
processed and sent to market or to
be frozen, canned, or used in
other products.
New cultivars (cultivated varieties) of both climes rather than hot ones because they
sweet and sour cherries are being developed must be chilled for about 1,000 hours annu-
that are hardier than older varieties; German ally. The cherry trees bloom relatively late in
varieties are proving to be extraordinarily spring, so frost is less of a hazard for this
successful for cultivation in this country. stone fruit than others such as peaches or
apricots. However, too much frost late in the
spring may adversely affect cherry produc-
Raw Materials tion. The clime must be one that does not
Generally, cherries flourish in deep, well- have excessive rain during harvest since too
drained, loamy soils. Cherries require cooler much rain at that time can cause the fruit
93
(particularly sweet cherries) to crack. Tart the center of the tree may be dense with a
cherries are a bit easier to cultivate and are central limb. It is therefore essential for
more tolerant of frost as well as humid, rainy growers to prune the trees regularly so that
weather. The relative ease with which tart all the flowers (and ultimately, fruits) re-
cherries are grown may be one reason why ceive the amount of sunlight and air circula-
so many are grown in the United States. tion required for fruit production. This prun-
ing may be done prior to harvest, after
Trees of good stock are also necessary for harvest, or at both times. Some growers are
successful cultivation of cherries. It is im- experimenting with ways to encourage
perative to acquire stock through tree nurs- branching (which still may require pruning).
eries that are suited for the soil and climate These trees must be carefully maintained. It
of the grower's region. Bees, however, en- takes five or six years for sweet cherry trees
sure that the cherry trees flower and ulti- to produce fruit, with maximum yields ob-
mately produce fruit, and are an extremely tained at about that time. Sweet cherry trees
important ingredient in the cultivation of produce fruit for up to 30 years. Tart cherry
cherries. Bees are usually brought into the trees produce fruit after about three years,
tree orchard in the spring as the flowers first and produce fruit for 20 to 25 years.
bloom in order to distribute pollen so that
the fruit blossoms. Bee hives are generally
rented by cherry growers each year. It re-
mains imperative that fertilizers are applied
Fungicides and insecticides
to domesticated cherry trees via foliar (leaf- The schedule for applying fungicides and
applied) feedings. Pesticides and fungicides insecticides may vary from orchard to or-
are applied before harvest to deter diseases chard. Some growers apply the first fungi-
and pests. cides at floral bloom in spring to prevents
leaf spot. Insecticides to keep off bore
worms and/or other insecticides may be ap-
The Production Process plied every two weeks or so until harvest.
Soil preparation
3 Bees must pollinate the flowers. Just as
Different varieties of cherry trees flourish in the trees begin to blossom, cherry grow-
slightly different soils. Generally, cherries ers let bees loose in order to distribute the
prefer a moderate pH of 6 or 7. Most or- pollen so that fruit will blossom. The flower
chard owners periodically test the soil to en- must be pollinated in order for the tree to
sure the pH is near that mark and may add bear fruit. Bees may be set in alternate rows
special fertilizers to treat the soil. Extensive to ensure pollination. Generally, 25-50% of
use of fertilizers may encourage vigorous flowers must set fruit each year in order for
growth but may retard blooming and fruit the crop to be commercially viable.
bearing, so cultivators must carefully assess
their use of fertilizers.
4It is approximately two months from
Root stocks are carefully chosen by cher- '+flower to fruit. As the fruit ripens, grow-
ry growers for their lineage and compati- ers hope for no frost and just the right
bility with the soil and climate of the or- amount of rain-too much rain will crack
chard. Lineage, as one grower puts it, means and damage the sweet cherries. Maturity is
that the stock is from healthy, dependable gauged by a variety of means, and may vary
trees from reputable fruit nurseries. There is by grower. Traditionally, color has been a
much contention about the most dependable key indicator. Growers are increasingly
root stocks for both sweet and tart cherries. moving toward determining fruit removal
A new root stock from Germany (a signifi- force-the easier it is to remove the fruit,
cant source for cherries) named Gisela al- the more mature it is. This maturity is mea-
lows production from dwarf trees with high sured by a pull gauge that pulls the fruit
yield efficiency and fairly early production. from its pedicel. Just before harvest, some
growers who use tree-shakers to shake the
2 Some varieties of cherry trees, particu- cherries off their stems apply a spray that
Llarly those of the Pacific Northwest, do makes it easier for the cherries to drop off
not naturally produce many branches. Thus, the tree.
94
Cherries
5 Both sweet and tart cherries intended for keep a record of these soil tests. Second, the
Jprocessing are shaken from trees when grower must understand the climate and soil
ripe. Tree trunks are shaken by a machine types well enough to choose root stock that
that forces the cherries from the tree; it takes will flourish in that area. Third, pesticides or
just five seconds to drop the fruit from the insecticides must be very carefully mixed
tree using a shaker. The fruit drops onto a and applied according to U.S. Environmen-
cloth or plastic cover so that it can be easily tal Protection Agency (EPA) standards, rec-
gathered. (Tree shaking is an ordeal for the ommendations of state university extension
grower as well as the tree-the machines are services, and the product label. Fourth, pol-
very expensive and if the shaking is done in- lination of the cherry blossoms is absolutely
correctly, the machine vibrations may dam- imperative; if there are few bees in the area,
age trees, particularly young trees.) Howev- growers must rent bees for this purpose.
er, sweet cherries that are to be consumed Fifth, the trees must be carefully shaken
fresh are laboriously hand-picked and care- during harvesting (if the cherries are to be
fully boxed for prompt sale. harvested) so that the tree is not irreparably
damaged. Finally, vigilant pruning and as-
6 Cherries are now ready to be processed sessing the amount of air and sunlight
Vinto consumer or retail produce items. densely packed trees receive is imperative
Cherries that are to be processed (canned, for large yields.
dried, or frozen) are quite delicate and are
easily bruised. They also have a short shelf
life, so they must be processed immediately. The Future
Tart cherries shaken from trees are immedi-
ately plunged into cold water and conveyed Perhaps the biggest issue looming for the
to processing plants, where they are washed, cherry industry, which is fiercely indepen-
de-stemmed, pitted, and packed for freezing dent and highly competitive, will be federal
within hours of harvesting. Sweet cherries regulation of the crop (as other crop-grow-
picked for fresh consumption may be hydro- ers are weaning themselves from these regu-
cooled or dumped into cold water by pick- lations). Tart cherry crops have been partic-
ers, then packed in shallow flats after being ularly problematic in the last several years.
sorted based upon their size and color. A bumper crop of tart cherries has resulted
Sweet cherries are then immediately in exceedingly low crop prices (tart cherries
shipped out, since their shelf life is just two are less affected by the vagaries of weather
weeks. They are still prone to brown rot and than sweet cherries and can be harvested in
a variety of molds during this time. huge quantities). Several years ago the mar-
ket was so saturated with tart cherries in
7For many growers, there is little prepara- Michigan that some growers were receiving
tion of the trees for the winter. After har- five cents a pound for the crop, far below
vesting, another spray is applied to foliage the twenty-cents per pound needed to break
to prevent harmful leaf spot. Pruning of even. Federal regulations could establish the
limbs and branches often happens after har- amount of cherries that may be offered for
vesting as well. Other than that, the trees are sale at market. Excess cherries may be
left unprotected. Cherry trees, like most frozen or stored, or given to charity. Some
trees, prefer a fall that gradually gets colder growers are trying to find ways to utilize
rather than one that is very warm and then these tart cherries in ingenious ways. A
very cold suddenly. The gradual cooling of Michigan cherry grower recently combined
the tree is called "hardening off' so that the lean ground meat with tart cherry pulp, re-
tree is eased into the cold weather. sulting in a lean and tasty meat that appealed
to the health-conscious. Others have turned
to gourmet foods such as dried cherries, yo-
Quality Control gurt-covered cherries, or have developed
Cultivating a commercially viable cherry specialty cereals in order to utilize the abun-
crop has many components. First, the soil dance of tart cherries.
pH and nutrients must be tested frequently
(generally by a state university extension Other issues involve the land upon which
service) so that foliar fertilizers meet the re- the cherries are grown. The cultivation of
quirements of the trees. Generally, growers cherries is very labor-intensive and subject
95
to the weather. Equipment is expensive, too; Periodicals

a cherry shaker alone may cost $175,000.
Younger generations increasingly are un- Flesher, John. "State Cherry Growers Plot
willing to manage the family cherry or- Strategies to Resurrect Their Troubled In-
chard, realizing that much hard work may dustry." Detroit News (January 2, 1996).
not even pay off in profits. Even established Herzog, Karen. "Times, Taxes Shake Small-
cherry growers are wondering if the work is er Growers Out of Business in Door Coun-
worth the prices and uncertainty. In addi- ty." Milwaukee Journal Sentinel (August
tion, many of these orchards are located in 15,1999).
lush, lovely areas, and taxes on the prime
parcels of land are putting some of the
growers out of business. Families are decid- Other
ing that it is not worth running the business, California Cherry Advisory Board. http://
and are selling orchards that will be plowed www.calcherry.com (December 2000).
under to make way for new housing.
Cherry Marketing Information. Growers'
Where to Learn More Info. http://www.cherrymkt.org/growers/
growers.html (March 2000).
-Nancy E.V. Bryk
96
Chess
Background cavalry, and infantry. These pieces became First appearing around
the basis for the four types of pieces in the
Chess is a classic two person board game. It game. Two of the key similarities between A.D. 600, chess steadily
is played with specially designed pieces on a chess and chaturanga is that different pieces
square board made up of 64 alternating light
have different powers and victory is based
evolved into the modern
and dark squares arranged in eight rows and
columns. First appearing around A.D. 600,
on what happens to the king. game known today.
the game steadily evolved into the modern
game known today. The earliest methods of
During subsequent years, chaturanga spread
production involved carving the board and throughout the Middle East, Asia, and Eu-
pieces out of wood or stone. Today, a vari- rope. Chaturanga was introduced to China
ety of common modern manufacturing
around A.D. 750 and then to Korea and Japan
methods such as injection molding and lith- by the eleventh century. In each of these
ographic printing are employed to mass pro- places, it took on different characteristics. For
duce thousands of games. example, Chinese chess has nine files and 10
ranks. It also has a boundary between the
The objective of the modern chess game is fifth and sixth ranks, which makes it a slower
to force the opponent's most important game than the Western version. In Persia, the
piece, the king, into checkmate. This is a po- game was called shtranj and it was in this
sition in which the king cannot be moved to form that it was introduced to Western Eu-
avoid capture. The player with the white rope when the Moors invaded Spain. By the
pieces begins the game by moving a piece to tenth century, the game was commonly
another square following the rules that gov- played throughout Europe and Russia..
ern piece movement. The players alternate
moves until one player is either checkmated, Shtranj caught the interest of philosophers,
resigns, or there is a draw. Thousands of kings, poets, and other nobility, and eventu-
books have been published relating to the ally became known as the "royal game."
strategies during the three key stages of The best players wrote down the moves of
chess, including the opening, the middle each of their games. This practice eventual-
game, and the end game. ly led to the development of puzzles in
which the solver had to find solutions, like
History finding checkmate in a specific number of
moves. During the fifteenth century some
While the exact time and place of chess's significant rule changes were made. For ex-
origin is debated, most scholars believe it ample, castling was introduced, as was the
was developed sometime around the sixth initial two-square pawn advance. One of the
century A.D. It is a descendant of a game most important changes was the transforma-
called chaturanga, which was commonly tion of the counselor piece into the queen,
played in India during that time. (Chaturan- the strongest chess piece. These improve-
ga is derived from a much older Chinese ments helped make the game popular
game.) The name chaturanga is a Sanskrit throughout Europe. Some of the best players
word that refers to the four divisions of the during this time-Ruy Lopez and Dami-
Indian army, including elephants, chariots, ano-put together chess instruction books
97
Chess pieces and a chessboard

set up.
that also helped to make the game more twelfth centuries, Islamic rules prohibiting
widely accepted. the depiction of living creatures resulted in
basic pieces made from clay or stone. This
The rules and piece design steadily evolved, change is actually thought to have increased
reaching the current standard during the interest in the game at the time because it
early nineteenth century. In the twentieth made sets more widely available and was
century, chess experienced a tremendous less distracting to the players. When the
growth in interest resulting in the develop- game spread to Europe and Russia, highly
ment of various chess organizations and the ornate sets were fashionable.
crowning of a world champion. The first
computer chess program was introduced in The standard set for modem chess pieces was
1960. Steady improvements in technologies introduced by Nathaniel Cook in 1835. His
and algorithms led to the 1996 defeat of the set was patented in 1849 and endorsed by the
world champion, Garry Kasparov, by a leading player of the day, Howard Staunton.
computer called Deep Blue. Staunton's promotion of the set as the stan-
dard led to it being known as the Staunton
pattern. Today, only Staunton sets are al-
Design lowed in official international competitions.
Historically, the game's pieces have been A typical chess set has 32 pieces. These are
both simple and highly decorated. Prior to broken down into two sets of 16 pieces
A.D. 600, the pieces were plain. These were each. In each set there are eight pawns, two
replaced by detailed sets depicting royalty, rooks, two knights, two bishops, one queen,
warriors, and animals. From the ninth to the and one king. The different pieces are dis-
98
Chess
tinguished by their appearance. The designs ments. Titanium dioxide can be used for
vary from simple plastic shapes to intricate, white colored pieces. For more ornamental
hand-carved statues. While piece size varies sets, other inorganic materials such as iron
depending on the specific set, the tallest oxides can be used to produce yellow, red,
piece is typically the king, followed closely black, brown, and tan pieces.
in height by the queen. The shortest, least
notable pieces are the pawns. The rook has Various filler materials are added to the
varied considerably over the years, being plastics to produce durable, high quality
represented as a ship, castle turret, or a war- pieces. For manufacturing ease, plasticizers
rior in a chariot. are often added to the plastic. Plasticizers
are nonvolatile solvents that increase the
The chess board is square and made up of flexibility of the polymer. To improve the
64 alternating light and dark squares overall properties of the plastic, reinforce-
arranged in eight rows and columns. The ment materials such as fiberglass may be
vertical columns extending from one player added. Other additives include ultraviolet
to the other are known as files. The opposite (UV) protectors, heat stabilizers, antioxi-
rows are called ranks. dants, and manufacturing aids.
An important aspect of large scale chess
piece manufacture is the process of designing The Manufacturing
the mold. A mold is a cavity machined from Process
steel. When liquid plastic or molten metal is The basic steps involved in the creation of a
injected into the mold, it takes on the inverse chess game include creating the mold for the
of the mold's shape when it cools. This re- pieces, producing the pieces, producing the
sults in a finished piece. The mold cavity is board, and final assembly. The following
highly polished because any flaw can result manufacturing procedure represents a method
in a flawed final piece. For making chess that mass producers of the game might use.
game pieces, a two part mold can be used. To Some shops still make their sets by hand, a
make the piece, the two mold sections are time consuming process that involves carving
joined together and injected with the base the pieces from the raw material.
raw material. The mold is then opened and
the piece drops out. Special release agents
and a tapered design help make the parts easi- Making the pieces
er to remove. When molds are designed they In the earliest phase of manufacture, de-
are made slightly larger to compensate for the signs for the chess set pieces are drawn
fact that plastic shrinks while it cools. out on a board and used as a guide in mak-
ing the molds. Pieces are then handmade,
Raw Materials typically starting by making the general out-
line of the piece with a wire frame. Clay is
Chess sets have been made with a number of then molded around the frame and shaped to
raw materials over the years. Materials as di- look exactly like the desired piece.
verse as ivory, glass, wood, clay, pewter,
stone, and various metals have been used. 2 When the clay model hardens, a plaster
Today, the most widely available chess sets mold of it is produced. From this mold, a
are made of plastic. Plastic is a mixture of steel die (or mold) is then machined, which
high molecular weight polymers and various will allow the exact duplication of the clay
fillers. For a plastic to be suitable in chess- model. In some cases, a set of steel molds
piece manufacture it must be easily colored are connected together so that the whole set
and heat stable, and have good impact of chess pieces can be made in a single in-
strength. The most often used plastics are jection molding step.
thennoset plastics such as polymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA). With the steel molds made, plastic pel-
Jlets are transformed into chess game
Polymers found in plastics are typically col- pieces using injection molding. In this
orless, so colorants are added to make the process, pellets are put into a hopper con-
chess pieces look more appealing. Colorants nected to the injection molding machine.
include soluble dyes or comminuted pig- They are forced through a high-pressure
99
screw and melted. The screw is turned, forc- shrinks the film and wraps the box tightly.
ing the melted plastic through a nozzle and The boxes are then put into cases and
into the mold. Just before the plastic is in- stacked on pallets. They are transferred to
jected, the two halves of the mold are trucks that deliver them to local sales outlets.
brought together to form the shape of the
chess piece. Inside the mold, the plastic is
held under pressure for a set amount of time Quality Control
and then allowed to cool. As it cools, the The quality of the chess game parts are
plastic hardens, the mold is opened, and the checked during each phase of manufacture.
chess game piece is ejected. The mold then Line inspectors check the plastic parts to en-
closes again and the process begins again. sure they meet size, shape, and consistency
specifications. The primary test method is
Making the board typically visual inspection. When a dam-
aged plastic part is found, it is set aside to be
4The construction of the board depends melted again and reformed into a new chess
on the starting raw material. Wood and game piece.
stone sets are cut or carved to specifications.
For mass produced sets, the main raw mate-
rial for the board is cardboard. The card- The Future
board is first cut in a square to the exact di- The future of chess sets is likely to involve
mensions desired, and then it is printed. The the improvement of computerized chess
printing process involves a printing press sets. Currently, many manufacturers pro-
fitted with plates. When the press is turned duce single person, computerized games
on, the plate passes under a roller and gets that allow the player to compete against a
coated with water. An ink roller is passed computer. In the years to come, these com-
over the plate and ink attaches to the plate in puter chess games are likely to become
specific printable spots. more sophisticated, challenging even the
best players in the world. In addition to the
Ink is transferred from the plate to a rub- current game, variations have been devel-
.Jber roller. The rubber roller is passed
oped. Future chess sets may involve multi-
over the cardboard, which causes a transfer
ple levels in which pieces will be able to at-
of ink. The cardboard is then passed to the tack not only forward and backward, but
next roller assembly where the next color is
also up and down. New board shapes have
added by a similar process. The ink is spe- already been introduced making it possible
cially formulated so that it dries before it en- for up to four players to be involved in a
ters the next roller assembly. This process of
game at once.
wetting, inking, and printing allows for con-
tinuous manufacture of printed chess
boards. After all the printing is done, a spe- Where to Learn More
cial clear polymer coating may be applied to
protect it and give it a glossy look. Books
Carraher, C. E., and R. B. Seymour. Poly-
Final assembly mer Chemistry. 5th ed., revised. Undergrad-
uate Chemistry Series. New York: Marcel
To finish production of a game set, all Dekker, Inc., 2000.
6the different components are brought to
the packaging area. The exact package de- Chabot, J. F. The Development of Plastics
pends on the final design, however, in most Processing: Machinery and Methods. Soci-
cases the pieces are put into a box along ety of Plastics Engineers Monographs. New
with the board. During this stage, instruction York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992.
sheets or other booklets are also put in the
box. It is then taken by conveyor to a shrink- Goichberg, Bill, et al. U.S. Chess Federa-
wrapping machine.. tion Official Rules of Chess. New York:
David McKay Co., 1993.
7On the shrink-wrap machine, the box is
(loosely wrapped in a thin plastic film. It Golombek, Harry. Chess: A History. New
is then passed through a heating device that York: Putnam Publishing Group, 1976.
1 00
Chess
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1992.
Levy, David, and Monty Newborn. How
Computers Play Chess. New York: W.H.
Freeman & Co., 1990.
-Perry Romanowski
10 1
Clothes Iron
In 1996, about 13-14 Background not unlike a wine press. Two flat heavy
boards were put between a tumscrew, also
million irons were sold in A clothes iron is a household appliance used made of wood. Linen was placed between
to press the wrinkles out of and creases into the boards and the increasing pressure ap-
the United Stotes. clothes. When the iron is turned on, the con- plied by the turmscrew created pressure to
sumer moves it over an item of clothing on
press the fabric.
an ironing board. The combination of heat
and pressure removes wrinkles. The ancient Chinese also had several primi-
tive types of irons, including the pan iron.
Irons have evolved over hundreds of years The pan iron looked rather like a large ice
from simple objects made of metal (though cream scoop. This iron had an open compart-
they were sometimes made of glass or other ment with a flat bottom and a handle. The
materials) that were often heavy and hard to compartment held hot coal or sand, which
use. Before heated dryers were invented,
heated the bottom of the pan iron. It was
irons served another purpose as well. Hot moved across clothing to remove wrinkles.
irons killed parasites and bacteria in cloth-
ing, and eliminated mildew. Most modem By about the tenth century A.D., Vikings
irons are made of metal and plastic, and from Scandinavia had early irons made of
have many features such as steam, tempera- glass. The Vikings used what was called a
ture controls, and automatic shutoff. Steam linen smoother to iron pleats. The mush-
provides an additional means for removing room-shaped smoother was held near steam
wrinkles from clothing. to warm up, and was rubbed across fabric.
What contemporary consumers would rec-

History ognize as an iron first appeared in Europe by
Though objects have been used for thou- the 1300s. The flatiron was comprised of a
sands of years to remove wrinkles and/or flat piece of iron with a metal handle at-
press clothing, for much of that time only the tached. To heat the iron, it was held over or
wealthy had their clothes so treated. Because in a fire until it was hot. When a garment
the use of such implements was hard and la- was pressed with the flatiron, it was picked
borious, only the rich could afford to employ up with a padded holder. A thin cloth was
people (usually slaves or servants) to do the placed between the garment and the iron so
work. In about 400 B.C., Greeks used a gof- that soot would not be transferred from im-
fering iron to create pleats on linen robes. plement to the finished garment. The flat-
The goffering iron was a rolling pin-like iron was used until it was too cool to do its
round bar that was heated before use. job. Many people owned several flatirons so
they could heat one or more while one was
Empire-era Romans had several tools simi- being used.
lar to the modem iron. One was a hand man-
gle. This flat metal paddle or mallet was In approximately the fifteenth century, an
used to hit clothes. The wrinkles were re- improvement over the flatiron was intro-
moved by the beating. Another implement duced. The hot box (also known as the box
was a prelum. This was made of wood and iron or slug iron) was made of a hollow
1 02
Clothes Iron
A typical clothes iron.
metal box with a smooth bottom and a han- the sad iron. Because wood does not hold
dle. Inside, hot coals, bricks, slugs (heated heat in the same way that iron does, the per-
metal inserts) or some other heating element son using the iron would not be burned.
were placed. This eliminated the need for an
extra cloth between clothing and iron be- After gas became available in American
cause the iron did not get the clothes dirty. homes in the late 1800s, gas irons came into
Both the flatiron and hot box were used for existence. The earliest were patented in
several hundred years. 1874. Homes had individual gas lines into
them, and the gas iron was hooked up to the
Many innovations in iron technology came gas line by a pipe. The iron contained a
in the nineteenth century. When cast iron burner to which the gas flowed. When the
was invented in the early part of the nine- burner was lit with a match, the iron heated
teenth century, some of the problems with up. The iron was very hot and gas some-
flatirons were solved. With the advent of times leaked, but the gas irons were lighter
cast iron stoves, flatirons could be heated on than sad irons. Other fueled irons soon fol-
top of them, which was much cleaner than a lowed. These irons were heated with oil,
fire. By the 1820s, cast iron was also used to gasoline, paraffin, and other fuels.
make flatirons. These irons were called sad
irons because they were heavy, weighing The electric iron was invented in the 1880s
about 15 lb (5.6 kg), and hard to move. when electricity became widely available in
homes. The first electric iron was patented
Like flatirons, sad irons were heated on the by Henry W. Seeley in 1882. His iron was
stovetop, but they sometimes heated un- hooked up to an electrical source by detach-
evenly. The handle also heated up, which able wires. The electricity stimulated the
posed problems for users. American Mary iron's internal coils. But Seeley's iron, like
Potts solved these predicaments in 1870. many early electric irons, did not have elec-
She made a cardboard base and filled it with tric cords. The irons were heated on a stand.
plaster of Paris. This was placed around the One big problem with Seeley's iron was that
iron's body and kept it cooler for more even it heated very slowly on the stand, and
heating. Potts also devised a detachable cooled quickly while in use. This iron had to
wooden handle that was spring loaded for be reheated frequently.
1 03
By the turn of the century, iron technology nisms. Plastics are used to make the exterior
had progres*ed considerably and irons be- and handle, as well as the water tank. Cer-
came more common in American house- tain components, like the spring for the ther-
holds. In 1903, irons with electric cords di- mostat, cord, plug, and related connections
rectly attached to the iron were being sold. are usually outsourced by iron companies.
Earl Richardson invented a sole plate (the
bottom part of the iron that is made of metal The Manufacturing
and does the actual pressing) that improved Process
how and where sole plates were heated for
better ironing. His iron had more heat in the First, each sub-assembly of the iron is pro-
tip than in the center and was known as the duced, most often on separate, automated
Hotpoint. production lines. Then the iron is assem-
bled.
In the 1920s, Joseph Myers improved the
iron and cord by adding an automatic heat Sole plate
control made of pure silver. Thermostats
soon became a standard feature. The first The sole plate is cast of molten aluminum.
cordless irons were introduced in 1922, Part of the mold creates the holes that are
though they did not catch on. (The first suc- essential in a steam iron. Heated metal is in-
cessful cordless irons were sold in 1984). serted into a mold under pressure, cooled,
and released.
In 1926, the steam iron was introduced by the
2 The cooled sole plate is treated in one of
Eldec Company. Steam made it easier to
smooth dry stiff fabrics. Previously the user three ways. It is polished, coated with a
sprinkled water on dry clothing, or clothing non-stick PTFE material, or covered with
had to be ironed when damp. The steam irons another metal. Such metals include stainless
employ a water tank that allows heated water steel.
vapor to be created and applied through small To complete one or more of these processes,
holes on the sole plate. Steam irons did not the sole plates are put on a large automated
become popular until the 1940s. carousel, which rotates through each step.
Edward Schreyer conquered the problem of 3 To polish the plate, an automated belt
rusting sole plates in 1938. He developed an 3sander uses bands of abrasive to polish
aluminum alloy that would not rust or leak. and buff the plate. The finish required deter-
Irons that could vary between steam or dry mines which grade of abrasive is used.
were introduced in the 1950s. The first iron
with automatic shut off was introduced in 4An automated spray-painting machine
1984. applies non-stick coating. After applica-
tion, the sole plate is baked in an automated
Contemporary irons have nonstick coating industrial process.
on the sole plate, an innovation that was in-
troduced in 1995. Most featured bodies 5 To coat with another metal, the external
made of plastic and more holes on the sole metal cover is created by an automated
plate to allow steam to come through. A stamp press. The resulting cover is either
whip holds the cord out of the way during pressed or riveted onto the sole plate,
use. In 1996, about 13-14 million irons through a smaller machine press.
with a variety of features were sold in the
United States. Thermostat
6In an injection mold, a small metal post
Raw Mcaterials is cast.
Irons are made primarily of plastic and 7A spring is mounted onto the metal post.
metal (aluminum and steel). The materials This spring is a bimetallic switch made
often come to the factory in the form of of two different metals with divergent linear
plastic resins, aluminum ingots, and steel thermal coefficients bonded together. The
sheets. The metal is used to make the sole spring actually controls the iron's tempera-
plate, thermostat and other internal mecha- ture.
1 04
Clothes Iron
8 Power contacts are attached to the end of 1 The electrical cord is the last piece to
8the spring, which let the electricity I8be added. Sometimes this process is
through so the iron can be heated. This automated, but it also can be done manually.
whole process is generally automated.
After an automated testing process,
Water tank
1 9 the irons are inspected by hand.
9 In a two-part injection mold, heated plas- 2 0 Completed irons are packed into indi-
9 tic is inserted to make upper and lower vidual boxes with instructions and
sections of the tank. Several openings on the other documents by hand. (For some com-
tank are created as part of the mold. panies, this is an automated process.)
The mold is put under pressure, The individual boxes are placed in
cooled, and released as a one-part 21 shipping cartons or master packs for
tank. distribution to warehouses.
Other parts for the tank (pump, inter- Quality Control

nal chamber, piston, buttons, and
other parts) are created by similar injection Before the manufacturing process begins, all
molding processes. the raw materials are sample checked for
consistency. As each subassembly of the
2On an automated assembly line, the iron is manufactured, the pieces are checked
parts are put together, with each of the for correct functionality.
other parts put onto the water tank.
During the assembly process, an iron is re-
moved from the production line and taken
Housing apart by an independent department to look
In an injection mold, heated plastic is for errors. Any mistakes result in the whole
Ivinserted into a mold under pressure, batch of irons being checked and corrected
cooled, and released. if necessary. After the product is assembled,
a worker also checks the iron for electrical
functionality and water integrity.
Handle
4In an injection mold, heated plastic is Byproducts/Waste
inserted into a mold under pressure,
cooled, and released. Any excess metal or plastic from the mold-
ing process is reused in the process, if possi-
Assembly ble. Anything that is unable to be used is re-
cycled.
When all the parts are manufactured, the
iron is assembled on an automated assembly
line. The Future
The most obvious improvements on the iron
1 The sole plate is the first part on the probably will be to the sole plate. Better coat-
I5assembly line. The thermostat is either ings will probably be invented that are more
screwed onto the plate, or welded to the resistant to damage from zippers or other pro-
plate by a robot. trusions on garments and reduce drag over
fabric. These improvements might be in the
1 6 To the sole plate-thermostat subassem- form of better alloys or better nonstick coat-
16bly, the water tank is put in place. It is ings. Internal mechanisms that better control
secured on an automated line with screws or heat and steam also will continue to evolve.
other industrial fasteners.
7The handle and body are attached over Where to Learn More
(the sole plate, thermostat and water Books
tank, and fixed by screws. Sometimes this
process is automated, but it also can be done Alpine, Elaine Marie. Irons. Minneapolis,
manually. MN: Carolrhoda Books, 1998.
1 05
Walkley, Christina, and Vanda Foster.

Crinolines and Crimping Irons: Victorian
Clothes: How They Were Cleaned and
Cared For. London: Peter Owen, 1978.
-Annette Petruso
1 06
Cognac
Background gnac, each separately built successful distil- It takes nearly half a
leries that manufactured cognac. Jean
Cognac, a type of brandy, is considered to Martell, a French former smuggler, arrived century for alcohol content
be one of the finest, if not the finest, of the in Cognac and built a distillery on the Char-
spirits. It is made from white grapes grown ent River. In 1765, James Hennessy, an
of distilled brandy to
in the Charante region of France, and is
named after the town of Cognac in the
Irishman who served in the French navy, decrease to a drinkable
also set up shop on the river as Hennessy
French region of Charante. Cognac is some- Connelly and Company. The following year, 40%.
times called "burnt wine" (from the Dutch Hennessy's company received its first order
word brandewijn because the wine is sub- from the American colonies. Soon after, co-
jected to a double heating. gnac was also exported to the Far East.
Although cognac is primarily enjoyed as a The name "cognac" was not affixed to the
beverage, it is also used in cooking for distilled wine until about 1783. At about
sauces, marinades, fruit preserves, and that time, the French government devel-
chocolates. Cognac is splashed over dishes oped rules for labeling, classifying the co-
for flamed presentations, in marinades, fruit gnac by it smoothness. V.S. (Very Superi-
preserves, and chocolates. or) is aged at least two and one-half years.
V.S.O.P.(Very Superior Old Pale), or Re-
History serve, is aged in wood at least four years.
X.O. (Extra Old, Napoleon, or Extra) is
Necessity, as the mother of invention, cer- that which has been aged at least five
tainly describes the development of cognac. years. These are bare minimums. Most
In the seventeenth century, the town of Co- houses age their cognacs for twice the min-
gnac in the French region of Charante was imum required.
an exporter of salt and wine. The wine was
particularly popular with the Dutch and At first, warehouses were built on the river
English merchants who visited the region. primarily for ease of transport. Therefore,
They would often distill the wine so that the the cellars were damp. This proved benefi-
ship voyage home would not affect the qual- cial to the cognac because the dampness re-
ity of the spirit. duced its strength but not its volume. A dry
cellar produces a harsher brandy. Even
A vintner named Chevalier de la Croix-Mar- today, distillers try to build warehouses near
rons is the first person known to heat wine rivers, or they keep their cellars humidified.
and then send it back through the still again,
thus creating "burnt wine." The wine was Since early times, the distillation has been
then stored in oak barrels. It would be dilut- carried out in a large copper pot still, called
ed upon arrival. However, the merchants an alembic, topped with a long "swan's
found that the distilled wine had improved neck". By French law, the stills are limited
with age and by its contact with the wood. to small capacities in order to ensure a slow
and precise distillation. French law also de-
In the eighteenth century, two men whose fines the distillation period. It begins in No-
names would become synonymous with co- vember and ceases by March 31.
1 07
Since early times, the distillation

of wine into cognac has been car-
ried out in a large copper pot still,
called an alembic, topped with a
long "swan's neck". By French
law, the stills are limited to small
capacities in order to ensure a
slow and precise distillation.
or worm
Boiler
One aspect of the distillation process that The wooden barrels, or casks, in which the
has changed is the method of heat. At first, cognac ages are an essential element in the
wood was used, then coal. In the present process. Tannin and vanillin present in the
day, natural gas provides the heat source. wood lend their properties to the cognac.
One-hundred-year-old trees from the forests
of Limousin and Tron,ais are the primary
Ravv Materials types used. Limousin wood is extremely
The ideal grapes for distilling cognac are rich in tannin and accelerates maturation.
Colombard and Saint-Emilion. Blanche, Tron,ais wood releases its tannin at a much
Folle Juirancon, Monfis, and Sauvignon are slower rate. A side effect of this process is
also used. They are grown in six specific sub- the blackening of the walls and roofs of the
divisions, or crus, in the delimited region of warehouses caused by the growth of fungus.
Charante established by the French govern-
ment in 1909. Each cru produces a distinctive Most of the major cognac producers control
flavor. Grande Champagne, the area around the manufacture of their casks. After the
the towns of Cognac and Seconzac, yields the wood is split, it is stacked and seasoned in
most delicate and fragrant brandy. Grapes in the open air for a minimum of three years.
the Petite Champagne, which surrounds In the cooperage room of the distillery, the
Grande Champagne on the southwest and cooper shapes the wood into barrels. Metal
east, are faster to mature and less subtle in bands hold the planks of wood together so
taste. In the hills north of Grande Champagne that glue and nails, which would affect the
is the Borderies. Grapes grown here produce flavor of the cognac, are not necessary.
a rounder and softer taste. Brandy made from
grapes of the remaining three areas, Fins
Bois, Bons Bois, and Bois Ordinaires, are It takes nearly half a century for alcohol
used primarily to flavor other brandies. content of the distilled brandy to decrease to
a drinkable 40%. To facilitate the matura-
The grapes are harvested in the winter when tion process, distilled water and other vari-
they are fruity and have the potential to pro- eties of brandy are blended in to the cognac.
duce juice that is 8-9% alcohol. Grapes with
less than 8% alcohol are too pale to produce Caramel may be added to even out color
the desired aroma; those with more than 9% variations. Sugar syrup may be added to
possess an inadequate concentration. sweeten and enrich less mature brandies.
1 08
Cognac
The Manufacturing Generally speaking, the brandy is first

Process stored in newer casks for periods between
one and two years. The amount of time is
Pressing the grapes dependent on the level of tannin that is de-
The grapes are pressed and the juice is al- sired. Tannin is strongest in new oak, so the
Ilowed to ferment naturally. No sugar or brandy must possess enough character to ab-
sulfure dioxide is added. sorb large amounts of tannin.
First distillation Aging and blending the cognac

2As soon as the wine has fermented, it is 7The brandy is progressively moved into
2poured into pot stills enclosed in brick older casks, once again dependent on the
kilns. Each still holds approximately 660 finished product desired. The cooper pre-
gallons, or the equivalent of 3,000 bottles. sides over the transfer, tasting the brandy
The kilns are heated to a temperature range once a year to determine if it should be
between 173°F (78.3°C) and 212°F (100°C) moved to another cask. Most of the tasting
until the alcohol vaporizes and separates is done by the nose; very little cognac is ac-
from the rest of the liquid. tually orally tasted.
)The vapors are collected in the cowl and 8Cognacs over varying vintages and from
3the swan's neck of the still. They then 8different crus are blended to create the
passinto the serpentine-like condenser coil. quality desired. This blending occurs over a
The condensed liquid, called "broullis," is minimum of one year with samples taken
reduced one-third from the original amount annually. Representative samples of each
and measures about 30% alcohol by vol- blending are kept for at least a decade. Each
ume. cognac house has a house style that is con-
sistent year after year. Often this style is
Second distillation passed down from family member to family
member as a memory of taste and aroma.
AThe broullis is heated a second time in a
1Iprocess known as "bonnechauffe." This
is a exacting process because the distiller Bottling the cognac
has to decide at what moment to isolate 9The bottles in which cognac is packaged
what is known as the "heart" of the liquid, to 9 are a source of great pride to each com-
separate it from the "head" and "tails." The pany. Many of the bottles are handcrafted of
head portion is too high in alcohol content crystal. They are often sealed with wax and
while the tail is lacking in substance. These draped with satin ornaments.
portions are redistilled several times and
used in blending. The cognac is bottled on an a slow moving
assembly line at the rate of about 5,000 bot-
5The remaining liquid is the clear "eaude tles per hour. Each bottle is inspected and
5vie." It has been reduced by an additional hand-dried. After bottling, the cognac is ei-
one-third and is 70% alcohol by volume. ther packed for shipping or stored for future
This significant reduction in volume means shipments.
that the distillation of cognac is a costly op-
eration. It takes 9 liters of wine to make one
liter of cognac. The amount of spirit that is Where to Learn More
lost to vaporization (known as "the angels' Books
share") can equal more than 20 million bot-
tles annually. Coyle, L. Patrick. The World Encyclopedia
of Food. New York: Facts on File, 1982.
Casking the distilled brandy
Lang, Jenifer Harvey, ed. Larousse Gas-
6The eau de vie is piped into oak casks. tronomique. New York: Crown, 1998.
JThe casks are housed in large damp
warehouses, or cooperages. The vintage, Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Compan-
cru, and date are marked on each cask with ion to Wine. Oxford: Oxford University
chalk. Press, 1994.
1 09
Periodicals "The Cognac of Madame Raymond Rag-

naud and Her Children." http://le-cognac.
Gugino, Sam. "High Spirited." The Wine com/raymond_ragnaud/ragnaud3_us.html.
Spectator (January 31, 1998). (January 12, 2000).
Other "Thomas Hine & Co. Handcrafted Cognac."
"Blending Tools." http://le-cognac.com. http://www.le-cognac.com/hine/hine_
(January 17, 2000). charte_us.html. (December 1999).
-Mary McNulty
1 10
Coir
Background softer and less strong than brown coir. It is Palm trees belong to one
usually spun into yarn, which may be woven
What is commonly called a coconut, as into mats or twisted into twine or rope. of the world's oldest plant
found in grocery stores, is actually only the
single seed of a fruit of the coconut palm The other method of categorization is based families, and coconut
tree (Cocos nucifera). Before being shipped on fiber length. Both brown and white coir
to market, the seed is stripped of an external consist of fibers ranging in length from 4-12
palms have been
leathery skin and a 2-3 in (5-8 cm) thick in- in (10-30 cm). Those that are at least 8 in cultivated for at least
termediate layer of fibrous pulp. Fibers re- (20 cm) long are called bristle fiber. Shorter
covered from that pulp are called coir. The fibers, which are also finer in texture, are 4,000 years.
fibers range from sturdy strands suitable for called mattress fiber. A 10-oz (300-g) co-
brush bristles to filaments that can be spun conut husk yields about 3 oz (80 g) of fiber,
into coarse, durable yam. In the United one-third of which is bristle fiber.
States, the most popular uses for coir are
bristly door mats, agricultural twine, and ge- The only natural fiber resistant to salt water,
otextiles (blankets that are laid on bare soil coir is used to make nets for shellfish har-
to control erosion and promote the growth vesting and ropes for marine applications.
of protective ground covers). Highly resistant to abrasion, coir fibers are
used to make durable floor mats and brush-
Although coconut palms grow throughout es. Strong and nearly impervious to the
the world's tropical regions, the vast majori- weather, coir twine is the material hops
ty of the commercially produced coir comes growers in the United States prefer for tying
from India and Sri Lanka. Coconuts are pri- their vines to supports. Coir is becoming a
marily a food crop. In India, which produces popular choice for making geotextiles be-
about one-fourth of the world's 55 billion cause of its durability, eventual biodegrad-
coconuts each year, only 15% of the husk ability, ability to hold water, and hairy tex-
fibers are actually recovered for use. India ture (which helps it cling to seeds and soil).
annually produces about 309,000 short tons
(280,000 metric tons) of coir fiber. History
Coir fibers are categorized in two ways. One Palm trees belong to one of the world's old-
distinction is based on whether they are re- est plant families, and coconut palms have
covered from ripe or immature coconut been cultivated for at least 4,000 years. In
husks. The husks of fully ripened coconuts Sanskrit, the precursor of the modem lan-
yield brown coir. Strong and highly resistant guages of Hindi and Urdu, the coconut palm
to abrasion, its method of processing also was called "the tree that provides all the ne-
protects it from the damaging ultraviolet cessities of life." In fact, it is one of the
component of sunlight. Dark brown in color, world's most useful trees, providing food,
it is used primarily in brushes, floor mats, drink, fibers, fuel, and building material.
and upholstery padding. On the other hand, Coconut fruits are very hardy; they can even
white coir comes from the husks of coconuts float in the ocean for great distances and still
harvested shortly before they ripen. Actually remain viable. Indigenous to Southeast
light brown or white in color, this fiber is Asia, the coconut palm spread throughout
1 1 1
The inside layers of the fruit from

a coconut palm.
the tropics either naturally or by human where it provides jobs for more than
travel and trade. 500,000 people. Because mechanization
would eliminate a significant number of
About A.D. 60, a Greek sailor wrote about a those jobs, it is being introduced gradually.
coconut-producing East African village, In 1980, the primary producing countries of
probably on the coast of present-day Tanza- India and Sri Lanka began an ongoing effort
nia, whose boats were made of planks sewn to identify and correct technological limita-
together with fibers. By the eleventh centu- tions on coir production.
ry, Arab traders (whose route stretched from
China to Madagascar off the southeastern
shore of Africa) were teaching residents of Raw Materials
what are now Sri Lanka and India how to Coconut palms flower monthly. Because it
extract and process coconut fibers. During takes a year for the fruit to ripen, a tree al-
the thirteenth century, Marco Polo-while ways contains fruits at 12 stages of maturity.
visiting the port of Hormuz on the Persian Harvesting usually take place on a 45-60
Gulf-discovered that the masterful Arab day cycle, with each tree yielding 50-100
seamen built their ships without nails, coconuts per year.
sewing them together with coconut fiber. In
China, Polo found that the Chinese had been Fresh water is used to process brown coir,
using coconut fiber for 500 years. while sea water and fresh water are both
used in the production of white coir. In
Halfway around the world, coir also played a 2000, researchers announced that adding a
significant role in the exploration of Microne- broth containing a certain combination of 10
sia and Polynesia, where the product is com- anaerobic (living without oxygen) bacteria
monly called sennit. For example, early set- to salt water can dramatically hasten the
tlers of Hawaii arrived from the Marquesas fiber extraction process without seriously
Islands around the fifth century in a large, degrading product quality.
double-hulled canoe lashed together with co-
conut fiber. In fact, sennit lashings were the In Europe and Asia, brown coir mats may be
primary mechanism for connecting pieces to sprayed with latex rubber for use as padding
construct boats, buildings, weapons, and tools in mattresses or automobile upholstery.
until European explorers brought iron nails to
the region in the late eighteenth century.
The Manufcscturing
Coir production changed little until efforts Process
to mechanize it began in the middle of the Harvesting and husking
twentieth century. In India, a defibering ma-
chine was invented in 1950. Coir processing Coconuts that have ripened and fallen
is an important economic activity in India, from the tree may simply be picked up off
1 12
Coir
The outer layers covering the coconut seed are processed and spun into fibers commonly known as coir.
1 13
the ground. Coconuts still clinging to the 40- crushing machines after being retted for
100 ft (12-30 m) tall trees are harvested by only seven to 10 days. Immature husks can
human climbers. If the climber picks the be dry milled without any retting. After
fruit by hand, he can harvest fruits from passing through the crushing machine, these
about 25 trees in a day. If the climber uses a green husks need only be dampened with
bamboo pole with a knife attached to the end water or soaked one to two days before pro-
to reach through the treetop vegetation and ceeding to the defibering step. Dry milling
cut selected coconuts loose, he can harvest produces only mattress fiber.
250 trees per day. (A third harvesting tech-
nique, in which trained monkeys climb trees Defibering
to pick ripe coconuts, is used only in coun-
tries that produce little commercial coir.) 6 Traditionally, workers beat the retted
pulp with wooden mallets to separate the
2Ripe coconuts are husked immediately, fibers from the pith and the outer skin. In re-
but unripe coconuts may be seasoned for cent years, motorized machines have been
a month by spreading them in a single layer developed with flat beater arms operating
on the ground and keeping them dry. To re- inside steel drums. Separation of the bristle
move the fruit from the seed, the coconut is fibers is accomplished by hand or in a ma-
impaled on a steel-tipped spike to split the chine consisting of a rotating drum fitted
husk. The pulp layer is easily peeled off. A with steel spikes.
skilled husker can manually split and peel
about 2,000 coconuts per day. Modem husk- 7Separation of the mattress fibers from
ing machines can process 2,000 coconuts the pith is completed by washing the
per hour. residue from the defibering process and
combing through it by hand or tumbling it in
Retting a perforated drum or sieve. (Saltwater ret-
ting produces only mattress fibers.)
Retting is a curing process during which the
husks are kept in an environment that en- 8 The clean fibers are spread loosely on
courages the action of naturally occurring Othe ground to dry in the sun.
microbes. This action partially decomposes
the husk's pulp, allowing it to be separated
into coir fibers and a residue called coir pith. Finishing
Freshwater retting is used for fully ripe co-
conut husks, and saltwater retting is used for oBristle fibers that will not immediately
green husks.
9be further processed are rolled and tied
into loose bundles for storage or shipment.
3 For freshwater retting, ripe husks are More mechanized producers may use a hy-
buried in pits dug along riverbanks, im- draulic press to create compact bales.
mersed in water-filled concrete tanks, or
suspended by nets in a river and weighted to Similarly, mattress fibers may simply
keep them submerged. The husks typically be baled with a hydraulic press. How-
soak at least six months. ever, if more processing is desired, the fibers
are combed with mechanical or manual card-
AFor saltwater retting, green husks are ing tools, then loosely twisted into a thick
soaked in seawater or artificially salinat- yarn (wick), and wound into bundles. Later,
ed fresh water. Often this is accomplished the wick can be re-spun into a finer yam.
by placing them in pits along riverbanks Techniques vary from simple hand spinning
near the ocean, where tidal action altemate- to use of a hand-operated spinning wheel or
ly covers them with sea water and rinses a fully automated spinning machine.
them with river water. Saltwater retting usu-
ally takes eight to 10 months, although Depending on its intended final use,
adding the proper bacteria to the water can the yarn may be shipped to customers,
shorten the retting period to a few days. or multiple strands may be twisted into twine
and bundled for shipment. Both traditional
5 Mechanical techniques have recently manual techniques and newer mechanical
been developed to hasten or eliminate methods are used to braid twine into rope
retting. Ripe husks can be processed in and to weave yam into mats or nets.
1 14
Coir
12For some uses, such as upholstery coir fiber. Geotextiles is one promising area.
12padding, bristle fiber is loosely spun The Indian state of Kerala designated 2000
into yarn and allowed to rest. Then the fibers, as Coir Geotextiles Year, which it observed
which have become curly, are separated. by increasing marketing efforts and support-
These fibers are lightly felted into mats that ing research to improve production. The an-
are sprayed with latex rubber, dried, and vul- nual world demand for geotextiles is 1.2 bil-
canized (heat treated with sulphur). lion square yards (1 billion square meters)
and growing. Although natural fibers ac-
Byproducts/Waste count for only 5% of that, the proportion is
expected to increase as more users turn away
By weight, coir fibers account for about from nonbiodegradable synthetics.
one-third of the coconut pulp. The other
two-thirds, the coir pith (also known as coir Another new product under development is
dust), has generally been considered a use- an alternative to plywood that is made by
less waste material. Although it is impregnating a coir mat with phenol
biodegradable, it takes 20 years to decom- formaldehyde resin and curing it under heat
pose. Millions of tons sit in huge piles in and pressure.
India and Sri Lanka. During the last half of
the 1980s, researchers successfully devel- Where to Learn More
oped processes to transform coir pith into a
mulching, soil treatment, and hydroponic Books
(without soil) growth medium that is used as Fremond, Yan. The Coconut Palm. Berne:
an alternative to such materials as peat moss International Potash Institute, 1968.
and vermiculite. Before being compressed
into briquettes for sale, the coir pith is par-
tially decomposed through the action of cer- Other
tain microbes and fungi. An Australian Kew Royal Botanic Gardens. http://www.
company has also recently begun turning rbgkew.org.uk/ksheets/coir.html (October
coir pith into an absorbent product used to 2000).
remediate oil spills.
Punchihewa, P.G., and R.N. Arancon. "Co-
The retting process used in coir fiber pro- conut." In Post-Harvest Operations Com-
duction generates significant water pollu- pendium. Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion. Among the major organic pollutants tion of the United Nations (FAO). http://
are pectin, pectosan, fat, tannin, toxic www.fao.org/inpho/compend/text/ch 15.htm
polyphenols, and several types of bacteria (November 2000).
including salmonella. Scientists are experi-
menting with treatment options, and at least Sudhira, H.S., and Ann Jacob. &ldqo;Reuse
one coir manufacturing company claims to of By-Products in Coir Industry: A Case
be treating its effluent water. Study." Internet Conference on Material
Flow Analysis of Integrated Bio- Systems
The Future (March-October 2000). http://www.ias.unu.
edu/proceedings/icibs/ic-mfa/jacob/
As improved technology increases produc- paper.html (October 2000).
tion, industry groups and governmental
agencies are actively promoting new uses for -Loretta Hall
1 15
Comic Book
The first newspaper comic Background publish small books containing reprints of
past strips, which they would distribute to
strip in the United States A comic book portrays a story through a se- promote the paper and gain new readers.
ries of sequential illustrations that incorporate Soon, other publishing companies were as-
was Richard Felton short bits of text containing dialogue, sounds, sembling comic strips from several papers
or narratives. The story may be humorous, or
Outcault's "The Yellow it may present a world of adventure, mystery,
and selling them to merchants to be given
away as premiums. In 1934, Eastern Color
Kid," which appeared in or fantasy. Most comic books are printed on a
Printing Company decided to sell these
regular basis and have one or more central books directly to the public for 10 cents
the Hearst New York characters who appear in each issue. A partic- each. American News, which controlled dis-
American on February ular story may be told in a single issue, or it tribution to newsstands throughout the
may continue from one issue to the next over
country, initially refused to handle the
16, 1896. a period of time. The artistic style of a comic
books, so Eastern Color took them to chain
book is often attributed to a single artist, al- stores and quickly sold 35,000 copies. Faced
though most comics are produced by a team with this astounding success, American
of artists and writers working together. News reconsidered and ordered 250,000
copies of Famous Funnies No. I from East-
History ern Color. It went on sale in July 1934 and
became the first regularly published comic
The use of sequential illustrations to tell a book to be sold at a newsstand.
story dates to prehistoric times when early
humans painted series of images on rocks During the late 1930s, many of the now-fa-
and cave walls. Egyptian hieroglyphics are mous superheroes made their first appear-
another form of sequential illustrations that
ances in comic books, and comic book sales
tell a story. soared as good triumphed over evil. By the
Hand-drawn illustrations appeared regularly early 1950s, however, readers grew tired of
in newspapers and magazines starting in the superheroes, and some comic book publish-
ers turned instead to lurid crime and horror
1800s. Many of them used humorous or un-
flattering portrayals of well-known people stories with graphic illustrations. Some peo-
and were the origin of modern cartoons and ple felt this material was unsuitable for chil-
comics. dren, and the comic book industry came
under public criticism and federal investiga-
The first newspaper comic strip in the Unit- tion in 1954. In response, many comic book
ed States was Richard Felton Outcault's publishers banded together and issued the
"The Yellow Kid," which appeared in the Standards of Comics Code Authority, which
Hearst New York American on February 16, defined appropriate material for comics.
1896. It was published in the Sunday sup-
plement to the paper and was quickly joined Comic books enjoyed a resurgence of interest
by other comic strips. during the 1980s, when fresh new artists cre-
ated a whole new cast of heroes and heroines.
By the 1910s, the Sunday comics were so Today, comic books are as popular as ever,
popular that newspapers would occasionally and the comic book industry is a million-dol-
1 16
Comic Book
I'll 1111*
II
1111*
Creating a comic book is a de-

lar business that includes movies, television cyan (pronounced SIGH-ann, a shade of tailed process that includes draft-
series, toys, costumes, and many other items. blue), magenta, yellow, and black. These ing the plot, designing thumbnail
four inks are printed in an interlocking pat- sketches and then the original
tem of tiny dots, which our eyes perceive as drawings, and finally adding
Rawv Materials various colors. The printed comic pages are color and lettering.
During the preparation of a comic book, a then bound together with staples or glue to
variety of art materials may be used to cre- form a comic book.
ate the original hand-drawn page masters
and color guides. These materials include Design
various sizes, weights, and finishes of paper, Because each new issue of a comic book re-
as well as several different drawing medi- quires new artwork, the design process is
ums including pencils, inks, markers, and part of the manufacturing process. The ex-
paints. After the master pages have been ception is when a new comic title or series is
scanned and colored on a computer, the first introduced. That design process in-
computer uses the color guides as a refer- volves the same creative and artistic abilities
ence to generate four pieces of plastic film required to produce any new work of art and
that are used in the printing process. may include idea generation, preparation of
sketches, and the development of a series of
The actual comic book itself is printed on a refinements before the final characters and
variety of papers using four colored inks- themes emerge.
1 17
used in the 1930s when comic book publish-

ers sought to protect new titles by copyright-
ing them. Rather than take the time to devel-
op new characters or plots to go with the
new title, a publisher simply took pages from
a previous comic book and pasted the new
title on the cover. Once the publisher was
granted a copyright, the pasted-up prototype
was often thrown in the ashcan-a metal
container used to dispose of ashes from the
stove or fireplace and commonly found in
many households and businesses of that era.
The concept of the ashcan was given a more
modem meaning in 1984 when one comic
book creator produced a limited number of
black and white prototype comics for his
friends and staff. In more recent times, sev-
eral publishers have released small runs of
ashcans in a variety of sizes and colors as
promotional items for the full-production
versions.
The Manufacturing
Process
Comic book publishers may be small, inde-
pendent operations that produce a single
comic book title on an irregular basis, or
they may be large, well-established compa-
nies that produce several comic book titles
every month. The manufacturing process
varies depending on the size of the operation
and the equipment available. Here is a typi-
cal sequence of operations that a medium-
sized company would use to produce a
comic book.
Writing
1 Although most people think of a comic
book as a series of pictures, it is the writ-
ten plot that gives the story its direction. The
writer and artist discuss the proposed story
and exchange ideas. At this stage, they may
use a number of formal or informal tech-
niques for developing ideas. They may
make notes on small index cards arranged
on a table or they may outline the flow of
the story on a display board. During the
course of their discussion, they decide on
the situations, locations, characters, and
other details of the story. This helps define
the overall plot from beginning to end.
The final product of the initial design
process may be a prototype comic book IBecause most comics have a fixed num-
known as an "ashcan," a term that was first 2 ber of pages, the writer and artist must
1 18
Comic Book
then decide how to break up the story to fit Sometimes the editor may ask the artist to
each page. They discuss which scenes and redraw a portion of a scene to correct an
dialogue are critical to keep the story flow- error or clarify an item. In other cases, the
ing and how the characters and action editor may have to shorten the dialogue or
should be depicted to have the greatest im- narrative to fit in the space left by the artist.
pact. Sometimes they follow general indus-
try practices, which define such things as 8 When the pencil drawings are complete,
the optimal number of action scenes per 8they are enlarged onto 11 x 17 in (28 x
page or the amount of dialogue per word 43 cm) illustration boards if they were
balloon, but other times they rely on their drawn on smaller paper. They are then sent
own personal style. to the inker. The inker's job is much more
than just tracing over the pencilled lines of
3 Once the story has been refined, the the artist with black ink. It involves the se-
3writer creates a script. This includes gen- lection of line widths, adding shadows, visu-
eral descriptions of the scenes and charac- ally separating the foreground from the
ters in the order they appear, the accompa- background, and creating special effects like
nying dialogue or descriptive text, and splatter or wash to give the illustrations tex-
general instructions to the artist. The result ture. The inker uses a variety of pens and
is very much like a script written for a brushes to produce a finished black and
movie or play. white page. Many inkers have their own
unique style that adds to the artist's original
Drawing drawings.
4The artist reads the script and makes a 9The final step in the drawing process is
rough sketch of each page, called a adding the lettering for the dialogue,
thumbnail. The thumbnail helps the artist sound effects, and narratives that appear in
decide how each scene should be depicted, the script. This can be done using hand let-
and how the different scenes should be tering, adhesive labels, or computer-gener-
arranged on the page. Some artists sketch ated digital type. The letterer selects a type-
each scene on a small piece of adhesive- face that not only conveys the actual words
backed note paper and then move them or sounds, but also conveys the action or
around on a larger piece of paper to achieve emphasis of the scene with its size, style,
the desired effect. and placement.
5 Using the thumbnail as a guide, the artist
5begins drawing each page in pencil. Coloring
Some artists like to work on standard 8.5 x
11 in (22 x 28 cm) white paper and then The finished pages, including the
l V front and back covers, are sent to the
photoenlarge the pencil drawings onto 11 x
17 in (28 x 43 cm) illustration boards before colorists who add the colors and prepare the
inking the final copies; others make their four-color separation films required for
pencil drawings directly on the larger printing. The original artwork is first photo-
boards. The artist usually starts drawing the copied and then scanned into a computer.
main elements of each scene with a hard The photocopy is hand-colored using col-
pencil that makes very light lines. When all ored markers, pencils, and paints to become
the main elements are in place, the artist a guide when coloring the pages on the com-
considers the overall effect and makes any puter. The scanned copy becomes an elec-
changes before proceeding. tronic file that forms a digital outline of the
page to be colored.
6 The artist then darkens the main ele-
Oments with a softer pencil and adds the 1 With the color guide as a reference,
backgrounds and other details. Areas for the the colorist begins to add colors to the
dialogue balloons, sound effects, and narra- digital outlines of each page starting with
tive boxes are blocked out in blue pencil to the backgrounds and working forward. This
distinguish them from the illustrations. is done using a custom software package
that allows the colorist to trace the outline of
7At this point, an editor may review the any part of the image with the cursor, and
pencil drawings and make changes. then apply and blend colors to that area to
1 19
match the color guide or to achieve a special 1 5 The plastic films for the four colors on
effect. For many colors, the computer al- 15each page are used to produce four
ready has the information on file. For exam- aluminum printing plates. A bright light is
ple, if one character always wears the same projected through each film and onto the
clothes, information about the colors of that plate, which is coated with a chemical that is
character's boots, mask, or cape are stored sensitive to light. Where there are dots on
in the computer to ensure they look the same the film, they block the light and the chemi-
from one issue of the comic book to another. cal remains on the plate. Where there are no
dots, the light passes through the film and
1 2As the colorist selects and applies burns away the chemical. This process is re-
each color, the computer automatical- peated for all of the pages that appear on
ly assigns a code to it. This code is used to each side of a single sheet (see Step 14).
identify the four color components that
make up that particular color-cyan, ma- 1The plate for the first color on the
genta, yellow, and black. When these four 1Jfront side of the sheet is fastened
colors are printed in an interlocking pattern around a circular drum in the printing press,
of tiny dots, our eyes perceive them as hun- and the plate for the back side is fastened
dreds of different colors, even though there around another drum below it. When the
are really only four colors of ink on the press is turned on, water flows over the ro-
page. The color variations depend on the tating plates, while rollers with colored ink
concentration of each of the four color compress against them. Where the chemical dots
ponents. Thus a particular shade of red may remain on the plates, the ink sticks; where
have the code M80Y87, for example, which the chemical has been burned away, the ink
represents 80% magenta and 87% yellow. washes off and doesn't stick. The sheets of
paper are fed between the rotating plates,
1 3 When all the pages have been colored, and the front and back (top and bottom)
a proof copy of the entire comic book sides are printed at the same time.
is printed from the computer for final review 1 7This process is repeated for each of
and approval. The computer then prints a / the four colors. In some presses, a
piece of plastic film for each of the four long roll of paper is fed between four sets of
component colors on each page. Each piece rollers, and all four colors are printed in a
of film has hundreds of thousands of tiny single pass through the press. The printed
dots to represent the location and concentra- sheets or the roll of paper are then cut to the
tion of that color component across the page. proper size, stacked, folded, and stapled or
glued to form the finished comic book.
Printing
1 4The individual pages are arranged so The Future
they will appear in the proper order The future of comic books looks as dynamic
when the comic book is assembled. Usually, as some of its superhero characters. Comic
two or more pages are printed on each side books offer a visual portal into a world of
of a single sheet of paper. For example, page humor, action, and adventure that can stimu-
2 might be printed on the left half of a sheet late a reader's imagination.
and page 23 would be printed on the right
half. On the other side of the sheet, page 24
would be printed on the left and page I Where to Learn More
would be printed on the right. On the next
sheet, pages 4 and 21 would be printed on Books
one side, and 22 and 3 would be printed on Alvarez, Tom. How to Create Action, Fan-
the other. And so on. When the sheets of tasy, and Adventure Comics. Cincinnati,
paper are stacked on top of each other and OH: North Lights Books, 1996.
folded in the middle, the pages appear in the
proper order. On some printing presses, as Periodicals
many as eight pages can be printed on each
side of a large sheet, then cut and folded as Allstetter, Rob. "Fire Drill." Wizard (Sep-
required. tember 1996): 48-51.
1 20
Comic Book
Grant, Paul J. "Brush Off." Wizard (August Comic Book Fonts. http://www.comicbook-
1995): 52-54, 56. fonts.com (September 30, 2000).
Grant, Paul J. "Letter Perfect." Wizard The Comic Page. http://www.dereksantos.
(February 1996): 44-47. com/comicpage (September 30, 2000).
Tiemey, Matt. "Separation Anxiety." Wiz- International Museum of Cartoon Art.
ard (January 1996): 40-43. http://www.cartoon.org (September 18,
2000).
White, Paul. "In the Can." Wizard (Febru-
ary 1994): 86-89. Words and Pictures Museum. http://www.
wordsandpictures.org (September 18, 2000).
Other
-Chris Cavette
Comic Art and Graffix Gallery. http://
www.comic-art.com (September 18, 2000).
121
Corkscrew
In just over 100 years Background protruded a comfortable distance from the
vessel. Blown-glass bottles began to replace
following the first patent, Uncorking a bottle of wine presents a chal- barrels and skins as wine storage vessels.
lenge. There is no way to grip the cork, The bottles consisted of a squatty chamber
more than 350 which is completely recessed in the bottle's topped with a tapered neck. These "shaft and
neck. Furthermore, pulling the cork out re-
corkscrews patents were quires a force of 25-100 lb (110-450 N), de-
globe" bottles were sealed with tapered
corks wrapped with waxed linen, making it
granted in England and pending on whether the cork is moist or dry easy to grasp and remove the stoppers.
(from the bottle being stored on its side or
some 250 were awarded upright, respectively).
Between the late seventeenth and eighteenth
in the United States. A corkscrew is an implement designed to centuries, two developments proceeded si-
mechanically remove the cork. It consists of multaneously. It is unclear which was the
a handle and a helical or screw-like blade that cause and which was the effect. Manufac-
is commonly called a worm. (A corkscrew turers began mass-producing bottles of uni-
without a center post is actually a helix, with form size by pouring molten glass into
all the coils having the same radius; however, molds rather than hand-blowing bottles one
it is often called a spiral, even though that at a time. This manufacturing method al-
term technically means a curve with a con- lowed production of tall, slender bottles
stantly changing radius.) Screwing the worm with straight sides and cylindrical necks.
through the center of the cork allows the This shape of bottle could be laid on its side
corkscrew to grip the cork internally. Pulling for storage and shipment, an advantage that
on the handle draws both the corkscrew and boosted the international wine trade. Tighter
the cork out of the bottle. Some corkscrews seals were required so the bottles would not
employ levers, springs, gears, or other me- leak, a challenge solved with cylindrical
chanical devices to lessen the amount of corks that were compressed prior to being
force needed to pull out the cork. forced into the bottle necks. Because of their
tighter fit, these corks were harder to re-
move than the earlier, tapered versions.
History
Corks were used to seal bottles in the an- The parallel development was the invention
cient Greek and Roman civilizations. Re- and evolution of the corkscrew. It began with
moving them was not difficult, however, be- the adaptation of the gun worm, a long-han-
cause they extended above the rim of the dled, helix-tipped tool that could be inserted
bottleneck far enough to be grasped firmly. in the barrel of a musket or pistol to retrieve
After the fall of Rome in the fifth century, wadding and unspent bullets. The earliest
cork bottle stoppers disappeared from use written reference to a true corkscrew dates
for a thousand years. back to 1681. Until 1720, when the word
"corkscrew" came into use, the tools were
During the late sixteenth century, cork bottle called bottlescrews. Bronze and iron were
stoppers reappeared as in England. Again, no sometimes used to make the worm, but steel
special implement was required to remove became more popular because of its greater
them, since they were tapered in shape and strength and its ability to retain a sharp point.
1 22
Corkscrew
Examples of mandrels.
During the early 1700s, pocket corkscrews the cylinder on the top of the bottleneck po-
became popular. A metal or wooden sheath sitioned the worm vertically above the cen-
covered the spiral, protecting the worm and ter of the cork. After the spiral had com-
the owner's pocket. In some models, the pletely penetrated the cork, continued
sheath could be inserted in a loop at the end turning of the handle pulled the cork out of
of the worm's shaft to provide an effective the bottle. The user could then hold the
T-handle for the corkscrew. During the lat- corkscrew over a fingerbowl, turn the han-
ter half of the eighteenth century, dle in reverse, and automatically eject the
corkscrews became increasingly elaborate, cork without soiling his or her fingers.
using materials like silver, gold, exotic
woods, ivory, and jewels. Multipurpose A flurry of inventive activity in the late
tools often combined corkscrews with de- 1800s produced many variations of
vices such as pipe tobacco tampers, nutmeg corkscrews enhanced with levers, gears,
graters, seals, and folding pocket knives. springs, and secondary screws to raise the
Dainty corkscrews were produced to open cork out of the bottle. In just over 100 years
small bottles containing perfumes and medi- following the first patent, more than 350
cines, for corks were the preferred sealer for corkscrews patents were granted in England
all types of bottles until cork-lined metal and some 250 were awarded in the United
bottlecaps became popular 1890. States. One of the more prolific American
inventors in the field was W. Rockwell
The first corkscrew patent was issued in Eng- Clough of New Jersey. In 1876, he devel-
land to Reverend Samuel Henshall in 1795. It oped a machine that could bend a single
was a simple, T-shaped device with a steel piece of wire into a complete corkscrew; at
worm protruding perpendicularly from the one end of the helix, the wire was twisted
center of a handle made of bone or wood. into a fingerloop handle. In a subsequent re-
Like many corkscrews of that period, brush finement, he added a wooden sheath so the
bristles extended from one end of the handle; corkscrew could be carried in a pocket.
the brush was used to clean dust and sealing After the metal bottlecap became popular,
wax from the cork before opening a bottle. he developed a bottlecap remover and at-
The innovative feature of Henshall's design tached it to the end of the sheath. Clough's
was a flat disk, or button, mounted on the company eventually produced an estimated
shaft connecting the worm to the handle. This one billion inexpensive corkscrews, many of
kept the worm from being screwed too far which were advertisements with brand
through the cork; it also established a firmer names imprinted on the sheath.
contact between the corkscrew and the cork,
making it easier to pull out the cork. Around the end of the nineteenth century,
British corkscrew maker Thomas Truelove
In 1802, a more complex mechanical used a forming machine to forge steel
corkscrew was patented by British engineer worms. A grooved mandrel (forming rod)
Edward Thomason. A bell-shaped cylinder was rotated with a hand crank while a red-
surrounded the worm; setting the bottom of hot steel rod was inserted through an eyelet.
1 23
Two methods of attaching the han-

dles to the worm. Williamson method Walker method
The pliable rod was drawn into the grooves middle of the cork without removing the en-
of the mandrel, shaping it into a helix. tire stopper.
One of the more significant corkscrew in- Worms with rounded edges are usually made
ventions of the twentieth century was the by wrapping a very hot steel rod around a
Screwpull, patented by Texas engineer Her- form to make a helix. The tip of the helix is
bert Allen in 1978. Placing the device on top sharpened to help it penetrate the cork easily.
of the bottle, the user simply pushes a lever Some manufacturers pull the tip out of the
down and then pulls it back up to effortless- helix's perimeter and position it in the center
ly insert the worm and extract the cork. of its hollow core. This makes it easy to in-
sert it into the center of the cork. However,
the rest of the worm cannot exactly follow
Raw Materials the path of the tip, so the center of the cork
Steel remains the preferred spiral material, can be damaged by this type of corkscrew.
with 440C stainless steel and tempered low-
carbon steel being among the most popular Some manufacturers of round-edge helixes
choices. Levers and gears may be made score one or two shallow grooves into the
from steel or from cast zinc alloy. Handles outer surface of the worm to increase the grip-
can be made from many materials, including ping surface between the worm and the cork.
common or exotic woods, bone, plastic, or Round-edge corkscrew worms vary in de-
various metals. sign. They generally have between three and
five turns in a helix that is about 2.5 in (6
Design cm) long. An open pitch-a comparatively
wide spacing between turns-is less likely
There are two categories of worms. The to cause damage to the cork than a tighter
auger type is very much like a wood screw, spacing. The outer diameter of the worm is
with sharp-edged threads cut into a shank. If usually 0.3-0.4 in (0.8-1 cm).
the threads are cut so deeply that they ex-
tend through the center of the shank, the
worm may actually have a hollow center. The Manufacturing
Auger corkscrew manufacturers claim that Process
their sharp threads help them penetrate Forming a helix
corks more easily than round-edge worms.
Critics contend that they tend to slice up the An open worm is formed by forging a
center of older corks, ripping out the soft steel rod into a helix shape. After sharp-
1 24
Corkscrew
ening one tip, the rod is heated to soften it Assembling the corkscrew
for shaping. For example, 440C stainless
steel is heated at 1,500°F (650°C) for 30 7There are various ways to attach the
minutes, then at 2,100lF (1,000°C) for five worm to whatever type of handle or
minutes. mechanism it will be mounted in. In the
simplest case, insertion in a T-handle, two
methods are used most commonly. The
2The hot rod is wound around a rotating worm's flat or square shank may be inserted
cylindrical mandrel. To help guide the in a hole drilled in the handle and secured
rod into a uniform spiral with the desired with two-part epoxy. Or a flat shank
angle and spacing between successive coils, predrilled with a hole may be inserted into
a grooved mandrel may be used. the handle and secured by driving a pin
through the handle and hole.
3 Immediately after coiling, the spiral is
3hardened. This is done by reheating the The Future
worm to 1,500°F (650°C) and letting it cool
slowly. Mild steel, on the other hand, is Near the end of the twentieth century, some
quenched by plunging the still- hot spiral wineries began using synthetic corks. Be-
into room-temperature water. cause this material is harder than natural
cork, popular corkscrew worms did not
work well. Elongating the worm by adding
Forming an auger an additional turn may have solved this
4An auger-type worm is formed by cut- problem. As improvements are made to syn-
ting threads into a tapered steel rod. thetic cork composition, additional
With the rod secured in a lathe, a cutting corkscrew modifications may be needed.
head is mounted on the machine's lead
screw, which pulls it parallel to the rod at a Where to Learn More
constant speed. This produces threads of the
desired angle and spacing as the head cuts Books
into the rod. Giulian, Bertrand B. Corkscrews of the
i
Eighteenth Century. Pennsylvania: White
Space Publishing, 1997.
Finishing the worm
5Whether it is a helix or an auger, the O'Leary, Fred. Corkscrews: 1000 Patented
Jworm has a straight shaft extending be-
Ways to Open a Bottle. Atglen, PA: Schif-
fer, 1997.
yond the coiled or machined section. This
shaft, which will be inserted into a handle or Perry, Evan. Corkscrews and Bottle Open-
other corkscrew mechanism, is prepared ac- ers. Buckinghamshire, Great Britain: Shire
cording to the customer's specifications. For Publications, 2000.
example, it may be threaded, flattened, slot-
ted, or drilled with a hole. Other
A surface treatment is usually applied to "Corkscrews." http://www.corkscrew.com
Jthe worm to prevent corrosion. Typical- (October 2000).
ly, the worm is plated with chromium or ArborFood Wine Web. http://arborfood.
nickel. To help it slide easily through the com (October 2000).
cork, the worm may be coated with a non-
stick substance like Teflon or Silverstone. -Loretta Hall
12 5
Cotton
Business revenue Background for animal feed. Cotton is also a source for
cellulose products, fertilizer, fuel, automo-
generated by coffon Cotton is a shrubby plant that is a member bile tire cord, pressed paper, and cardboard.
of the Mallow family. Its name refers to the
today is approximately cream-colored fluffy fibers surrounding
$122.4 billion-the small cottonseeds called a boll. The small, History
sticky seeds must be separated from the
greatest revenue of any wool in order to process the cotton for spin- Cotton was used for clothing in present-
ning and weaving. De-seeded cotton is day Peru and Mexico perhaps as long as
United States crop. cleaned, carded (fibers aligned), spun, and 5,000 years ago. Also, cotton was grown,
woven into a fabric that is also referred to as spun, and woven in ancient India, China,
cotton. Cotton is easily spun into yarn as the Egypt, and Pakistan, around 3000 B.C.
cotton fibers flatten, twist, and naturally in-
terlock for spinning. Cotton fabric alone ac- Cotton is not native to Western Europe.
counts for fully half of the fiber worn in the Around A.D. 800, Arabic traders likely in-
world. It is a comfortable choice for warm troduced cotton to Spaniards. By the four-
climates in that it easily absorbs skin mois- teenth century, Mediterranean farmers were
ture. Most of the cotton cultivated in the cultivating the cotton plant and shipping the
United States is a short-staple cotton that fiber to the Netherlands for spinning and
grows in the American South. Cotton is weaving. British innovations in the late
planted annually by using the seeds found 1700s include water-powered spinning ma-
within the downy wool. The states that pri- chinery, a monumental improvement over
marily cultivate cotton are located in the hand-spinning. An American named
"Cotton Belt," which runs east and west and Samuel Slater, who worked with British
includes parts of California, Alabama, machinery, memorized the plans for a ma-
Arkansas, Georgia, Arizona, Louisiana, chine spinner and returned to Rhode Island
Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico, North to set up Slater Mill, the first American tex-
Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Ten- tile mill to utilize machine spinners. This
nessee, and Texas, which alone produces mill represents the beginning of the U.S. In-
nearly five million bales. Together, these dustrial Revolution, built on the mechanism
states produce approximately 16 million of the cotton industry.
bales a year, second only to China. Business
revenue generated by cotton today is ap- Two developments spurred the cultivation
proximately $122.4 billion-the greatest of American cotton: cotton spinners and the
revenue of any United States crop. cotton gin. The cotton gin, developed by Eli
Whitney in 1793, easily removed tenacious
The cotton plant is a source for many impor- cottonseeds. Southern plantation owners
tant products other than fabric. Among the began planting cotton as a result of these in-
most important is cottonseed, which is novations, using enslaved labor for harvest-
pressed for cottonseed oil that is used in ing the cotton. Vigorous cotton cultivation
commercial products such as salad oils and in the South using enslaved labor is consid-
snack foods, cosmetics, soap, candles, deter- ered one reason for friction between North
gents, and paint. The hulls and meal are used and South that led to the Civil War.
1 26
Cotton
Southern cotton was shipped to New Eng- and grass that may compete with the cotton
land mills in huge quantities. As a result of for soil nutrients, sunlight, and water, and
machine spinning, weaving, and printing, may attract pests that harm cotton. The land
Americans could cheaply purchase calico is plowed under and soil is broken up and
and it became universally worn. However, formed into rows.
labor costs were significant in New Eng-
land. Mill owners found ways to reduce 2Cottonseed is mechanically planted by
those costs, first by employing women and 2machines that plant up to 12 rows at a
immigrants who were often paid poorly, time. The planter opens a small furrow in
then by employing young children in the each row, drops in seed, covers them, and
factories. After oppressive labor practices then packs more dirt on top. Seed may be
were largely halted, many factories moved deposited in either small clumps (referred to
to the South where labor was cheaper. as hill-dropped) or singularly (called
(Unionizing efforts affected the profits of drilled). The seed is placed 0.75 to 1.25 in
those mills.) Today, a fair amount of cotton (1.9 to 3.2 cm) deep, depending on the cli-
is woven outside the United States where mate. The seed must be placed more shal-
labor is less costly. Polyester, a synthetic, is lowly in dusty, cool areas of the Cotton
often used along with cotton, but has little Belt, and more deeply in warmer areas.
chance of supplanting the natural fiber.
3 With good soil moisture and warm tem-
Raw Materials
3perature at planting, seedlings usually
emerge five to seven days after planting,
The materials required to take cotton bolls to with a full stand of cotton appearing after
spun cotton include cottonseeds for planting; about 11 days. Occasionally disease sets in,
pesticides, such as insecticides, fungicides, delaying the seedlings' appearance. Also, a
and herbicides, to battle disease and harmful soil crust may prevent seedlings from sur-
insects; and fertilizers to enrich the soil. facing. Thus, the crust must be carefully
broken by machines or irrigation to permit
There are agricultural requirements for the plants to emerge.
growing cotton in the United States. Cotton
has a long growing season (it can be as long Approximately six weeks after seedlings
as seven months) so it is best to plant cotton 1
appear, "squares," or flower buds, begin
early-February in Texas but as late as June to form. The buds mature for three weeks
in northern cotton-growing states such as and then blossom into creamy yellow flow-
Missouri. Cotton should not be planted be- ers, which turn pink, then red, and then fall
fore the sun has warmed the soil. It performs off just three days after blossoming. After
best in well-drained, crumbly soils that can the flower falls away, a tiny ovary is left on
hold moisture. It can be grown between lati- the cotton plant. This ovary ripens and en-
tudes of 300 north and 30° south. Good cot- larges into a green pod called a cotton boll.
ton crops require a long, sunny growing sea-
son with at least 160 frost-free days and 5 The boll matures in a period that ranges
high moisture levels resulting from rainfall 5from 55 to 80 days. During this time, the
or irrigation during the growing season. football-shaped boll grows and moist fibers
However, too much rain during harvest or push the newly formed seeds outward. As
strong winds during picking can damage the the boll ripens, it remains green. Fibers con-
open bolls and load the fiber with too much tinue to expand under the warm sun, with
water, which can ruin the cotton in storage. each fiber growing to its full length-about
Generally, a cotton farmer must farm about 2.5 in (6.4 cm)-during three weeks. For
2,000 acres (20,000 hectares) if the opera- nearly six weeks, the fibers get thicker and
tion is to be economically viable. On aver- layers of cellulose build up the cell walls.
age, an acre will produce about 1.5 bales of Ten weeks after flowers first appeared,
cotton, or about 750 lb (340 kg). fibers split the boll apart, and cream-colored
cotton pushes forth. The moist fibers dry in
the sun and the fibers collapse and twist to-
The Production Process gether, looking like ribbon. Each boll con-
1 In spring, the acreage is cleared for plant- tains three to five "cells," each having about
ing. Mechanical cultivators rip out weeds seven seeds embedded in the fiber.
1 27
Most steps involved in the produc-

tion of cotton have been mecha- At this point the cotton plant is defoliat- to separate the trash from the cotton. Most
nized, including seeding, picking, 6ed if it is to be machine harvested. Defo- American cotton is harvested using pickers.
ginning, and baling. Samples are liation (removing the leaves) is often ac- Pickers must be used after the dew dries in
taken from the bales to determine complished by spraying the plant with a the morning and must conclude when dew
the quality of the cotton. chemical. It is important that leaves not be begins to form again at the end of the day.
harvested with the fiber because they are Moisture detectors are used to ensure that
considered "trash" and must be removed at the moisture content is no higher than 12%,
some point. In addition, removing the leaves or the cotton may not be harvested and
minimizes staining the fiber and eliminates stored successfully. Not all cotton reaches
a source of excess moisture. Some Ameri- maturity at the same time, and harvesting
can crops are naturally defoliated by frost, may occur in waves, with a second and third
but at least half of the crops must be defoli- picking.
ated with chemicals. Without defoliation,
the cotton must be picked by hand, with la- Next, most American cotton is stored in
borers clearing out the leaves as they work. "modules," which hold 13-15 bales in
water-resistant containers in the fields until
7 Harvesting is done by machine in the they are ready to be ginned.
United States, with a single machine re-
placing 50 hand-pickers. Two mechanical The cotton module is cleaned, com-
systems are used to harvest cotton. The 9pressed, tagged, and stored at the gin.
picker system uses wind and guides to pull The cotton is cleaned to separate dirt, seeds,
the cotton from the plant, often leaving be- and short lint from the cotton. At the gin, the
hind the leaves and rest of the plant. The cotton enters module feeders that fluff up
stripper system chops the plant and uses air the cotton before cleaning. Some gins use
1 28
Cotton
vacuum pipes to send fibers to cleaning Expensive equipment such as cotton

equipment where trash is removed. After planters and harvesters must be carefully
cleaning, cotton is sent to gin stands where maintained. Mechanical planters must be set
revolving circular saws pull the fiber carefully to deposit seed at the right depth,
through wire ribs, thus separating seeds and gauge wheels and shoes must be cor-
from the fiber. High-capacity gins can rected to plant rows at the requisite spot.
process 60, 500-lb (227-kg) bales of cotton Similarly, improperly adjusted machinery
per hour. spindles on harvesting machines will leave
cotton on the spindle, lowering quality of
1 ^ Cleaned and de-seeded cotton is then the cotton and harvesting efficiency. A well-
I 0 compressed into bales, which permits adjusted picker minimizes the amount of
economical storage and transportation of trash taken up, rendering cleaner cotton.
cotton. The compressed bales are banded
and wrapped. The wrapping may be either
cotton or polypropylene, which maintains Byproducts/Waste
the proper moisture content of the cotton There is much discussion regarding the
and keeps bales clean during storage and amount of chemicals used in cotton cultiva-
transportation. tion. Currently, it is estimated that growers
use, on average, 5.3 oz (151 g) of chemicals
Every bale of cotton produced in the to produce one pound of processed cotton.
United States must be given a gin Cotton cultivation is responsible for 25% of
ticket and a warehouse ticket. The gin ticket all chemical pesticides used on American
identifies the bale until it is woven. The crops. Unfortunately, cotton attracts many
ticket is a bar-coded tag that is torn off dur- pests (most notably the boll weevil) and is
ing inspection. A sample of each bale is sent prone to a number of rots and spotting, and
to the United States Department of Agricul- chemicals are used to keep these under con-
ture (USDA) for evaluation, where it is as- trol. There are concerns about wildlife poi-
sessed for color, leaf content, strength, fine- soning and poisons that remain in the soil
ness, reflectance, fiber length, and trash long after cotton is no longer grown (al-
content. The results of the evaluation deter- though no heavy metals are used in the
mine the bale's value. Inspection results are chemicals). As a result, some farmers have
available to potential buyers. turned to organic cotton growing. Organic
farming utilizes biological control to rid cot-
12 After inspection, bales are stored in a ton of pests and alters planting patterns in
l carefully controlled warehouse. The specific ways to reduce fungicide use.
bales remain there until they are sold to a While this method of cultivation is possible,
mill for further processing. an organically grown crop generally yields
less usable cotton. This means an organic
farmer must purchase, plant, and harvest
Quality Control more acreage to yield enough processed cot-
ton to make the crop lucrative, or reduce
Cotton growing is a long, involved process costs in other ways to turn a profit. Increas-
and growers must understand the require- ingly, state university extension services are
ments of the plant and keep vigilant lookout working with cotton farmers to reduce
for potential problems. Pests must be man- chemical use by employing certain aspects
aged in order to yield high-quality crops; of biological control in order to reduce tox-
however, growers must use chemicals very ins that remain in the land and flow into
carefully in order to prevent damage to the water systems.
environment. Defoliants are often used to
maximize yield and control fiber color.
Farmers must carefully monitor moisture Where to Learn More
levels at harvesting so bales will not be ru-
ined by excess water during storage. Soil Books
tests are imperative, since too much nitro-
gen in the soil may attract certain pests to Daniel, Pete. Breaking the Land. Cham-
the cotton. paign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1987.
1 29
Johnson, Guinevere. Cotton. Let's Investi- National Cotton Council of America. Edu-
gate Series. Mankato, MN: The Creative cation Materials. http://www.cotton.org/
Co., 1999. ncc/education (January 2, 2001).
Other The Organic Cotton Site. http://www.sus-

tainablecotton.org. (January 2, 2001).
The Cotton Pickin' Web. http://ipmwww.
ncsu.edu/CottonPickin (January 2, 2001). -Nancy E.V. Bryk
Land of Cotton Online Newsmagazine for

the Cotton Industry. http://www.landofcot-
ton.com (January 2, 2001).
1 30
Cuckoo Clock
Background Baden and Wuirttemburg (now the province The cuckoo clock may
of Baden-Wiirttemburg) lie deep in the
The cuckoo clock is a favorite souvenir of Black Forest region of Germany. Winters have been invented in
travelers in Germany, Austria, and Switzer- there are long, dark, cold, and characterized
land, and particularly the Black Forest region about 1730 by Franz
by deep snowfalls. With forestry and agri-
of Germany. The clock is prized for a number culture limited during this season, a cottage Anton Ketterer, a well-
of its features. The outer worked wood case is industry in the production of clocks grew in
usually made of beautiful dark wood that is the Black Forest. Glass-making was a tradi- known Black Forest
intricately carved with folk and forest scenes. tional craft, and clock-making sprang indi-
The clock itself is made in the premier clock- clockmaker from
rectly from this when, in about 1640, a trav-
and watch-making area of the world. And, fi- eler introduced a simple Bohemian clock Sch6nwald.
nally, there is the cuckoo and its fellows. On operated by three wheels on a train (continu-
the hour (and often the half- and quarter-hour ous drive), a verge escapement (the device
as well), the charming carved bird pops out of that allows the train to advance a controlled
a door to sing the hour in a melodic "Cuckoo! amount by restraining it with weights), and
Cuckoo!" call. He is often introduced or fol- a foliot (a balance bar). The clock was not
lowed by a parade of townspeople, forest ornamented.
creatures, or other animals that circle through
another door and seem to celebrate the pass-
ing of every hour and the timelessness of their The local citizens learned how to copy the
carefully crafted clock home. clock and make the tools to craft it. They
also worked together as a group with spe-
The cuckoo clock known today is the most cialists in frame-making, manufacturing the
popular form of ornamental clock-one that clockworks, making and painting dials,
is decorative as well as functional. When the brass founding, making chains and gongs,
tiny wood cuckoo emerges to call the hour, finishing metal parts, and performing many
two small pipes attached to two miniature bel- supporting tasks. The clockmaker made his
lows make his call. The sets of pipe-and-bel- own patterns and styles; parts for his clocks
lows are mounted on either side of the clock were unique and not interchangeable with
with slots cut through the wood frame oppo- other makers. By the late 1700s, the clocks
site the bellow vents to allow the sound to be were a profitable export for the region and
heard. Inside the clock, a finely made set of were sold as far away as Russia.
brass clockworks controls the time-telling.
Two weights shaped like pine cones that dan- The cuckoo clock may have been invented
gle from the ends of chains and a pendulum in about 1730 by Franz Anton Ketterer, a
that is tipped with a leaf add to the traditional well-known Black Forest clockmaker from
appearance, although these are only decora- Schonwald. The cuckoo's sound was simply
tive on modern clocks that are spring-driven. incorporated in the contemporary clocks of
the day. They had face shields-full front
History plates that were enameled with the face near
the center-rather than the wood frame de-
The cuckoo clock has an impressive parent veloped later. Ketterer's clocks were driven
in the Black Forest clock. The provinces of by suspended weights shaped like pine
13 1
A cuckoo clock and a sideview of

its mechanism. cones, and these were adapted to the wood- oo clocks "Swiss clocks" even though most
frame style later. Ketterer used the church were made in Germany. Scandinavians pre-
organ pipe as the basis for the production of ferred hexagonal or octagonal faces, while
the cuckoo's sound, and his clock-making the Dutch and Belgians liked tin or porce-
abilities were so skilled that the cuckoo lain dials. In England, the clocks were called
clock became known for its reliability as a "Dutch" clocks (possibly from "Deutsche,"
timepiece. meaning German), and they were simple
mahogany rims with glasses held in place
The variety of cuckoo clocks reflects clock- with brass bezels.
making styles of the time. A clock dating
from 1770 may have a painted face shield By the mid-eighteenth century, cuckoo
with roses and castles. This was the English clocks moved from the peasant or cottage
style of the day, but was popularized industry to factories. By 1850, a style called
throughout southern Germany and Central the "hunting lodge" or "chalet" style domi-
Europe; the same design appears on the nated; the frame shows a lodge at the base
sides of painted barges. Soon, the decoration of the clock, the clock dial over the roof,
was modified to suit the targeted market. and carved trees and animals rising above
For instance, the French liked large bou- the dial to the top of the frame. In "The
quets of bright flowers and called the cuck- Cricket on the Hearth," author Charles
1 32
Cuckoo Clock
Dickens describes a clock with the figure of clock's hands) are produced by specialized
a haymaker with a scythe who moves with subcontractors. The lead pine cone weights
the pendulum. One particular style called and the leaf-shaped weight on the end of the
the "Surrerwerk" or whizzing work strikes pendulum are made of lead and are pro-
with the sound of twelve blows like the duced in metal foundries by pouring a melt-
sound of small hammers. Usually, the cuck- ed lead alloy in tempered metal molds. The
oo clock had two drive trains, one for the foundries that produce these weights are
clock movement and the other for the so- also experts in small, detailed metalwork.
called striking train, or the sounds and ac-
tions produced with the striking of the hour. Design
The movements became standardized in As the history of the cuckoo clock suggests,
style, size, and materials. European move- design of the clock and its highly recogniz-
ments are of brass and steel, and American able parts is based on tradition. Clock manu-
movements are brass. The numerals on the facturers have developed their own styles of
dial are painted in German gothic style. chalets and forest scenes for the wood work
Modem cuckoo clocks have retained the sus- as well as particular "casts of characters" for
pended pine-cone weights. Some large cuck- the cuckoo bird itself and the villagers or an-
oo clocks made at the end of the nineteenth imals that may share "action scenes" with
century also housed barometers. Later clocks the cuckoo. New lines or styles of clocks are
from about 1900 have wood frames, brass not likely because customers buy cuckoo
wheel works, and a wooden carved cuckoo clocks for their traditional style. The addi-
on a sweeping stand that shifted forward to tion of digital features increases the variety
chime the hour. Inlaid wood has also been of music and bird songs that the clocks can
used to make cuckoo clocks, notably those produce, but clocks with digital enhance-
from Northem Italy in the Ampezzo region. ments have not yet proven to be more popu-
Late in the twentieth century, the cuckoo lar than traditional models.
clock entered the digital age when manufac-
turers began equipping some models with
quartz clocks that play twelve different The Manufacturing
tunes, one for each hour, and an automatic Process
shutoff to silence the bird for a programma- Manufacture of the cuckoo clock begins
ble number of hours during the night. in the hands of the wood worker. The
craftsman selects the pieces of wood to be
Rcawv Materials used for the particular clock and cuts them to
the approximate lengths and shapes he will
Wood is the critical raw material for the need. Power tools and hand tools are used
manufacture of cuckoo clocks, because the for this part of the process; hand tools may
wood casing is the primary feature that dis- include measuring tools, saws, rasps, and
tinguishes the cuckoo clock in appearance. files for shaping, drilling tools, abrasives in-
Cuckoo clocks are made from the wood of cluding sandpaper, and adhesives and
the linden tree, a hardwood that grows in clamps. The box-like case or cabinet for the
Europe. Some parts of the housing may also clock works is cut, fitted, and glued together.
be made of walnut. Skilled wood workers
purchase the linden and walnut woods well The outer frame-the decorative part of the
in advance so the wood can be aged for two clock featuring the traditional forest and
years. Depending on what the craftsman chalet scene-begins with a stenciled design
wants, it may be purchased in logs with the on paper. The craftsmen make and collect
bark removed or in block-like lengths. sets of stencils based on their own drawings
and those that have been handed down. The
The cuckoo clock is also distinguished by sets of stencils are made for specific sizes of
the cuckoo and its sounds. The pipes and clocks. After choosing the stencil for the
bellows that make the cuckoo's call are also size and style of clock, the wood worker
made of wood. Clocks that play tunes are draws the design on the wood and begins
fitted with music boxes. The music boxes carving and shaping the frame. When the
and the mechanical movements for the frame and the case are complete, both are
clocks (as well as small parts like the stained and left to dry.
1 33
2 When the frame and case are dried, the of scrap. The wood is also too expensive for
2clock is assembled by first mounting the the wood workers to waste.
movement in the case. In the old days of vil-
lage manufacture, the craftsmen who carved
the wood and assembled the clockworks The Future
probably lived in the same village. The New cuckoo clocks are still among of the
clockmaker poured and handcrafted the in- most sought-after souvenirs of vacations in
ternal workings of the clock himself and as- the heart of Europe and especially in Ger-
sembled them. Today, manufacturers buy many's Black Forest region. In America,
preassembled clock movements, and the many families can trace their roots to Ger-
process is reduced to fitting it in the case many, Austria, Switzerland, and other Eu-
and properly fixing it in place with wood ropean localities where cuckoo clocks are
screws or other fasteners. traditional ornaments for the home. Conse-
quently, there is a market in America for
3 The sound-making devices are attached clocks that represent the best traditions of
3to the top of the clock. These include the cuckoo-clock making.
pipes and bellows for the cuckoo sound and
the music box. Attachments that are usually Cuckoo clocks are also highly prized an-
extensions of drive chains are linked to the tiques. Hand-crafted clocks with "prove-
sets of wire hooks and metal cams and pins nance" (a traceable history) are sought by
that activate the cuckoo and any other mov- collectors, but antique hunters also search
ing figures and the doors. The cuckoo is for factory-made cuckoo clocks. Those dat-
connected to its bellows operation, and the ing from the 1850s are highly sought based
other figures are mobilized by the strike on the name of the maker; names like Gus-
movement. A third movement initiates the tav Becker, the United Freiburg Clock Fac-
playing of the music box. Finally, the pen- tory (which Becker joined by 1900), Win-
dulum and weight chains are connected to terhalder & Hofmeier, Kienzle, Junghans,
the movement and the lead weights are and the Hamburg American Clock Compa-
clipped to the chain ends. ny (which copied American-made clocks
for sales in Germany) are among the most
AThe assembled clock is carefully pack- collectible. Typically, the antique market
aged to protect the moving parts and the also injects life into sales of newly manu-
delicate carved framework. Individually factured collectibles because they are more
boxed clocks are packed in cartons for ship- affordable.
ping and distribution.
Even though some models of cuckoo clocks
Quality Control are now ouffitted with quartz movements
and electronics, part of the cuckoo clock's
Quality control consists of only two steps. charm may be its old-fashioned mechanical
Quality is built into every cuckoo clock be- movement. When paired with beautifully
cause each one is hand made. Quality is the carved wood and rustic style, the spell of the
mark of the craftsman, and, as with all hand- cuckoo's song on the hour is guaranteed to
crafted products, gifted and highly trained bring smiles to those who prize childlike de-
wood workers will not risk their reputations lights and exquisite craftsmanship for years
on poorly made clocks. The final quality to come.
step is a complete examination of the fin-
ished piece and a trial operation.
Where to Learn More
Byproducts/Waste Books
There are no byproducts from cuckoo clock Bruton, Eric. The History of Clocks and
manufacture, and waste is minimal. Some Watches. New York: Rizzoli International
wood scraps and shavings result from craft- Publications, Inc., 1979.
ing the case and carving the frame, but at-
tentive selection of the right pieces of wood Coggins, Frank W. Clocks: Construction,
for the project and stencils that accentuate Maintenance & Repair. Blue Ridge Sum-
the character of the wood limit the volume mit, PA: TAB Books, Inc., 1984.
1 34
Cuckoo Clock
Fleet, Simon. Clocks. London: Octopus Nicholls, Andrew. Clocks in Color. New
Books, Inc., 1972. York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1975.
Hunter, John. Clocks: An Illustrated Histo- Smith, Alan. The Antique Collector's
ry of Timepieces. New York: Crescent Guides: Clocks and Watches. New York:
Books, 1991. Crescent Books, 1989.
Kadar, Wayne Louis. Clock Making for the Tyler, E. J. European Clocks. New York:
Woodworker. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Hawthorne Books, Inc., 1969.
TAB Books, Inc., 1984.
-Gillian S. Holmes
Lloyd, H. Allan. The Complete Book of Old
Clocks. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons,
1964.
1 35
Dishwasher
In United States, 56.5% of Background The first dishwashers were patented in about
1850, but, like machines for washing
people own dishwashers. Washing dishes is not the most rewarding clothes, they were large contraptions that
task. Cooking can be creative, but cleaning used steam power and supplies of heated
up afterward seems like a waste of time and
water to soak many dishes at a time. In some
leaves the person washing complaining models, the dishes were held on cradles that
about "dishpan hands." The development of rocked through the water; others had pad-
the dishwasher has helped relieve some of dles that sloshed water around the dishes or
the monotony, as well as the grease and circular racks that held the dishes and rotat-
grime. It operates on a simple principle of ed to circulate them through the water. An
washing dishes that have been placed on assortment of propellers, plunging casings
racks inside the machine with multiple jets bearing the dishes, and plungers that drove
of water. The modem dishwasher has fea- water over the dishes were incorporated in
tures that cater to fine glassware or the other machines. In 1875, C. E. Hope-Vere
toughest pots and pans; multiple cycles that created a machine that directed sprays of
clean, sanitize, and dry; and under-the- water toward racked dishes; the idea of the
counter or stand-alone models for every size, water jets was adopted by other inventors
use, and price range. It is far from perfect;
including A. W. Bodell, whose model was
tough foods may need personal attention be- introduced in 1906. Another, the Blick ma-
fore and after dishes and pans are cleaned in chine, used a propeller that sprayed jets of
the dishwasher, and few owners of crystal water over racks filled with dishes. This
glassware and fine china are willing to trust basic idea is the one used today.
them to a machine. But the dishwasher, like
other kitchen appliances invented and im-
proved in the twentieth century, is a fixture The first publicly displayed models were in-
in many kitchens of the twenty-first century. troduced in about 1915, but the dishwasher
was not widely manufactured and sold to pri-
vate families until about 1930. The dishwash-
er was not an immediate hit. The refrigerator
History was introduced at about the same time and
The major obstacle to washing dishes has al- swept America; but this is logical because
ways been the availability of water. Early food preservation is far more important than
civilizations used limited numbers and types dishwashing. The machines were also too in-
of dishes, utensils, and cookware and car- efficient to completely eliminate hand work;
ried them to streams, ponds, or troughs of to be fair, this was not entirely the fault of the
water for cleaning. The second choice was dishwashers-soaps of the day were not suit-
to carry the water to the dishes. Women cared to the task. By the 1950s, special dish-
ried water in buckets from communal water washing soaps that clean without sudsing and
sources or from private pumps behind their rinse away began to be developed especially
homes or apartment buildings into the early for dishwashers, and the public began to
twentieth century, when indoor plumbing fi- demonstrate more interest. The automatic
nally brought water indoors, not only for dishwasher is still not an absolute in every
bathing but for kitchen use as well. kitchen, but, by the 1 970s when more women
1 36
Dishwasher
A dishwasher.
began working outside the home, the built-in piece (not counting the piece lining the in-
dishwasher was seen as an asset. side of the door) that is injection-molded in
the plant. The injection molding is done
Raw Materials with pellets of calcium-reinforced poly-
propylene plastic. This plastic is respected
The major components of a dishwasher are for its strength and for the fact that it is
made of steel and plastic. The basic struc- inert; that is, it won't react with chemicals
ture consists of a steel frame assembly and a like those in detergents and is resistant to
steel door panel. Sheets of stainless steel are water and heat. Many other parts including
purchased and fabricated in the required the basket for cutlery, containers for deter-
pieces and shapes in the factory; both the gent, and the wash tower and spray arms are
door and the wrap-around cabinet for stand- also injection molded.
alone models are purchased as coiled sheet
steel that has been prefinished in several Motors, pumps, and electrical controls and
standard colors. Other small steel parts are components are made by subcontractors in
designed in house but made by suppliers to accordance with designs by the dishwasher
the manufacturer's specifications. manufacturer.
The racks that hold the dishes are also made
of steel, but it is delivered to the factory as Design
coiled wire. To coat the rack tines to prevent
them from scratching dishes, the racks are The engineers who design dishwashers are
dipped in plastic in the form of powder interested in improving two key features of
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or nylon. their products. Efficient cleaning is, of
course, the biggest marketing feature, but
The inner box that holds the racks and the consumers are also interested in quiet opera-
washer arms is called the tub. It is a single tions. Cleaning systems consist of a wash
1 37
tower and sprayer arms, but the openings, 3 In another part of the plant, the steel
the power of the water pump, and positions 3components of the dishwasher are made.
of racks relative to the washers are all de- Outer cabinets for stand-alone models and
sign elements. In the late 1990s, consumers the doors for all models are cut and stamped
became increasingly interested in the dish- into shape from stainless steel in the form of
washer as a tool for sanitizing dishes, so de- coils that are prefinished on one side. Flat
sign efforts have been aimed at adding heat- steel bars that will be assembled into the
ing methods for killing germs. dishwasher's frame are sheared to length.
The racks are also formed with tools that
Manufacturers have taken different ap- trim, de-bur, and shape wire into the racks in
proaches to keeping their dishwashers as two welding steps. The perimeter of the rack
quiet as possible. Maytag, for example, uses is called the "mat," and a tool welds all the
a single, powerful motor for all operations wire pieces of the mat together at the same
and wraps the outside of its machines with time. Similarly, the little pieces or tines that
heavy insulation. By contrast, Amana Ap- support the dishes are welded into place si-
pliances has equipped its dishwashers with multaneously. The completed rack is taken
two motors (one to operate the water pump by conveyor to a cleaning station where it is
and another for the drainage system). To- cleaned and prepared to receive its PVC
gether, the two motors have the same horse- coating. The PVC is in the form of a fine
power as single-motor units, but less insula- powder that is baked onto the rack. The
tion is needed for quiet operation. coated rack is then cured to finish forming
the PVC coating and to allow it to cool.
Design of the exterior of a stand-alone model
is somewhat more sophisticated because it 4 Dishwashers are assembled at work sta-
has to have an attractive outer cabinet. Usu- tions along an assembly line. The work-
ally the top of the stand-alone dishwasher is ers are responsible for sets of pieces that are
a wooden cabinet top so the machine will taken from bins alongside the workers. The
function as a spare work surface. frame is assembled first, and the motor or
motors are attached to special mounts on the
The Manufacturing frame. The motors are provided to the line
Process workers as completed assemblies. The tub is
fitted and fastened into the frame over the
A dishwasher begins to take shape with motor or motors.
the injection molding of the tub. Two
molds-the cavity relief mold for the outside 5 With the tub in place, the interior com-
of the tub and the core relief mold for the in- ponents are installed beginning with the
side-have previously been etched into a filtering system. The washtower and arms
steel tool, that, when fitted together, contains are attached followed by sets of rack rollers
a void or space that is the shape of the tub. to support the racks and allow them to be
The tool halves are held together in the rolled in and out of the machine so that dish-
chamber of the injection molding machine. es can be loaded easily. The racks are put in
Pellets of polypropylene are melted in the place along with the cutlery basket.
machine at high temperature and injected by
pressure into the void in the tool. The high 6 The door assembly is completed by in-
pressure and liquid state of the plastic forces 6stalling the detergent dispenser and
the plastic into every pocket and crevice in rinse-agent cups and the controls. The door
the mold inside the tool. The tool opens to is attached to the front of the dishwasher.
release the tub, which is still hot. The exterior is completed by finishing the
electrical connections and feed lines (for
2 The warm tub is conveyed to a cooling clean and dirty water), and the exterior is in-
2area and cooled to a temperature that is sulated to reduce noise and the effects of
easy for assembly workers to handle. Other heat that might warp counter tops and cabi-
plastic parts are also made by injection nets. Insulation is prefabricated with the in-
molding, and these smaller pieces are stored sulating fibers wrapped in a foil-like cover-
in bins (with one kind of part only per bin) ing. Called "bagged insulation," it is
that can be moved to the assembly area as wrapped around the machine and packed in-
needed. side the toe space. Under-counter models
1 38
Dishwasher
are now complete. Stand-alone models are eliminated by a thorough recycling program
finished by attaching the wrap-around cabi- that includes metals, plastics, and paper.
net and wood top. Each completed machine
is loaded onto a cart to be moved to the The Future
packing area.
All industries struggle with the issue of how
7In the packing area, styrofoam bumper to attract more customers to their product.
sections are placed along the edges of For dishwashers, the market is still growing
the machine and enclosed by a carton. Pack- because it is a more open field than for other
ets of instructions and other materials are appliances. Marketers discuss this in terms
placed on top of the machine in the carton, of market penetration; for example, 99.8%
and the carton is sealed and moved to a stor- of American households own refrigerators,
age area for shipping. but only 56.5% have dishwashers. This
seems promising for dishwasher manufac-
Quality Control turers, but it shows that potential customers
who don't have dishwashers may not see
Quality control is assured by three basic that these appliances provide benefits over
processes. First, the assembly line workers hand-washing dishes. To attract customers,
are trained in quality issues and can reject the latest advance in dishwasher manufac-
parts or partially assembled machines. Sec- ture is the sanitization option with a high
ond, the assembly process is overseen by heat cycle to kill bacteria. Quiet operation,
line supervisors; when assembly is complete, energy efficiency, and clean dishes without
quality engineers inspect the finished ma- prerinsing are existing features that are con-
chine and test selected units. The most im- tinuously being improved.
portant part of the quality control process
may be a design step that Amana Appliances
calls a failure mode effects and analysis Where to Learn More
(FMEA). As soon as problems are observed Books
during assembly or are reported by cus-
tomers through the warranty process, correc- Cohen,Daniel. The Last Hundred Years:
tive steps are taken. The analysis is a highly Household Technology. New York: M.
regimented leaming process that continuous- Evans and Company, Inc., 1982.
ly cycles improvements, customer feedback,
and corrective actions through the marketing Weaver, Rebecca, and Rodney Dale. Ma-
and design process so new models and lines chines in the Home. New York: Oxford
benefit from any changes to the old. University Press, Inc., 1992.
Other
Byproducts/Waste
Amana Appliances. http://www.amana.com
Dishwasher manufacturers produce a range (August 2000).
of lines of dishwashers and other appliances
but no true byproducts. Waste is virtually -Gillian S. Holmes
1 39
DNA Synthesis
First developed in the Background desirable to synthesize copies of that mole-
cule. One of the first ways in which a large
early 1980s, the Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis is a amount of a specific DNA was synthesized
process by which copies of nucleic acid was though genetic engineering.
polymerase chain strands are made. In nature, DNA synthesis
reaction (PCR) has takes place in cells by a mechanism known as
Genetic engineering begins by combining a
DNA replication. Using genetic engineering
gene of interest with a bacterial plasmid. A
become a multi-billion and enzyme chemistry, scientists have devel-
plasmid is a small stretch of DNA that is
oped man-made methods for synthesizing
dollar industry with the found in many bacteria. The resulting hy-
DNA. The most important of these is poly-
brid DNA is called recombinant DNA. This
merase chain reaction (PCR). First developed
original patent being sold in the early 1980s, PCR has become a multi-
new recombinant DNA plasmid is then in-
jected into bacterial cells. The cells are then
for $300 million dollars. billion dollar industry with the original patent
cloned by allowing it to grow and multiply
being sold for $300 million dollars.
in a culture. As the cells multiply so do
copies of the inserted gene. When the bacte-
History ria has multiplied enough, the multiple
DNA was discovered in 1951 by Francis copies of the inserted gene can then be iso-
Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins. lated. This method of DNA synthesis can
Using x-ray crystallography data generated by produce billions of copies of a gene in a
Rosalind Franklin, Watson and Crick deter- couple of weeks.
mined that the structure of DNA was that of a
double helix. For this work, Watson, Crick, In 1983, the time required to produce copies
and Wilkins received the Nobel Prize in Phys- of DNA was significantly reduced when
iology or Medicine in 1962. Over the years, Kary Mullis developed a process for synthe-
scientists worked with DNA trying to figure sizing DNA called polymerase chain reac-
out the "code of life." They found that DNA tion (PCR). This method is much faster than
served as the instruction code for protein se- previous known methods producing billions
quences. They also found that every organism of copies of a DNA strand in just a few
has a unique DNA sequence and it could be hours. It begins by putting a small section of
used for screening, diagnostic, and identifica- double stranded DNA in a solution contain-
tion purposes. One thing that proved limiting ing DNA polymerase, nucleotides and
in these studies was the amount of DNA primers. The solution is heated to separate
available from a single source. the DNA strands. When it is cooled, the
polymerase creates a copy of each strand.
After the nature of DNA was determined, The process is repeated every five minutes
scientists were able to examine the composi- until the desired amount of DNA is pro-
tion of the cellular genes. A gene is a specif- duced. In 1993, Mullis's development of
ic sequence of DNA base pairs that provide PCR earned him the Nobel Prize in Chem-
the code for the construction of a protein. istry. Today, PCR has revolutionized the
These proteins determine the traits of an or- fields of medical diagnostics, forensics, and
ganism, such as eye color or blood type. microbiology. It is said to be one of the most
When a certain gene was isolated, it became important developments in genetic research.
1 40
DNA Synthesis
Background and the buffer solution. Each of these play

an important role in the production of mil-
The key to understanding DNA synthesis is lions of DNA molecules.
understanding its structure. DNA is a long
chain polymer made up of chemical units Controlled DNA synthesis begins by identi-
called nucleotides. Also known as genetic fying a small segment of DNA to copy. This
material, DNA is the molecule that carries is typically a specific sequence of DNA that
information that dictates protein synthesis in contains the code for a desired protein.
most living organisms. Typically, DNA ex- Called template DNA, this material is need-
ists as two chains of chemically linked nu- ed in concentrations of about 0.1-1 micro-
cleotides. These links follow specific pat- grams. It must be highly purified because
terns dictated by the base pairing rules. Each even trace amounts of the compounds used
nucleotide is made up of a deoxyribose in DNA purification can inhibit the PCR
sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and one process. One method for purifying a DNA
of four nitrogen containing bases. The bases strand is treating it with 70% ethanol.
include the pyrimidines thymine (T) and cy-
tosine (C)and the purines adenine (A) and While the process of DNA replication was
guanine (G). In DNA, adenine generally know before 1980, PCR was not possible
links with thymine and guanine with cyto- because there were no known heat stable
sine. The molecule is arranged in a structure DNA polymerases. DNA polymerase is the
called a double helix which can be imagined enzyme that catalyzes the reactions involved
by picturing a twisted ladder or spiral stair- in DNA synthesis. In the early 1980s, scien-
case. The bases make up the rungs of the tists found bacteria living around natural
ladder while the sugar and phosphate por- steam vents. It turned out that these organ-
tions make up the ladder sides. The order in isms, called thermus aquaticus, had a DNA
which the nucleotides are linked, called the polymerase that was stable and functional at
sequence, is determined by a process known extreme levels of heat. This taq DNA poly-
as DNA sequencing. merase became the cornerstone for modem
DNA synthesis techniques. During a typical
In a eukaryotic cell, DNA synthesis occurs PCR process, 2-3 micrograms of taq DNA
just prior to cell division through a process polymerase is needed. If too much is used
called replication. When replication begins however, unwanted, nonspecific DNA se-
the two strands of DNA are separated by a quences can result.
variety of enzymes. Thus opened, each
strand serves as a template for producing The polymerase builds the DNA strands by
new strands. This whole process is cat- combining corresponding nucleotides on
alyzed by an enzyme called DNA poly- each DNA strand. Chemically speaking, nu-
merase. This molecule brings correspond- cleotides are made up of three types of mol-
ing, or complementary, nucleotides in line ecular groups including a sugar structure, a
with each of the DNA strands. The nu- phosphate group, and a cyclic base. The
cleotides are then chemically linked to form sugar portion provides the primary structure
new DNA strands which are exact copies of for all nucleotides. In general, the sugars are
the original strand. These copies, called the composed of five carbon atoms with a num-
daughter strands, contain half of the parent ber of hydroxy (-OH) groups attached. For
DNA molecule and half of a whole new DNA, the sugar is 2-deoxy-D-ribose. The
molecule. Replication by this method is defining part of a nucleotide is the hetero-
known as semiconservative replication. The cyclic base that is covalently bound to the
process of replication is important because it sugar. These bases are either pyrimidine or
provides a method for cells to transfer an purine groups, and they form the basis for
exact duplicate of their genetic material the nucleic acid code. Two types of purine
from one generation of cell to the next. bases are found including adenine and gua-
nine. In DNA, two types of pyrimidine
bases are present, thymine and cytosine. A
Rawv Materials phosphate group makes up the final portion
The primary raw materials used for DNA of a nucleotide. This group is derived from
synthesis include DNA starting materials, phosphoric acid and is covalently bonded to
taq DNA polymerase, primers, nucleotides, the sugar structure on the fifth carbon.
14 1
The first phase of polymerase

chain reaction (PCR) involves the To initiate DNA synthesis, short primer sec- is typically isolated and purified. Some
denaturation of DNA. This "open- tions of DNA must be used. These primer common reagents used in this process in-
ing up" of the DNA molecule pro- sections, called oligo fragments, are about clude phenol, EDTA and Proteinase K.
vides the template for the next 18-25 nucleotides in length and correspond
DNA molecule from which to be to a section on the template DNA. They typ-
produced. With the DNA split into ically have a C and G nucleotide concentra- The Manufacturing
separate strands, the temperature tion of about 60% with even distribution. Process
is lowered-the primer annealing This provides the maximum efficiency in
step. During the next phase, the DNA synthesis is typically done on a small
DNA polymerase interacts with the synthesis process. scale in laboratories. It involves three distinct
the strands and adds complemen- The buffer solution provides the medium in processes including sample preparation,
tary nucleotides along the entire which DNA synthesis can occur. This is an DNA synthesis reaction cycle and DNA iso-
length. The time required at this aqueous solution which contains MgCl2, lation. These manufacturing steps are typical-
phase is about one minute for ly done in separate areas to avoid contamina-
every 1,000 base pairs. HCI, EDTA, and KCI. The MgCl2 concen-
tration is important because the Mg2+ ions tion. Following these procedures scientists
interact with the DNA and the primers creat- are able to convert a few strands of DNA into
ing crucial complexes for DNA synthesis. millions and millions of exact copies.
The recommended concentration is one to
four micromoles. The pH of this system is Preparation of the samples
critical so it may also be buffered with am-
monium sulfate. To energize the reaction, l To begin DNA synthesis, the various so-
various energy molecules are added such as lutions are prepared. This is typically
ATP, GTP, and NTP. These compounds are done in a laminar flow cabinet equipped
the same ones that living organisms use to with a UV lamp to minimize contamination.
power metabolic reactions. Scientists use fresh gloves during each pro-
duction step for similar reasons. Typically,
Other materials that may be used in the all of the starting solutions except the
process include mineral oil or paraffin wax. primers, polymerases and the dNTPs are put
After DNA synthesis is complete, the DNA in an autoclave to kill off any contaminating
1 42
DNA Synthesis
organism. Two separate solutions are made.
One contains the buffer, primers and the
polymerase. The other contains the MgCl2
and the template DNA. These solutions are
all put into small tubes to begin the reaction.
DNA synthesis cycle

2 After the reacting solutions are prepared,
the PCR cycle is started. The first phase
involves the denaturation of DNA. One of
the most important initial steps is the com-
plete denaturation of the DNA template. De-
naturation of the DNA essentially means
breaking apart of the double bonded strand.
This "opening up" of the DNA molecule
provides the template for the next DNA
molecule from which to be produced. An in-
complete denaturation will result in an inef-
ficient copy in the first cycle which nega-
tively impacts each subsequent cycle. The
initial denaturation is done by heating up the
DNA template solution to 203°F (95°C)
over one to three minutes. The total time de-
pends on the template composition. In re-
peat cycles, the denaturation step lasts about
two minutes and involves heating the solu-
tion to 201PF (94°C). Additional materials
may be added to the solution to facilitate
DNA denaturation such as glycerol, DMSO,
or formamide.
3 With the DNA split into separate strands,

3the temperature is lowered to 122-149°F
(50-65°C). This is known as the primer an-
nealing step and lasts for about two minutes.
At this point, the left and right primers
match up and chemically link with their
complementary bases on the template DNA.
4The next phase involves the extending
step. This part of the reaction is when
most of the DNA strand gets copied. The
temperature of the system is heated to about
162°F(72°C) and held there depending on
the length of DNA to copy. At this stage, the
DNA polymerase interacts with the strands
and adds complementary nucleotides along
the entire length. The time required at this
phase is about one minute for every 1,000
base pairs.
40 cycles are needed. With more initial
After this first cycle, the DNA synthesis DNA, 25-30 cycles is sufficient.
5Jcycle is repeated. The number of cycles
depends of the amount of initial DNA and ( During the last cycle the sample is held at
the amount of DNA desired. If less than 10 6 162°F (72°C) for about 15 minutes. This
copies of the template DNA are available, allows the filling in (with nucleotides) of any
1 43
protruding ends of a new DNA strand. At cines that will cure various cancers, viral
this stage, the polymerase adds extra A nu- and bacterial infections.
cleotides on one end of the DNA strands.
Where to Learn More
DNA isolation
Books
7When the reactions are complete, the
DNA is isolated from the PCR reacting Baker, T. A., and A. Komberg. DNA Repli-
materials such as the DNA polymerase, cation. San Francisco: Freeman, 1992.
MgCl2 and the primers. This is done by
adding compounds like phenol, EDTA and Periodicals
Proteinase K. Centrifugation is also helpful
in this regard. Alberts, B., and L. R. Miake. "Unscram-
bling the Puzzle of Biological Machines:
The Importance of Details." Cell 48 (1992):
The Future 413-420.
While scientists use PCR for DNA synthe- White, T.J. "The Future of PCR Technolo-
sis on a regular basis, there is still much gy Diversification of Technologies and Ap-
that is not understood about DNA replica- plications." Elsevier Trends Journals (De-
tion. In the future, research should eluci- cember 14, 1996): 478-483.
date the details of several important steps
of the process, such as the components and
intermediates involved. Additionally, im- Other
proved polymerases may be developed, DNA Learning Center. Cold Spring Harbor
making it possible to create more DNA Laboratory. http://vector.cshl.org/resources/
from smaller starting samples. It is hoped biologyanimationlibrary.htm. (December 27,
that one day DNA synthesis will help un- 2000).
lock some of the key aspects of living or-
ganisms and lead to the development medi- -Perry Romanowski
1 44
Draw Bridge
Background History Seventy-five hundred short
A bridge over a navigable waterway must A few ancient drawbridges were built, in- tons (6,804 metric tons)
allow boats and ships to cross its path, usu- cluding one 4,000 years ago in Egypt and
ally by being tall enough to allow them to one 2,600 years ago in the Chaldean king- of structural steel and
sail underneath it. Sometimes it is impracti- dom of the Middle East. But they were not 150,000 short tons
cal to build a bridge high enough; for exam- commonly used until the European Middle
ple, it may rise too steeply or block the view Ages. By the end of the fifteenth century, (13,6080 metric tons) of
of an important landmark. In such cases, the Leonardo da Vinci was not only designing
bridge can be designed so it can be easily and building bascule bridges but also draw- concrete were used in the
moved out of the way for vessels that are ing plans and constructing scale models for Casco Bay Bridge in
too large to sail under it. a swing bridge and a retractable bridge.
Portland, Maine; it has a
The modern era of movable bridge construc-
The type of movable bridge that most peo- tion began in the mid-nineteenth century 360-foot (11 0-m) tall
ple think of as a draw bridge is similar to following the development of processes for
those that spanned medieval castle moats. mass producing steel. Steel beams are light opening and was
Technically called "bascule bridges" from and strong, steel bearings are durable, and completed in 1997.
the French word for seesaw, they may open steel engines and motors are powerful.
at one end and lift to one side (single leaf)
or open in the middle and lift to both sides Many of the movable bridges currently in
(double leaf). Another common type of use in the United States were built in the
movable bridge is the vertical lift span, in early twentieth century. As they are being re-
which the movable section is supported at furbished or replaced, two types of improve-
both ends and is raised vertically like an el- ments can be made. First, more sophisticated
evator. Retractable bridges are made so the design techniques and stronger, lighter mate-
movable span slides back underneath an rials allow new bridges to be built higher
adjacent section of the bridge. Swing above the water. This means larger vessels
bridges are supported on vertical pivots, can sail under them; consequently, it is not
and the movable span rotates horizontally necessary to open them as frequently. Some
to open the bridge. modern replacements must be opened only
one-fourth to one-third as often their prede-
cessors. Second, some new bridges are oper-
Movable bridges are relatively rare because ated hydraulically rather than being driven
they are more expensive to operate and with gear mechanisms.
maintain than stationary bridges. They also
impede traffic-on the water when they are
closed and on the roadway or rail line when Rawv Materials
they are open. Of the 770 bridges for which Draw bridges are made primarily from con-
the New York City Transportation Depart- crete and steel. Seventy-five hundred short
ment is responsible, 25 are movable bridges, tons (6,804 metric tons) of structural steel and
including at least one of each of the four 150,000 short tons (13,6080 metric tons) of
types defined above. concrete were used in the Casco Bay Bridge
1 45
A typical draw bridge.

in Portland, Maine; it has a 360-foot ( 10-nm) leverage, be set back a few yards (meters).
tall opening and was completed in 1997. As an example, each pair of 500-ton (450-
metric-ton) leaves on the Casco Bay Bridge
is balanced with an 800-ton (720-metric-
Design ton) counterweight.
Each draw bridge is a unique structure de-
signed for its particular location and traffic Besides the leaves and the counterweights,
needs. There are at least half a dozen differ- the other primary elements of a bascule
ent design concepts, but the most common bridge are the trunnion and the lift mecha-
is the bascule type. In double-leaf or four- nism. A single steel trunnion up to 10 ft (3
leaf (a double-leaf bridge with separate m) in diameter and 65 ft (20 m) or more in
leaves for each direction of vehicular traffic) length may be used for one leaf of the mov-
bascule bridges, each leaf can be raised and able span; or a separate, short trunnion may
lowered independently. be used for each side of each leaf. The lift
mechanism is usually a rack-and-pinion
The energy required to raise and lower the gear arrangement driven by electric motors.
bascule leaves is greatly reduced by coun-
terbalancing each leaf with a compact
weight on the opposite side of the pivot axle The Manufacturing
(trunnion). In various bascule designs, this Process
counterweight might be located above the Although each installation is different, the
roadway and allowed to pivot below the following is a generic description of the
roadway as the bridge is raised, or it might construction of a bascule bridge.
be located below the roadway and allowed
to descend into a basement level (often well Piers
below the waterline) as the bridge opens.
The counterweight is a massive concrete 1 If the bascule support piers will be locat-
box containing chambers into which heavy, ed in the water, a cofferdam is built
metal rods can be inserted to change the around the site for each pier. Steel panels
weight and its distribution. It might be locat- are lowered into the water and driven into
ed adjacent to the trunnion or, for greater the riverbed to form a box. A clamshell dig-
1 46
Draw Bridge
weight
Cutaway of bascule pit
Steel superstructure-
A. Bascule pit. B. Fender system.

ger removes soil inside the cofferdam. Piles such as granite, may be attached to the pier. C. Bridge pier.
are inserted deep into the riverbed to support The cofferdam is removed.
the great weight of the pier and the bascule
leaves. Steel piles may be driven, or rein- 3 A fender may be built around the pier to
forced concrete piles may be poured, into protect it from being hit by errant ships.
drilled holes. The bottom of the cofferdam For example, on the Casco Bridge, large
is sealed with a layer of concrete. The water concrete cylinders were erected upstream
is pumped out of the cofferdam to provide a and downstream from each pier to support
dry area for constructing the pier. the ends of a steel fender. The fender was
faced with slippery plastic to deflect minor
2Forms are built to shape the concrete impacts. Under heavier impacts, the fender
can deflect against rubber bumpers and, if
piers. Steel bars (rebar) are tied together
necessary, against crushable hollow con-
to make a carefully designed reinforcing
crete boxes that would keep the impact from
cage for the interior of the pier. The rebar
cage is lowered into position inside the
damaging the pier itself.
forms. The forms are filled with concrete.
When the concrete has hardened, the forms
Bascule leaves
are removed. Around the waterline, a pro- One or more trunnions are mounted on
tective layer of an erosion-resistant material, 1
supports within the pier.
14 7
5 A counterweight is constructed and Ongoing Adjustments

5placed inside the pier. Throughout the lifetime of the bridge, coun-
6 Gear drives and/or hydraulic lift mecha- terweight adjustments must be made. Short-
Unisms are installed in the pier. term adjustments compensate for ice or
snow accumulations, for example. Long-
7Two side girders are constructed for the term adjustments balance leaf weight
heel section of each leaf of the bridge. A changes due to activities such as repaving or
trunnion bearing is mounted in an opening painting. When the 250-foot (75-m) long
in each girder. The girder may be equipped High Street Bridge in Alameda County, Cal-
with gears that will mesh with the lift mech- ifornia, was refurbished in 1996, 25,000
anism, or it may be fitted with paddles that pounds (11,000 kg) of paint and primer
hydraulic rams can push against. were removed from its two bascule leaves.
The counterweights had to be adjusted be-
8 The two side girders are lifted into the fore and after repainting the span.
8pier and eased over the ends of the trun- A dramatic example of the need to maintain
nion. The heel section is completed with a
crossbeam connecting the two side girders. proper counterbalance was shown by an ac-
The counterweight is attached to the heel cident on Chicago's Michigan Avenue
section. Bridge on September 20, 1992. The two-
level, double-leaf bascule bridge was under-
going repairs, and the concrete paving had
oAdditional longitudinal girders may be
9hoisted into position between the side been stripped off both the upper and lower
decks. A large crane was parked behind the
girders and attached to the heel section.
Steel braces are attached between the side trunnion of one leaf, just above a counter-
girders and any other longitudinal girders. weight that had not been lightened to com-
As pieces are added to the leaf, an appropri- pensate for the paving removal. Safety locks
ate amount of weight must also be added to may also have been improperly engaged or
the counterweight to maintain stability. This defective. The opposite side of the bridge
is particularly important if the bridge is was opened to allow a boat to pass. When it
being built in the closed position and must closed and mated with the side that had re-
be opened during construction to allow ma- mained down, the static half was jarred
rine traffic to pass. enough to release its unbalanced energy.
The leaf "sprang up without warning, like a
1 O The leaf is completed by attaching a gargantuan catapult, hurling equipment and
tip section that connects the side gird- debris hundreds of feet across Wacker Drive
ers (and any longitudinal girders) at the end into buses, automobiles, and pedestrian traf-
opposite the heel. Devices called span locks fic," according to an analysis in the Journal
are mounted on the leaf tips to connect op- of the American Society of Mechanical En-
posite leaves when the bridge is down, so gineers. The article continued, "The rapid
that vehicles driving on the bridge will not rotation of the bridge ripped it from its trun-
make the leaves bounce. Additional locks nion bearings and the entire span slammed
can secure the leaves in their open position to the bottom of the counterweight pit." Six
so wind does not force them back down. people were injured as they scrambled out
of a bus struck by flying debris, and the rear
window of an occupied car was smashed by
Finishing the wrecking ball attached to the crane as it
1 Panels of steel-grate decking are in- fell from the bridge.
stalled atop the leaf. Sometimes a thin
concrete surface is added. The Future
l Final balancing is accomplished by There are two categories of movable bridge
I2placing heavy iron, steel, or lead rods innovations. Refinements of traditional de-
in the correct counterweight compartments. signs include minimizing the construction of
When properly balanced, the leaf is slightly large, submerged pits to receive counter-
heavier than the counterweight so gravity weights when the bridge is open. For exam-
gently lowers (closes) the bridge. ple, the 17th Street Causeway Bridge in Fort
1 48
Draw Bridge
Lauderdale, Florida, begun in 1998, allows Where to Learn More

compact counterweights to swing within V-
shaped support piers rather than down into Periodicals
basements below bulky piers. The South
Eighth Street Bridge in Sheboygan, Wiscon- "Arched Cable-Stayed Crossing Tilts Side-
ways to Open." Civil Engineering (May
sin, completed in 1995, operates without
any counterweight despite its comparatively 1999): 17+.
heavy, reinforced concrete deck. Rather
Cassity, Patrick A., et al. "Rebound of the
than being gear-driven, the 82-ft (25-ni) Bascule Bridge." Civil Engineering (Au-
long single-leaf bascule is moved by a pow-
gust 1996): 48+.
erful hydraulic system.
Studney, Michael J. &lquo;When a Bridge
Other movable bridge innovations introduce Becomes a Catapult." Mechanical Engi-
entirely new concepts. For instance, the neering (December 1992): 5 1+.
Baltic Millennium Bridge in Gateshead,
England (to be opened to the public in 2001),
consists of two parabolic arches connected Other
by a series of parallel cables. When the 17th Street Causeway. http://www.dot.state.
bridge is closed, one arch is horizontal and fl.us/structures/botm/17thstreet/17thstreet.h
the other is vertical. The bridge opens by ro- tm. (May 2, 2000).
tating vertically as a complete unit, raising
the horizontal arch and lowering the vertical Watson, Sara Ruth, and John R. Wolfs.
one until both rest approximately 450 and Bridges of Metropolitan Cleveland. (1998).
164 ft (50 m) above the water surface. The http://web.ulib.csuohio.edu/SpecColl/bmc/i
steel and aluminum structure is designed to ndex.html (May 3, 2000).
carry pedestrian and bicycle traffic across
the 410-ft (125-m) wide River Tyne. -Loretta Hall
149
Duct Tape
By 1999, Manco, the Background feathers or because the fabric mesh was
made from duck cloth.
maker of DuckTm brand Duct tape is a cloth tape coated with a poly-
ethylene resin on one side and very sticky Regardless of its origin, the military found
tape, was selling rubber-based adhesive on the other. Unlike many uses for duct tape. One of its earliest
approximately 5,900 other tapes, the fabric backing gives duct applications was to hold ammunition boxes
tape strength yet allows it to be easily torn. together. For this reason, soldiers referred
short tons (5,352 metric Duct tape is also very malleable and can ad- to it as "gun tape." The Air Force found
here to a wide variety of surfaces. While it other uses for the product and duct tape was
tons), or 246,217 mi was primarily designed for use in air ducts
used to cover gun ports on planes to cut
(396,240 km), of tape and similar applications, consumers have down the air friction during take off. Like
found a broad range of uses for this popular many other military products, duct tape was
each year. product. It can be used for a number of originally colored olive green, but after the
household repair jobs, as a fastener instead war it was changed to the more familiar sil-
of screws or nails, and in car maintenance. ver color. Manufacturers began marketing it
Snowmobilers have even been known to to household consumers who found a vari-
apply duct tape to their noses to thwart frost- ety of new uses. The tape is easier to use
bite and sunburn. The product has generated and just as effective as screws and bolts
so much interest, that there are books and when it comes to holding together the kind
web sites dedicated to its unconventional, of ductwork that is found in new homes
and often comical, uses. For example, The with forced-air heating.
Duct Tape Book describes how to use duct
tape to make aprons and trampoline covers. As the consumer demand grew, marketers
began packaging their tapes in a more con-
sumer-friendly fashion. According to
History Manco, they were the first company to
There are conflicting accounts concerning shrink-wrap and label the duct tape so that it
the history of duct tape. According to could be easily stacked on display shelves.
Manco, Inc. (maker of DuckTm Brand tape), This packaging improvement made it easier
it was created by Permacell-a division of for shoppers to distinguish between the dif-
Johnson and Johnson-during World War II ferent grades. By 1999, Manco was selling
in the 1940s. Other experts claim that the approximately 5,900 short tons (5,352 met-
tape product was invented in the 1920s by ric tons), or 246,217 mi (396,240 km), of
researchers for the 3M Company, led by tape each year.
Richard Drew. Most accounts agree, howev-
er, that Permacell perfected duct tape during
the war. Using state of the art technology,
Design
their research team developed a process to Duct tape is designed for different applica-
combine multiple layers of adhesive onto a tion based on its grade. The grade is deter-
polyethylene coated cloth backing. Some say mined by the combination of adhesive type
this early product was nicknamed "duck and the strength of the backing material.
tape" because it repelled water like the bird's The strength of the cloth fabric depends on
1 50
Duct Tape
the number of threads it contains; this The Manufacturing
number determines the rip strength of the Process
cloth. For example, military grade tape has
a 40-lb (18-kg) rip strength while the Adhesive compounding
strength of less expensive tapes is in the The rubber-based adhesive used in duct
20-lb (9-kg) range. Tape designed for use tape is prepared in a multi-step process.
by the federal government must comply In the first step the adhesive is compounded
with a lengthy 12-page specification guide in a mixer known as a Branbury-type mixer
that dictates the strength and other factors. consisting of a stainless steel tank equipped
Commercial grades are less demanding with a steam jacket to heat the compound
and are typically classified as either utility, and a high torque mixer. The rubber com-
general purpose, or premium grade. Other pounds are introduced in pellet form, then
speciality grades include "nuclear tape," heated and mixed until they are melted and
which is used in reactors and a "200-mi homogenous. Other ingredients are added to
(322-km) an hour" tape specifically de- the blend tank as specified in the formula-
signed for race cars. tion. These include tackifying agents, vis-
cosity modifiers, antioxidants, and other ad-
Rawv Materials juncts. The final mixture is thick but smooth
enough to be pumped to a holding tank con-
Cotton mesh nected to the coating equipment.
Cotton mesh forms the backbone of duct
tape. It provides tensile strength and allows Adhesive application
the tape to be tom in both directions. Cloth 2The adhesive and the fabric are combined
that has a tighter weave and higher thread using sophisticated coating equipment.
count is of a higher quality, provides First, the adhesive is further softened by heat
greater strength, and gives a cleaner tear. A on a roller mill. A roller mill consists of
premium quality tape can have a thread closely spaced hollow rollers which are made
count of 44 x 28 threads per square inch. of heavy gauge stainless steel. The rollers are
Accordingly, tape made with this fabric is attached to high torque gears and a motor that
more expensive. The cotton fabric is called rotates the them at a set speed. The tempera-
a "web" when it is spread across the coat- ture of the rollers is controlled by continuous-
ing machinery. ly pumping water through them. The top
roller is held at a temperature of 260°F
Polyethylene coating (127°C) and the center roller is kept at 100°F
The cotton fabric is coated with polyethyl- (38°C). The cylinders are fixed in place so
ene, a plastic material that protects it from that only a small gap exists between them. As
moisture and abrasion. This plastic coating the rollers tum, the rubber compound is fed
is flexible and allows the tape to adhere bet- into this space. The friction generated heats
ter to irregular surfaces. The polyethylene is and softens the rubber. This arrangement al-
melted and applied to the fabric in a prelimi- lows the molten adhesive to form a thin sheet
nary coating operation. The coated fabric is across the surface of the rollers.
then stored on rolls until the manufacturer is
ready to apply the adhesive. 3)The cloth is then fed into the coating ma-
Jchine through another set of rollers. It
runs against the third roller (held at 199°F
Adhesive compound [93°C]) that is in contact with the adhesive.
The adhesive used in duct tape is unique for During this process, known as coating, the
two reasons. First, the adhesive itself is for- adhesive is transferred to the cloth. By con-
mulated with rubber compounds that ensure trolling the gaps between the rollers, the ma-
long-term bonding. Other tapes typically use chine operator can determine how much ad-
adhesive polymers that are not as binding. hesive is applied to the cloth. When the
Second, the adhesive is applied to the sub- adhesive is ready, the cloth backing materi-
strate in a much thicker coating than those al-which has been pre-treated with polyeth-
used on cellophane or masking tapes. This ylene-is fed off its storage roll and onto the
too serves to increase the adhesive proper- coating rollers. As the backing material
ties of the tape. comes in contact with the third roller, it
151
A. Three-roll pressure sensitive

tape calender. B. Two-roll adhe- picks some adhesive up off the transfer shrink wrapped, either singularly or in pack-
sive calender. C. Polyethylene and roller. This process used to apply such heavy ages of two or three. These packages are
adhesive calender. D. Calender adhesives is known as calendaring. Coatings then boxed and marketed for shipping.
for fabric tape coated with poly- as thin as 0.002 in (0.05 mm) can be used but
ethylene. they become less uniform below 0.004 in Depending on the manufacturer, the steps
(0.Imm). These fluctuations occur because described above can be combined through
the rollers experience a small degree of automation into fewer steps. For example,
bending as they rotate. This creates uneven Permacell uses a self-contained apparatus
gaps between the rollers which cause varia- which mixes, heats, and fastens the adhesive
tions in coating weight across the web. onto the backing. This method allows the
glue to be prepared without pollution-caus-
4After coating, the tape fabric is wound ing solvents.
onto large cardboard cores. When
enough tape has been coated and the roll is
full, it is removed from its spindle and Quality Control
moved to another area where it can be cut to Duct tape must meet a series of standard
the proper size. These storage rolls are ap- tests described by the American Society for
proximately 5 ft wide and 3 ft in diameter Testing and Materials. These methods mea-
(152 cmx 91 cm). sure two key properties of the adhesive: its
adhesive strength (which determines how
Respooling and slitting well the tape will adhere to another surface)
After the coating process is complete, and cohesive strength (which shows how
5Jthe roles can be cut to their final size. well the adhesive will stick to the cloth
This is done by "unspooling," or unwinding, backing). One common method of evaluat-
the large rolls onto a machine equipped with ing these properties involves applying the
a series of knives. The knives cut the web tape to a standardized stainless steel plate,
into more narrow segments which are then and then measuring the force required to rip
rewound on smaller cardboard cores. This it off. The plate is then examined to deter-
process is known as "slitting." mine how much, if any, of the adhesive
residue is left behind. The adhesive coating
itself is monitored to evaluate how well it
Packaging operations sticks to its backing. Conditions where the
In this final stage the rolls of duct tape adhesive leaves a residue is known as creep-
6are packaged for sale. They are typically ing, crazing, oozing and bleeding. Quality
1 52
Duct Tape
control technicians also watch for fisheyes, for one 2 in (5 cm) wide, 50 yd (46 m) roll
the term used to describe an uneven applica- of all-purpose duct tape is about three dol-
tion of adhesive. lars-that maintain high functionality with-
out being damaging to the environment. In
In addition to the standard tests, each manu- addition, marketing considerations drive
facturer has their own proprietary methods product improvements. In response to criti-
for evaluating their products. For example, cism that duct tape does not function well at
companies may measure the duct tape's extreme temperatures, manufacturers are
breaking point. Others evaluate the creating more advanced formulations spe-
"scrunch" sound of the tape as it unwinds cially designed to withstand severe heat and
because consumers believe a noisy rip off cold fluctuations. For the first time, formal
the roll is a sign of strength. Other tests are standards are being created specifically for
designed to measure quick stick. One way duct tape to be used on flexible duct work.
this is done is by shooting ping-pong balls at Tape manufacturers support this plan be-
tape strips with the sticky side up to measure cause they believe that certification by Un-
how far they roll before they are stopped by derwriters Laboratories (a product safety
the tape. testing organization) will boost their sales.
Despite duct tape's reputation for superior
adhesion, testing done by independent re- Where to Learn More
searchers has found that the tape does not
work as well as it is intended to. In 1998, re- Books
searchers Max Sherman and lain Walker of Berg, Jim, and Tim Nyberg. The Duct Tape
the Department of Energy's Lawrence Book. Duluth, MN: Pfeifer-Hamilton Pub-
Berkeley National Laboratory evaluated 12 lishers, 1995.
different kinds of duct tape. They designed
an accelerated aging test that mimicked the Satas, Dontas. Handbook of Pressure Sensi-
temperature conditions of a home or office tive Adhesives. Second edition. Van Nos-
building from night to day and winter to trand Reinhold, 1989.
summer. They used a series of standard fin-
ger joints which connected a smaller duct to Periodicals
a larger one. Wrapping each test connection
with a different brand of duct tape, they Baird, Christine V. "U.S. Duct Tape Sales
evaluated the seal under temperature and at $75 Million a Year and Growing."
humidity conditions designed to be similar Knight-RidderlTribune Business News (Oc-
to those found in home heating and air con- tober21, 1996): 1021B0195.
ditioning systems. The researchers also per-
formed a bake test in which the sample "Duct Tapes Flunk Berkeley Lab Tests."
joints were baked at higher temperatures. Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration
Most of the joints tested were found to be News 204, no.18 (August 31, 1998): 1.
leaking by 50% or more, according to the
researchers. Their test results also showed Harder, Nick. "Bring On the Duct Tape to
that a large proportion of the tapes failed to Show Creativity." Knight-RidderlTribune
function when temperatures dropped below News Service (April 15, 1999): K0467.
freezing (32°F [0°C]) or rose over 200°F Turpin, Joanna R. "Duct Tape: The Ulti-
(93°C). However, the tape industry disputed mate Tool." Air Conditioning, Heating &
these findings, claiming that for optimal ef- Refrigeration News 201, no.16 (August 18,
ficiency their tape products should be assist- 1997): 9.
ed by collars or clamps.
Other
The Future
Underwriters Laboratories Inc. http://www.
Environmental and price considerations ul.com (January 2001).
drive researches to identify new adhesive
formulations at a lower cost-general price -Randy Schueller
1 53
Electric Blanket
Approximately 4.5 million Background patients warm in these drafty conditions.
People, both those sick and well, had long
electric blankets are sold An electric blanket is a bed covering with a used hot water bottles or stone bed warmers
built-in heating element so that a sleeper can to heat their beds on winter nights. The
in the United States maintain a desired temperature even in a 1920s and 1930s saw many new, electrified
annually. cold room. Many consumers prefer electric versions of these traditional devices. These
blankets because their use can reduce home included electric warmers shaped like ther-
heating costs. The sophisticated temperature mos bottles and flattened dome-like bed
controls of modem electric blankets can warmers heated with a light bulb. In the
sense changes in skin and air temperature
1930s, electric blankets were produced in
and adjust settings accordingly. The most the United States and in England, primarily
advanced model blankets are programma- as a luxury item or as the finest accouter-
ble, so they can pre-warm the bed at a cer- ment of a sick room. They were generally
tain time and shut off at a certain hour. They smaller and much thicker than today's elec-
are also able to adjust temperature for the
tric blankets, and they were called warming
needs of two people in the same bed. Some pads or heated quilts. By 1936, one compa-
blankets even compensate for the different ny had introduced a heated quilt with an au-
heat needs of different parts of the body; for tomatic temperature control. A bedside ther-
instance, sending more heat to the sleeper's mostat responded to temperature changes in
feet while leaving the head area cooler. Ap- the room and cycled the blanket on and off
proximately 4.5 million electric blankets are accordingly. These early electric blankets
sold in the United States annually. also incorporated several safety thermostats
which would switch the blanket off if a por-
tion of it became dangerously warm.
History
The devices that evolved into today's elec- The electric blanket as known today did not
tric blankets were first intended for invalids. develop until after World War II. Research
The reputed father of the electric blanket on electrically heated suits for fighter pilots
was an American doctor, Sidney Russell, during the war led to safety improvements
who devised an electrically heated pad in and allowed manufacturers to make thinner,
1912. Russell was trying to find a way to more easily folded blankets. General Electric
keep his ill patients warm, and he developed was a leading marketer of electric blankets.
a blanket that used electrical wires covered In 1945, as the war was ending, it began ad-
in insulated metal tape to accomplish this. vertising its automatic blanket, emphasizing
Commercial use of a similar product began the connection with its wartime manufactur-
in the 1920s, when electrically heated blan- ing of "electrically warm" suits for pilots
kets were used on patients in tuberculosis battling over Japan. The image of the blanket
sanatoriums. The sanatoriums' weakened changed, from something needed by the sick
lung patients were advised to get plenty of or elderly to a modem convenience which
fresh air, and they slept with windows wide made sleep more comfortable for everyone.
open-sometimes even spending the night Though the technology for post-war blankets
outdoors. Electric blankets helped keep the was better, it was not much different from
1 54
Electric Blanket
that used in the warming quilts of the 1930s. celed out most of the ELF field. The re-
A blanket shell encased wires and embedded designed blankets produced after 1992 had
thermostats, and a bedside control with set- much weaker electrical fields than their pre-
tings of high or low turned the blanket on decessors. After this, the subject of electric
and off. Gradually the number of embedded blanket safety faded away.
thermometers increased, so that a twin-sized
blanket went from having four in the 1950s Raw Materials
to possibly 10 in the 1980s. Blankets were
developed that had two temperature controls, The materials used in electric blankets are
one for each side of the bed. Beginning in for the most part unique to that industry. An
1984, the technology changed significantly electric blanket consists of three main com-
with the application of a thermostatless sys- ponents: a specially woven cloth called the
tem. These new blankets used a "positive shell; the heating element, in the form of in-
temperature coefficient wiring system," sulated wire; and a bedside control and
which enabled the wiring itself to sense tem- power cord. For the shell, manufacturers use
perature changes. So the blanket could sense a blend of polyester and acrylic which has
and respond to body temperature as well as been formulated for the industry. The wiring
room temperature. is a positive temperature coefficient material
that is heat producing and heat sensitive
along its entire length, eliminating the need
Safety Concerns for thermostats. This special wiring is en-
cased in an insulated jacket made of a propri-
Beginning in 1990, electric blanket manu- etary blend of plastic. The bedside control
facturers began responding to controversy and power cord are made of a combination
over the safety of electromagnetic fields. of plastic and metal materials. These are usu-
Various studies had raised concerns over the ally manufactured by an outside vendor.
extremely low frequency (ELF) electric and
magnetic fields emanating from electronic
devices, including electric blankets. One The Manufacturing
study released in 1990 in the American Process
Journal of Epidemiology found an increased Making the yarn
risk of brain tumors and childhood leukemia
in children whose mothers had used electric 1 The blanket manufacturer purchases the
blankets while pregnant. Though other stud- raw materials for the blanket shell from a
ies tracing a cancer link to electric blanket fiber manufacturer. Fibers used for the blan-
use had negative or conflicting results, the ket are then blended and spun.
reports were alarming enough to prompt a
group of United States congressmen to ask Weaving the shell
that the blankets be labeled hazardous to 2 The shell is woven on a special high-
women and children. A panel appointed by -speed loom which has been designed for
the Food and Drug Administration conclud- this particular use. The blanket shell is
ed that there was not enough evidence to structured as a series of 20-30 long hollow
warrant regulation of electric blankets, but tubes or channels, which are lined head to
research did show some problems. Some foot. The channels are not sewn together but
brands of electric blankets produced greater woven as one piece of cloth. They are
electric fields than others. If the blanket's formed as a double layer, and the fabric in
plug was not polarized then it could be between the channels is a single layer. The
plugged in the wrong way producing a sig- operator starts the loom, and the machine
nificant electric field even when turned off. weaves the yarn into the completed shell.
Though there was no conclusive evidence
that the electric fields produced by electric The heating element
blankets were harmful, the major United
States manufacturers altered their products. 3An electric blanket produces heat when
The major maker of the wiring for electric an electric current runs through its heating
blankets came up with a new system that element. The heating element is a special
used parallel wires holding current flowing kind of wire, which acts as its own thermo-
in opposite directions. This effectively can- stat. The alloy used in this wire is formed into
1 55
Various types of bed warmers

patented and popularized during
the 1 930s and 1 940s.
rods, cleaned, and pulled through a wire- label is sewn onto one corner and the edges
drawing machine. The plastic insulating jack- of the blanket are trimmed. The bedside
eting is formed through an extrusion process. control and power cord are usually manu-
The finished wire is delivered in large spools factured or partially assembled by outside
to the assembly plant, where it is inserted into vendors. Workers take these components
the blanket shell in the next step. and fit them to the blankets. Each blanket is
inspected and tested, and then moved to a
Inserting the heating element packaging area, where it is folded, bagged,
and finally boxed.
4The machinery for threading the heating
element into the blanket shell is special-
ized equipment developed especially for the Quality Control
electric blanket industry. The technology in-
volves a pusher which takes the end of the Each element of the blanket undergoes sepa-
wire and pushes it through the channels of rate testing with the final product as a whole
the shell. Because of the way the shell is also being tested rigorously. The blanket shell
woven, the channels are connected and the is subjected to various tests, including checks
wire ends up in one continuous zig-zag pat- for foreign materials and of the proper thick-
tern. In older blankets (those manufactured ness throughout. The heating element is tested
before the mid-1980s) the heating element by its manufacturer as it is being made, so that
was broken up into many sections joined by each inch of the wire has been examined by
thermostats. Modem blankets are heated by the time it reaches the blanket assembly facto-
a single length of continuous wire. ry. It is tested to make sure there are no short
circuits, no foreign materials, and that power
Final assembly dissipates through it at the proper rate. The
manufacturers of the temperature control and
5 Various other small steps are needed to power cord subject these to their own tests. In
complete the blanket. A manufacturer's addition, the electric blanket manufacturer
1 56
Electric Blanket
registers its products with Underwriters Labo- The Future
ratory, a private testing agency for electrical
devices. The manufacturer agrees to follow In the winter of 1999/2000, electric blanket
certain testing procedures and make its blan- sales increased to 850,000 pieces according
kets according to specifications outlined by to the Winterwarm company. In order to
Underwriters Laboratory. Underwriters Labo- capitalize on this increase in sales for the
ratory makes sure the manufacturer is sticking year 2001, the electric blanket market will
to its specifications by making unannounced see a few changes. Marketing will be geared
factory visits. But in general, the manufactur- to a new generation with packages becom-
er's own testing is more comprehensive than ing more modem with a younger feel. They
that required by Underwriters Laboratory. As will no longer be called electric blankets,
long as the manufacturer complies with the but heated blankets with thinner wires. The
testing agency's guidelines, it is allowed to fabric shells will have brighter patterns and
display the Underwriter's Laboratory (UL) colors. The modernized blankets will also
symbol on its tags, as a guarantee to con- be easily programmed and hopefully appeal
sumers. Fire safety is an important issue for to a larger demographic.
electric blanket manufacturers. The heating
element is completely enclosed in fire and
waterproofed insulation. Where to Learn More
After each blanket is fully assembled, work- Periodicals
ers plug it in and turn it on to its full rated
power. An inspector observes the blanket Chirls, Stuart. "Electric Blanket Market
for any obvious flaws and constancy of tem- Heats Up." HFN (April 19, 1999): 10.
perature. As far as tests for electrical and Farley, Dixie. "The ELF in Your Electric
magnetic field generation, which caused Blanket." FDA Consumer (December 1992):
public concern in the 1990s, these are gener- 22.
ally not done. The actual harm of ELF fields
remained unproven, and concern over blan- Hannam, Sean. "Blanket Coverage." ER
ket safety ultimately died down with the in- Magazine 12, 9 (September 2000): 40.
dustry's adaptation of lower energy blan-
kets. Fire safety, ease of use, and general Stix, Gary. "Field Effects." Scientific Amer-
reliability of the blanket are the areas of ican (December 1990): 122-123.
most concern to quality control inspectors at
the assembly plant. -Angela Woodward
1 57
Electronic Ink
The first commercial Electronic ink is a special type of ink that looks dark. When an opposite electric
can display different colors when exposed to charge is applied, the light colored sides ori-
electronic ink product is an electric field. It is made through a two ent face forward and the surface looks light.
the Immedia display. It is step process that involves creating two- This ability to change from white to black or
toned charged particles and encapsulating visa versa whenever desired makes electron-
an advertising sign that them in a transparent polymeric shell. The ic ink extremely useful. When a book or
resulting nanoparticle shells are suspended other surface is coated with electronic ink, it
looks and feels just like a in a solvent until the ink can be applied to a can be reprogrammed to display different
paper sign. However, this surface. First developed in the early 1990s, words or pictures.
electronic ink promises to revolutionize the
sign is coated with printing industry and maybe even change It has long been known in the printing in-
the way we interact with the world. dustry that letters and pictures can be dis-
electronic ink allowing it played using distinct dots, or pixels. The
more pixels that can be placed closer togeth-
to be programmed to Background er, the better the image looks. On a standard
newspaper about 300 pixels are used in the
change its message. Ink has been around for centuries and for the area of a square inch. When electronic ink is
purposes of displaying an idea, ink on paper
coated on a surface in specific quantities,
has many advantages over electronic dis- each of these pixels can be made light or
plays. Paper is easy to carry around and can dark depending on how the electronic field
be read almost anytime and anywhere. It does is applied. Printing technology is already
not require a power source and is relatively
available to cover surfaces with over 1,200
durable. However, ink on paper has the dis- pixels per square inch of electronic ink. This
advantage of not being able to be updated. resolution makes electronic ink suitable for
Electronic ink has been designed to maintain almost any printed work.
the advantages of traditional paper and ink
while providing the added advantages of up- The way that an electronic ink display would
dating and high capacity data storage. work is much like a computer screen. Each
pixel of ink could be controlled by an attached
Electronic ink is like traditional ink in that it computer. Groups of adjoining pixels could
is a colored liquid that can be coated onto be tumed on or off to creates letters, number,
nearly any surface. Suspended in the liquid and pictures. While this might be difficult to
are millions of microcapsules that contain achieve on a piece of standard paper, a spe-
tiny, two-toned polymeric particles. One cially designed paper is being developed
side of the particle is a dark color while the which will feel and look like paper but actual-
other is a contrasting light color. Similar to a ly be a mini-computer complete with a vast
magnet, the dark colored side of the particle array of electric circuits to control each pixel.
has an electric charge that is opposite that of This special paper would not be essential
the light colored side. When the ink is ex- however because a special scanner could also
posed to an electric field, the particles re- be developed to have the same effect.
align themselves, depending on the charge
of the field. When all of the dark colored One of the most useful characteristics of
sides are attracted to the surface, the ink electronic ink is that after the electric field
1 58
Electronic Ink
is removed, the ink remains in its configu- Rawv Materials
ration. This means that only a small
amount of power is required as compared A variety of raw materials are used in the
to typical electronic displays. The configu- production of electronic ink. These include
ration can be changed however, by apply- polymers, reaction agents, solvents, and col-
ing a new electric field whenever desired. orants.
This means that if a book was printed with
electronic ink, it could contain the words of Polymers are high molecular weight materi-
one book on one day and another book the als which are made up of chemically bonded
monomers. To make the charged, colored
next. If fitted with memory storage, a sin-
gle electronic book could contain thou- portions of the electronic ink polyethylene,
sands of different texts. polyvinylidene fluoride or other suitable
polymers are used. These materials are use-
ful because they can be made liquid when
History heated, solidify when cooled, and will main-
tain stable dipoles which are long lasting.
While the printed word has been around for
centuries, the idea of electronic ink is a rela- Filler materials are added to the polymers to
tively recent invention. In the late 1970s, re- alter their physical characteristics. Since
searches at Xerox PARC developed a proto- polymers are generally colorless, colorants
type of an electronic book. The device used are added to them to produce the contrast
millions of tiny magnets that had oppositely needed for electronic ink. These may be sol-
colored sides (black on one, white on the uble dyes or comminuted pigments. To pro-
other) embedded on a thin, soft, rubber sur- duce a white color, an inorganic material
face. When an electric charge was intro- such as titanium dioxide may be used. Iron
duced the magnets flipped making either a oxides can be used to produce other colors
black or white mark similar to pixels on a like yellow, red, and brown. Organic dyes
video screen. The device was never a com- such as pyrazolone reds, quinacridone vio-
mercial success because it was large and dif- let, and flavanthrone yellow may also be uti-
ficult to use. lized. Other fillers such as plasticizers can
be added to modify the electrical character-
Over the next decade various screens were istics of the polymers. This is particularly
introduced and the idea of an electronic important for electronic ink. During produc-
book became a reality. However, these de- tion the polymer is heated. For this reason
vices still remain more cumbersome than stabilizers are added to prevent it from
printed paper. In 1993, Joe Jacobson, a re- breaking down. Heat stabilizers include un-
searcher at MIT, began investigating the saturated oils like soy bean oil. Protective
idea of a book that typeset itself. He con- materials that are added include UV protec-
ceived a variation of the PARC idea using tors such as benzophenones and antioxi-
reversible particles. Eventually, he created dants such as aliphatic thiols. These materi-
electronic ink, which utilizes colored poly- als help prevent UV degradation and
mers encased in a transparent shell. He sub- environmental oxidation respectively.
mitted his idea for patent in 1996 and was
eventually rewarded one in 2000. During the electronic ink encapsulation
process various compounds are used. Water
Jacobson formed E Ink Corporation which is used to create an emulsion and provide a
was designed to bring electronic ink to the vehicle for the encapsulation reaction to
marketplace. The first commercial product take place. Monomers are added to produce
is the Immedia display. It is an advertising the encapsulation shell. Cross-linking agents
sign that looks and feels just like a paper which cause the monomers to react are uti-
sign. However, this sign is coated with lized. Silicone oil is the hydrophobic materi-
electronic ink allowing it to be pro- al that gets incorporated with the colored
grammed to change its message. E ink an- particles in the encapsulate. This material
ticipates that electronic ink will eventually provides a liquid medium for the particles to
be utilized in an area where traditional ink travel through when the electric field is ap-
is used such as newspapers, books, maga- plied. It is clear, colorless and extremely
zines and even clothes. slippery. Other gel or polymeric materials
1 59
Made up of tiny, two-toned

charged nanoparticles, electronic
ink can display different colors or
messages when exposed to an
electric field. Depending on the
type of charge, the particles will
either be attracted or repelled
from the surface, thus creating dif-
ferent effects.
can be added to the encapsulate to improve 3 The particles are then run through a set
the stability of the system. vof electrodes to separate out the ones that
are imperfectly charged. As they pass the
The Manufacturing electrodes, the imperfect particles are at-
Process tracted to the corresponding electrode and
then removed. The rest of the particles are
Electronic ink is made in a step-wise fash- transferred to the encapsulating area.
ion. First, two contrasting inks are given op-
posite charges. Then the inks are encapsu-
lated in conductive micro spheres and Encapsulating ink
applied to the desired surface. 4 The particles are moved into a tank
1Iwhich contains a liquid solution of
Producing charged ink monomer in a silicone oil. The particles are
Two contrasting liquid polymers are mixed thoroughly so they are evenly dis-
loaded into separate containers which persed. This solution is combined with an
have attached atomizing nozzles. The mate- aqueous phase which creates an emulsion.
rials are kept heated so they remain liquid. An emulsion is a semi-stable mixture of oil
One of the nozzles has a positively charged and water. The electronic ink particles re-
potential while the other has a negative po- main in the silicone oil which is surround by
tential. Pressure is then used to force the water.
inks through the nozzles causing them to
break into tiny particles and also acquire the 5 A cross-linking agent is added to the so-
opposing charges. The containers are situat- lution which causes the monomer to
ed next to each other so when the inks exit react with itself. This produces tiny spheres
the nozzles they come in contact. Since they which contain some silicone oil and the
have opposite charges, they are attracted to electronic ink particles. The ink particles
each other and form larger, neutral particles. can then be separated from the aqueous
phase for various applications. This can be
2 After the larger particles are formed, the done by evaporation with subsequent sol-
materials are allowed to cool which vent washing.
causes them to solidify. This results in a
small two-toned solid particle which has a 6 After the reactions are complete, the
positive and negative side. The particles are 6electronic ink articles are stored in a liq-
then run past a heating element which re- uid solvent until they can be applied. De-
duces surface tension and creates a more pending on the final product, this applica-
perfect sphere. tion process can involve spreading the liquid
1 60
Electronic Ink
ink on specialized paper, fabric, or other then become ubiquitous to the environment
kinds of fibers. so that any message can be displayed any-
where at anytime.
Quality Control Since the current electronic ink product is
To ensure the quality of the electronic ink, made up of only two colors, the products
each phase of the production process is made with it can not create a full colored
monitored. Since it is a relatively new tech- display. In the future, more colors of elec-
nology, electronic ink is not made in large, tronic ink will be developed. Scientists still
rapid quantities. For this reason each step have to work out how to display these dif-
can be thoroughly tested before proceeding fering colors at the proper time, but once ac-
to the next. Inspections begin with an evalu- complished, any surface coated with elec-
ation of the incoming raw materials. These tronic ink could become as interesting to
materials are tested for things such as pH, look at as a television screen.
viscosity, and specific gravity. Also, color
and appearance are evaluated. After the
electronic ink is finished, it is tested to en- Where to Learn More
sure that it will properly react to an electric Periodicals
field. The material may be spread on a thin
surface and have an electric field applied. Gregory, P. "Coloring the Jet Set." Chem-
The color of the surface should change ac- istry in Britain (August 2000): 39-2.
cordingly. The particle size is also tested
using various mesh screens. Johnston, M. "Lucent, E Ink Demo Elec-
tronic Ink Prototypes." Digit (November
21, 2000).
The Future
Peterson, I. "Rethinking Ink." Science News
The first products utilizing electronic ink are
(June 20, 1998):396- 97.
just being introduced. They are simple two-
toned devices that are not more impressive Wilkinson, S. "E-Books Emerge." Chemi-
than flat paneled electronic displays. How- cal & Engineering News (August 21, 2000):
ever, future generations promise to have 49-4.
broad applications and may significantly
impact the way we interact with the world.
The hope that electronic ink manufacturers Other
have is that this material will initially be in- E Ink. http://www.eink.com (January 2001).
corporated into outdoor billboards, hand-
held computer devices, books, and newspa- MIT Media Laboratory. http://www.media.
pers. But ultimately, electronic ink will be mit.edu/micromedia (January 2001).
put onto any surface such as clothes, walls,
product labels, and bumper stickers. It will -Perry Romanowski
1 61
Evaporated and
Condensed Milk
Evaporated milk has a Background eventually obtained a condensed milk that
resisted spoilage. On another trip, this time
shelf life of up to 15 Evaporated and condensed milk are two by train to Washington, DC, to apply for a
types of concentrated milk from which the patent for his new product, Borden met Jere-
months, while condensed water has been removed. Evaporated milk is miah Milbank, a wealthy grocery whole-
milk concentrated to one-half or less its
milk is good for two original bulk by evaporation under high
saler. Milbank was impressed with Borden's
ideas and agreed to finance a condensed
years. pressures and temperatures, without the ad-
milk operation. In 1864, the first Eagle
dition of sugar, and usually contains a speci- Brand Consolidated Milk production plant
fied amount of milk fat and solids. This opened on the east branch of the Croton
gives regular evaporated milk-the shelf River in southeastem New York.
life differs with the fat content-up to 15
months of shelf life. Condensed milk is es- Borden's new product was not an unquali-
sentially evaporated milk with sugar added. fied success. In 1856, condensed milk was
The milk is then canned for consumer con- blamed for an outbreak of rickets in work-
sumption and commercial use in baking, ice ing-class children because it was made with
cream processing, and candy manufacture. skim milk, and therefore lacked fats and
This product has a shelf life of two years. other nutrients. Others complained about its
When concentrated milk was first developed appearance and taste because they were ac-
in the mid- 1 800s before the advent of refrig- customed to milk with a high water content
eration, many used it as a beverage. Howev- and that had been whitened with the addi-
er, with the exception of some tropic re- tion of chalk. In spite of this criticism, the
gions, this is rarely the case today. idea of condensed milk caught on to the de-
gree that Borden began to license other fac-
History tories to produce it under his name.
In 1852, a young dairy farmer named Gail The outbreak of the Civil War proved to be
Borden was on a ship headed home to the good for business when the Union Army or-
United States from the Great Exhibition in dered the condensed milk for its field ra-
London. When rough seas made the cows tions. At the height of the war, Borden's
on board so seasick that they could not be Elgin, Illinois plant was annually producing
milked, infant passengers began to go hun- 300,000 gallons of condensed milk.
gry. Borden wondered how milk could be
processed and packaged so that it would not To differentiate his own product from that
go bad. This was a problem not only on long of the licensed plants, Borden changed the
ocean voyages but on land, as well, because name of his condensed milk to Eagle Brand.
at the time, milk was shipped in unsanitary About this time, two American brothers,
oak barrels and spoiled quickly. Charles A. and George H. Page, founded the
Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company in
When Borden retumed home, he began to Switzerland. One of their employees, John
experiment with raw milk, determining that Baptist Meyenberg, suggested that the com-
it was 87% water. By boiling the water off pany use a similar process but eliminate the
the top of the milk in an airtight pan, Borden addition of sugar to produce evaporated
1 62
Evaporated and Condensed Milk
A diagram showing the manufac-

milk. Meyenberg's idea was rejected. Con- rageenan, a food additive made from red turing steps involved in making
vinced that his idea held merit, Meyenberg algae (Irish moss) is used as a suspending evaporated milk.
quit the company and emigrated to the Unit- agent. The milk is also fortified with Vita-
ed States. By 1885, Meyenberg was produc- min D through exposure to ultraviolet light.
ing the first commercial brand of evaporated Powdered lactose crystals are added to con-
milk at his Highland Park, Illinois plant, the centrated milk to stimulate the production of
Helvetica Milk Condensing Company. lactose, a type of sugar that increases the
milk's shelf life.
In the late 1880s, Eldridge Amos Stuart, an
Indiana grocer in El Paso, Texas, noted that
milk was spoiling in the heat and causing ill- The Manufacturing
ness in children. Stuart developed a method Process
for processing canned, sterilized evaporated Evaporated milk
milk. In 1899, Stuart partnered with Meyen-
berg to supply Klondike gold miners with 1 The raw milk is transported from the
evaporated milk in 16-ounce cans. dairy farm to the plant in refrigerated
tank trucks. At the plant, the milk is tested
An article on homogenization in the April for odor, taste, bacteria, sediment, and the
16, 1904 issue of Scientific American had an composition of milk protein and milk fat.
impact on the concentrated milk industry, The composition of protein and fat is mea-
which employed the process long before sured by passing the milk under highly sen-
fresh milk plants. Further improvements fol- sitive infrared lights.
lowed. In 1934, Meyenberg's company, 2 The milk is piped through filters and into
now headquartered in St. Louis, Missouri,
and renamed the Pet Milk Company, be- 2the pasteurizers. Here, the milk is quick-
ly heated in one of two ways. The High
came the first to fortify its evaporated milk
Temperature Short Time method (HTST)
with Vitamin D. This was accomplished by
the process of irradiation, developed in 1923 subjects the milk to temperatures of 161°F
(71.6°C) for 15 seconds. The Ultra High
by Harry Steenbock, a chemist at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin. In this process, the Temperature (UHT) method heats the milk
milk is exposed to ultraviolet light, which to 280°F (1380C) for two seconds.
causes reactions to produce Vitamin D, en- Both methods increase the milk's stability,
riching the milk. decrease the chance of coagulation during
storage, and decrease the bacteria level.
Rawv Materials 3 The warm milk is piped to an evaporator.
The primary ingredient is raw cow's milk. JThrough the process of vacuum evapora-
Evaporated and condensed milk processors tion, (exposing a liquid to a pressure lower
purchase the milk from nearby dairy farms. than atmospheric pressure) the boiling point
of the milk is lowered to 104-113°F (40-
A salt, such as potassium phosphate, is used 450C). As a result, the milk is concentrated
as a stabilizing agent, which keeps the milk to 30-40% solids. Also, the milk has little or
from breaking down during processing. Car- no cooked flavor.
1 63
A diagram showing the manufac-

turing steps involved in making A The milk is then homogenized by forc- of solids and fats. According to the United
condensed milk. Fing it under high pressure through tiny States Food and Drug Administration
holes. This breaks down the fat globules (FDA), sweetened condensed milk must
into minute particles, improving its color contain at least 28% by weight of total milk
and stability. solids and at least 8% by weight of milk fat.
Evaporated milk must contain at least 6.5%
5Pre-measured amounts of a stabilizing by weight of milk fat, at least 16.5% by
salt, such as potassium phosphate, are weight of milk solids that are not fat, and at
added to the milk to make it smooth and least 23% by weight of total milk solids.
creamy. This stabilization causes the milk to The evaporated milk must also contain 25
turn a pale tan. International Units (IUs) of vitamin D.
6 The milk is passed under a series of ul- The milk is taste-tested for freshness before
6traviolet lights to fortify it with Vitamin it leaves the dairy farm and again when it ar-
D. rives at the processing plants. Once the milk
7The milk is piped into pre-sterilized cans arrives at the plant, it is not touched by the
that are vacuum-sealed. workers, making its journey from raw milk
to evaporated or condensed strictly through
Condensed milk pipes, vats, and other machinery. At least
one-third of the labor time in the milk indus-
The milk is flash-heated to about 185°F try is devoted to cleaning and sterilizing
(85°C) for several seconds. It is then utensils and machinery. Milk inspectors
piped to the evaporator where the water re- make frequent inspections.
moved.
2 The milk is then concentrated under vac- Where to Learn More
2uum pressure until it measures between
30-40% solid. It now has a syrupy consis- Books
tency.
Trager, James. The Food Chronolgy. New
3 The milk is cooled and then inoculated York: Henry Holts, 1995.
3with approximately 40% powdered lac-
tose crystals. The milk is then agitated to
stimulate crystallization. It is this sugar that
Other
preserves the condensed milk. "Borden's Milk." http://www.southeastmu-
seum.org/html/borden_s_milk.html (March
The milk is piped into sterilized cans 6, 2000).
that are then vacuum-sealed.
"What guidance does FDA have for manu-
Quolity Control facturers of Sweetened Condensed Milk
Products?" http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/
The milk industry is subject to stringent re- qa-ind5n.html (November 19, 1999).
gional and federal regulations regarding the
prevention of bacteria and the composition -Mary McNulty
1 64
Faucet
Background negatively related to the number of persons Around 1700 B.C., the
working outside the home and is lower for
A faucet is a device for delivering water those who have an automatic dishwasher. Minoan Palace of Knossos
from a plumbing system. It can consist of
the following components: spout, handle(s), on the isle of Crete
lift rod, cartridge, aerator, mixing chamber, History featured terra cotta piping
and water inlets. When the handle is turned
on, the valve opens and controls the water Plumbing systems have existed since an- that provided water for
flow adjustment under any water or temper- cient times. Around 1700 B.C., the Minoan
ature condition. The faucet body is usually Palace of Knossos on the isle of Crete fea- fountains and faucets of
made of brass, though die-cast zinc and tured terra cotta piping that provided water
chrome-plated plastic are also used. for fountains and faucets of marble, gold, marble, gold, and silver.
and silver. Lead pipe systems and personal
The majority of residential faucets are single bath rooms also existed during the Roman
or dual-control cartridge faucets. Some sin- period, from about 1000 B.C.-A.D. 476.
gle-control types use a metal or plastic core, Rome's public baths also featured silver
which operates vertically. Others use a faucets, with other fixtures of marble and
metal ball, with spring-loaded rubber seals gold. By the fourth century A.D., Rome had
recessed into the faucet body. The less ex- 11 public baths, 1,352 public fountains and
pensive dual-control faucets contain nylon cisterns, and 856 private baths.
cartridges with rubber seals. Some faucets
have a ceramic-disc cartridge that is much Plumbing systems have changed drastically
more durable. since then, including faucets. For many
years, faucets came with two handles, one
Faucets must comply with water conserva- for cold water and one for hot water. It
tion laws. In the United States, bath basin wasn't until 1937 that this design changed.
faucets are now limited to 2 gal (7.6 L) of That year, a college student named Al Moen
water per minute, while tub and shower living in Seattle, Washington, turned on the
faucets are limited to 2.5 gal (9.5 L). faucet to wash his hands and scalded them
since the water was too hot. That set an idea
Faucets run an average of eight minutes per in motion in Al Moen's mind for the single-
capita per day (pcd), according to a study by handle faucet.
the American Water Works Association Re-
search Foundation completed in 1999 that Moen's first design was for a double-valve
was based on water use data collected from faucet with a cam to control the two valves.
1,188 residences. In daily pcd use indoor It was rejected by a major fixture manufac-
water use was at 69 gal (261 L), with faucet turer since the faucet wouldn't work, and
use third highest at 11 gal (41.6 L) pcd. In Moen then went to a cylindrical design.
residences with water-conserving fixtures, From that experience, he resolved to create
faucets moved up to second at 11 gal (41.6 a faucet that would give the user water at the
L) pcd. Faucet use was strongly related to desired temperature with a piston action.
household size. The addition of teens and Between 1940 and 1945, he designed sever-
adults increases water use. Faucet use is also al faucets, finally selling the first single-
1 65
Using 6rass stock, the multi-spin-

dle machine automatically forms handle mixing faucet in San Francisco in product was unveiled, Delta's sales topped
the faucet parts. Plating increases late 1947 to a local plumbing supplier. By $1 million.
durability by adding an extra 1959, the Moen single-handle faucet was in
layer of protective coating. hundreds of thousands of homes in the Unit- About 20 years later, a ceramic disc was
ed States and sold in approximately 55 patented by Wolvering Brass for water con-
countries around the world. Today, single- trol. Unlike cartridges that use rubber in the
handle faucets are so popular that they can waterway, ceramicdiscs are lapped and pol-
be found in over 40% of American homes. ished to a degree of flatness that can only be
measured in lightbands. Such discs last
Moen came up with a few other inventions much longer due to their high wear resis-
during his life, including the replaceable tance and provide more accurate control.
cartridge (eliminating washers in faucets), These discs or valves are now in wide use.
the screen aerator, push-button shower valve
diverter, swivel spray, pressure balancing Other recent innovations include built-in fil-
shower valve, and flow control aerator. But ter cartridges for reducing chlorine, lead, and
Moen wasn't the only one concerned with cysts; built-in pullout sprays; faucets de-
faucet improvements. In 1945, Landis H. signed for people with disabilities; and elec-
Perry designed the first ball valve for tronic faucets. The latter were introduced in
faucets. Its objective was to provide a com- the early 1980s for conservation and hygien-
bined volume and blending control having a ic purposes. These faucets are equipped with
simple and effective means for sealing the an infrared beam When a person puts their
valve element. The design also could be eas- hands underneath the faucet, the beam is dis-
ily repaired. rupted, which triggers the water to turn on.
Battery-operated electronic faucets have also
A patent was issued for Perry's ball valve in become available in recent years.
1952. Shortly thereafter, Alex Manoogian
purchased the rights to the patent and intro- Raw Materials
duced the first Delta faucet in 1954. The
Delta single-handle faucet was the first to Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is the
use a ball-valve design and it proved very most widely used material for faucets due to
successful. By 1958, just four years after the its resistance to soft-water corrosion and
1 66
Faucet
hard-water calcification. It usually contains and automatically feeding them into a com-
some alloying elements-like bismuth-to puterized numerically controlled machining
make it easier to process. Brass is received center of multi-spindle and multi-axis de-
as bar stock of 0.13-2 in (0.33-5 cm) in di- sign. This machine performs tuming,
ameter, depending on the size of faucet. The milling, and drilling operations. It typically
majority of the other components that make takes about one minute to make a part.
up a faucet are made of other metals or ce-
ramics and are received as finished parts Larger faucets may require numerous ma-
from other manufacturers. chining operations. For instance, over 32
machining operations are required for some
kitchen faucet bodies using a rotary machin-
Design ing center. With the proper machine, it can
To meet a variety of consumers' needs, take as little as 14 seconds to make a part.
faucets come in a wide range of styles, col- Some parts, such as cast spouts for kitchen
ors, and finishes. Ergonomic designs may faucets, are also machined in a separate op-
involve a longer spout length and easier to eration before assembly.
operate handles. The shape of the faucet and 2 Some faucet manufacturers use hot forg-
its finish will affect the manufacturing ing instead of machining, since this
process. Some designs will be more difficult method can produce a near-net shape in
to machine or forge than others. A different
about three seconds with little waste. Forg-
finishing process may be used to achieve a ing is the process of shaping metals by de-
different look. forming them in some way. In hot forging,
For the homeowner, special finishes are heated metal is forced into a die that is al-
available, including brushed nickel, pol- most the same shape as the faucet body. The
ished nickel, satin black, gold, platinum, and pressure is slowly increased over the course
a variety of colors. Consumers also now of several seconds to make sure the die is
customize the look of the faucet, combining completely filled with metal. Only minor
more than one type of finish. Warranties are machining is required to produce the exact
longer and more features are available. dimensions.
Prices to the consumer ranged in the spring
of 2000 from $40 all the way up to $500. Finishing
3 After machining, the parts are ready for
The Manufacturing 3the finishing process. Those components
Process that come into contact with water may first
require a special surface treatment to re-
The manufacturing process for faucets has move any remaining lead. This involves a
become highly automated, with computers leaching process that eliminates lead mole-
controlling most of the machines. Productiv- cules from the brass surface. The conven-
ity and efficiency have thus improved over tional finish is chrome since this material is
the years. The basic process consists of most resistant against corrosion. First a base
forming the main body of the faucet (some- coating of electroplated nickel is applied,
times including the spout if no swivel is followed by a thin coating of electroplated
needed), applying a finish, and then assem- chromium. The chrome layer is deposited
bling the various components, followed by from a plating bath containing certain addi-
inspection and packaging. The faucet indus- tives that improve corrosion resistance.
try has also been impacted by environmental
regulations, which have required special 4If brass plating is used, a clear polymer
processes to be developed. coating is applied to improve durability.
For white and other colored finishes, a simi-
Forming lar polymer or epoxy plastic with color
added is sprayed onto the faucet in an elec-
1 There are two methods used to make the trically charged environment. Both coatings
faucet bodies. Most manufacturers use a then are heat cured.
machining process to shape the body into
the required size and dimensions. This in- 5 To achieve a polished brass look, physi-
volves first cutting the bars into short slugs 5cal vapor deposition is used, which ap-
1 67
ASSEMBLY PRESSURE TESTING
FINAL ASSEMBLY
Once the parts are assembled,

they are pressure tested. plies the metal coating in a vacuum cham- chines, which are precisely controlled, or by
ber. This chamber has four components: a robots. The sprout, if separate, is first in-
vacuum pump to provide a controlled envi- stalled, followed by the ceramic cartridge.
ronment free of contaminants; a tank that This cartridge is screwed in place with a
emits several types of gases; a target rod brass using a pneumatic gun, and then the
acts as the metal source; and racks to hold handle is attached by hand. Sometimes the
the faucet parts. The target is made of a cor- copper tubes are installed before assembly.
rosion-resistant material such as zirconium. After assembly, the faucets are packaged in
boxes along with any other components that
An electric arc heats the target to vapor- are needed for final installation.
6ize the material, then strikes the surface
of the faucet at high speed and reacts with
the mixture of gases. One gas provides the Quality Control
color and another provides the corrosion re- After the first part is machined, it is checked
sistance. As the target material combines against the blueprints to ensure it matches
with these gases, it adheres to the faucet all dimensions. A go-no-go gauge is used to
part, creating a bond that is virtually inde-
make sure the interior and exterior threads
structible. Some manufacturers use a spiral fit together. Since machining is automated,
coil around the target to provide a uniform random samples are then checked for the
distribution of the coating. more critical dimensions. Before plating,
parts are visually checked for surface imper-
Assembly fections, which are removed by sanding.
7After plating, the parts are stored in bins After final assembly, every faucet is pres-
7until assembly. Assembly can involve sure tested with air for leaks and tested for
both manual and automated processes. For durability.
some faucets, prelubricated rubber seals or
o-rings are installed by hand. Faucets must also pass several environmen-
tal regulations. The National Sanitation
8Finally, the faucets and other compo- Foundation 61 regulation, which limits cont-
Onents are sent for final assembly. This aminants in drinking water (lead is lIppb
process takes place on rotary assembly ma- [parts per billion] in water from endpoint
1 68
Faucet
devices), applies to kitchen faucets, lavatory main ahead of the United States in the de-
faucets and drinking water dispensers. Other sign department, offering more modem
laws are more strict-California's Proposi- styles and colors. Although the overall man-
tion 65 limits the allowable lead to 5 ppb for ufacturing process will remain about the
a consumer faucet. There are also plumbing same, more automation will be used.
codes to deal with, which can vary from city
to city. Many now require antiscald tub and Novel finishes produced using PVD technol-
shower faucets. ogy will become more widely available as
consumers recognize these finishes can offer
To receive NSF Certification of a faucet, both style and durability. This may require
manufacturers first submit a list of all mate- manufacturers to improve the economics of
rials including the formulation used in the the process, since it is more expensive than
product. NSF Toxicologists then review the chrome plating. The popularity of filtration
material formulations to determine potential will extend to faucets, as consumers realize
contaminants that may extract from the the benefits of built- in filters. Eventually
faucet and into the drinking water. NSF then these types of faucets will become the norm.
conducts an inspection of the manufacturing
facility to verify material formulations, ma- The trend toward battery-operated electron-
terial suppliers, quality control procedures ic faucets is expected to continue, and with
and operations. Product samples are random- an overall drop in prices, commercial mar-
ly selected for testing at NSF laboratories. kets should expand. Technology will contin-
ue to improve, making these faucets easier
Faucets undergo a rigorous three-week test- to repair and with improved operation due to
ing sequence, where they are filled with an fiber optics. With such improvements in
extractant water specified in the Standard. technology and price, the electronic faucet
Selected water samples are analyzed for will soon enter even the residential market.
contaminants. NSF toxicologists compare
the contaminant levels to the maximum al- Overall, the plumbing industry will continue
lowable levels established in ANSI/NSF to consolidate and manufacturers will there-
Standard 61. If all contaminant levels of the fore have to remain flexible. The Internet will
product meet the requirements of the Stan- continue to play a role in the market and
dard, the product can be certified. Only then someday faucet manufacturers may even sell
is the manufacturer allowed to display the their products online directly to the consumer.
NSF Mark on the product signifying NSF
Certification. To become certified, some Where to Learn More
manufacturers have had to completely mod-
ify their manufacturing process, such as Periodicals
switching to a purer brass material or adding "Ancient Plumbing." Plumbing ,& Mechan-
a finishing rinse process. ical (1989). http://www.pmmag.com (Janu-
ary 2001).
Byproducts/Waste Ballanco, Julius. "What's All the Fuss
Scrap metal from the machining or forging About Faucets?" Plumbing & Mechanical
process is recycled. The finishing processes (June 1998). http://www.pmmag.com (Jan-
may produce waste material that must be uary 2001).
disposed of or minimized by recycling.
Since the majority of processes are automat- Cummings, James. "Washerless Faucets
ed, waste is minimized. Work Better, Easy to Install." Dayton Daily
News (January 27, 2000).
The Future Grochowski, Katie. "What's the Word on
Water Use?" Plumbing & Mechanical (No-
Faucet manufacturers will continue to add vember 1999). http://www.pmmag.com
value and quality to meet consumers' in- (January 2001).
creasing demands. The number of styles and
range in prices will expand, with higher end Henkenius, Merle. "Running Water: New
products becoming more popular as remod- Faucets Deliver More Value and Better Per-
eling intensifies. Europe will continue to re- ofrmance." Popular Mechanics (June 1997).
16 9
"The History of Plumbing-Roman and Other

English Legacy." Plumbing & Mechanical
(July 1989). http://www.theplumber.com Delta Faucet Co. PO Box 40980, Indi-
(January 2001). anapolis, IN 46280. (800) 345-3358. http://
www.deltafaucet.com.
Smith, Steve. "Electronic Faucets: Smart
Technology Gets Smarter." Plumbing & Interview with Dave Bischof, Faucetcraft
Mechanical (November 1998). http://www. Faucet Company. http://www.faucetcraft.
pmmag.com (January 2001). com.
Smith, Steve. "An Interview with Linda S. Kohler Co. 444 Highland Dr. Kohler, WI
Mayer." Plumbing & Mechanical (February 53044. (800) 456-4537. http://www.kohler
2000). http://www.pmmag.com (January co.com.
2001).
Smith, Steve. "Issues 2000: Plumbing Moen Inc. 25300 Al Moen Dr., North Olm-
Execs Talk About a Changing Industry." stead, OH 44070. http://www.moen.com.
Plumbing & Mechanical http://www.pm
mag.com (January 2001). -Laurel M. Sheppard
1 70
Ferris Wheel
Background world. One of the first wheels in the United In 1893, American
States was built in 1848 by Antonio
A ferris wheel is an amusement park ride Maguino, who used it to draw crowds to his bridge builder and
consisting of a large vertical wheel with rural park and picnic grounds in Walton
places for people to sit or stand spaced evenly Spring, Georgia. As the concept of mixing
engineer, George
around the outer circumference. In operation,
the ferris wheel revolves about a horizontal
amusement rides with park and picnic facili- Washington Gale Ferris,
ties caught on, several companies began
axis, and the riders are alternately lifted and manufacturing wheels of various designs. In began building a 250-ft
then lowered as they are carried around the 1870, Charles W.P. Dare of Brooklyn made
wheel in a circle. When the wheel stops, the several wood wheels of 20- and 30-ft (6.1-
(76.2-m) wheel for the
people in the seat or platform at ground level and 9. 1-m) diameters, which he sold as the 1893 Colombian
exit the ride, and new riders take their place. Dare Aerial Swing. The Conderman Broth-
The wheel then revolves a short distance until ers of Indiana made an even larger wheel Exposition in Chicago.
the next seat or platform is at ground level, when they developed a 35-ft (10.7-m) metal
allowing more people to exit and enter. This wheel in the 1880s.
procedure is repeated until all the seats or
platforms are filled with new riders, at which
The race for larger wheels culminated in
time the wheel is set in motion to undergo
several complete revolutions. Although the
early 1893 when American bridge builder
name "ferris wheel" was not used until the
and engineer, George Washington Gale Fer-
ris, began building a 250-ft (76.2-m) wheel
1890s, the wheel itself has been a part of
human festivities for hundreds of years. for the 1893 Colombian Exposition in
Chicago. Designed like a bicycle wheel,
with a stiff steel outer rim hung from the
History center axle by steel spokes under tension,
the wheel could carry as many as 1,440 pas-
The earliest designs of wheels used for sengers at a time in 36 enclosed cars. The
amusement rides may have been based on center axle was 33 in (84 cm) in diameter
the large, circular wheels used to lift water and 45.5 f (13.9 m) in length. It weighed
for irrigation. In fact, knowing the human 46.5 tons (42.2 metric tons) and was the
spirit, it is probable that adventuresome largest steel forging ever produced at the
children used these water wheels for enter- time. The giant wheel opened on June 21,
tainment from the time they were first de- 1893, and drew more than 1.4 million pay-
veloped in about 200 B.C. ing customers during the 19 weeks it was in
English traveler Peter Mundy described operation. The overwhelming success of
what he called a "pleasure wheel" with Ferris' design ensured that his name would
swings for seats after he visited a street fair be forever linked with such wheels.
in Turkey in 1620. In England, small hand-
turned wheels were called "ups-and-downs" One of the people who rode the ferris wheel
as early as 1728. at the Colombian Exposition was American
inventor and bridge builder William E. Sul-
Whatever they were called, amusement livan. Sullivan was fascinated with the
wheels found their way to many parts of the wheel and rode it many times. What was es-
171
pecially attractive to him was the possibility Some ferris wheel components are pur-
of making a smaller wheel that could be chased from other manufacturers and are in-
taken down and moved from one park or stalled on the ferris wheel when it is built.
fairground to another. Drawing on his expe- These include the axles, brakes, tires, and
rience with bridges, he designed a 45-ft wheels on the trailer. Other purchased com-
(13.7-m) transportable wheel with twelve ponents include the electric drive motors,
three-passenger seats in 1900. In 1906 he the electrical wires and cables, and the elec-
formed the Eli Bridge Company and started trical light bulbs and sockets.
manufacturing his wheel in Roodhouse, Illi-
nois. Later he moved the company to Jack-
sonville, Illinois, where it remains in opera- Design
tion today. Most of the ferris wheels found Ferris wheels that are designed to be trans-
in carnivals and fairs in the United States are ported on the road from one location to an-
made by the Eli Bridge Company. other must conform to the overall width,
height, and length restrictions for highway
Rawv Materials vehicles. Although these restrictions vary
from state to state, most states limit the trail-
Because of the unique design of a ferris er width to 8.5 ft (2.6 m), the height to 13.5
wheel, most of the component parts are fabri- ft (4.1 m), and the length to 55 ft (16.8 m).
cated by the manufacturer. Steel is the most No matter how big or small the ferris wheel
common raw material and is used to make the is when it is opened and in operation, it must
trailer chassis, wheel support towers, wheel fold down to meet these restrictions when it
spokes, and wheel crossmembers. A variety is travelling on the highway.
of structural steel shapes are used depending
on the application. They include square tub- The ferris wheel must also be designed to
ing, round tubing, angles, channels, and wide- operate safely. This requires calculations to
flanged beams. Aluminum diamond tread ensure the horizontal and vertical forces of
plate is used for the entrance and exit walk- the fully loaded wheel can be supported
ways and for the operator's platform. when the wheel is in operation. It also re-
quires the design of safety interlocks to pre-
Aluminum is used to make the seats and the vent the wheel from revolving during load-
drive rims. The drive rims are rolled out of ing and unloading operations, and to prevent
aluminum angle stock and are attached to the operator from inadvertently operating
the spokes to form a large circle about 10 ft the wheel in an unsafe manner.
(3 m) smaller in diameter than the outer rim
of the wheel itself. Two rubber drive wheels
press against the drive rims on each side to The Manufacturing
rotate the wheel. Aluminum is used in this Process
application because the constant rubbing of The manufacturing processes used to make
the drive wheels quickly removes the paint ferris wheels varies with the design of the
on the rims, exposing the bare metal. If steel wheel and the manufacturer. Most of the
were used, it would rust. components are built in different parts of the
shop before they are brought to the main
The cushions used on the seats are molded construction area for final assembly. Here is
from a self-skinning polyurethane foam. a typical sequence of operations used to
This material forms a solid, smooth skin on build a transportable ferris wheel used in
the outside, while the inside remains a com- carnivals and county fairs. In operation, the
pressible foam. Nylon is used for some of the wheel described is about 60 ft (18.3 m) in
bushings, and a phenolic plastic is used in diameter with a capacity to carry up to 48
some of the electrical components. Support riders in 16 seats.
cables within the wheel structure may have a
plastic cover for appearance and protection Building the chassis
from the elements. The electrical rings that
carry electrical power from the hubs to the 1 The trailer chassis forms the base for the
lights along the rotating spokes are made of ferris wheel, both when it is being trans-
copper, and the brushes that bring the power ported on the highway and when it is in op-
to the rings are made of carbon. eration. The component parts of the chassis
1 72
Ferris Wheel
Raising a ferris wheel.

are cut to length, either with a metal-cutting 6 A separate lateral support arm is at-
saw or with a torch, and are welded togeth- Vtached near the top of each wheel sup-
er. Two vertical support posts are welded to port tower. These arms each consist of two
the forward section of the chassis. These pieces of square tubing, with one piece
posts hold the upper end of the two wheel slightly smaller in cross section so it slides
support towers when they are in their low- inside the other. When the wheel support
ered position for travelling. towers are raised for operation, the lateral
support arms are pulled out to the side and
2 The completed chassis is then sandblast- the inner section of each is extended and
ed to remove any scale and spatter locked in place with a pin. Two other pieces
formed during the welding operation. This of square tubing are hinged to the chassis
ensures a smooth surface appearance and frame on each side and swing out to attach
prevents the scale from chipping off later to the bases of the lateral supports. This
and leaving patches of bare steel. gives the ferris wheel the required side-to-
3 The chassis is then coated with a rust-inside stability it needs.
3hibiting primer. After the primer has
7Hydraulic and electrical lines are routed
dried, one or more coats of finish paint are inside the chassis frame pieces where
applied in the desired color. they will be protected. The operator's con-
trol station is installed and connected. The
Installing the towers chassis axles, brakes, tires, wheels, and sta-
4The two wheel support towers are fabri- bilizer jacks may be installed at this time or
cated and painted elsewhere and are lift- they may be installed after all other work is
ed into position on the chassis. The lower complete.
ends are attached to hinges on each side of
the chassis, and the upper ends rest on the Installing the spokes
two support posts. The towers include lad-
ders welded along one edge to provide ac- 8 Sixteen pairs of spokes run from the cen-
cess to the electrical rings and brushes at the Uter hubs at the tops of the towers out to
wheel hubs and to the electrical drive mo- the seats. To install the spokes in the facto-
tors and wheels that tum the drive rim on ry, the first pair of spokes is laid flat on the
each side. The center axle is then installed factory floor, and two crossmembers are in-
between the wheel hubs at the tops of the stalled between the spokes. One crossmem-
two towers. ber is located at the point where the drive
rims will be attached, which is about 5 ft
A long hydraulic cylinder is attached (1.5 m) in from the outer end of the spokes.
5J between the chassis and the wheel sup- A pair of curved sections of the drive rims
port tower on each side, about halfway are also bolted in place on each side at the
along the length of the tower. These hy- same point. Only one end of the drive rim
draulic cylinders are used to raise the tow- sections are bolted, leaving the other end
ers into their upright position when the fer- free. This procedure is repeated for the re-
ris wheel is being set up for operation. The maining spokes, crossmembers, and drive
cylinders are secured in place with a pivot rim sections until they form a stack. The
pin at each end. inner ends of each pair of spokes are pinned
1 73
Vertical support post

(one on each side-to
support towers in the'
lowered position)
A ferris wheel.
to the pair below it. V-shaped lighting to each lighting boom. Mechanical support
booms are installed between the center of cables are installed between the ends of the
every other outer crossmember as the stack spokes around the outer circumference of
is assembled. This overlapping pattern of the wheel. Other mechanical cables are in-
lights produces a double-star effect. stalled in an x-pattem between each pair of
spokes to give additional stability.
9The stack is then lifted onto the trailer
with an overhead crane, and the top pair
of spokes is pinned to the hubs. In opera-
tion, the spokes are all pulled into the verti- Finishing the wheel
cal position when the towers are raised. The The entrance and exit stairs and walk-
spokes are then pinned to the hubs, one pair ways, safety fences, and trim pieces
at a time, and the free ends of the drive rim are fabricated, painted, and installed. The
sections are swung down and bolted to the seats are fabricated and painted. In opera-
adjacent spokes to form the wheel - like a tion, four of the seats are carried attached to
paper fan being unfolded. the wheel. The remaining seats are carried
separately on the trailer and are manually
Electrical cables are connected from lifted and pinned into place after the wheel
Vthe electrical rings at the wheel hubs is erected.
1 74
Ferris Wheel
Safety Considerations the ferris wheel will still give riders the gen-
tle thrill of being carried up in the air in an
As with any amusement park ride, safety is open seat to hang high above the crowds on
the primary concern of both the manufactur- a warm summer evening.
er and the operator. Current safety regula-
tions governing ferris wheels vary from city
to city and state to state. The American So- Where to Learn More
ciety for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is
in the process of developing a comprehen- Books
sive standard for the design, testing, manu- Anderson, Norman D., and Walter R.
facturing, and operation of all amusement Brown. Ferris Wheels. New York: Pan-
park rides. Ferris wheel manufacturers and theon Books, 1983.
amusement park operators are actively par-
ticipating in this process. Periodicals
Marks, D., and J. Barfield. "Riding High."
The Future People Weekly (November 15, 1999): 62-63.
Having provided entertainment for several
hundred years, if not several thousand years, Other
the ferris wheel will probably continue to be Eli Bridge Company. http://www.elibridge.
a pleasurable experience for many years to com (October 13, 2000).
come. Although roller coasters and other
thrill rides may dominate amusement parks, -Chris Cavette
1 75
Flashlight
The modern battery Background Design
powered flashlight was A flashlight is a portable, battery-operated The most common flashlight design is the
device used for illumination. A typical unit simple household light that consists of a
created in 1898 by consists of one or more dry cell batteries tube-like handle that contains the batteries.
arranged in a line inside a battery compart- This handle is affixed to a threaded head as-
Joshua Lionel Cowen, the ment that forms the handle of the light. The sembly that houses the bulb mechanism.
original owner of the flow of electricity from the batteries to the These units operate on standard batteries and
bulb at the front end of the light is con- provide a typical light output. Special de-
American Eveready trolled through a switch mechanism placed signs are required for industrial or profes-
between the batteries and the lamp. sional use. These lights are made from heav-
Battery Company. ier gauge materials, and are more durable.
They are also intended to produce a brighter
History beam of light. Flashlights with brighter
beams are used by the police, firefighters,
Practical, portable light sources have been and the military. Camping lanterns are larger
sought throughout history. Torches and can- units, usually powered by heavy duty batter-
dles were early sources of light but these ies. These frequently use fluorescent tubes as
were largely replaced with lanterns as peo- their light source because of their greater en-
ple learned to bum various animal and min- ergy efficiency, however, this type of bulb
eral oils. However, it was not until the nine- does not cast as strong or directed a beam of
teenth century that electricity was harnessed light. Furthermore, the increased size and
to create light. The modem battery powered weight of this type of lantern limits its porta-
flashlight was created in 1898 by Joshua Li- bility. Novelty flashlights are designed for
onel Cowen, the original owner of the use by children. These tend to be made of
American Eveready Battery Company. lightweight plastic and are notable for their
Cowen originally developed an idea for a visual design. The body of the light may be
decorative lighting fixture for potted plants. adorned with decorative plastic overlays that
His fixture was composed of a metal tube increase the child-appeal of the unit. Their
with a lightbulb and a dry cell battery. designs are often based on favorite charac-
Cowen passed his idea to one of his ters from popular cartoons or children's
Eveready salespersons, Conrad Hubert, who books. Finally, there are a variety of special-
turned the metal tube, lightbulb, and battery ty lights designed for particular uses. For ex-
into the world's first flashlight and started ample, snake lights, flexible tubes that can
selling the batteries and the flashlight. In the be bent or twisted to provide light in hard to
last hundred years, advances in technology reach places. Others are designed to be small
have resulted in flashlights with hundreds of enough to fit on a key chain to illuminate
different styles and features. For example, keyholes.
flashlights are now made with rechargeable
batteries that can be used multiple times. Factors to consider when designing flash-
Other lights are designed for special opera- lights include light output, durability, and
tions, such as working underwater or in the ability to operate in special environ-
high-temperature conditions. ments. Battery life is also an important fac-
1 76
Flashlight
tor, and some lights are designed to be ble wavelengths. The filament is welded to
plugged into an electrical outlet to be two wires that pass though holes in a cylin-
recharged or to maintain a charge until it is drical glass bead that forms the base of the
needed. Other lights use special bulbs, like bulb. This structure is placed in a fixture and
the new generation flashlights built with a cylindrical glass envelope that is closed at
light-emitting diodes. These are not as one end is placed over the filament. The
bright as conventional incandescent bulbs, open end of the glass envelope rests against
but their power consumption is so low that the glass bead.
they can last hundreds of hours on a set of
conventional batteries, as compared to a few The structure is placed inside a vacuum
dozen hours for incandescent bulbs. chamber and heat is applied to seal the
glass envelope to the glass bead. The heat
causes the glass to soften, and may cause the
The Manufacturing filament to be displaced to one side. There-
Process fore, care must be taken to ensure the fila-
ment is properly aligned or the bulb will not
Plastic housing project a beam of light in the right direction.
The plastic components used in flashlight
construction are typically injection mold- Other possible light sources include fluores-
ed using polystyrene and other durable poly- cent bulbs, which are often used in camping
mers. In this process, plastic pellets are lanterns. These bulbs emit light due to the
mixed with plasticizing agents and col- excitation of gas molecules inside the bulb.
orants. This mixture is liquefied by heating LEDs, or light emitting diodes, are used in
and then injected into appropriately shaped some specialty lights; these emit light when
molds via an injection plunger. The mold is exposed to extremely low levels of electric
then subjected to high pressure to assure that current. The bulb is often fitted in front of a
the molds are completely filled, and to hold polished aluminum reflector that helps to
the molds together against force of injected focus the light during operation.
liquid plastics. The end closures are also
molded, where usually both internal and ex- Switch and controls
ternal threads are molded. Pressures as high
as 2,500 tons may be used for high-speed or 5The electronic circuitry of a flashlight
multiple-cavity production molders. _varies depending on its design. Simple
lights rely on an off/on switch to make the
After the injection process, the molten connection between the wires connecting
Lplastic is cooled by forcing water the battery terminals to the wires extending
through channels in the mold. The plastic from the base of the bulb. This type of
hardens as it cools and the pressure is re- switch is most commonly a slide type that
leased. At this point, the two halves of the moves up or down to make the proper con-
mold are separated and the plastic part can nection. The switch assembly is more com-
be removed for finishing. The plastic poly- plicated in the more sophisticated lights.
mers used in this process are thermoplastic, One United States patent describes a flexi-
meaning they can be repeatedly melted so ble metal strip that is depressed to create a
the scrap pieces can be reworked to make contact between the wires.
additional parts. Therefore, there is very lit-
tle wasted plastic in this process. Subse- Assembly
quent operations may be required to polish,
cut, and finish the plastic parts. hDepending on the design and the manu-
Jfacturers capability, units may be assem-
bled on an automated conveyor line or by
Light source hand. Some models, particularly those using
) Incandescent bulbs are the most common small watch batteries, have the battery in-
3light source used in flashlights. These serted during assembly. Otherwise, the unit
consist of a metal filament sealed in a glass may be assembled without the batteries that
bulb. When the filament is exposed to an are inserted later by the consumer. This op-
electric current the resistance of the wire eration involves screwing the lamp assem-
causes it to heat up and emit light in the visi- bly onto the threads on the casing.
1 77
A flashlight.
Packaging by flashlight manufacturers include Factory
Mutual Research Corporation, Underwriters
7Assembled units may be placed in some Laboratories, and Demko.
7form of outer packaging, such as a clear
plastic blister pack or clam shell. The plastic
shell may then be attached to a cardboard Hazardous environment
display card or packed in a box prior to
shipping. Any flashlight that will be used in a haz-
ardous environment or confined space must
be properly tested to ascertain that it meets
Quality Control or exceeds all applicable safety standards
for those locations. Hazardous Locations are
Completed flashlights undergo a series of defined by the National Electric Code and
quality control tests to ensure they function include the following classifications. Class I
properly. First, the bulb must be checked to locations are areas where flammable gases
ensure it is properly aligned with the reflec- may be present in sufficient quantities to
tor; if it is misaligned performance may suf- produce explosive or flammable mixtures.
fer. Second, the switch assembly is evaluat- Class II locations can be described as haz-
ed to determine if it makes proper contact ardous because of the presence of com-
with the electrical leads. Third, the seal on bustible dust. Class III locations contain
the battery compartment must be checked to easily ignitable fibers and filings. Hazardous
determine if moisture will not inadvertently atmospheres are further defined by
enter the battery compartment. This seal "groups." These include atmospheres con-
must allow venting of gasses that may be taining acetylene, hydrogen, or gases or va-
formed during battery operation. pors of equivalent hazard, such as ethyl-
ether vapors, ethylene, cyclo-propane,
The bulb itself must meet separate quality gasoline, hexane, naptha, benzene, butane,
standards. Generally, Division 2-approved propane, alcohol, acetone, benzol, lacquer
flashlights are temperature-rated as TI to solvent vapors, or natural gas. Metal dust,
T6, where Tl is a temperatures less than, or including aluminum, magnesium, and their
equal to, 842°F (450°C) and T6 is less than, commercial alloys, may also create haz-
or equal to, 185°F (85°C). Testing labs used ardous atmospheres. Environments contain-
1 78
Flashlight
ing carbon black, coal or coke dust, flour, Other improvements in flashlights include
starch, or grain dusts, are classified by the tougher polymers for improved durability
Code. Flashlights designed for use in these and smarter computer technology that will
environments are individually tested before allow automatic shut off mechanisms to
leaving the factory. conserve battery life. Finally, increasingly
sophisticated molding techniques will allow
the creation of novelty flashlights in a wider
The Future variety of shapes and colors.
Manufacturers continue to improve upon the
design of their flashlights. New models with Where to Learn More
improved power sources are becoming in- Books
creasingly popular. For example, the power
plant of a new self-powered flashlight is the Ahmstead, B.H. Manufacturing Processes.
revolutionary Freeplay Generator, which is New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977.
a unique and patented mechanism that stores
kinetic energy in a carbon steel spring as Other
the user turns a winding handle. This energy "Inventors." http:/finventors.about.com (Jan-
is released as electrical energy when the uary 2001).
light is turned on, thus powering the light
without any other external power source. -Randy Schueller
1 79
Footbag
By 1995, several million Background Other footbag-like games are still part of
Asian culture. In Malaysia, the national
footbags were sold every Footbags are small, soft pliable bags filled sport is sepak takraw. It is played with plas-
with pellets or other small solid objects. tic or bamboo ball that is light and hollow.
year. Also known as Hacky Sacks-the brand Similar sports are played in Philippines,
name for certain footbags-they are a little
Myanmar, and Singapore.
bigger than a golf ball, a few inches in diam-
eter and an ounce or so in weight. Footbags The history of the footbag in the United
come in two varieties: a crocheted version States began in the early 1970s. Mike Mar-
and paneled kind made of one of several shall had taken a trip to Asia and seen one of
kinds of leather or artificial materials. the footbag-like games there. In 1972, Mar-
shall met John Stalberger Jr., a former foot-
The modem footbag was developed as a re- ball player recovering from a knee injury
habilitation tool in the 1970s. They were who was looking for a rehabilitation exer-
soon marketed as sporting toys and became
cise. They came up with the footbag. This
popular on a large scale. To play with the early version was a small sock stuffed with
footbag, it is bounced or kicked with the dried corn and tied. Stalberger and Marshall
foot or other parts of the leg with the goal of tested out several versions of the bag, a few
keeping it off the ground. Leather court of which were beanbag-like, and experi-
shoes specially laced are the preferred shoes mented with various ways to use it.
for using footbags. Shoes are an important
part of using footbags so that optimal con- Stalberger dubbed the small bag a Hacky
trol is maintained. Sack because when he and Marshall would
play with the bag, they said they were going
Footbags are now the center of several to "hack the sack." Despite Marshall's death
games (including net sack), and organized in the mid-1970s, Stalberger continued to
international competitions are held regular- market the footbag to schools and sports
ly. Soccer players also use footbags to train stores in his local (Portland, Oregon) area.
for their sport. Receiving an enthusiastic response, Stalberg-
er patented the Hacky Sack in 1979. (He sold
History the rights to the name to Wham-O! in 1983.)
The footbag originated in Asia during the Early footbags were made of a heavy cordu-
dynastic era in ancient China. Imperial ra-like fabric, though cowhide leather soon
guards stayed alert during their overnight dominated the market. The leather was used
assignments by kicking about a small round to make panels that were sewn together, not
object stuffed with hair. A similar object unlike a soccer ball. In 1981, crocheted foot-
was used to train Chinese soldiers in 2600 bags (called granny sacks, because they
B.c. About 2,000 years ago in Asia, a game were handsewn, allegedly by grandmothers)
called shuttlecock began to be played. At its were introduced. Crocheted footbags were
center was a disc with feathers on it that was seen as an improvement on the leather foot-
kicked between players. Shuttlecock is still bags, which were hard to break in. Cro-
played in parts of that continent. cheted footbags were already soft.
1 80
Footbag
Over the course of the 1980s and 1990s, ar- keep the bag going as long as possible. A
tificial materials began to be used more world record in pairs set in 1995 had two
often than leather. Ultrasuede does not re- people completing 123,456 kicks in 19
quire the same kind of break-in period that hours, 19 minutes, and 20 seconds.
leather footbags do. Paneled footbags be-
came made of vinyl, pigskin, water buffalo Some footbag games are individual while
skin, snake skin, kangaroo skin, and various others involve teams. Net-sack was invent-
artificial materials. ed by Stalberger in the late 1970s. It is es-
sentially volleyball with a footbag. Played
While the crocheted type of footbag are on a badminton-sized court with a 5 ft
popular among some footbaggers, others (15.2 m) high net, net-sack features singles
believe that paneled footbags are better and and doubles brackets and is scored like
last longer. Different footbags have differ- volleyball. Footbag golf is played and
ent characteristics, especially concerning scored like golf on a course with holes and
bounce. Both types of footbags are usually obstacles.
filled with plastic pellets, but have been
filled with other materials like cherry pits.
In 1995, sand-filled footbags were intro-
Design
duced, and soon became popular among Crocheted footbags have designs woven into
freestyle enthusiasts because they are con- them, including stripes, names and symbols.
ducive to certain tricks. By 1995, several The patterns are set before production.
million footbags were sold every year.
While some paneled footbags have brand
names or logos silk-screened to them, the
Footbag games primary design process concerns how the
Footbags became a popular fad in North panels are shaped, colored, and placed,
America by the early 1980s. A million foot- and the number of panels. The panels can
bags were sold by 1983. Though interest in be shaped like squares, triangles, oc-
footbags was concentrated in the United tagons, circles, and pears. Colors are lim-
States, it soon became a worldwide phe- itless. There is even a footbag made with a
nomenon. Though faddish interest in foot- glow-in-the-dark exterior. Early paneled
bags faded, a core constituency has re- footbags were sometimes made of only
mained. Those who use footbags value how two panels, but more panels have become
it increases agility, endurance, coordination, more common. Eight to 14-paneled foot-
balance, and concentration. Others enjoy bags are very popular on the retail level.
footbags because they are not competitive in Footbags made of 32 panels also have a
the same way most sports are: users have to large following among accomplished foot-
cooperate with others to keep the footbag baggers. The more panels, the rounder the
off the ground. footbag.
One way that footbags are used are in hack Raw Materials
circles. The footbag is passed around a cir-
cle via foot, using one of the five basic kicks Crocheted footbags are often made of dou-
(the inside kick, knee kick, toe kick, outside ble stranded heavy duty rayon. Most pan-
kick, or back kick). Circles can be com- eled footbags are made of ultrasuede,
prised of as few as two and as many as 25 or though they can also be made of split-
more players, and is often played on college grain cowhide, vinyl, pigskin, water buffa-
campuses. Hack circles evolved into footbag lo skin, snake skin, kangaroo skin, facile,
freestyle. Footbaggers show off tricks like multifuzz polymer suede, or other artificial
toe- stalls and clippers, linked together in materials. Paneled footbags are sewn with
routines, while keeping the footbag off the a tough, durable synthetic thread, not un-
ground. Competitors are judged on difficul- like dental floss. Faceted styrene plastic
ty of routines as well as artistic merit. beads the size of the BBs are most often
used to stuff footbags. Sometimes foot-
Freestyle is just one event in footbag com- bags are filled with plastic regrind pellets,
petitions. Another is Footbag Consecutive, plastic polyresin filler pellets, small rocks,
played in singles or pairs. The object is to com, or sand.
1 8 1
Examples of crocheted and pan-

eled footbags.
The Manufacturing other filling material) is measured and in-

Process serted by hand through the space created by
the loose stitches.
Crocheted footbags
5The final stitches are completed with an
1 Rayon is hand crocheted according to a interior knot.
pattern with a certain number of stitches.
A hole is left on top. 6 Depending on the manufacturer, the fin-
6ished product is packaged for retail sale,
2 The faceted styrene plastic beads are then boxed for shipping. Smaller manufac-
measured by volume, sometimes in a turers pack the footbags as is for shipping.
plastic jig. They are put in the footbag
through the hole by hand.
Qucality Control
3 After the bag is filled, the whole on top Crocheted footbags are dimension tested for
is crocheted closed. It takes about 20 size and tight crocheting. The beads must be
minutes to one hour to finish one bag. the same size and right fill weight. Any re-
jected crocheted footbags are unraveled and
Paneled Footbags redone.
1 To create the panels, bolts of ultrasuede
Panel footbags are often sample checked at
(or other fabric or leather) are loaded on
the end of the manufacturing process for the
to a machine with an automated, repetitive
correct stitching, weight, and size.
punch and die mechanism. The punch is
lowered through the fabric to create the
shaped panels. This process is often guided Byproducts/Waste
and supervised by a worker.
There are no byproducts in the crocheted
2 Some of the panels are set aside and a footbag process. Extraneous materials are
logo or other stamp is silk-screened to reused.
them. This silk-screen process is done by
hand. Scraps from the panel creation process are
thrown away, but the waste is minimal.
3 The panels are assembled for sewing by
hand. They are sewed inside out, leaving The Future
the final four or five stitches loose. (While
most panels are sewn by hand, a few compa- Paneled footbags will be improved as more
nies sew paneled footbags on machine, es- new fabric materials are put on the market.
pecially those that will be filled with sand.) More durable, washable ultrasuedes and
other fabrics will mean better, longer- last-
4The footbag is turned inside out. About ing footbags. New designs will also be con-
1.1-1.8 oz (32-50 g) of plastic pellets (or tinually introduced. Different fillers for both
1 82
Footbag
crocheted and paneled footbags are regular- Colton, Michael. "The Goodwill Game." Los
ly developed. Angeles Times (September 18, 1995): El.
Najarian, Ara. "Kicking It: For Simple Fun
Where to Learn More With Your Feet, Footbag is a Sport with
Sole." Los Angeles Times (Orange County
Books Edition) (May 28, 1999): 28.
Cassidy, John. The Hacky-Sack Book. Palo
Alto: Klutz Press, 1982. Other
World Footbag Association (1998). http://
Periodicals www.worldfootbag.com (December 27,
Berg, Scott. "Footbag: Kickin' Up a Storm." 2000).
Washington Post (August 6, 1999): N63. -Annette Petruso
1 83
Geodesic Dome
One of the most Background History
recognizable geodesic A geodesic sphere is an arrangement of In 1919, seeking a way to build a larger
polygons that approximates a true sphere. A planetarium, German engineer Walter
domes is the 165-ft (48-m) geodesic dome is a portion of a geodesic Bauersfeld decided to mount movable pro-
diameter sphere at Walt sphere. Buildings or roofs have been con- jectors within a stationary dome. Until that
structed out of geodesic domes that range time, planetarium domes rotated while ex-
Disney World's Epcot from 5-100% of a sphere. Domes used for ternal light entered through holes on the
houses are usually arrays of triangles that dome shell to simulate stars and planets.
Center. form three- or five-eighths of a geodesic This limited the practical size of the dome
sphere. and the number of people it could hold.
Bauersfeld's concept of interior projection
Geodesic domes are efficient structures in would work in a much larger dome. The
several ways. The triangle is a very stable first model constructed was more than half
shape; for example, a force applied to the of a sphere; 52 ft (16 m) in diameter.
corner of a rectangle can deform it into a Bauersfeld solved the problem of how to
parallelogram, but the same force will not construct such a large sphere by approxi-
deform a triangle. This makes geodesic mating it with an icosahedron (20-sided
dome buildings highly resistant to such solid with equal triangular faces) and subdi-
forces as snow coverings, earthquakes, viding each face into smaller triangles. He
wind, and even tornadoes. The surface area framed the triangles from nearly 3,500 thin
of a geodesic dome is only 38% of the sur- iron rods. To construct a spherical shell over
face area of a box-shaped building enclosing this framework, he erected a sphefical
the same floor space. There is less surface wooden form inside the frame and sprayed
exposed to outdoor temperature fluctua- on a pasty concrete mixture. The shell was
tions, making the building cheaper to heat designed to be the same proportional thick-
and cool than a rectilinear structure. Geo- ness as that of an eggshell compared to its
desic domes can be constructed quickly diameter, a ratio later considered appropri-
without heavy equipment. Using prefabri- ate for geodesic domes.
cated components, it takes just a few people
to erect the dome for a 2,000-sq ft (185-sq Thirty years later, R. Buckminster Fuller, an
m) home in 10 hours or less. American architect, engineer, poet, and
philosopher, independently invented a simi-
A geometric dome supports itself without lar structural system. Following World War
needing internal columns or interior load- II, Fuller wanted to design affordable, effi-
bearing walls. This property makes such cient housing that could be built quickly
structures appealing for use as churches, from mass-produced components. Willing
sports arenas, and exhibition halls. The aes- to look outside of conventional approaches,
thetic appeal of lofty ceilings makes them at- Fuller began to work with spherical shapes
tractive as homes, and full or partial second- because they enclose a given space with a
story floors are easily suspended halfway up minimum of surface area. He first framed
the enclosure without any support other than spheres with a network of strips approximat-
attachment to the dome itself. ing great circles (circles on a sphere with
1 84
Geodesic Dome
centers that coincide with the sphere's cen- marily from kits. However, Newsday report-
ter); the strips formed triangles as they ed in 1992 that the majority of geodesic
crossed one another. He called the product a dome structures have been built for green-
geodesic dome because great circles are houses, storage sheds, defense shelters, and
known as geodesics (from a Greek word tourist attractions. One of the most recog-
meaning earth dividing). Eventually, Fuller nizable of these is the 165-ft (48-m) diame-
began forming spheres from hexagons and ter sphere at Walt Disney World's Epcot
pentagons (like the panels on a soccer ball) Center. Built of composite panels of ethyl-
and dividing them into triangles for strength ene plastic and aluminum in 1982, the struc-
and ease of construction. ture houses a ride called Spaceship Earth, a
termed coined by Fuller himself.
In 1953, Fuller used his new system to cover
the 93-ft (28-m) diameter courtyard sur-
rounded by Ford Motor Company's head- Rawv Materials
quarters building. The building was not de- Geodesic domes range in size from the 460-ft
signed to support the great weight of a (143-m) Poliedro de Caracas sports arena in
traditional dome, but Fuller's creation Venezuela to temporary shelters that are 15 ft
weighed 95% less. He completed the design (5 m) or less in diameter. Consequently, con-
and construction in only three months. A struction materials vary widely. Simple,
temporary mast erected in the center of the movable structures may be built of polyvinyl
courtyard supported the dome during con- chloride (PVC) pipe or galvanized steel con-
struction, and the structure was incremental- duit frames covered with plastic sheeting or
ly raised and rotated following completion parachute canopies. Large, permanent struc-
of each new section. The frame consisted of tures like arenas and factories have been built
12,000 aluminum struts weighing a total of from materials like aluminum and steel frame
3,750 lb (1,700 kg) that were connected to struts covered with aluminum, copper, struc-
form triangles and then lifted into position tural gypsum, acrylic, or Plexiglas panels.
and riveted to the growing frame. When the
dome was completed, it was gently lowered Most residential dome kit manufacturers use
onto mounts that had been installed on the wood components, primarily kiln-dried Dou-
existing building. A clear fiberglass panel glas fir struts covered with 0.5-in (1.3-cm)
was installed in each triangle to complete exterior- or structural-grade plywood. Such
the dome. kits include various designs of connectors to
securely fasten the wood struts together in
In 1954, Fuller received a patent on geodes- the proper configuration; high-strength alu-
ic domes. During the 1960s and 1970s, an minum, or steel coated with zinc, epoxy, or
era in which unconventionality was prized, industrial primer are commonly used for
geometric domes became popular as an in- connectors. Zinc-plated steel bolts secure the
expensive way for environmentally con- connectors and paneling is nailed on.
scious people to build their own homes. In-
structions were widely available, but the A few kit manufacturers use altemative ma-
quality of materials (including such strange terials to make prefabricated panels that
choices as paper mache and discarded tin combine the frame and exterior covering.
cans) and the skill of do-it-yourself builders One, for example, makes molded fiberglass
were inconsistent. Amateur-built domes panels. Another supplies reinforced concrete
tended to leak when it rained, insufficient panels; steel mesh extending from the panel
use of insulation limited their energy effi- edges is overlapped with mesh from the ad-
ciency, and inadequate numbers of skylights joining panel, and the joint is sealed with
left interiors dreary. concrete.
Fuller predicted that a million geodesic Most dome kits are built atop concrete foun-
domes would be built by the mid-1980s, but dation slabs. Often, these slabs are recessed
by the early 1990s, estimates placed the into the ground to provide a basement level.
worldwide number somewhere between Foundation walls and riser walls (vertical
50,000 and 300,000. A small but persistent walls below the dome that may be used to
contingent of unconventional homebuilders raise its overall height) are usually made of
continue to build geodesic dome homes, pri- concrete or wood. Interior insulation general-
1 85
Building a geodesic dome.
1 86
Geodesic Dome
ly consists of fiberglass batting or sprayed-on part of the kit) are installed atop the founda-
urethane, cellulose, or Icynene plastic foam. tion walls and bolted to one another.
4 Floor joists are installed by standing
Design wooden 2x12 (1.5x 1.5 in [3.8x29.2])
Although dome homes are built from manu- boards 16 in (40 cm) apart above the foun-
factured kits, designs are flexible. As many dation. The joists are nailed to a perimeter
as half of the triangles in the dome's lowest wooden frame and a wooden crossbeam.
row can be removed without weakening the Three-quarter-inch (1.9-cm) thick plywood
structure, so door and window openings can sheets are laid across the joists and nailed in
be plentiful. Vertical-walled extensions can place.
be built out from such openings to increase
the floor space. The dome can sit directly on The superstructure
ground-level footings (short walls recessed The superstructure typically consists of 60
into the ground to bear the building's triangular panels. Depending on the desired
weight), or it can be erected atop a riser wall size of the dome, the panels are usually 6-10
up to 8 ft (2.5 m) tall. ft (1.8-3 m) on a side. They may be prefabri-
cated with the exterior panels installed, or
Space must be provided between the interior they may constructed on site from precut
and exterior walls to accommodate insula- lumber and metal connectors.
tion. Some manufacturers create this space
by making the struts from wood that is 4-8 If dome panels were supplied with the kit,
in (10-20 cm) thick. Others make this space they are set atop the foundation or riser
14.5-21 in (37-53 cm) thick by using com- walls and connected to one another in a se-
pound struts consisting of two strips of lum- quence prescribed by the manufacturer.
ber joined with plywood gussets. Until enough panels are connected to sup-
port themselves, they must be braced with
The Manufacturing poles radiating out from a block in the cen-
Process ter of the floor. The following steps describe
the more common case of frame erection
The following is a composite of techniques followed by exterior panel installation:
used by several individuals using kits from
various manufacturers. 5 Base plates are installed atop the founda-
tion or riser walls. These precisely
The substructure beveled 4x6-in (lOx 15-cm) wood strips pro-
vide a transition between the horizontal top
1 After clearing and leveling the home site, edge of the walls and the slightly tilted trian-
a trench is dug for the foundation footing, gles of the dome's bottom strip of panels.
following detailed drawings supplied by the
kit manufacturer. The base of the dome is 6 Matching the color coding on the kit's
not circular; rather, it is outlined by five 6wooden struts and metal connectors, a
short walls alternating with five long walls triangle is formed and secured with bolts.
(twice the length of the short walls). Forms The triangle is lifted into position and bolted
are placed for the footings; many builders to the wall and/or to the adjacent triangles.
like to use permanent Styrofoam forms that Successive rows of triangular elements are
need not be removed. Concrete is then placed until the dome is completely formed.
poured in the footing forms. Because of their light weight, the triangles
do not need supplementary bracing to hold
2 A layer of sand may be used to further them in place during construction.
level the surface and provide a base for
the foundation slab. Reinforcing steel bars 7Wooden studs are nailed inside each tri-
are tied together in a grid, and concrete is 7angle. Running perpendicular to one side
poured to form the foundation. of the triangle, they are placed about 16 in
(40 cm) apart. If an odd number of studs is
3 Foundation walls are built atop the foot- used, the center one is secured against a per-
3ings, up to approximately ground level. pendicular block near the triangle's vertex,
If desired, riser walls (which are provided as rather than extending to the vertex.
1 87
open framework below while attaching

each panel.
9Vertical walls and roofs are framed for
any desired extensions that will project
outward from the dome. Plywood panels are
nailed to the exterior faces of the extensions.
Dormer extensions can also be erected for
second-story windows.
Finishing
l O Windows, skylights, and exterior
doors are installed.
l The roof is covered with rubber sheet-
ing, and conventional roofing material
(such as shingles or tiles) is applied.
12 Conventional siding material (such as
stucco or vinyl siding) is applied to
the exterior of the riser walls.
13 Insulation is placed between the struts
and studs inside the dome and exten-
sion walls.
1 Walls are framed to divide the interior
lAinto rooms. Conventional drywall
sheets are cut according to patterns included
in the kit, and they are nailed to the interior
walls and the inside surfaces of the dome
and riser walls. Because of the many angles
between triangular sections of the dome,
amateur builders often hire a professional to
tape the drywall joints.
Quality Control
A quality geodesic dome structure is airtight
and structurally sound. These are the factors
that lower energy costs, the main considera-
tion when building a geodesic home. Be-
cause the structure is basically airtight, con-
densation can sometimes be a problem.
Normally it is controlled by the heating and
cooling system but when the house has been
closed up for a few days, moisture can build
up. This is easily solved by turning the air
system on or opening a door or window.
The Future
8 Matching color-coded edges, the ply- Future refinements in geodesic dome con-
Uwood panels are lifted into position on struction may come from improved building
the exterior of each triangle and nailed into materials. For example, in 1997 a concrete
place. By working downward from the top block manufacturer developed a hollow,
of the dome, the worker can stand on the beveled, triangular block with scored edges
1 88
Geodesic Dome
that could interlock with adjacent blocks. Horton, Ted. "The Dome." Mother Earth
Properly shaped, such blocks could be used News (June/July 1999): 64.
to construct domes.
Sieden, Lloyd Steven. "The Birth of the Geo-
Another innovation involves designing desic Dome: How Bucky Did It." The Futur-
domes based on a different mathematical ist (November/December 1989): 14+. http://
premise. In a true geodesic dome, the edges www.Isi.usp.br/usp/rod/bucky/geodesic-
of the triangular elements align to form domes.txt. (January 6, 2000).
great circles. Although not geodesic, a new
design patented in 1989 uses hexagons and Other
pentagons to form domes with an elliptical
cross section. Because of its mathematical "An Introduction to Geodesic Domes." http://
derivation, this design is called geotangent. Owww.dnaco.net/-michael/domes/intro.htm
1 (December 2, 1999).
Although geodesic domes maximize strength
while minimizing construction materials, el- "Design and Construction of Alpine Dome
liptical-profile domes offer two different ad- Homes." Alpine Domes. http://www.free
vantages. They can cover a circular area yellow.com/alpinedomes (January 6, 2000).
without rising as high as a spherical dome.
And they can cover elongated or irregularly "Home Sweet Dome." http://future.news
shaped areas that vary in elevation. Located day.com (January 6, 2000).
in northern Mexico, the world's largest in-
Timberline Geodesics. http://www.dome-
dustrial domes are a pair of manufacturing home.com (April 4, 2000).
buildings covered with elliptical roofs 735 ft
(224 m) long and 260 ft (80 m) wide. -Loretta Hall
Where to Learn More

Periodicals
DiChristina, Mariette. "Elliptical Dome."
Popular Science (January 1990): 74.
1 89
Gyroscope
The gyroscope is not just Background a high speed, and its mass must be concen-
trated toward the rim of the wheel.
a toy, but a part of many The gyroscope is a familiar toy that is de-
ceptively simple in appearance and intro-
scientific and duces children to several mechanical princi- History
transportation-related ples, although they may not realize it.
Something like a complex top made of pre- The gyroscope is a popular children's toy,
so it is no surprise that its ancestor is the
instruments. cisely machined metal, the gyroscope is a
spinning wheel that may be set within two spinning top, one of the world's oldest toys.
or more circular frames, each oriented along A single-frame gyroscope is sometimes
a different line or axis. The framework can called a gyrotop; conversely, a top is a
be tilted at any angle, and the wheel-as frameless gyroscope. In the sixteenth
long as it is spinning-will maintain its po- through eighteenth centuries, scientists in-
sition, or attitude. cluding Galileo (1564-1642), Christiaan
Huygens (1629-1695), and Sir Isaac New-
But the gyroscope is not just a toy. It is a ton (1642-1727) used toy tops to understand
part of many scientific and transportation- rotation and the laws of physics that explain
related instruments. These include compass- it. In France during the 1800s, the scientist
es, the mechanisms that steer torpedoes to- Jean-Bernard-Leon Foucault (1819-1868)
ward their targets, the equipment that keeps studied experimental physics and proved
large ships such as aircraft carriers from Earth's rotation and explained its effect on
rolling on the waves, automatic pilots on the behavior of objects traveling on Earth's
airplanes and ships, and the systems that surface. In the 1850s, Foucault studied the
guide missiles and spacecraft relative to motions of a rotor mounted in a gimbal
Earth (that is, inertial guidance systems). frame and proved that the spinning wheel
holds its original position, or orientation, in
The gyroscope consists of a central wheel or space despite Earth's rotation. Foucault
rotor that is mounted in a framework of named the rotor and gimbals the gyroscope
rings. The rings are properly called gimbals, from the Greek words gyros and skopien
or gimbal rings. Gimbals are devices that meaning "rotation" and "to view."
support a wheel or other structure but allow
it to move freely. The rings themselves are It was not until the early 1900s that inven-
supported on a spindle or axis at one end tors found a use for the gyroscope. Hermann
that, in turn, can be mounted on a base or in- Anschiutz-Kaempfe, a German engineer and
side an instrument. The property of the rotor inventor, recognized that the stable orienta-
axle to point toward its original orientation tion of the gyroscope could be used in a gy-
in space is called gyroscopic inertia; inertia rocompass. He developed the gyrocompass
is simply the property of a moving object to for use in a submersible for undersea explo-
keep moving until it is stopped. Friction ration where normal navigation and orienta-
against the air eventually slows the gyro- tion systems are impractical. In 1906, Otto
scope's wheel, so its momentum erodes Schlick tested a gyroscope equipped with a
away. The axle then begins to wobble. To rapidly spinning rotor in the German torpe-
maintain its inertia, a gyroscope must spin at do boat See-bar. The sea caused the torpedo
1 90
Gyroscope
boat to roll 150 to each side, or 300 total; Rawv Mcaterials
when his gyroscope was operated at full
speed, the boat rolled less than 1 total. The materials used to manufacture a gyro-
scope can range from relatively simple to
In the United States, Elmer Ambrose Sperry highly complex depending on the design and
(1860-1930)-an inventor noted for his purpose of the gyroscope. Some are made
achievements in developing electrical loco- more precisely than the finest watch. They
motives and machinery transmissions-intro- may spin on tiny ball bearings, polished
duced a gyrocompass that was installed on flecks of precious gemstones, or thin films of
the U.S. battleship Delaware in 1911. In air or gas. Some operate entirely in a vacuum
1909, he had developed the first automatic suspended by an electrical current so they
pilot, which uses the gyroscope's sense of di- touch nothing and no friction develops.
rection to maintain the course of an airplane.
The Anschiutz Company installed the first au- A gyroscope with an electrically powered
motor and metal gimbals has four basic sets
tomatic pilot-based on a three-frame gyro-
scope-in a Danish passenger ship in 1916. of components. These are the motor, the
In that year, the artificial horizon for aircraft electrical components, electronic circuit
was designed as well. The artificial horizon cards for programmed operation, and the
tells the pilot how the airplane is rolling axle and gimbal rings. Most manufacturers
(moving side to side) or pitching (moving purchase motors and electrical and electronic
components from subcontractors. These may
front to rear) when the visible horizon van-
ishes in the clouds or other conditions. be stock items, or they may be manufactured
to a set of specifications provided to the sup-
Roll-reduction was needed for ships, too. plier by the gyroscope maker. Typically, gy-
The Sperry Company had introduced a gyroscope manufacturers machine their own
rostabilizer that used a two-frame gyroscope gimbals and axles. Aluminum is a preferred
in 1915. The roll of a ship on the ocean metal because of its expansion and strength
makes passengers seasick, causes cargo to characteristics, but more sophisticated gyro-
shift and suffer damage, and induces stress- scopes are made of titanium. Metal is pur-
es in the ship's hull. Sperry's gyrostabilizer chased in bulk as bar stock and machined.
was heavy, expensive, and occupied a lot of
space on a ship. It was made obsolete in Design
1925 when the Japanese devised an under-
water fin for stabilizing ships. Using the electrical and mechanical aspects
of gyroscopic theory as their guides, engi-
During the intense development of missile neers choose a wheel design for the gimbals
systems and flying bombs before and during and select metal stock appropriate for the
World War II, two-frame gyroscopes were design. The designs for many uses of gyro-
paired with three-frame instruments to cor- scopes are fairly standard; that is, redesign
rect roll and pitch motions and to provide or design of a new line is a matter of adapt-
automatic steering, respectively. The Ger- ing an existing design to a new use rather
mans used this combination on the V- 1 fly- than creating a new product from the most
ing bomb, the V-2 rocket, and a pilotless air- basic beginning. Design does, however, in-
plane. The V-2 is considered an early volve observing the most fundamental engi-
ballistic missile. Orbiting spacecraft use a neering practices. Tolerances, clearances,
small, gyroscope-stabilized platform for and electronic applications are very precise.
their navigation systems. This characteristic For example, design of the gimbal wheels
of gyroscopes to remain stable and define and design of the machining for them has a
direction to a very high degree of accuracy very small tolerance for error; the cross sec-
has been applied to gunsights, bombsights, tion of a gimbal must be uniform throughout
and the shipboard platforms that support or the gyroscope will be out of balance.
guns and radar. Many of these mechanisms
were greatly improved during World War II,
and the inertial navigation systems that use
The Manufacturing
gyroscopes for spacecraft were invented and Process
perfected in the 1950s as space exploration The gimbals and gimbal frames are ma-
became increasingly important. chined from aluminum bar stock using
1 91
An example of a gyroscope. calibration are hand checked; manufacturers

have found that, for even calibration, human
observation, testing, and correction are more
trustworthy than automated methods.
The gyroscope is an elegant example of an
application of simple principles of physics.
Because it is simple, manufacturers closely
guard any proprietary techniques. Because
the gyroscope is a simple device with wide-
ranging uses, some require more manufactur-
ing processes. The manufacturing steps de-
scribed above take about 10 hours and result
in a free gyroscope for an application such as
missile guidance. A more exotic gyroscope
may require 40 hours of assembly time.
Quality Control
Quality control is essential throughout the
design and assembly processes in manufac-
turing gyroscopes because the instruments
are part of manned aircraft, unmanned mis-
siles, and other transportation and weapons
devices that could cause catastrophes if they
fail. Engineers, scientists, and designers are
tools developed as part of the design highly educated and trained before they are
process. They are polished and cleaned and hired and while on the job. Assembly-line
stored in bins until assembly. For assembly, workers must pass initial training to be
the bins are moved to appropriate locations hired, and they have regularly scheduled,
along the assembly line. ongoing training sessions. Many of the qual-
ity standards that must be met in gyroscope
2 Gyroscopes are manufactured in a straight- manufacture can be measured, so in-process
forward assembly line process that empha- inspection is performed throughout manu-
sizes the importance of "touch labor" over au- facture. Quality control at the highest level
tomation. Gyroscopes are assembled from the is performed by inspectors from outside the
inside out. The motor is the heart of the gyro- company and includes government inspec-
scope and is installed first. A "typical" gyro- tors. Customers also perform their own in-
scope motor is synchronized to spin at 24,000 spections and acceptance testing; if the man-
revolutions per minute (rpm). It must be per- ufacturer's product fails the customers'
fectly synchronized, and the motor is typically tests, the failed gyroscopes are returned.
bench-tested before assembly. Electrical con-
nections are added to the motor. Byproducts/Waste
3The gimbals and frames are assembled Gyroscope manufacturers do not produce
next, beginning with the inner gimbal byproducts, but they tend to make full lines
and ending with the outer gimbal frame. of gyroscopes for a wide variety of applica-
Bearings are put into place. The "end play" tions. They also do not produce much waste.
of the bearings (the looseness of fit) typical- Machining the gimbals and rings produces
ly has a very small tolerance of 0.0002- some aluminum chips, but these are collect-
0.0008 in (0.006-0.024 mm). ed and returned to the aluminum supplier for
recycling.
4The outermost electrical connections are
attached on the assembly line, and cir-
cuit cards are added. Finally, the gyroscope Safety Concerns
is calibrated at the end of the assembly Manufacturers observe the mandates of the
process. The suspension of the bearings and Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
1 92
Gyroscope
tion (OSHA) for light, ventilation, and er- Langone, John. National Geographic's
gonomics (comfortable seating and work How Things Work: Everyday Technology
benches that reduce the likelihood of repeti- Explained. Washington, DC: National Geo-
tive stress injuries). Humidity must be main- graphic Society, 1999.
tained in the plant to prevent electrostatic
discharge. Minor quantities of cleaning sol- Sparks, James C., Jr. Gyroscopes: What
vents are required, but citrus-based cleaners They Are and How They Work. New York:
that are benign (harmless) are used. E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1963.
Walton, Harry. The How and Why of Me-
The Future chanical Movements. New York: Popular
Uses for gyroscopes are increasing with the Science Publishing Company, E. P. Dutton
number of devices that require guidance and & Co., Inc., 1968.
control. Although the basics of the gyroscope
are grounded in the laws of physics and can
never change, the technology is evolving. Me- Periodicals
chanical and electrical methods for providing "A Gyroscope's Gravity-defying Feat." Sci-
the spinning mass that makes the gyroscope ence News 137, no. 1 (January 6, 1990): 15.
work are gradually being replaced by ring lasers
and microtechnology. Coils of thin optical Scott, David. "Optical-fiber Gyro." Popular
fibers hold the key to compact, lightweight gy- Science 230 (June 1987): 25.
roscopes that might have applications in navi-
gation systems for automobiles. The gyroscope
is such a simple but sophisticated instrument for Other
keeping so many tools in transportation, explo-
ration, and industry in balance that, seen or un- Gyroscopes as Propulsion Devices. http://
seen, it certainly has a place in the future. www.gyro-scope.co.uk (July 2000).
Gyroscope Study Guide. http://clubknow
Where to Learn More ledge.com/study/gyro.html(July 2000).
Books How a gyroscope works. http://www.accs.
Campbell, R. W. Tops and Gyroscopes. net/users/cefpearson/gyro.htm (July 2000).
New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company,
1959. -Gillian S. Holmes
1 93
Halogen Lamp
One hundred and eighty Background glass known as aluminosilicate. Since the
bulb is small and usually fairly strong due
novel halogen lamps were A halogen lamp is a type of incandescent to its thicker walls, it can be filled with
lamp. The conventional incandescent lamp gas to a higher than usual pressure. This
used in the Times Square contains a tungsten filament sealed within a slows down the evaporation of the tung-
Ball for New Year's Eve in glass envelope that is either evacuated or sten from the filament, increasing the life
filled with an inert gas or a mixture of these of the lamp.
1999. gases (typically nitrogen, argon and kryp-
ton). When electrical power is applied to the In addition, the small size of the bulb some-
filament, it becomes hot enough (generally times makes it economical to use heavier
over 3,600°F [2,000°C]) to become incan- premium fill gases such as krypton or
descent; in other words, the filament glows xenon-which help retard the rate of tung-
and emits light. During operation, the tungsten evaporation-instead of the cheaper
sten evaporating from the hot filament con- argon. The higher pressure and better fill
denses on the cooler inside bulb wall, caus- gases can extend the life of the bulb and/or
ing the bulb to blacken. This blackening permit a higher filament temperature that
process continuously reduces the light out- results in better efficiency. Any use of pre-
put over the life of the lamp. mium fill gases also results in less heat
being conducted from the filament by the
A halogen lamp comes with a few modifica- fill gas. This results in more energy leaving
tions to eliminate this blackening problem. the filament by radiation, slightly improv-
The bulb, made of fused quartz instead of ing the efficiency.
soda lime glass, is filled with the same inert
gases as incandescent lamps mixed with Halogen bulbs thus produce light that is
small amounts of a halogen gas (usually less whiter and brighter, use less energy, and last
than 1% bromine). The halogen chemically longer than standard incandescent bulbs of
reacts with the tungsten deposit to produce the same wattage. They can last from 2,000-
tungsten halides. When the tungsten halide 4,000 hours (about two to four years) com-
reaches the filament, the intense heat of the pared to conventional incandescent bulbs,
filament causes the halide to break down, which only operate for 750-1,500 hours or
releasing tungsten back to the filament. This three hours a day for about a year. However,
process-known as the tungsten-halogen halogen bulbs cost more.
cycle-maintains a constant light output
over the life of the lamp. Most halogen lamps range in power from
20-2,000 watts. Low voltage types range
In order for the halogen cycle to work, the from 4-150 watts. Some halogen lamps are
bulb surface must be very hot, generally also designed with a special infrared reflec-
over 482°F (250°C). The halogen may not tive coating on the outside of the bulb to en-
adequately vaporize or fail to adequately sure that the radiated heat, which otherwise
react with condensed tungsten if the bulb is wasted, is reflected back to the lamp fila-
is too cool. This means that the bulb needs ment. The filament bums hotter so less
to be smaller and made of either quartz or wattage is required. These lamps can last up
a high-strength, heat-resistant grade of to 4,000 hours.
1 94
Halogen Lamp
Although more efficient than other large in- due to a decline in the early 1990s, the total
candescent lamps, tungsten halogen lamps bulb market only grew to around $2.9 bil-
are inefficient relative to fluorescent and lion. The market reached nearly $4 billion in
high intensity discharge (HID) lamp types. 1994 but remained relatively flat for the
Halogen lamps can also pose a safety threat, next several years.
as the heat generated can range from 250-
900°F (121-482°C). In 1992, the United States passed the Na-
tional Energy Security Act, mandating the
use of advanced bulbs that were more effi-
History cient. The act sought to prevent the sale of
Oil lamps with glass chimneys were the pre- inefficient fluorescent light bulbs beginning
decessors to electric lamps. Gas lamps were in 1994 and other energy-inefficient bulbs
also common but had obvious disadvan- by 1995. It also banned several types of flu-
tages. In the early nineteenth century, a orescent light tubes, some incandescent re-
lamp using an electrically heated wire (plat- flector lamps, and various flood lamps. The
inum) was developed. More efficient lamps passing of this act also increased the price of
became possible as different filament mate- bulbs by 4-6%.
rials were used. In 1860, an English inventor This act, as well as declining profits, in-
by the name of Swan demonstrated a carbon spired lamp makers during the mid-1990s to
filament lamp. Both he and Thomas Edison offer lamps that could reduce energy con-
finally improved this lamp for practical use sumption, improve lighting, boost longevity,
around 1878. Edison installed the first suc- and minimize environmental impacts. Com-
cessful electric lighting system in 1880. pact fluorescent and halogen bulbs were two
Later, these carbon filaments were replaced types that offered growth. Thus, during the
1993-1998 period halogen shipments in-
with tantalum and then tungsten filaments,
which evaporate slower than carbon. After a creased nearly 15% per year. The overall
process for drawing tungsten wire was per-
United States market for lighting equipment
was over $10 billion in 1998.
fected, the first tungsten-filament lamps
were introduced in 1911. These were vacu- In mid-1997, the Consumer Products Safety
um lamps. In 1913, General Electric Corpo- Council coordinated a recall of halogen
ration introduced tungsten filament lamps torchieres for in-home repair due to the fire
using inert gas and coiled filaments. Six hazards caused by poor fixture design and hot
years later, the annual production of light bulbs. The purpose of this recall was to retro-
bulbs in the United States exceeded 200 mil- fit existing torchiere lamps with a protective
lion. Today, almost all electric incandescent wire bulb guard (lamps manufactured after
lamps are made with tungsten filaments. the recall already included these guards).
The tungsten-halogen cycle used in halogen Other types of light bulbs, including halogen,
lamps was first devised and tested 40 years have continued to improve over the years and
ago. Some of the first commercial halogen are being designed for special applications.
bulbs were introduced in 1959. Applications The latest advancement in halogen lamp
since then have included studio lighting, technology is the halogen infrared-reflecting
projection lamps and vehicular headlamps. (IR) lamp. These lamps can provide the same
The latter led to a different type of glass, light output (lumens) for much less power
called aluminosilicate, which was first intro- (watts) or conversely, substantially increased
duced in lamps during the early 1970s. The lumens for the same watts as standard halo-
lower softening or working temperature of gen lamps. Only 10-15% of the power used
these glasses allowed high speed automated in incandescent and halogen lamps produce
production of halogen lamps. visible light. The majority of the power is ra-
diated as heat (infrared energy).
A bulb industry emerged early in the twenti-
eth century, as electric power became avail- These new lamps have an infrared reflecting
able to the general public. By the early coating applied to the outside surface of the
1980s, around 70 United States companies lamp capsule which reflects much of the
were selling over $2 billion worth of bulbs wasted infrared energy back into the capsule
and tubes each year. Over the next decade, and onto the tungsten filament. This redi-
1 95
A graph showing the difference in Gases used during manufacture include

power between halogen and in- argon, nitrogen, krypton, xenon, bromine,
candescent light. hydrogen, oxygen, and natural or propane
E E
gas. Most of these gases are supplied in
tanks or cylinders, some in liquid form. Nat-
ural gas is piped in from the gas company.
0> Am Design
The electrical properties of the lamp are de-
termined by the filament wire dimensions
CE
and shape or geometry. The higher the oper-
ating voltage, the longer the wire must be.
For higher wattages, a thicker wire is re-
quired. The filament is wound into the shape
of a coil of different configurations, depend-
380 420 460 500 540 580 620 660 700 740 780 ing on the lamp application.
WAVELENGTH (Nanometers)
The most common configurations are
known as round core, flat core and double
filament. In special cases, other configura-
rected energy increases the filament temper- tions are used, either modulated (for maxi-
ature thus producing more light without any mum efficacy of light generation) and seg-
additional wattage. Today, these lamps are mented (for uniform distribution of light).
primarily used in large retail applications for Filaments are also oriented in two ways,
general illumination and accent or display axial or transverse. The orientation is al-
lighting. Recently, 180 novel halogen lamps ways axial in double-ended cylindrical
were used in the Times Square Ball for New lamps. In single-ended lamps the orientation
Year's Eve in 1999. A double-envelope de- is determined by the application.
sign makes heat distribution of these lamps
similar to that of incandescent lamps.
The Manufacturing
Ravv Materials Process
Depending on the type of halogen lamp, the Some lamp components are made at differ-
bulb material is either quartz (fused silica) ent locations and shipped to the factory
or aluminosilicate glass. Quartz glass has where the final assembly takes place. The
the appropriate temperature resistance for degree of manufacturing automation de-
the tungsten-halogen cycle, which produces pends on the lamp application, sales volume
bulb temperatures of up to 1,652°F (900°C). and selling price. The process for single-end
For lamps of low wattage up to about 120 quartz halogen lamps will be discussed.
watts, aluminosilicate glass can be used. Ei-
ther glass comes in the form of cylindrical Making the coil
tubes that are precut to the desired length or
cut to length by the lamp manufacturer. 1 Since a thin, straight wire has poor emis-
sion characteristics and it is difficult to fit
Tungsten is used for the incandescent fila- into the lamp bulb, the wire is wound into
ment. The tungsten is received in the shape the shape of a coil using automated machines
of wire that is fabricated using a doping that resemble high speed bobbins. To make a
(adding tiny amounts of other materials) and round-core filament, each tum is spirally laid
heat treatment process. The dopants produce adjacent to the next one on a cylindrical rod.
the ductility needed for processing the tung- A rectangular rod is used for a flat-core fila-
sten into coils and help prevent distortion ment. For a double filament, the wire is first
during operation. Molybdenum-used for wound into a very fine primary coil, and this
sealing-is received in the form of foil and is then wound once more around a second,
wire on spools. Bases made of ceramic, thicker core. A large amount of wire can thus
glass, or metal are prefabricated. fit into a very small space.
1 96
Halogen Lamp
I
* 1.~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-.".J~~~~~~~~ % . . ...~~~~~-
,
, - - O - O
A halogen bulb is made of fused

Forming the bulb ers to soften the quartz. Stainless steel press quartz and filled with the same
pads, operating at pressures of 20-60 psi, inert gases as incandescent lamps
2After the glass tube is cut to length, an press the quartz to the molybdenum foils mixed with small amounts of a
exhaust tube must be attached to the top. forming the hermetic seal. During this oper- halogen gas. The halogen reacts
First the top of the tube is heated using ation, the bulb is being flushed with an inert with the tungsten deposit to pro-
gas/oxygen fires. A tungsten carbide wheel gas (nitrogen or argon) to remove the air and duce tungsten halides, which
folds the softened glass over to form a dome prevent the mount from oxidizing. The out- breaks down when it reaches the
shape containing a small hole. erleads protrude from the end of the press hot filament. The breakdown re-
and provide a means to electrically connect leases tungsten back to the fila-
3A smaller glass tube called the exhaust ment-known as the tungsten-
tube is placed in the hole and joined to the lamp to the lamp base. halogen cycle-and maintains a
the larger tube by melting. This small diam- constant light output over the life
eter tube is used as a means to flush the air Evacuating and filling the pressed of the lamp.
out of the lamp during the sealing operation bulb
and evacuate the air and introduce the fill 7The pressed bulb is filled with the halo-
gas during the exhaust process. This process
/gen gas on the exhaust machine. This
is performed on special rotary machines. machine employs vacuum pumps to evacu-
ate the air from the bulb and a filling system
Making the mount to introduce the halogen gas mixture into the
4 Next, the mount is fabricated. First, the bulb through the exhaust tube. The high in-
ebridge is made by embedding preformed ternal lamp pressure is achieved by first fill-
tungsten wires in a small cylindrical quartz ing the lamp above atmospheric pressure
rod. The filament is welded to these support and then spraying or dipping the bulb into
wires and welded to the outerlead assembly liquid nitrogen which cools and condenses
consisting of the molybdenum sealing foils the fill gas below atmospheric pressure.
and outerleads. Gas/oxygen fires then melt the exhaust tube
at the top of the bulb forming the tip and
The completed mount is sent through a trapping the gas in the bulb. The gas ex-
Jhydrogen furnace at 1,925°F (1,050°C) pands as it warms to the ambient tempera-
for cleaning. This process removes any ox- ture and thus results in a pressurized lamp.
ides that can damage the tungsten filament
during lamp operation. Attaching the base
8 The base of a lamp provides the electri-
Sealing Ucal connection and mounting. The geom-
A machine called a press seal is used to etry is defined in national and international
6Jhermetically seal the mount inside the standards. There are several different types
bulb. The mount is inserted into the bulb of bases. For single-ended lamps, glass, ce-
and both parts held securely. The bottom ramic or metal bases are used. These are
portion of the bulb is then heated to around usually bonded to the glass bulb with special
3,272°F (1,800°C) using gas/oxygen bum- cement that has good resistance to high tem-
1 97
peratures, moisture and thermal stress or at- tial and commercial applications, such as
tached mechanically. A cement-free connec- track and recessed lighting, table and floor
tion is used for special applications. lamps, and other general and task lighting.
Despite the increasing use of halogen lamps
Packaging in a number of applications, unit shipments
9 After final testing, the lamps are manual- have slowed significantly from the mid
ly or automatically packaged into boxes, 1990s pace, due to the increase in imports
depending on application. Lamps sold to re- from countries such as China, South Korea,
tail stores are individually packaged. Taiwan, Japan, the Philippines, Mexico,
Germany, and Hungary. In addition to com-
petition from imports, other factors will
Quality Control contribute to falling unit prices, which will
A pressure test (at 40-100 atmospheres de- limit value gains for shipments to 5.3% per
pending on fill pressure) is conducted after year to $180 million in 2003. In an effort to
the press/seal process to ensure that the capture market share, some manufacturers
lamp does not burst during operation. A ran- will limit price increases. Additionally, im-
dom sample is usually taken though some proved economies of scale and production
lamps are 100% tested. After the filling techniques will help to lower unit prices.
process, the lamps are tested for leaks by Halogen lamp manufacturers will also con-
placing them onto a rotary machine and tinue to develop bulbs with superior lighting
lighting them for a few minutes. If there is a characteristics, greater efficiency and im-
major leak, the lamp will turn a white yel- proved longevity that cost less. New and im-
low color. If there are any major mechanical proved designs will be offered to meet the
defects, the lamp will usually arc out. A ran- needs of special applications. Lamps will
dom sample from each lot is also tested to continue to be made that are more environ-
make sure all specifications (watts, tempera- mentally safe and manufacturing processes
ture, light output, and life) are met. made more efficient to reduce waste.
The global market for lighting products was
Byproducts/Waste expected to reach around $28 billion by the
Defective quartz is disposed of or recycled. turn of the century. The United States is ex-
Sometimes the exhaust tubes are reused. pected to increase its share of this market
Waste tungsten is salvaged and sold as scrap. beyond the current 30%. United States bulb
Completed lamps that fail testing are dis- and lamp companies are also expanding
carded. However, lamp manufacturers con- overseas, by forming joint ventures or ac-
tinue to use more environmentally friendly quiring facilities. The market for North
materials to reduce non-recyclable wastes. American lighting equipment is expected to
reach over $15 billion by 2005.
Some halogen lamps are made with lead sol-
ders in the base of the lamp. Since lead is a Incandescent lamps will remain dominant in
highly toxic material, products containing the United States market, with over 80% of
lead must pass the Environmental Protective unit sales and over 50% of market value,
Agency's TCLP (toxicity characteristic based on their substantial use in the large res-
leaching procedure). If they do not, they idential and transportation equipment mar-
must be classified as hazardous waste and kets. Due to the maturity of the incandescent
follow special disposal regulations in some market, competition from other lamp types,
states. Some lamp manufacturers avoid this and the slowing of the housing and motor ve-
problem by using lead-free solder. hicle sectors, growth in incandescent lamp
demand will trail industry averages.
The Future Where to Learn More
Shipments of tungsten halogen lamps are Books
forecast to increase 7.7% per annum to 58
million units in 2003, outpacing shipments "Electric Lighting and Wiring Equipment."
of incandescent lamps. This reflects the In U.S. Industry Profiles. The Gale Group,
growing acceptance of halogens in residen- 1998.
1 98
Halogen Lamp
Klipstein, Donald.The Great Internet Light Other
Bulb Book. 1996.
The Freedonia Group, Inc. 767 Beta Drive,
Waymouth, John, and Robert Levin. De- Cleveland, OH 44143-2326. (440) 684-
signers Handbook: Light Source Applica- 9600. http://www.freedoniagroup.com.
tions Danvers, MA: GTE Products Corpo-
ration, 1980. Frost & Sullivan. http://www.frost.com.
Osram Sylvania Products Inc. 100 Endicott
Periodicals Street, Danvers, MA 01923. (800) 544-
Cable, Michael. "Mechanization of Glass 4828. http://www.sylvania.com.
Manufacture." Journal of the American Ce-
ramic Society 82, no. 5 (May 1999): 1107- -Laurel M. Sheppard
1108.
1 99
Hard Hat
Although 20 million An industrial hard hat is a helmet worn to for to ensure their continuing effectiveness.
protect the head of a worker from falls or One requirement for ANSI approval is that
Americans wear hard hats from impacts by sharp or blunt objects. Typ- an instruction booklet be supplied with each
while working, ical users include construction laborers, re- hard hat, explaining how to care for the hel-
pairmen, and warehouse workers. met, how to inspect it for signs of damage,
approximately 120,000 and how to make certain it fits correctly.
Even with proper care and no damaging im-
on-the-job head injuries Background pacts, a hard hat should be replaced after
occur each year, and Although 20 million Americans wear hard five years of use.
hats while working, approximately 120,000
nearly 1,500 of them are on-the-job head injuries occur each year, History
fatal. and nearly 1,500 of them are fatal. Worn
properly, a hard hat provides two types of The steel helmet Edward Bullard brought
protection. Its hard shell resists penetration home from World War I was more than a
by sharp objects. And its suspension system souvenir. His doughboy headgear was the in-
lessens the consequences of a localized spiration for a revolution in industrial safety.
blow by distributing the force over a broader For 20 years, Bullard's father had been sell-
area. The most common type of suspension ing equipment to gold and copper miners.
system, a network of straps connected to a The miners, who wore hats similar to mod-
headband attached to the helmet, holds the em baseball caps with shellacked hard-
shell at least 1.25 in (3 cm) away from the leather brims, needed more protection from
wearer's head. falling objects. In 1919, Bullard patented a
"hard-boiled hat" that was made by using
In 1997, the American National Standards In- steam to impregnate canvas with resin, glu-
stitute (ANSI) revised its performance stan- ing several layers together, and vamishing
dards for hard hats. Although conformance to the molded shape. That same year, the Unit-
the standards is voluntary, most manufactured States Navy asked the Bullard Company
ers choose to comply so they can label their to develop some sort of head protection for
products as providing a certain class of pro- shipyard workers, and hard hat usage began
tection. Under the 1997 standards, Type I to spread. Bullard soon developed an inter-
hard hats provide specified levels of protec- nal suspension system to make the hard-
tion from impact and penetration to the top of boiled hat more effective.
the head; Type HI hard hats also provide spec-
ified levels of protection for impact and pene- In 1933, construction began on San Francis-
tration to the side of the head. Three class co's Golden Gate Bridge. The project's
designations indicate the degree to which a chief engineer, Joseph Strauss, was commit-
hard hat protects the wearer from electrical ted to making the workplace as safe as pos-
current. ANSI-compliant hard hats must also sible. He installed safety nets, an innovation
meet flammability criteria. that saved 19 lives on the project. And he
became the first supervisor to require work-
In addition to meeting manufacturing speci- ers to wear hard hats. Cooperating with
fications, hard hats must be properly cared Strauss to meet workplace needs, Bullard
200
Hard Hat
designed a special hard hat for sandblasters wearer. Various materials are used for brow
to use; it covered their faces, provided a pads, including foam-backed vinyl, foam-
window for vision, and used a pumping sys- backed cotton terry cloth, and specialty
tem to bring fresh air into the enclosure. fibers (e.g., CoolMax or Sportek) designed
Aluminum hard hats were introduced in for sweat absorption in athletic clothing and
1938, providing improved durability with accessories.
lighter weight, although they could not be
used where electrical insulation was impor- The Manufacturing
tant. During the 1940s, fiberglass became
Process
popular for hard hats, only to be largely re-
placed by thermoplastics (plastics that be- The following description of the production
come soft and easy to shape when heated) a of Type I industrial hard hats is based large-
decade later. ly on the manufacturing techniques of one
major manufacturer. However, some details
A change in ANSI testing procedures in 1997 have been expanded to include variations
opened the door to development of a hard hat used by other manufacturers.
with ventilation holes to keep the wearer's
head cooler. The first ventilated hats were The shell
produced in the United States the following
year. During the late 1990s, manufacturers 1 The appropriate shell mold for the model
sought to make hard hats more attractive by being produced is selected. After adjust-
decorating them with sports team logos. One ing a date-of-manufacture dial inside the
company even produced an ANSI-approved mold, the form is positioned in an injection
model shaped like a cowboy hat. molding press. Electric lines are connected
to the mold, as are lines carrying chilled
Accessories for hard hats are becoming water that will cool the mold.
more sophisticated. Common accessories in-
clude transparent face shields, sun visors, 2 High-density polyethylene pellets are
sound-muffling ear covers, and perspiration- pulled from a supply hopper by a vacu-
absorbing cloth liners. Recent innovations um system. Pellets of colorant are drawn
have taken a high-tech tum, introducing from another supply hopper and mixed
such attachments as pagers, AM-FM radios, with the HDPE pellets in a ratio of 4% to
and walkie-talkies. A digital package intro- 96%. The vacuum system then transfers
duced in 1997 links a hat-top camcorder the pellet mixture into the injection mold-
camera to a handheld computer, and pro- ing press.
vides a visor-mounted viewing screen. 3 Within the press, the pellets are heated to
3melt them. The molten plastic is injected
Rawv Materials into the mold to form the hard hat shell. The
press opens the mold and ejects the shell
Depending on the intended use and the man- onto a conveyor belt.
ufacturer, modem hard hat shells may be
made of a thermoplastic such as polyethyl- 4A worker picks the shell up and cuts off
ene or polycarbonate resin, or of other mate- the sprue (a lump formed where the
rials like fiberglass, resin-impregnated tex- molten plastic entered the mold). The work-
tiles, or aluminum. Because it is strong, er glues a label inside the shell; the label
lightweight, easy to mold, and nonconduc- identifies the manufacturer and the appro-
tive to electricity, high-density polyethylene priate ANSI type and class designations.
(HDPE) is used in most industrial hard hats. The suspension system.
The suspension system for industrial hard
hats consists of strips of woven nylon web- 5Component parts of the suspension sys-
bing and bands of molded HDPE, nylon, or tem are produced. Injection molding ma-
vinyl. Together with the strap suspension chines form headbands, plastic "keys" that
system, most Type II hard hats use a foam will be used to attach the suspension system
liner made of expanded polystyrene (EPS). to the shell, and nylon strips and gears for
the ratchet mechanism that will allow head-
Brow pads attached to the front of the hel- band size adjustment to fit the hard hat user.
met's headband increase comfort for the Nylon webbing (0.75-1 in [1.9-2.5 cm]
20 1
HARD HAT SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Different types of hard hat suspen- 6 A worker threads one end of a webbing
sion systems help to lessen the wide) from large spools is fed into a cutting
consequences of a blow to the machine that produces strips of the appropri- Ustrap through a slot in the end of a key.
head by distributing the force of it ate length (approximately 15 in [38 cm]). A The worker folds the strap end back and
over a broader area. die-cutting machine produces browpads. sews it to the strap with a buttonhole ma-
202
Hard Hat
chine, securing the key in a loop of the and penetration tests involve dropping hel-
strap. The same process is repeated on the meted head forms onto steel anvils and
other end of the strap. pointed steel penetrators.
7Depending on the model being pro- Under earlier ANSI standards, electrical
duced, the appropriate number (4, 6, or conductivity was tested by measuring cur-
8) of nylon straps is arranged in a star pat- rent in bodies of water inside and outside the
tern on a holding fixture, and they are se- hat. Since 1997, the test has been performed
cured to each other by a line of stitching at using metal foil on opposite surfaces. The
the crossover point. Alternatively, they may conductivity test is performed on a sample
be threaded through a slotted, circular pad that has already withstood the impact test.
(called a crown cushion) that will rest on top The most rigorous criterion (for the highest
of the user's head. class designation) requires the hat to with-
stand 20,000 volts for three minutes with no
o A worker inserts both ends of the head- more than nine milliamps of current leak-
O band strip into the ratchet mechanism. age, followed by exposure to 30,000 volts
with no burn-through permitted. For the
o A worker attaches a browpad to the front flammability test, a hard hat is positioned on
of the headband by folding its tabs over a head form and exposed to a 1,550°F
the headband and hooking slots in the brow- (843°C) flame for five seconds. There must
pad over nodules protruding from the head- be no visible flame on the helmet five sec-
band. onds after removal of the test flame.
l1OA worker attaches webbing strips to
I 0 the headband by mating slots on the The Future
keys with nodules on the headband. On a
Manufacturing techniques will be refined,
six-point suspension system, only four keys
are attached to the headband; the other two
perhaps incorporating a greater degree of
keys will attach only to the hard hat shell. automation if efficient machines can be de-
signed. Helmet design changes, such as
1 An instruction booklet and the suspen- elimination of the need for sewing the sus-
sion assembly are placed inside the pension straps, may contribute to this effort.
hat, and these components are placed into a
Manufacturers hope to find new materials that
plastic bag and a box for shipment. After
have better qualities. In addition to strength
purchase, the user will attach the suspension and low weight, they look for resistance to
to the shell by sliding the keys into slots.
heat, chemicals, and ultraviolet radiation.
Quolity Control Where to Learn More

A sample of hard hats from each batch or
production shift is set aside for testing ac- Periodicals
cording to the ANSI criteria. Some samples Cravens, Catherine P. "Let Protection Go to
are cooled to 0°F (- 1 8C) for a two-hour pe- Your Head." Occupational Health & Safety
riod prior to testing, and others are heated to (March 1998): 40 ff.
120°F (49°C) for two hours before testing.
The Type I impact test involves dropping an "High-Tech Hard Hats."The Futurist
8-lb (3.6 kg) steel ball from a height of 5 ft (May/June 1997): 11.
(1.5 m) on the top of the hat as it sits on a
head form; no more than 1,000 lb (4,400 N) Meade, Vicki. "Heads Up: What's New in
of peak force can be transmitted to the head Protective Gear." Occupational Health &
form, and no more than 850 lb (4,000 N) of Safety (July 1995): 33 ff.
average force can be transmitted. The Type
I penetration test involves dropping a 2.2-lb Other
(1-kg) pointed steel penetrator with a 60
angle on the top of the hat from a distance of "ANSI-Z89. 1-1997 Standard Highlights."
8 ft (2.4 m); it must not make contact with Custom Hard Hats. http://www.customhard
the head form. In addition, Type II impact hats.com/ansi.html (March 8, 2000).
203
"History of the Hardhat." Bullard Compa-

ny. 1998. http://www.bullard.com/company
Info/hardHatHistory.html (March 27, 2000).
-Loretta Hall
204
Harpsichord
Background come close to the range of dynamics possi- About 25 professional
ble with a piano.
The harpsichord is the distinguished, classi- harpsichord builders are
cal ancestor of the piano. Its shape, de- The apparent limitations of the dynamics of
scribed as a large wing shape, was devel- the harpsichord caused composers who active in the United
oped hundreds of years before the similar wrote for the harpsichord to be creative, and States, and about 100
shape of the grand piano. But the operation skilled players can also enhance the dynam-
of the harpsichord and its history are far dif- ics to a certain degree. Composers used instruments per year are
ferent from those of its descendant. music filled with trills and other ornamenta-
tion to make a more continuous sound. Play- made in the United States
The piano player makes music by fingering ers learn to make joined and detached sounds
keys that strike tightly stretched strings for universities,
called legato and staccato. While the lack of
within the piano, and by pushing pedals dynamics seems to limit the harpsichord, the orchestras, other music
with the feet that change the dynamics instrument also has a uniquely beautiful tone
(loudness, softness, and length of tone) of that is prized by professional musicians and organizations, and
the struck strings. Within the harpsichord, other admirers who want the elegant instru-
the back of the key is attached not to a ham- private players.
ment in their homes and even purchase kits
mer but to a vertical jack that has a vertical for constructing their own harpsichords.
slot containing a swinging tongue. The
tongue grips a plectrum, or pick. As the The cases of harpsichords are beautifully
player's finger strikes the key, the jack rises, shaped and, historically, have been elegantly
and the plectrum lifts up and plucks the ornamented and painted. But the case is also
string. As it falls back past the string, the critical to the sound. The case has five parts:
swinging tongue moves to pass the string the long straight side to the player's left is
without touching it and producing a sound. the spine; the short end is also straight and is
A lightweight spring pushes the tongue called the tail; the bentside to the player's
back to its original position so the plectrum right forms a long, gentle curve (like the un-
is ready to pluck the string with the next derside of the wing shape); another short,
stroke of that key. In the first 500 years or so straight piece called the cheek is immediate-
of the harpsichord's history, the plectrum ly to the player's right; and the bottom,
was a quill from the wing of a turkey, eagle, which closes the instrument, forms both a
raven, or crow; later plectrums were made structural and acoustic base for the key-
of leather or plastic. After plucking the board. The wrest plank is another wooden
string (which is not as tightly bound as a component that holds the keyboard in place
piano string), the jack has a release device so it is seated on the bottom. The case must
that returns it to the rest position. The harp- provide the strength to resist the tension of
sichord's tone depends on where the string the strings, so, internally, the case contains a
is plucked along its length, and the material bracing system to balance the tensions.
composing the plectrum. The harpsichord
does not have pedals to modify its dynam-
ics; after the string is plucked, its sound dies History
quickly. Large harpsichords were better able The history of the harpsichord is distin-
to produce changes in dynamics, but did not guished by type of instrument, the century
205
in which it was made and played, and na- and they favored large, heavy instruments
tional school. The national schools of the with extra registers, pedal-type keyboards,
greatest importance are French, Italian, Ger- and as many of five choirs of strings
man, Flemish, and English. The harpsi- plucked by three sets of manuals. These in-
chord's close relatives include the clavicym- struments were the ones favored by Johann
balum, the virginal, the lautenwerk, the Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), perhaps the
clavichord, the spinette, and, of course, the greatest composer for, and friend of, the
later instrument, the piano. The first of harpsichord. English-style instruments
these-the clavicymbalm-is mentioned in lacked the painting and ornamentation of the
documents dating from 1397 in Padua, Italy. Continental styles and had cases faced with
The oldest clavicymbalm that still exists walnut or oak veneer.
was built in Bologna, Italy, in 1521. The
earliest instrument called a harpsichord was By the early 1800s, the harpsichord had fall-
mentioned in 1514. It was short in length, en out of favor and the piano was becoming
had a thick case, and was a so-called single increasingly popular. From 1809 until well
manual, meaning it had one set of keys. In- into the twentieth century, harpsichords
struments called double manuals that had were not played in Europe or America. As
two sets of keys like a modem organ and an industry, harpsichord making simply
stops, also like an organ, were known at vanished until the present, modem revival in
about the same time. For example, a harpsi- which instrument builders pride themselves
chord listed among the expenses for the on reproducing the great historic harpsi-
court of England's King Henry VIII in 1530 chords of the national schools and, primari-
was called "a pair of virginals in one coffer ly, of the eighteenth century.
with four stops." The sets of manuals were
matched internally with sets of strings called Raw Materials
choirs; that is, a single manual had a single
choir, and a double manual was connected Wood is the chief material composing a
to a double choir of strings. harpsichord. Wood from the American
trees basswood and yellow poplar, North-
Venice, Italy, and Antwerp, Belgium, were ern European linden, and the European
two centers of production of harpsichords in tulip poplar are used to make harpsichord
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The cases for most types except German harpsi-
Venetian style had a long, thin body that chords. The cases of German-style instru-
was made of cypress wood and had an or- ments are made entirely of pine; American
nately decorated outer case. The Venetian makers use Ponderosa pine. Harder woods
instrument had either a single 8-ft-long (2.4- including oak, maple, walnut, beech, and
m-long) choir or two choirs measuring 8 ft spruce are used for structural supports in-
(2.5 m) in length (the length of the choir side the cases.
plus the depth of the keys was the approxi-
mate total length of the harpsichord). The Traditionally, soundboards are made of Nor-
Flemish school based in Antwerp was led by way spruce, which grows over much of the
the Ruckers family. They built both harpsi- European continent as far south as the
chords and virginals that had thicker bodies, Apennine mountains in Northern Italy. An
painted cases, and double choirs and manu- American species, the Ingleman spruce, is
als. The Ruckers's harpsichords were valued similar to the Norway spruce and is some-
for their beautiful resonance and tone and times used in the United States. Fir trees are
were exported all over Europe. In England also used occasionally. Many American
and France, the Ruckers creations were pop- makers import the Norway spruce, but sup-
ular and copied. The French Blanchet fami- plies are becoming more limited as pollution
ly made its own versions of the Ruckers threatens the spruce forests.
harpsichord that were even more elaborately
painted and lacquered; by 1750, they were Other materials include ebony, basswood,
the official harpsichord makers for the royal and ivory for the key tops. Animal glues are
court of France. used (modem synthetic glues do not work as
well), and metal is used for the strings.
The Germans also made prized instruments. Brass wire is drawn in a wrought process;
Hamburg was their center of manufacture, harpsichord makers work with local brass
206
Harpsichord
founders to make sure the manufacturing builder has to keep in mind that the 1707
process is correct. Other hardware includes harpsichord was built on the old inch system,
wood screws, turning pins that are made by so any information that may be available
a European supplier, parts of the harpsi- from original construction must be converted
chord action like jacks and jack slides that to measurement systems in use today. The
are purchased in large quantities, hooks that original builders did not have paper readily
are also common to piano-making, and available to document each construction and
"roses" (ornamental pieces that cover the probably relied on memory or a master book
opening in the soundboard). of guidelines. By simply proportioning, the
modern maker can measure the parts of the
To finish harpsichords, the natural wood case (including width, length, string length,
may be varnished and polished, but the out- and internal geometry) to within ±0.03 in
side of most harpsichords is painted, and (±1 mm); this is well within tolerances for
painting begins with laying down a gesso modern handiwork. There is no need to be
finish. Gesso is a mixture of finely ground more precise than the original; sometimes a
chalk and glue. Colored paints are usually builder can overwork a design or restoration
so-called "Japanned colors" made of pig- and spoil it by being too exact.
ment and oil that is applied over the gesso
and that produces a high gloss. Many coats
may be used. The leather rose is gilded, and The Manufacturing
gilt work may also be a part of the painted Process
trim or other ornamentation. 1 Construction of a harpsichord begins
with selecting the wood based on the type
Design of harpsichord ordered. As noted above, dif-
ferent kinds of wood are used depending on
Design of a harpsichord is based exclusively the national style or model, and they certain-
on tradition and existing, historical instru- ly affect the sound quality of the finished in-
ments; that is, there is no such thing as a strument. The wood must be aged for at
new harpsichord pattern, style, or sound. least two years to reduce the natural mois-
Harpsichord builders do make adjustments ture content that would cause it to warp or
to existing designs, but most of these are out curl. The bentside-the side of the case that
of necessity because historic materials are curves-is steam bent to fit a jig, which is a
not available or are not desirable. For exam- preconstructed form with the correct curve
ple, lead-based paints were used to decorate for a particular instrument.
harpsichords in the past, and these are no
longer desirable for health and environmen- The harpsichord maker's shop resembles
tal reasons. that of a cabinet maker, and harpsichord
construction has a lot in common with ship
To reproduce an existing harpsichord, for building and cabinet making. The process of
example, an instrument made in Paris in steaming wood and forming it to specific
1707, the harpsichord maker obtains draw- curves is part of the shipbuilder's art of con-
ings and measurements from the museum or structing the curved prow of a ship. The
institution where the 1707 model is present- process of carving and fitting the smaller
ly housed. Museum experts have often re- pieces of the harpsichord requires the skills
stored historic instruments and used modern of a cabinet maker or master woodworker.
techniques to analyze the harpsichord's con- The shop is also filled with cabinet-making
struction. X rays are useful in identifying tools like planes, chisels, rasps, and files.
types of internal fasteners, and fiber optics The major difference between the shops of a
can be employed to look through the rose modern harpsichord builder and one from
and into the guts of the instrument. the eighteenth century is the presence of
electrically powered tools, particularly band
If data does not exist, the builder may re- and table saws, in the present-day shop.
quest permission to do a detailed examina-
tion of the instrument. The builder makes Other smaller pieces are also cut and curved
drawings of every visible part of the instru- by steam bending in sets of smaller jigs
ment, starting by measuring the width and while the bentside is being made. The other
then proportioning the other parts. The sections of the case are straight; these in-
207
A. Harpsichord with soundboard.

B. Double manual keyboard. C. clude the tail, the cheek, the front end, the board is fitted to the instrument first; later, it
Jigs. wrest plank (the heavy slab of wood cross- is glued to the liner inside of the case. An
ing the top of the instrument and connecting equally elaborate scheme of ribs supports the
the spine to the cheek), and the corner keys soundboard and holds its curvature. A large
(strengthening blocks that are used to rein- rib called the cutoff bar is also fitted into
force the case corners) that are cut, flat- place; it stiffens the soundboard, and also
tened, and fitted together by hand. When the cuts the acoustical or sound-producing hol-
case sides have all been assembled, the out- low of the harpsichord into two areas for
line of the harpsichord is complete. high and low sounds. The ribs are cut with a
band saw and shaped and tapered by hand.
The bridges are glued to the soundboard and
2 The soundboard is an elaborate construc- are held in place until the glue dries with a
tion made of a large piece of very thin system of go-bars that work like large
wood. The piece is made up of a series of clamps along each bridge and have a number
slats that are 0.08-0.09 in (2.5-3 mm) thick. of contact points to fit the curvature of the
The slats are glued together, and a pattern or bridge. The rose hole is also cut through the
template is marked on the soundboard to cut soundboard after the bridges are secured.
it to shape. The shape is slightly larger than
the case of the harpsichord because the
soundboard has to fit snugly and curve, or 3 The lid and front flap are fitted to the in-
crown, inside to prevent it from buzzing strument so they can be hand painted
when the instrument is played. The sound- while construction of the harpsichord case
208
Harpsichord
continues. The soundboard may also be upper belly rail. After the glue is dry, hitch
hand painted, depending on the style of in- pins are installed to ready the instrument for
strument. When painting is complete, the stringing. But first, the exterior of the case
brass rose is installed in the rose hole and (which is now complete except for installa-
supported with fabric strips. It is gilded with tion of the lid and flap) must be prepared for
great care to prevent damage to the adjacent, the final surface finish. The painted sound-
painted ornamentation. The rose and its board is protected with plastic sheeting, and
opening are mistakenly thought to have the other surfaces of the instrument are coat-
some acoustical purpose, but the harpsi- ed with gesso, a mixture of chalk and glue.
chord is actually a closed instrument. Some The gesso seals the wood and provides a
makers allow the soundboard to dry in sun- base for the final finish.
light after painting and before installation to
shrink it slightly as a method of preventing 7In another distinct operation, the key
cracks from appearing during later aging 7 blanks and key frames are cut. The
and drying. frames are constructed with mortise and
tenon joints. Most of the harpsichords repro-
4The harpsichord case still does not have duced today are "double manuals," meaning
a bottom or a top (the soundboard) in- they have two keyboards. A detailed key-
stalled at this point. The system of framing board pattern is marked on the single piece
and bracing is cut and hand-fitted in place to of wood used for each keyboard. The pattern
keep the shape of the case and to support the shows the positions of the holes in the keys
soundboard. Lower frame pieces cross the as well as the shape of the keys. The holes
bottom of the instrument from the bentside are drilled, and the keys are finished along
to the spine to strengthen the case. The case their fronts before they are cut. The sharp
also has a liner-a collection of pieces simi- cuts are marked, and the platings (surface
lar to the pieces that make up the case-and coverings) for the natural keys are glued
is inset from both the top and bottom. The onto the blanks before the keys are cut using
liner provides a ledge to support the sound- a band saw. Concentration and remarkable
board-except at the front end of the harpsi- skill are needed for key-making because
chord, where the soundboard is supported 1,008 holes are required for a set of two key-
by the upper belly rail. Rails are additional boards and the harpsichord keys have nar-
interior wood pieces that anchor the strings. rower spacing than those on a piano. The
After the liner sections have been glued to cross cuts along the fronts of the sharps are
the case sides, upper frame members are made and trimmed, the plating for the sharps
glued into position; they cross from the is trimmed, and the fronts of the naturals are
bentside to the spine to hold the structural undercut so they have lighter weight and bet-
integrity of the upper part of the soundbox. ter balance in the frames.
5 The bottom of the harpsichord is put into The naturals are mounted on the key frames
place with a combination of wood and leveled. The keys for the sharps are then
screws and glue. Although the lid is made of fitted between the naturals and leveled. The
one piece of wood, primarily for appear- sharp rise (the raised part of the sharp keys)
ance, the bottom is still an acoustical part of is glued onto each sharp last. The platings
the instrument. It is made of two pieces of on harpsichord keys also differ from those
wood for ease of installation and for sound on pianos. French, German, and Flemish in-
properties. At the back of the instrument struments have ebony or boxwood platings
(from the lower belly rail to the tail), the on the naturals and ivory on the sharps.
grain of the wood runs lengthwise. From the Only Italian instruments seem to favor white
front of the belly rail to the front of the harp- or ivory naturals and black sharps. This dif-
sichord, the wood grain runs across the in- ference, along with the narrower key spac-
strument. The two pieces meet at a joint ings, makes it impossible to use factory-
along the belly rail. made piano keys for harpsichords.
6 The soundboard is glued into place. Go- 8 To finish the keys, felt is glued onto the
6bars clamp it at a number of places along Cback of the keys, cut apart between each
the liner, while pony clamps secure the front key, and trimmed. The upper keys have
edge of the soundboard to the top of the weights in the ends and are guided by pins
209
2
I
A. Harpsichord mechanism. B.
When a key is pressed, the jack at through slots in the keys. The guide system Quality Control
the back of the key raises. When for the lower keys is a rack in the back with a
released, the jack moves down- pin in the back of each key that fits through a The harpsichord is a creation by artists for
ward, causing the plectrum to hit slot in the rack. Piano bridge pins can be artists. Harpsichord makers are highly skilled
the string. used in harpsichords as hitch pins, piano wood workers, painters, and artists in many
center pins work as bridge pins, and zither supporting crafts; they also play the instru-
pins are used as harpsichord tuning pins. ment themselves and hold great reverence for
fellow musicians who lovingly reproduce the
music of great composers who wrote works
The harpsichord is strung and the jacks that
pluck the strings are installed before the unique to the harpsichord's sound. Their abil-
keys are mounted in the instrument and con- ity to channel this respect back into every as-
pect of construction of a single harpsichord is
nected to the jacks to complete the instru-
ment action. The instrument is voiced
highly effective quality control.
(tuned) with minor trimming of the tip of the
plectra and adjustment of the action. Byproducts/Waste
Harpsichord makers typically produce dif-
9Decoration of the case is completed by ferent models in the styles of the national
9 adding case moldings, completing exteri- schools and various eras in harpsichord his-
or painting, and gilding the moldings. Other tory. The manufacture of harpsichord kits
gold bands may also be applied to the sides for the home craftsman is a separate indus-
of the instrument. The lid and flap are try, and most harpsichord makers do not
hinged and attached to the instrument after also make kits, although they may well have
the exterior finish is completed. A harpsi- learned the craft from experimenting with
chord also differs from piano in that it has kits. They also do not supply their hand-
no attached legs. In another woodworking
made harpsichord parts to others; parts (like
and finishing operation, a stand or L-shaped jacks, key felt, or wire) can be either pur-
supports are made to match the exterior of chased from specialized suppliers or the
the instrument. harpsichord maker produces his or her own
parts for private use.
Each harpsichord is shipped upon
completion. A quilted fabric cover is Waste is very limited. Some wood scrap is
used to wrap the instrument completely, and generated, but the value of these rare woods
padded fabric sheets protect the stand. prompts wood workers to use them effi-
Piano-movers or other experienced movers ciently. There is also little waste of paint,
handle the instrument, which may be valued gesso, and other finishing supplies because
at over $30,000. they are hand-mixed in the quantity needed.
2 1 0
Harpsichord
The key to the production of a beautiful mu- Clemencic, Rene.Old Musical Instruments.
sical instrument is to be especially careful Translated by David Hermges. London:
early in the process so that tiny mistakes do Weidenfeld & Nicholson; New York: G. P.
not multiply and create difficulties in com- Putnam's Sons, 1968.
pleting construction or in voicing and play-
ing the instrument. Crombie, David. Piano. San Francisco:
Miller-Freeman, 1995.
Safety is an issue in the operation of electri-
cally powered tools and in the surface fin- Dearling, Robert, ed. The Illustrated Ency-
ishing of harpsichords. Caution with the clopedia of Musical Instruments. New
electrical supply and tools like power saws York: Schirmer Books, 1996.
and sanders is essential. When dust is gener-
ated during wood working, craftspeople Hubbard, Frank. Three Centuries of Harp-
wear masks and sometimes respirators. All sichord Making. Cambridge: Harvard Uni-
painting is done in a ventilated paint room. versity Press, 1965.
The Future Kottick, Edward L. The Harpsichord

Owner's Guide: A Manual for Buyers and
The harpsichord's future seems secure for the Owners. Chapel Hill, NC: The University
moment. The development of the harpsichord of North Carolina Press, 1987.
kit has fostered a new group of enthusiasts
who love the voice of the instrument, the op- Ripin, Edwin M., Denzil Wraight, and G.
portunity to use their own skills in handcraft- Grant O'Brien, et al. Early Keyboard In-
ing such a project, and the chance to own a struments. New York: W. W. Norton &
grand piece of musical history. A wide range Co., Inc., 1989.
of persons buy harpsichords from profession-
al builders out of similar appreciation. About Sachs, Curt. The History ofMusical Instru-
25 professional harpsichord builders are ac- ments. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.,
tive in the United States, and about 100 in- Inc., 1940.
struments per year are made in the United
States for universities, orchestras, other Unger-Hamilton, Clive. Keyboard Instru-
music organizations, and private players. ments. Minneapolis: Control Data Publish-
According to harpsichord maker John ing, 1981.
Phillips (a self-taught builder who began
Zuckermann, Wolfgang Joachim. The Mod-
with harpsichord kits), the greatest potential
ern Harpsichord: Twentieth-Century In-
threat to the future of the harpsichord is the
struments and Their Makers. New York:
level of musical culture, especially in the October House, Inc., 1969.
United States. Music education in schools is
being cut because of cost, and there is no
doubt that private music training is expen-
sive for most families. But it is through Other
music education beginning at an early age
that children come to appreciate fine music A Harpsichord Primer. http://www.bigduck.
and explore less familiar instruments like com (January 2001).
the harpsichord. Hope rests in the fact that,
once heard, the evocative sound of the harp- John Phillips Harpsichords. http://www.
sichord is seldom forgotten. home.earthlink.net/-jplectra (July 2000).
Peter Tkach, Harpsichord Maker. http://
Where to Learn More www.tkach-harpsi.com (June 2000).
Books Zuckermann Harpsichords Intemational.
Bragard, Roger, and Ferdinand J. De Hen. http://zhi.net/kits/tour.html (June 2000).
Musical Instruments in Art and History.
New York: The Viking Press, 1967. -Gillian S. Holmes
211
Hockey Puck
Hockey pucks are only Background northern parts of the United States during
the same time period.
made in four countries: Hockey pucks are flat, solid, black disk-
shaped objects made of vulcanized rubber. At first, amateurs dominated hockey and the
Canada, Russia, China, Regulation National Hockey League (NHL)
rules were ever changing. The first profes-
and the Czech Republic. pucks are black, 3 in (7.6 cm) in diameter, 1
in (2.54 cm) thick, and weighing 5.5-6 oz
sional league was organized in 1904 and
called the International Hockey League. It
(154- 168 g). The edge has a series of "dia-
only lasted three years. In 1917, the Nation-
monds," slightly raised bumps or grooves.
The diamonds give a taped hockey stick
al Hockey League (NHL) was created, and
is still the top level of professional hockey
something to grip when the puck is shot.
played in North America today. With the es-
The blue pucks used in junior hockey are
sometimes only 4 oz (143 g).
tablishment of the NHL came codified rules
and regularization of the game. Today,
During a game, each team keeps a supply of hockey is played by all ages, both men and
pucks in a freezer at all times. When a pro- women, throughout North America and
fessional hockey team receives their supply many parts of the world.
of pucks for a season, they are rotated so
that the older pucks are used first. During In the early years, c. 1860-1870s, a rubber
games, pucks are kept frozen in an ice- ball was the object used in hockey. Because
packed cooler, which usually sits on the of- the ball bounced too much, a block of wood
ficials' bench. All pucks are frozen to re- was sometimes used instead. The modem
duce the amount of bounce. hockey puck was invented around 1875.
There are two different versions of its origi-
Though no one knows exactly how the nation. One story claims that in 1875, stu-
hockey puck got its name, many believe that dents at Boston University sliced a rubber
it was named for the character in William ball in half to make a puck. Another version
Shakespeare's A Midsummer's Night places the evolution in Montreal, Quebec,
Dream. Like the impish flighty Puck, the Canada. The owner of one of the first indoor
hockey disk moves very quickly, sometimes ice rinks, Victoria Rink, also allegedly
in unexpected directions. sliced a rubber ball in half. In any case, the
first recorded use of a flat disk was in Mon-
treal in March 1875.
History
Played in Europe for several hundred Early pucks were made by gluing two pieces
years, field hockey is a predecessor of ice of rubber together (sometimes from recycled
hockey, which sprang up in Great Britain tires). Because of this construction, the
during the 1820s. The game blossomed in pucks could split when they hit the goal post.
the British protectorate of Canada in the During the 1931-1932 season, a puck with
second half of the nineteenth century. In beveled (sloped) edges was used. By mid-
Canada where long, cold winters are a cer- season, complaints by players and teams led
tainty, ice hockey soon became the national to the return of the original puck. Though
game. Hockey also became popular in the there was no official NHL puck until the
212
Hockey Puck
1990-1991 season, the basic construction Raw Materials

from the early 1900s remained the same.
A hockey puck is made of vulcanized rub-
ber. The top and bottom of some pucks are
The FoxTrax puck decorated with team and/or league logos.
During the 1995-1996 NHL season, a These logos are silk-screened on to the rub-
slightly different puck was introduced. ber. The silkscreen process uses a rubber-
While the outside of the puck remained the based ink and four-color processing.
same, the inside and effect was totally dif-
ferent. That year, the Fox television network In addition to the rubber and silk-screened
obtained the rights to air the NHL All-Star ink, the FoxTrax puck included several com-
puter components-a lithium battery; 20 in-
Game and the Stanley Cup playoffs. Fox be-
lieved that to attract new viewers to the frared emitters; a ceramic oscillator; an ac-
game, the network had to make the small- celerometer; CMOS logic and switching; a
looking puck easier to follow on television. four-layer, silver-dollar sized circuit board;
To that end, they developed an enhanced surface mount parts; and a flexible epoxy to
pot the board.
puck called the FoxTrax puck. It contained a
computer board and battery at its center and
20-pin holes all over the puck (12 on the Design
edges, four on top, and four on the bottom)
that guided infrared emitters, each beeping The design of NHL regulation pucks was
approximately 30 pulses per minute. These regularized in 1940 by Art Ross. Though
emitters communicated with 16 sensoring pucks remained basically the same, Ross's
devices placed around the rink to follow the innovation was a puck that was easy to man-
puck's movement. The sensoring devices ufacture and acted with some consistency
were linked by fiber optics to computers when used in play.
outside in the "Puck Truck." Logos that are silk-screened on the puck are
designed by the various professional hockey
When processed by computer, the FoxTrax
leagues (including the NHL) and individual
puck had a completely different look to the
teams.
television audience. It had a translucent blue
halo, which was supposed to make the puck
more visible on a small screen. When a play- The Manufacturing
er shot the puck at speeds exceeding 50 mph Process
(80 kph), a red tail appeared on television. If
the puck reached speeds over 75 mph (120 Currently, hockey pucks are only made in
kph), the tail was green. When put into play, four countries: Canada, Russia, China, and
each FoxTrax was remotely activated by a the Czech Republic. There are two kinds of
wireless controller. Unlike standard pucks, manufacturing processes for pucks. One is
which were used until they went into the for practice and souvenir pucks. The other is
stands or otherwise damaged, FoxTrax for regulation NHL and other professional
pucks could only be used for about 10 min- league pucks that are used in games.
utes before the battery ran out. While Fox-
Trax pucks weigh about the same as NHL Practice/souvenir pucks
regulation pucks, they cost much more to Rubber arrives at the factory in the form
make. Each puck had a value of about $400. of cord packed into 40 ft (361.9 m) long
tubes. The cord is fed by hand through a
From its first use, players complained that pultrusion machine.
the FoxTrax puck did not move the same
way a normal puck did. The FoxTrax puck A worker monitors as an automated, timed
also did not hold the cold as well. FoxTrax 2machine pulls the rubber and slices long
pucks became bouncy much more quickly pieces of rubber 4- 5 in (10-13 cm) thick.
than their regulation counterparts. When the
Fox network declined to renew its contract 3The machine grabs 4 in (10 cm) of the
to air the NHL All-Star Game and play-offs rubber cord and drops it into a two-part
after the 1998-1999 season, the FoxTrax (male-female) mold. The mold is heated.
puck was no longer used or manufactured. The two parts of the mold are compressed
2 13
A FoxTrax hockey puck.
together. Approximately 10,000 pucks can 4 The pucks are packed for shipping in
be made in one day. Icases of 100. Wax paper is placed be-
tween rows to separate the pucks so that the
4After the puck is made, they are silk- logos are not marred.
screened with a rubber-based ink. The
pucks are fed into one of four kinds of
silkscreen machines, depending on the num- FoxTrax pucks
ber of colors included in the team or
The pucks are manufactured in the same
league's logo. (There is a hand silkscreen
way as regulation pucks.
machine, as well as three-color, six-color,
and eight-color silk-screening machines.)
The logo is placed on the puck. 2 The pucks are cut in half by hand.
5The pucks are packed for shipping in

cases of 100. Wax paper is placed be- 3 The center of the puck is carved out by
tween rows to separate the pucks so that the hand. Sometimes this was done with a
logos are not marred. routing bit and a routing machine.
Regulation NHL pucks 4A drill with a special drill bit carves the
20-pin holes that are the paths for the in-
Granular rubber is mixed with special frared emitters. This is done by hand.
bonding material by hand.
2The mixture is put in a two part (male- 5 The computer board, driver circuits, bat-
female) mold. A molding pallet of 200 5tery, and other high tech parts are placed
mold cavities is filled by hand. The mold is inside the puck by hand. The board is potted
cold compressed. (This procedure actually with an epoxy that is flexible by hand. The
takes place at room temperature.) About epoxy is made from materials similar to the
5,000 pucks can made per week. puck. The puck is glued back together with
a mixture of flexible epoxy and filler.
3 In a separate procedure, the pucks are
3silk-screened with a rubber-based ink. 6 The puck is silk-screened. The pucks are
The pucks are fed into one of four kinds of fed into one of four kinds of silkscreen
silkscreen machines, depending on the num- machines, depending on the number of col-
ber of colors included in a team or league's ors included in the team or league's logo.
logo. (There is a hand silk-screen machine, (There is a machine designed for silk-
as well as three-color, six-color, and eight- screening by hand, as well as three-color,
color silk-screening machines.) The logo is six-color, and eight-color silk-screening ma-
placed on the puck. chines.) The logo is placed on the puck.
214
Hockey Puck
7The pucks are packaged for shipment.
7Wax paper is placed between rows to sepa-
rate the pucks so that the logos are not marred.
Blue (junior hockey) pucks

Rubber and blue-colored plastics, both in
a granular state, are mixed with special
bonding material. This is done by hand.
2The mixture is put in a two part (male-
female) mold. A molding pallet of 200
mold cavities is filled by hand. The mold is
cold compressed. (This procedure actually
takes place at room temperature.) About
5,000 pucks can made per week.
3 In a separate procedure, the pucks are
3silk-screened with a rubber-based ink.
The pucks are fed into one of four kinds of
silkscreen machines, depending on the num-
ber of colors included in a team or league's
logo. The pucks are fed into one of four
kinds of silkscreen machines, depending on
the number of colors included in the team or
league's logo. (There is a hand silkscreen
machine, as well as three-color, six-color,
and eight-color silk- screening machines.)
The logo is placed on the puck.
4The pucks are packed for shipping in
cases of 100. Wax paper is placed be-
tween rows to separate the pucks so that the
logos are not marred.
Quality Control
Pucks are checked for the regulation size
and weight. If regulation pucks do not meet
prescribed standards, they are recycled and
the rubber is reused to make pucks. After
regulation pucks are made, certain speci-
mens are frozen for 10 days, then bounced.
The tester ensures that the pucks bounce the
same ways as those in previous batches. A
consistent product is important in the pro-
duction of pucks. Every puck must act the
same way on the ice.
were rejected for use by North American mar-
During the silk-screen process, the ink can be kets. Pucks with air bubbles or softer rubber in
affected by the moisture in the air, dust parti- the middle were rejected for similar reasons.
cles, and hair. The pucks are checked for the
effect of any of these qualities. Any effected
pucks are washed with paint thinner and go Byproducts/Waste
through the silk-screening process again.
Any excess rubber from the manufacturing
In the past, Russian-made pucks sometimes process is collected, re-shred, and used
had metal fragments in them. These pucks again to make pucks.
2 15
The Future Where to Learn More

The future does not involve much change to Books
the actual puck, its composition, or manu-
facture. While a blue-colored puck is cur-
Duplacey, James. Puck. In The Annotated
rently made for junior hockey, pucks of dif- Rules of Hockey. New York: Lyons & Bur-
ferent colors serve no purpose in the game ford, 1996, pp. 52-54.
and are not likely to be manufactured on a
large scale. Any improvements to the silk- Periodicals
screen process would result in changes in Modoono, Bill. "Puck's History is Hardly
the decoration of pucks. Plated souvenir the Stuff of Legends or Lore." Star- Tri-
pucks might be available in the future. bune Newspaper of the Twin Cities Min-
neapolis-St. Paul (December 13, 1992): 3C.
Vizard. "Hockey's Chip Shot." Popular
Mechanics (May 1996): 40.
-Annette Petruso
216
Horseshoe
Background round section or a grooved section called a The cost to shoe a horse
swage. Sometimes a combination of these
Horseshoes protect a horse's hooves from two is used. Steel is used in the back. Differ- ranges from $80-$280,
wear on hard or rough surfaces. They are also
ent shoes are used whether the horse is a trot- depending on the type of
designed to improve a horse's gait, to help its ter or pacer. Horses used for hunting or
conformation (how the horse stands), and to jumping use a shoe similar to the keg but a shoe and material.
control interference problems (when hooves bit wider. Sometimes a traction device called
or legs collide with each other). For instance,
a stud (like cleats) is used that is screwed
for a condition called winging in-where into the shoe before the show. Draft horses
hoof flight is to the inside of the stride-can use a thicker shoe since they are much heav-
be corrected by a square-toe shoe. ier and larger than most other breeds. Sad-
A horseshoe is a U-shaped metal plate, usu-
dlebreds, which have special gaits, use a toe
weight shoe, which is 1 in (2.54 cm) wide in
ally made of steel though aluminum is also
used. Aluminum shoes are more expensive
the front and 0.5 in (1.3 cm) wide elsewhere.
than steel. There are also plastic-coated
metal shoes, and even all-plastic horseshoes. History
Two-piece shoes are made of steel with a re-
movable plastic insert. The all-purpose steel The horse was a major means of transporta-
shoe used for pleasure riding is known as a tion in the United States until the automobile
keg shoe, since they used to come in a was invented. The horse population declined
wooden keg. The shoes can be attached with from 1910-1960, as they were replaced with
nails since the hoof is very dense and con- cars. However, in the early 1960s, the popu-
tains no nerves. The cost to shoe a horse lation increased as horse racing and riding
ranges from $80-$280, depending on the became popular as a means of recreation.
type of shoe and material. Over the last decade or so, the horse popula-
tion has remained relatively stable. The de-
There are about 15 other types of horseshoes, cline in horse racing due to the replacement
depending on the breed of the horse and its of other forms of gambling has been offset
function. Some breeds use different shoes on by the increased popularity of pleasure rid-
the front hooves than on the back. Some shoes ing and horse shows.
come with a traction device so the horse can
grip the ground better. Thoroughbred race- The process of forging and attaching horse-
horses use what is known as a racing plate shoes became an important craft in medieval
made from aluminum on the front. For the times, and played a major role in the devel-
hind feet, an aluminum shoe known as a caulk opment of metallurgy. Blacksmiths (iron
or cauk is used that is embedded with steel to was called black metal) made most of the
help improve abrasion and wear resistance. iron objects used in everyday life though
Some aluminum shoes are more squared off farriery, (farrier, which comes from the
to resemble a hoof from a healthy wild horse. Latin word for iron, ferrum) or horseshoe-
ing, was the most frequent occupation. A
Standardbred racehorses use a lightweight farrier's equipment consists of a fumace or
steel shoe in front that is designed with a half forge, an anvil (a heavy block of steel or
217
iron), tongs, and hammers. First, the sole ting equipment is operated either mechani-
and rim of the horse's hoof is cleaned and cally or manually by a foot pedal. After cut-
shaped with rasps and knives. The horse- ting, the bar is heated in an induction fur-
shoe is heated in a forge until it is soft nace or gas-fired forge to a temperature of
enough to shape with the hammer to fit the around 2,300°F (1,260°C). The softened
hoof, cooled by quenching it in water, and metal is then wrapped around a block of
attached to the hoof with nails. steel in the shape of the shoe using custom
designed equipment. Another type of bend-
As machines took over the blacksmith's job, ing equipment uses a plunger in the shape of
and horses disappeared from use in agricul- the shoe, which forces the bar into the de-
ture and transport, the need for farriery desired shape.
clined. Improvements in horseshoe design
also have reduced the amount of forging
work required by farriers. Forging
IDrop forging, the most common of the
Raw Materials forging processes, is used for most
horseshoes. After the bar is bent, it is then
A low carbon mild steel designated A-36 is forced into a die with the required dimen-
used for the most popular type of horseshoe. sions by a powered hammer. One half of the
The steel comes in the form of round bars die is attached to the hammer and the other
ranging from 0.5-0.7 in (1.27-1.8 cm) in di- half to the anvil. A cam mechanism deter-
ameter, depending on the type of shoe to be mines the length of the stroke of the ram or
made. These bars are then cut to various how close the dies come together.
lengths, again depending on the shoe type.
Finishing operations
Design
3 Once the shoe is bent, it is transferred to
Horseshoes are designed according to the a punch press for making the nail holes.
breed of the horse, and will vary in size, shape
and thickness. Since most are mass-produced,
Usually eight holes are made per shoe. The
these designs are standard and are made using
punch tooling is custom designed for each
type of shoe. Then a trim press is used to re-
a two-part die that matches the dimensions
move excess material, or flash. At this point,
and shape desired. A new die is only required the shoe is still hot, around 1,900-2,000°F
if it wears out. In a few instances, custom-de- (1038-1093°C). After trimming, it is air
signed shoes are still made by hand at several cooled for 45-60 minutes.
companies. Some farriers also custom make
horseshoes for lame or ill horses, which are
typically shaped like a heart instead of a U. Packaging
A After cooling, horseshoes are packaged
The Manufacturing x Iby hand in 25 or 50 pound boxes. A 50-
Process lb (23-kg) box typically holds 80 shoes.
Forging, one of the oldest metal forming Some manufacturers package 15 or 30 pairs
methods, is the primary process used for per box.
horseshoes. This process shapes metals by
deforming them with a hammer, a press, or Quality Control
rollers. Smith forging consists of making a
part by banging on the heated metal with a The raw material must meet the chemical
hammer. This is the familiar forging process specifications as designated, which is veri-
performed by blacksmiths (farriers) on fied by testing by the raw material supplier
horseshoes. Hammer forging is simply a before shipping. To prevent rust, the round
larger and more machine-produced version bars are stored under tarps. During forging,
of the same thing. the operators constantly check the die visu-
ally for wear and other defects. Dimensional
Cutting & bending tolerances of the shoe (width and thickness)
must be within 1/16 inch. The nail holes
1 The bar is cut to length according to the must be checked for correct position. The
type of shoe using shear blades. The cut- hole is monitored for any cracks, which
21 8
Horseshoe
Open die forging is the most com-
mon way of manufacturing horse-
shoes.
causes missing holes. During the trimming the horse population has declined by almost
operation, the press is also monitored for 20% from 1984 to 1997, as farm land is de-
cracks, which can cause burrs. veloped and casinos replace race tracks as
the gambler's preference.
Byproducts/Waste
The flash, or excess material, that is trimmed
Where to Learn More
from the shoe is collected and sent back to a Periodicals
scrap yard for remelting and rerolling. De-
fective horseshoes are also reprocessed and Cain, Charlie. "Urban Sprawl and Demise
reused. of Racetracks Cuts Horse Population." De-
troit News (September 30, 1997).
The Future "A Cobbler's Touch: Custom Horseshoes
The steel shoe is expected to remain the Help Lame, III Horses." The Dallas Morn-
most popular shoe over the long term. The ing News (February 11, 1999).
basic manufacturing process therefore will Van Wyk, Anika. "Making the Shoe Fit/
not change much, though forging presses are Modem Touches to an Old Trade." The
becoming more automated, with program- Calgary Sun (2000).
mable control of how much force is used and
when. Horseshoe designs will continue to be
modified to meet specific markets. Other
Equestrian Records and Curiosity. http://
The horse population is expected to remain www.mrhorse.com/Recordsen.htm (21 Feb-
relatively stable over the next few years, ruary 2000).
though certain parts of the United States will
see declines. For instance, in states like New International Equine Resource Center.
Jersey the price of real estate is becoming so http://www.horseshoes.com (January 2001).
high that one can no longer afford to buy
enough land to keep horses. In Michigan, -Laurel M. Sheppard
2 1 9
Hula Hoop
Over 100 million Hula The late 1950s saw one of biggest fads doc- cial exercise for people not strong enough
umented by sociologists, the Hula Hoop. for more intense exercise or sport. Roman
Hoops were sold Like many fads, the hoop is deceptively children also played with hoops, and both
worldwide in 1958 alone. simple. It is made of hollow plastic, usually Greek and Roman versions were made of
very bright in color, and sometimes with the metal fashioned from scrap strips.
hollow carrying a couple of ball bearings,
bells, or other noise makers. With a variety Native Americans used hoops for more than
of sizes the diameter of a hoop toy ranges just toys. Eskimos played a game in which a
from 20 in (51 cm) to about 3 ft (91 cm). hoop is rolled and poles are thrown through it
as it rolls. This game, for children and adults,
taught practical skills needed in harpooning
Background and other hunting. North American Indians
Fads interest sociologists because they are used the hoop in many ways. Like the Eski-
adopted by a broad range of persons. To be mos, the Indians used it as a target for teach-
called a fad, the idea must be a "key inven- ing accuracy in shooting arrows and in
tion" that has the possibility of generating throwing. Among the Lakota Indians, hoop
many offshoots. The Hula Hoop certainly dancing became a sophisticated art form that
fits this description because enough varia- is still practiced today. To the Lakota, the
tions in size, color, and ornamentation of the hoop represents the circle of life, the vast cir-
hoop enabled each child to own a special cle of the horizon as the viewer tums to look
version, and children can create their own all around, and the many repeating patterns in
styles of spinning the hoops. Hula Hoop- nature like the cycle of the moon. In the hoop
spinning contests were held at local fairs, dance, the dancer may use 12-28 hoops to
and records were established for the most forms symbols and figures.
hoops kept in motion for the longest time
periods. These contests are reminders of yet Like the Hula Hoop, the hoops made by the
another use of the hoop; jugglers have spun hoop dancer must be large enough to move
small-diameter hoops on their arms, legs, over the shoulders and around the body;
necks, and on sticks to the delight of circus hoops that are about 28 in (71 cm) in diame-
crowds for generations. ter are made of natural materials like wil-
low, rattan (a flexible but strong vine), or
plastic tubing. Rattan or willow is soaked in
History water until it softens and can be shaped into
Varieties of hoops have always been toys. a circle. The ends are wrapped with binding.
Along with the ball, the hoop may be among The tubing easily takes the round shape, and
the most popular toys. The ancient Greeks a short length of wooden dowel is inserted
were the first to popularize the hoop, and into the matching ends to even the align-
many of their documents-including illus- ment and form a strong joint. This is also
trations on pottery-show the hoop in ac- wrapped with binding. Colored binding is
tion. The hoop was a toy for Greek children, wrapped around the entire tube so patterns
but it was also an exercise device. Hoop- can be used in the dance. White, yellow, red,
rolling was thought to be a light and benefi- and black are the colors of the four direc-
220
Hula Hoop
tions (north, south, etc.) and the four races worldwide, over 100 million were sold in
of human-kind, according to the Lakota. 1958 alone. In Japan, the hoop was banned,
and the Soviet Union described it as evi-
Children's hoop toys in Western Europe dence of the decadence of American culture.
were made of wood. Hoop-rolling also At the peak of its popularity, Wham-O, Inc.
achieved fad status in England in the 1800s, produced 20,000 hoops per day; it is esti-
and those hoops were wood fitted with mated that the plastic tubing for all the Hula
metal strips or tires on the outer edge. Hoop Hoops sold would stretch around the world
rolling was called bowling a hoop. The hoop more than five times.
was propelled along the sidewalk, street, or
ground with the hand or with a stick called a Numerous records in the Guinness Book of
skimmer. This same fad traveled to the World Records have involved hoop spinning;
United States, and antique hoops are now in 1999, Lori Lynn Lomeli spun 82 Hula
favorite toys of collectors. Push hoops were Hoops at the same time for three complete
used to help teach babies to walk. Usually, revolutions, a feat that garnered her a place in
hoops for the very young contained bells or the book. The Hula Hoop phenomenon never
made other sounds to hold the child's inter- completely disappeared off toy shelves, but it
est. Another popular design had pieces of has ebbed and flowed in popularity like most
wood shaped much like the spools that hold fads. In the late 1990s, the Hula Hoop again
sewing thread on the spokes of the push experienced a renaissance and appears to be
hoop. As the hoop turned, the spools slid going strong long after its 40th birthday.
back and forth on the spokes to make a jin-
gling sound. The rolling hoop was patented Raw Materials
in 1871 by Albert Hill. Hill's rolling hoops
were about 12-20 in (20-51 cm) in diameter The only materials in most hula hoops is
and were pushed with handles that were 20- plastic, pigments for coloring the plastic,
27 in (51-69 cm) long. The handles and any inserts like ball bearings, staples to
hoops were made of wood with a natural close the circles, and paper labels with adhe-
finish, but the noise-making spools were sive backing. Plastic is used to make both
brightly painted. the hoop and the dowel-like insert forming
the joint. Some hoops have ball bearings,
Other hoops uses and games have long his- beads, stars, glitter, bells, or other noise-
tories but are still known today. Hoops can makers inside the hollow tube. These add
be thrown, as in the game called quoits, or extra visual interest and motion or sound as
spun. They are used as targets in games like the twirler spins the hoop. Metal staples and
basketball, and, in football, suspended the paper labels are provided by outside,
hoops or tires are targets for improving the specialty suppliers.
aim of quarterbacks. Also in football, hoops
or tires laid on the ground are used to im-
prove foot mobility, coordination, and speed Design
among players. Like all toys, the Hula Hoop, even in its sim-
plicity, adapts to changing trends. Color
The toy known as the Hula Hoop was born trends change the color combinations in the
out of the brainstorm of two American toy hoops every few years (Wham-O changes
inventors who learned about an Australian the colors of its hoops every year), and toy
practice. Arthur "Spud" Melin and Richard designers look for other ways of varying and
Knerr heard that Australian children used remarketing the toy to keep it among the top
rings made of bamboo for exercise. They sellers. One recent design features fruit-
produced a plastic hoop in 1958 and pro- scented hoops that give off a slight, pleasant-
moted it around the Los Angeles, California, ly fruity smell as the plastic warns in play or
area by going to playgrounds, demonstrating in the sun. The scent matches the color of the
the hoop to the kids, and giving away Hula hoop (grape scent for purple hoops, orange
Hoops. Their playground-to-playground for tangerine-colored plastic, and so forth).
salesmanship produced the biggest toy fad Others are wrapped with glittery paper.
the United States has ever witnessed. In four
months, over 25 million Hula Hoops were Children are not the only target market for
sold in the United States for $1.98 each; design and sales of spinning hoops. Their
22 1
Hoops have been used by many

different peoples as toys, in cere-
monies or dances, in games, etc.
benefits as an exercise toy are celebrated, ments are added as needed. Dies inside the
and one manufacturer has added a calorie extruder shape the thickness of the tube that
counter to the hoop. Fitted in the joint where is extruded as a continuous piece of plastic.
the two ends of the plastic tube meet, the In a proprietary process, Wham-O uses a
calorie counter uses a microprocessor to twist machine so that a stripe in the plastic
count the number of revolution, duration of twists around the plastic hoop.
spinning, and calories expended. The micro-
processor also offers spoken encouragement 2The tube cools quickly and is cut into
as the spinner reaches "personal bests" in lengths equal to the circumference of the
number of revolutions and time spent particular hoop by a high-speed cutoff,
twirling, and it plays five choices of music which is much like a circular saw. Wham-O
for added incentive. An AA battery powers makes three different lengths of tube result-
the counter. The health-conscious hoop is ing in hoops of three different diameters for
36 in (91 cm) in diameter, and the tube has a a range of sizes and ages of hoopsters.
larger diameter than the child's toy at 1-1.5
in (3.8 cm). It also weighs 2.25 lb (0.84 kg). 3 The lengths of hoop are loaded on to
3large carts much like those used to carry
lengths of steel. They are fed manually
The Manufacturing through a benching machine that curves the
Process tube lengths into hoop shapes.
1 The process for making Hula Hoops is as
straightforward as the toy itself. The fac- 4Ball bearings or other noise and motion
tory receives high-density polyethylene pieces are inserted in the hoops. The
(HDPE) plastic in pellets that are already hoops are then fitted with a plastic dowel or
colored or that can be tinted with pigments insert that is another extruded piece that is
in the factory. The plastic beads or pellets also hollow but slightly smaller in outer di-
are fed into a hopper. From the hopper, they ameter than the hoop. The insert is stapled in
flow into the barrel of an extrusion machine. place to attach the ends. The staples are held
The pellets are heated by mechanical means in place by friction, and a label is fastened
using heat of friction in the barrel, and pig- over the insert and staples for added safety.
222
Hula Hoop
5 The finished hoops are conveyed to the each machine to observe the product at
5and packing department; the three sizes every step. All employees have the respon-
of hoops are all nested together in the same sibility of taking faulty hoops out of any
packing box to reduce the amount of pack- stage of manufacture. A final quality audit is
ing materials that are needed and to save re- performed before the hoops are packed.
tailers storage space.
The Future
Byproducts/Waste The Hula Hoop seems to have established a
Plastics manufacture is a toy-making spe- firm place in the American way of life and
ciality. Makers of Hula Hoops usually make childhood. It now has a steady sales pattern
a number of colors, sizes, and other vari- and seems destined to remain a part of our
eties. They also produce other plastic toys play. The hoop's popularity is helped by
that use similar extrusion and molding tech- modem emphasis on health and exercise. In
niques. Waste is minimal. When colors are the future, manufacturers expect to empha-
changed in the extruder, the old color is size play patterns so the hoops can be used
wasted, but this amounts to only 0. 1% of the more like a game and to introduce new
volume of plastic used in hoop manufacture. products to help make the hoop a purely in-
Hoops that are defective are pulled from the dividual toy. Just as older civilizations cele-
manufacturing line and collected in bins for brated the symbolism of the circle, Ameri-
recycling. can children have found their own hoop
dance to add to play and exercise.
Employee safety is carefully controlled by
government regulation, employee training,
and distance. Regulations by the Federal Where to Learn More
Occupational Safety and Health Administra- Books
tion (OSHA) limit employee exposure to the
high heat and pressure of the extrusion ma- Barenholtz, Bernard, and Inez McClintock.
chine. Safety guards keep employees a safe American Antique Toys. New York: Harry
distance from the cutoff, twist machine, and N. Abrams, Inc., 1980.
other heavy machinery. The employees are
also well educated in their own protection. Left Hand Bull, Jacqueline, and Suzanne
In the 50-year history of the Wham-O Hula Haldane. Lakota Hoop Dancer. New York:
Hoop, there have been no factory injuries or Dutton Children's Books, 1999.
injuries caused by the toy itself.
Other
Quality Control Hula Hoops. http://www.hula-hoops.com
(January 2001).
Quality enters the process during design
when extrusion dies and other tools are Wham-O, Inc. http://www.wham-o.com
made to low tolerances for error. This helps (January 2001).
reduce irregularities during manufacture and
waste of plastic. Inspectors are stationed at -Gillian S. Holmes
223
Ice Cream Cone
Yearly, Americans eat Background work for the competition, Heckle's Cornu-
copia Waffle Oven Company in St. Louis.
about 23 qt (22 L) of ice Today, the ice cream cone is a standard in The cornucopia or waffle name was re-
any ice cream store or stand. This tasty treat
cream per person. placed with the word cone in 1906. Mean-
is known as a way to cool down in the sum- while, Hamwi promoted cones at fairs all
mer and makes an edible container for a
across the United States. Returning to his
cold snack. The frosty smoothness of the ice own business in 1910, Hamwi started the
cream complements the crispy crunch of the
Missouri Cone Company of St. Louis. He
cone for an interesting taste combination.
died in 1943 after amassing a fortune found-
There are almost as many stories of how the ed on ice cream cones.
ice cream cone was invented as there are fla-
vors that it holds.
A second contender, David Avayou also
claims to be the cone's creator. Avayou
History owned an ice cream parlor in New Jersey
The ice cream cone would seem to be a sim- where he made both ice cream and cones.
ple and unpolitical a treat, yet it's origin is He took his wares to the St. Louis World's
hotly contested. The most favored folk tale Fair and claims to have been selling them
regarding the invention of the ice cream cone there when Fornachou and Hamwi stumbled
takes place at the 1904 World's Fair held in on their joint product.
St. Louis, Missouri. Two food vendors had
stalls next to each other. Arnold Fornachou Still a third contestant is Abe Doumar, an-
made and sold ice cream. His neighbor, other immigrant who had moved with his
Ernest A. Hamwi, had come to the United family of 12 brothers and sisters from
States from Damascus, Syria. Hamwi made Lebanon to St. Louis. Doumar's favorite
sweet wafers (much like today's wafer-like treat from his homeland was a pita bread
cookies) that Syrians call "zalabias." Hamwi rolled into a cone shape and filled with fruity
cooked the wafers on a waffle iron heated jam. He approached another of the Fair's za-
over a coal fire, coated them with sugar, and labia-makers and suggested applying the
rolled the wafers while they were still hot so same concept by rolling a waffle and filling
they were easy to eat and carry. When Forna- it with ice cream. Doumar later developed a
chou ran out of dishes to hold his ice cream, variety of waffle machines, moved to New
Hamwi rolled his wafers into a cone shape York, and sold ice cream cones at Coney Is-
instead of a tube, and the gentlemen topped land. By the 1930s, Doumar owned a num-
the wafer with scoops of Fornachou's ice ber of restaurants along the East Coast; the
cream. Zalabias became "World's Fair Cor- new trend for "fast food" that grew with the
nucopias," and the cone concept was born. popularity of the automobile almost drove
him out of business until he got the idea to
With over 50 ice cream vendors at the Fair, make waffle cones in the front windows of
Hamwi was soon doing a land-office busi- his restaurants. The baking process and the
ness. He started his own cone company after girls in the windows rolling cooked waffles
the Fair called the Cornucopia Waffle Oven into cones became attractions that saved the
Company, but tired of business and went to restaurants.
224
Ice Cream Cone
Opposing these charming stories is a solid ly. In 1912, Frederick Bruckman devised a
fact. In 1903 (the year before the World's machine that rolled the cones hot from the
Fair), Italo Marchiony was awarded a patent waffle iron automatically; 245 million ice
for the "pastry comet," which he developed cream cones were sold in 1924 alone.
to hold his frosty wares. Marchiony was an
Italian immigrant who lived in New York
City. His product was lemon ice that he Rawv Materials
scooped onto small glasses and sold to cus- Three main dry ingredients compose all
tomers along Wall Street. After consuming types of cones. Wheat flour, tapioca flour,
the ice, the customer returned the glass, and and sugar are chosen for baking quality,
it was washed and used again. Breakage and strength, and relative sweetness, respective-
the continual task of washing dishes frus- ly. Tapioca is made from the cassava plant,
trated Marchiony; he substituted paper which has a starch-like root. The root is
cones, but these (and littering consumers) processed into the tapioca "pearls" familiar
made a messy problem. As early as 1896, in pudding and also into finely ground flour.
Marchiony invented a fully consumable al- The cassava grows only in tropical climates
ternative. By 1903, he had made a machine so cone manufacturers import it from South
that created cones like the sugar cone known America and Southeast Asia. Manufacturers
today. The machine resembled a long waffle purchase both tapioca flour and sugar in
iron with spaces to cook 10 cones. Later, large bags, but wheat flour is bought by the
Marchiony opened a cone factory in Hobo- tanker-truck load and is unloaded by air
ken, New Jersey. He is also credited with pressure that blows it from the tanker into
building the first ice cream sandwich with storage silos. During World War II, wheat
two waffle squares. flour was needed for priority items like
bread; as a substitute, ice cream cone mak-
Apart from his patent from the United States ers used popcorn that was ground to a flour-
government as proof, Marchiony has history like consistency.
and sentiment on his side. His business of
selling lemon ice in glass scoops is part of a The quantity of sugar is a major distinguish-
tradition in Italy dating back to the early ing feature between cone types. Sugar and
1800s. The Penny-Ice Men became common waffle cones are made of one-third sugar.
across Europe from about 1820 to 1860, as Not only does this influence the sweet fla-
revolution and economic hard times drove vor, but it affects the brown finished color
immigration. Part of this wave consisted of and the crispy texture. Cake cones have less
Italians who left their homeland for Eu- than 5% sugar.
rope's major cities. They pushed carts
through the streets beginning as early as 7 Wet ingredients (and others added with the
A.M. during the summers and sold flavored wet materials) include water, shortening
ice seated on tiny glass goblets. A goblet (edible fat or grease), baking powder (a dry
cost a penny, the people consumed the ice, ingredient but one that begins to react as
and the goblet was returned to the vendor. In soon as it is mixed with water so it is added
Italy, the Penny-Ice Men cried, "Ecco un last to avoid contact with any moisture in
poco, che un poco" (Here's a little for so lit- the air), coloring, flavoring, and salt. Both
tle [money]), and this cry became distorted the coloring and flavoring are natural prod-
by non-Italians into the word hokeypokey. ucts made by outside specialists.
In New York and other American cities-
where the custom had migrated by the mid- Before any liquid is added, air compressors
1800s-the Penny-Ice Men were known as are again used to mixed these dry ingredi-
Hokeypokey Men. Their trade and their use ents in large coolers. The compressors are
of the tiny glass goblets are a direct link to computer-controlled to regulate the quanti-
the development of the ice cream cone. ties, and different combinations of ingredi-
ents are used to make waffle/sugar cones
After the World's Fair, cone-making ma- and cake cones, so separate coolers are used
chines were regularly sold in catalogs for to mix each type. The combined dry ingredi-
$8.50. Individual vendors could afford ents are termed cone filler or cone batter.
these, so the street vending of ice cream Some specialty suppliers premix cone filler
now accompanied by cones grew enormous- and sell it to cone bakers.
225
Design must withstand prefilling in the factory if

they are used for frozen treats like the
There are three principal types of ice cream
Drumstick. Unfilled cones have to be
cone; the cake cone (also called a molded or packed together by mechanical devices. The
flat-bottomed cone), the waffle cone, and the cones must "nest" (fit one inside another)
sugar cone. The waffle cone is characterized
neatly to allow efficient packing. Minimal
by a rough or unfinished top edge. The sugar packing materials are used to cushion the
cone is made with the same ingredients and
cones, mainly because of cost.
process as a waffle cone but has a finished
top edge and sometimes a chocolate lining. Taste is the key design factor. Cake cones
should be crisp instead of spongy and tasty
The waffle pattern on all types of cones, the like a mild cereal. Waffle cones should be
finished edge of the sugar cone, and the crunchy and sweet but not too hard or over-
shape of the flat-bottomed cone (as well as powering in sugar content. The ice cream is
comet varieties of the cake cone) greatly in-
the featured food, and the cone must com-
fluence the ease with which the finished plement its quality.
cones pop out of their molds. Cone design-
ers refine the waffle pattern and other shape
characteristics and make trial batches to find The Manufacturing
the best design that releases from the mold Process
without burning, breaking, or creating weak 1 The batter for all cones is mixed in large
spots that won't hold ice cream or will break
vat-like mixers and stored in coolers. Air
when the scoop is applied. The molded cone compressors blow the dry ingredients into
has a lip around the top that keeps drips con- the mixers. Separate mixers and coolers are
tained inside the cone. The row of teeth used to combine and store the batter for cake
helps firmly seat the scoop of ice cream and cones and for waffle and sugar cones togeth-
provides added strength where the upper lip er. The air compressors that pump in all in-
of the cone meets the cylindrical base. gredients are computer-controlled so the
The flat bottom of the cake cone is now an recipe for each cone is correct. Computers
accepted industry standard, but it was not also control all the other machines in the
invented until the late 1940s. Before this, factory; in the mixing area, they tell the
cake cones were also cone shaped, but compressors when the coolers are running
Joseph Shapiro of the Maryland Cup Corpo- low on batter, so the next batch is mixed au-
ration (later the Ace Baking Company) tomatically.
made the flat base especially for the Diary 2 As the dry ingredients are blown in,
Queen chain. Filling cone-shaped cones and water is added, and the mixers begin to
handing them to customers is a two-handed
stir the batter. The dry ingredients and water
business, but the flat-bottomed cone stands
are mixed for nine minutes before the other
on its own and can be filled more easily.
ingredients are added. The computer signals
Shapes and patterns also affect baking char- to a worker when the nine-minute mix is
acteristics. The finished cone should be uni- done, and the worker inspects the partial
form in color as well as shiny on the outside. batter then adds the remaining ingredients
It should bake uniformly so that all sides (in- by hand. This is one of the few hands-on
cluding the flat bottom) are thoroughly parts of the process; it is essential to the
cooked. The size is important because cones character and quality of the finished cones.
are expected to hold single, double, and The worker resets the mixer when the ingre-
triple scoops. The first scoop has to fill the dients have been added, and the mixer beats
cone and weight the bottom without vanish- the batter for a few minutes at high speed,
ing completely into the cone, and the third not only for perfect blending but to add just
scoop should not overpower the cone and the right amount of air to the batter. The
cause it to break or tip too easily. The filled mixer for cake cones yields about 300 lb
cone should look equally appetizing whether (112 kg) of batter, and the waffle/sugar cone
it has one, two, or three flavors atop it. batter is mixed in 150-lb (56-kg) batches.
The mixed batter is then pumped to its cool-
Strength is an important characteristic, not er; the mixer shuts itself off automatically
only to the consumer who holds it. Cones and resets itself for the next batch.
226
Ice Cream Cone
An example of a fully automated
ice cream cone maker.
3 From the coolers, batter is pumped to sugar cones are crisp and delicate, so each
3storage tanks next to the baking ovens. It one is individually packed in a Styrofoam
is then pumped through a pipe. Cake-cone container with a bottom bowl and a lid (a
batter is pumped into the cake-cone molds, "clamshell" container). These packages are
and waffle/sugar-cone batter flows onto also boxed. All boxes have been preprinted
plates much like the bottom plates of waffle by an outside printer and box manufacturer.
irons. The pumping system applies a pre- The outer design is not only decorative but
measured amount of batter to either the carries the nutritional information required
mold or the plate. The cake cones bake for by the United States government for a sin-
about 90 seconds and emerge in their fin- gle-cone serving. The boxes are bulk-packed
ished shape and ready to be packed. Waffle into larger cartons called master packs for
and sugar cones bake for about 82 seconds, shipping and distribution.
but they take longer to finish because they
have to be shaped. The flat, hot, baked cir- Some boxed cones are sent to the dairy-
cles are rolled into cone shapes by special- pack industry which fills the cones with
ized cone-rolling machines in a process that chocolate liners and ice cream, freezes
takes about 20 seconds. These cones cannot their products, and repackages them for in-
be handled for packing until they are com- dividual sale and bulk sale in boxes in gro-
pletely cooled, and they are air-cooled for 2 cery stores. The best known of the dairy-
minutes. Cooling makes the cones firm to pack products are probably Drumstick and
hold their shape. Nutty Buddy. Boxed cones are also distrib-
uted to food service businesses like Dairy
A large cone-making plant will be equipped Queen, Baskin-Robbins, and McDonalds.
with as many as 40 ovens that will produce These businesses (like the dairy-pack
5 million cones per day. The plants usually trade) fill cones individually with their own
operate 24 hours per day and every day of ice cream and soft-serve products. Amuse-
the year except significant holidays. Total ment parks are also part of the food service
production from a major manufacturer can business that fills cones with frozen treats
be 5 billion cones per year. on the spot.
AFinished cones travel along conveyors to Finally, packaged cones are sold in bulk to
the packing area. Cake cones are relative- retail businesses like grocery, chain, conve-
ly strong and are nested inside each other, nience, and drug stores. These retailers usu-
wrapped with clear paper that is sealed to be ally do not fill or modify the cones; they sell
air tight, and placed in boxes. Waffle and the boxed cones directly to the consumer
227
who can make custom desserts and snacks ment, and relaxation that it is unlikely to fall
with the cones at home. out of favor. Ice cream and its cone are con-
sumed year-round-with Americans eating
Qucality Control about 23 qt (22 L) per person a year-al-
though summer is certainly the prime sea-
Although cone-making is computer-con- son. A mark of the acceptance of the ice
trolled, workers are essential to quality con- cream cone may be its stature as a highly
trol. The correct addition of ingredients is recognizable icon or symbol. In 1945, the
the most obvious quality control step, but Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade featured a
throughout the process specially trained helium-filled balloon shaped like an triple-
quality control inspectors watch cone mak- scoop ice cream cone. It stood 40 ft (12.2 m)
ing and baking, taste-test cones occasional- high and 16 ft (4.9 m) wide. Hot-air balloon
ly, and reject any that are misshapen, bro- races and festivals have also been treated
ken, or over/under-cooked. Whole cones are with scoop-shaped hot-air balloons and
also removed from the process and cut and cone-shaped baskets. In 1962, the Swedish-
broken apart to check that cones are truly born sculptor Claes Oldenburg displayed a
perfect inside and out. Pop-art version of a "Store" filled with
everyday objects that were greatly oversized
and made of foam rubber covered with can-
Byproducts/Waste vas. Oldenburg chose an enormous ice
Cone makers usually do not produce cream cone to represent American life.
byproducts although they commonly make
the three types of cones. There is some The tried-and-true types of cones are not
breakage, and some are rejected during the likely to change. Of course, manufacturers
quality control process. During the period are constantly improving their products, but
from 1920 to about 1950, cone makers they stick to the varieties that are popular
bagged the broken cones and sold them as a with the public. The sugar, waffle, and cake
snack byproduct. Families could buy the cones perfectly complement the changing
broken pieces and eat them like chips or flavors within the ice cream world while
crackers or crush them more finely and use adding their own support, taste, crunch, and
them as toppings for ice cream, pudding, sense of tradition.
and fruit. During the Depression in the
1930s, crushed cones were a tasty substitute
for expensive nut toppings. Where to Learn More
As manufacturers' volumes have increased Books
and crushed cones have become less desired
by the public, cone makers have found anoth- Dickson, Paul. The Great American Ice
er use for discarded cones. The cones are Cream Book. New York: Atheneum, 1972.
ground up and sold to farmers for animal
feed. Paper goods from the packaging process Liddell, Caroline, and Robin Weir. Frozen
and wooden pallets for storage are recycled, Desserts. New York: St. Martin's Press,
so the industry produces virtually no waste. 1995.
Safety in the cone factory is also a lesser Wardlaw, Lee. We All Scream for Ice
concern because most processes are fully Cream. New York: Harper Trophy, Harper-
automated. Workers are trained about safety Collins Publishers, Inc., 2000.
issues related to electrical and mechanical
equipment and the heat of the baking ovens.
They are also required to protect the safety Periodicals
of the product and wear clothing, hair cov- Belleranti, Shirley W. "A treat from Marco
ers, and gloves to keep the cones sanitary. Polo." Hopscotch 8, no. 2 (August/Septem-
ber 1996): 9.
The Future Gustaitis, Joseph. "Who Invented the Ice
The ice cream cone is such a fixture of Cream Cone?" American History Illustrat-
worldwide desserts, entertainment, amuse- ed 23, no. 4, (Summer 1988): 42-45.
228
Ice Cream Cone
Other
Dairy Queen Corporation. http://www.dairy
queen.com (January 2001).
The Joy Cone Company, Hermitage, PA.
http://www.joycone.com (January 2001).
-Gillian S. Holmes
229
Indigo
Egyptian artifacts suggest Background The dye can be extracted from several
plants, but historically the indigo plant was
that indigo was employed Indigo, or indigotin, is a dyestuff originally the most commonly used because it is was
extracted from the varieties of the indigo more widely available. It belongs to the
as early as 1600 B.c. and and woad plants. Indigo was known legume family and over three hundred
it has been found in throughout the ancient world for its ability species have been identified. Indigo tincto-
to color fabrics a deep blue. Egyptian arti- ria and I. suifruticosa are the most common.
Africa, India, Indonesia, facts suggest that indigo was employed as In ancient times, indigo was a precious com-
early as 1600 B.C. and it has been found in modity because plant leaves contain only
and China. Africa, India, Indonesia, and China. about small amount of the dye (about 2-
4%). Therefore, a large number of plants are
The dye imparts a brilliant blue hue to fab- required to produce a significant quantity of
ric. In the dying process, cotton and linen dye. Indigo plantations were founded in
threads are usually soaked and dried 15-20 many parts of the world to ensure a con-
times. By comparison, silk threads must be trolled supply.
died over 40 times. After dying, the yarn
may be sun dried to deepen the color. Indi- Demand for indigo dramatically increased
go is unique in its ability to impart surface during the industrial revolution, in part due to
color while only partially penetrating fibers. the popularity of Levi Strauss's blue denim
When yarn died with indigo is untwisted, it jeans. The natural extraction process was ex-
can be seen that the inner layers remain un- pensive and could not produce the mass
colored. The dye also fades to give a char- quantities required for the burgeoning gar-
acteristic wom look and for this reason it is ment industry. So chemists began searching
commonly used to color denim. Originally for synthetic methods of producing the dye.
extracted from plants, today indigo is syn- In 1883 Adolf von Baeyer (of Baeyer aspirin
thetically produced on an industrial scale. It fame) researched indigo's chemical structure.
is most commonly sold as either a 100% He found that he could treat omega-bromoac-
powder or as a 20% solution. Through the etanilide with an alkali (a substance that is
early 1990s, indigo prices ranged near high in pH) to produce oxindole. Later, based
$44/lb ($20/kg). on this observation, K. Heumann identified a
synthesis pathway to produce indigo. Within
14 years their work resulted in the first com-
History mercial production of the synthetic dye. In
1905 Baeyer was awarded the Nobel Prize
The name indigo
comes from the Roman for his discovery.
term indicum, which means a product of
India. This issomewhat of a misnomer since At the end of the 1990s, the German based
the plant is grown in many areas of the company BASF AG was the world's leading
world, including Asia, Java, Japan, and Cen- producer, accounting for nearly 50% of all
tral America. Another ancient term for the indigo dyestuffs sold. In recent years, the
dye is nil from which the Arabic term for synthetic process used to produce indigo has
blue, al-nil, is derived. The English word come under scrutiny because of the harsh
aniline comes from the same source. chemicals involved. New, more environ-
230
Indigo
mentally responsible methods are being Synthetic production
sought by manufacturers.
3)A variety of synthetic chemical processes
Jhave been used to produce indigo. All
Ravw Materials these processes involve combining a series of
chemical reactants under controlled condi-
The raw materials used in the natural pro- tions. The reactants undergo a series of reac-
duction of indigo are leaves from a variety tions which result in the formation of the in-
of plant species including indigo, woad, and digo molecule. A number of other chemical
polygonum. Only the leaves are used since byproducts are also produced in this reaction.
they contain the greatest concentration of
dye molecules. In the synthetic process, a 4These synthesis reactions are conducted
number of chemicals are employed as de- in large stainless steel or glass reaction
scribed below. vessels. These vessels are equipped with
jackets to allow steam or cold water to flow
around the batch as the reactions progress.
The Manufacturing Because of the complexity of these chemical
Process processes, the dye is usually made in batch
quantities. There are, however, a few meth-
Natural extraction ods invented by the Germans for continuous
1 Plant extraction of indigo requires several process manufacturing.
steps because the dye itself does not actu-
ally exist in nature. The chemical found in Types of reactions
plant leaves is really indican, a precursor to
indigo. The ancient process to extract indi- 5 The first commercial method of produc-
can from plant leaves and convert it to indi- 5ing indigo was based on Heumann's
go has remained unchanged for thousands of work. In this method, N-phenylglycine is
years. In this process, a series of tanks are treated with alkali to produce indoxyl,
arranged in a step wise fashion. The upper- which can be converted to indigotin by con-
most tank is a fermentation vessel into tact with air. However, the amount of dye
which the freshly cut plants are placed. An yielded by this process is very low. Another,
enzyme known as indimulsin is added to hy- more efficient, synthesis route utilizes an-
drolyze, or break down, the indican into in- thranilic acid. This process was popular
doxyl and glucose. During this process car- with major manufacturers, such as BASF
bon dioxide is given off and the broth in the and Hoechst, for over 30 years. A variation
tank turns a murky yellow. of this method (which has become widely
used) involves the reaction of aniline,
2 After about 14 hours, the resulting liquid formaldehyde, and hydrogen cyanide to
is drained into a second tank. Here, the form phenylglycinonitrile. This material is
indoxyl-rich mixture is stirred with paddles then hydrolyzed to yield phenylglycine
to mix it with air. This allows the air to oxi- which is then converted to indigotin. Cur-
dize the indoxyl to indigotin, which settles rently, a method which uses sodamide with
to the bottom of the tank. The upper layer of alkali to convert phenylglycine to indoxyl.
liquid is siphoned away and the settled pig- Sodamide reacts with excess water, thus
ment is transferred to a third tank where it is lowering the overall reaction temperature
heated to stop the fermentation process. The from almost 570°F (3000C) to 392°F
resultant mixture is filtered to remove impu- (200°C). This results in a much more effi-
rities and dried to form a thick paste. cient reaction process.
Historically, the Japanese have used another

method which involves extracting indigo
Finishing operations
from the polygonum plant. In this process 6 After the chemical reaction process is
the plant is mixed with wheat husk powder, 6complete, the finished dye must be
limestone powder, lye ash, and sake. The washed to remove impurities and then dried.
mixture is allowed to ferment for about one The dried powder can be packed in drums or
week to form the dye pigment which is reconstituted with water to form a 20% solu-
called sukumo. tion and filled in pails.
23 1
The chemical symbol for indican, of the indigo used by the world is made out-
the compound found in the leaves O-C6H1105 side the United States. Researchers are con-
of the indigo plant that is used to centrating on new methods of indigo manu-
make indigo dye. facture that are more environmentally
friendly. One promising future method in-
CH volves using biocatalysts in the dye reaction
HN process. Indigo dye may be one of the first
H high-volume chemicals made through a bio-
logical route. Genencor International, of
Rochester New York, is evaluating a
process to produce indigo using biotechnol-
Quality Control ogy. According to Charles T. Goodhue,
Genencor's Program Director/Biocatalysis
During indigo manufacture, the reaction Research and Development, indigo pro-
process is continuously monitored to ensure duced by this method is chemically the same
the chemicals are combined in the proper ra- as the regular synthetic dye and behaves
tios. Key elements that must be controlled identically in dyeing tests. However, at this
include the pH (or acid/base quality of the time the technology is expensive and pro-
batch), the temperature (which controls the duction costs could be prohibitive. Genen-
speed of the reaction), and the reaction time cor is seeking a major market partner to
(which determines the degree of comple- work with them in the development of this
tion). If any of these variables deviate from new technology.
specifications, the resulting reaction product
can be affected. Typically, poor quality con- Manufacturers who use indigo in dying op-
trol results in lower yield of the dye, which erations are also seeking to improve their
increases costs for the manufacturer. use of the dye. For example, Burlington's
Denim Division introduced a technology in
To ensure that manufacturers can consis- 1994 they call "Stone Free," which allows
tently purchase the same shade of dye, indi- indigo dye in the fabric to break down 50%
go is assigned a Color Index number that de- faster in the stonewash cycle. Compared to
fines its shade. It is designated as "CI traditional methods of stonewashing fabric
Natural Blue CI 75780." dyed with indigo, their new process uses
few, if any, pumice stones which help give
Byproducts/Waste the fabric its faded look. Therefore, pumice
stone handling and storage costs are re-
Indigo production produces a variety of waste duced, along with time required to separate
products which must be handled carefully. In pumice from garments after stonewashing.
addition to the reactants described above, It also uses much less bleach. Therefore, this
there are other reaction side products that are new process not only reduces garment dam-
produced along with the indigo. Some of age, but also reduces waste produced by the
these materials are considered to be hazardous stones and bleach.
and must be disposed of in accordance with
local and federal chemical waste disposal
guidelines. These waste chemicals can enter Where to Learn More
the environment in at least three different
ways. The first is during the actual manufac- Books
ture of the molecule. The second is when the Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer (ed.) Encyclo-
dye is applied to the yarn, and the third is pedia of Chemical Technology: Alkoxides,
when the dye is eluted into the wash water Metal to Antibiotics (Peptides). Wiley-Inter-
during the initial stonewashing or wet pro- science, John Wiley and Sons, 1978.
cessing of the fabric. This last route typically
occurs during the production of denim fabric.
Periodicals
The Future Guilbaut, G. B., and D. W. Kramer. "Re-
sorufin Butyrate and Indoxyl Acetate as Flu-
Much of the need for indigo is being met orogenic Substrates for Cholinesterases."
with other types of blue dyes and today most Analytical Chemistry 37 (1965):120-23.
232
Indigo
McCurry, John. "Burlington Debuts Stone
Free Denim." Textile World 144, no.3
(March 1994): 120- 123.
Rotman, David, and Emma Chynoweth.
"The Quest for Reduced Emissions, Greener
Processes." Chemical Week 153, no.1 (July
7, 1993): 117.
-Randy Schueller
233
Industrial Hemp
Currently 32 countries, Background 6,175 acres (61.75 hectares) harvested in
1998 to nearly 20,000 acres (200 hectares)
including Canada, Great Hemp is a distinct variety of the plant in 1999. Over 95% of the acres grown in
species Cannabis sativa L. that grows to a 1999 in Canada were for hemp grain.
Britain, France, and height anywhere from 4-15 ft (1.2-4.5 m)
China, allow farmers to and up to 0.75 in (2 cm) in diameter. The Farmers who grow hemp claim it is a great
plant consists of an inner layer called the rotation crop and can be substituted for al-
grow industrial hemp. pith surrounded by woody core fiber, which most any harvest. It grows without requiring
is often referred as hurds. Bast fibers form pesticides and is good at aerating the soil.
the outer layer. The primary bast fiber is at- On a per-acre basis, one estimate claims
tached to the core fiber by pectin-a glue- hemp nets farmers more income ($250-
like substance. The primary fibers are used $300) than either corn or soybeans ($100-
for textiles, cordage, and fine paper prod- $200). A full crop of hemp only takes 90
ucts. The wood-like core fiber is used for days to grow, yielding four times more
animal bedding, garden mulch, fuel, and an paper per acre, when compared over a simi-
assortment of building materials. lar 20 year period with redwood trees in the
northwest United States. However, there are
Due to the similar leaf shape, hemp is fre- other varieties of trees that yield two to three
quently confused with marijuana, another times more than hemp.
cannabis plant. The major difference is
their tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content, Advocates of hemp claim that it can be used
the ingredient that produces the high when in 25,000 different products, from clothing
smoked. Marijuana can contain as much as to food to toiletries. Until the nineteenth
20% THC, compared to less than 1% for century, hemp was used in 90% of ships'
industrial hemp. Despite this difference, canvas sails, rigging, and nets (and thus it
some countries are reluctant to legalize was a required crop in the American
growing of hemp (especially the United colonies). Today, hemp fiber is being used
States), since there is a fear this will make as a replacement for fiberglass in automo-
it more difficult to control the use of the tive components and made into cloth for
drug. Most hemp varieties also have a hol- window dressings, shower curtains, and up-
low stalk that have a very high fiber con- holstery. China is the world's largest pro-
tent (35%), in contrast to marijuana vari- ducer of hemp fabric, whereas India pro-
eties that usually have a solid stalk having duces the most hemp overall.
low fiber content (15%).
Other products made from hemp fiber in-
Canada is one country that has legalized clude: insulation, particleboard, fiberboard,
hemp, though with certain restrictions. The rope, twine, yarn, newsprint, cardboard,
maximum allowable THC concentration is paper, horse stable bedding, and compost.
0.3% and all hemp farmers are required to Hemp bedding has been found superior to
undergo a criminal-records check, as well as straw and other materials for horse stalls in
obtain a license from Health Canada. De- reducing the smell of ammonia. Hemp seed is
spite these restrictions, hemp production has used to make methanol and heating oil, salad
increased threefold in just a year, from oil, pharmaceuticals, soaps, paint, and ink.
234
Industrial Hemp
Currently 32 countries, including Canada, using hemp fiber, at an estimated world pro-
Great Britain, France, and China, allow farm- duction of 12,000 short tons (10,886 t) per
ers to grow industrial hemp. The current year. Most of these mills were located in
hemp market for sales and exports in North China and India for producing printing and
America is estimated at between $50-$100 writing paper. Others produced specialty pa-
million per year. Unites States imports of in- pers, including cigarette paper. The average
dustrial woven fabrics made from hemp to- hemp pulp and paper mill produces around
taled $2.9 million in 1997. Import volume 5,000 short tons (4,536 t) per year, com-
jumps to around $40 million when other pared to wood pulp mills at 250,000 short
products-such as paper, shampoo, and oil- tons (226,800 t) per year.
are included. Textile uses of hemp represent
5% of hemp products produced in Canada. However, in the last decade, the number of
companies trading in and manufacturing
hemp products has increased dramatically.
History The North America market is still in its infan-
Hemp was the first plant to be domestically cy since Canada just legalized hemp produc-
cultivated around 8000 B.C. in Mesopotamia tion and sale in 1998. Hemp cultivation tests
(present-day Turkey). Hemp was grown for in the United States began a year later though
fiber and food. It was recorded as being har- it is still illegal to grow it commercially.
vested in central Asia around 6500 B.C. Sev-
eral centuries later, China started growing Raw Materials
hemp as a crop and later used it in medicine.
By 2700 B.C., the Middle East, Africa, and Fiber processing uses few chemicals, if any
most of Asia used hemp for fabric, rope, at all. However, the fiber may be blended
medicine, and food. Hemp was introduced with other materials, such as synthetic fibers
to Europe 400 years later. The oldest surviv- or resins as binders, depending on the final
ing piece of paper, a 100% Chinese hemp product being made. For paper making,
parchment, was dated to A.D. 770. water and chemicals (sodium hydroxide or
sulfur compounds) are mixed with the fibers
From 1000 B.C. to the nineteenth century, to remove the natural glue components.
hemp was the world's largest agricultural
crop, where it was also used for paper and
lamp oil. During this period, several well- The Manufacturing
known books, including the Bible and Alice Process
in Wonderland, were printed on hemp Cultivation and harvesting
paper, and several famous artists painted on
hemp canvas. The first crop in North Ameri- Hemp is an annual plant that grows from
ca was planted by a French botanist in Nova seed. It grows in a range of soils, but tends
Scotia in 1606. Thomas Jefferson drafted to grow best on land that produces high
the United States Declaration of Indepen- yields of corn. The soil must be well
dence on hemp paper and grew hemp him- drained, rich in nitrogen, and non-acidic.
self. Two centuries later, the United States Hemp prefers a mild climate, humid atmos-
and Canada put a stop cannabis cultivation phere, and a rainfall of at least 25-30 in (64-
in 1937 with the Marijuana Tax Act (this put 76 cm) per year. Soil temperatures must
a one dollar per ounce tax on any hemp reach a minimum of 42-46°F (5.5-7.7°C)
manufacturers), which was later lifted dur- before seeds can be planted.
ing the World War II effort.
1 The crop is ready for harvesting high
Global production of hemp has been declin- quality fiber when the plants begin to
ing since the 1960s, from over 300,000 short shed pollen, in mid-August for North Amer-
tons (272,160 t) of hemp fiber and tow in ica. Harvesting for seed occurs four to six
1961 to 69,000 short tons (62,597 t) in 1997. weeks later. Fiber hemp is normally ready to
China accounts for 36% of this production harvest in 70-90 days after seeding. A spe-
and 73% of grain production. This has cial machine with rows of independent teeth
dropped from 80,000 to 37, 000 short tons and a chopper is used. To harvest hemp for
(72,576 to 33,566 t) over the same period. textiles, specialized cutting equipment is re-
Around 1994, there were 23 paper mills quired. Combines are used for harvesting
235
An example of hemp and hemp

fibers. grain, which are modified to avoid machine acceptable shelf-life. Solvent extraction
parts being tangled up with bast fiber. methods are also emerging for removing oil
since they achieve higher yields. Such meth-
2Once the crop is cut, the stalks are al- ods use hexan, liquid carbon dioxide, or
lowed to rett (removal of the pectin ethanol as the solvent. Refining and deodor-
[binder] by natural exposure to the environ- izing steps may be required for cosmetics
ment) in the field for four to six weeks-de- manufacturers.
pending on the weather-to loosen the fibers.
While the stalks lay in the field, most of the 4 A dehulling step, which removes the
nutrients extracted by the plant are returned A crunchy skin from the seed using a crush-
to the soil as the leaves decompose. The ing machine, may be required. Modifications
stalks are turned several times using a special to existing equipment may be required to ad-
machine for even retting and then baled with equately clean the seeds of hull residues.
existing hay harvesting equipment. Bales are
stored in dry places, including sheds, barns,
or other covered storage. The moisture con- Fiber processing
tent of hemp stalks should not exceed 15%. 5 To separate the woody core from the
When planted for fiber, yields range from 2-6 bast fiber, a sequence of rollers (break-
short tons (1.8-5.4 t) of dry stalks per acre, or ers) or a hammermill are used. The bast
from 3-5 short tons (2.7-4.5 t) of baled hemp fiber is then cleaned and carded to the de-
stalks per acre in Canada. sired core content and fineness, sometimes
followed by cutting to size and baling. After
Grain processing cleaning and carding, secondary steps are
often required. These include matting for
3 Hemp seeds must be properly cleaned the production of non-woven mats and
3and dried before storing. Extraction of fleeces, pulping (the breakdown of fiber
oil usually takes place using a mechanical bundles by chemical and physical methods
expeller press under a nitrogen atmosphere, to produce fibers for paper making), and
otherwise known as mechanical cold press- steam explosion, a chemical removal of the
ing. Protection from oxygen, light, and heat natural binders to produce a weavable fiber.
is critical for producing a tasty oil with an Complete processing lines for fiber hemp
236
Industrial Hemp
have outputs ranging from 2-8 short fuel. The dirt and small chips of core are
tons/hour (1.8-7.2 t/hr). also used as a high nutrient soil additive.
Packaging The Future

6 The primary fiber is pressed into a high- Where it is legal, the hemp industry has
ly compressed bale, similar to other been growing at an annual growth rate of
fibers like cotton, wool, and polyester. 20%. Other potential uses are being devel-
Other products, such as horse bedding, are oped. For instance, hemp meal has demon-
packaged in a compressed bale. strated it can be used as a food ingredient
for aquiculture farms, specifically freshwa-
Paper making ter fish and shrimp. Even hemp beer has en-
7Bast fibers are usually used in paper, tered the Canadian market, though it is ex-
'which are put into a spherical tank called pected to remain a small part of beer sales.
a digester with water and chemicals. This Composite materials for the building indus-
mixture is heated for up to eight hours at el- try are also being investigated.
evated temperature and pressure until all Using hemp as a source of food may be-
fibers are separated from each other. Wash- come the largest application, since hemp
ing with excess water removes the chemi- seeds have much nutritional value. The seed
cals and the extracted binding components contains essential fatty acids, protein, calci-
(pectin). The clean fibers are then fed into a um, iron, zinc, and vitamins B, C, and E.
machine called a Hollander beater, which Hemp seed can be made into oil or flour and
consists of a large tub equipped with a can also be eaten whole, since it tastes simi-
wheel revolving around a horizontal axis. lar to pine nuts or sunflower seeds.
This beating step, which lasts for up to 12
hours, cuts the fibers to the desired length The outlook for hemp in the United States is
and produces the required surface roughness uncertain since it is still illegal to grow it.
for proper bonding. Bleaching chemicals are There are 10 states that passed legislation in
sometimes added during this step or to sepa- 1998 to allow growing hemp for research
rate tanks with the fibers. The bleached pulp purposes-Arkansas, California, Hawaii,
is then pumped to the paper machine or Illinois, Minnesota, Montana, New Mexico,
pressed to a dryness suitable for transporta- North Dakota, and Virginia-and a number
tion to a paper mill at another location. of other states are considering it. However,
federal law still prohibits growing industrial
hemp. The Drug Enforcement Agency will
Quality Control have to change its mind before any market
Hemp fibers are tested for tensile strength, can be developed in the United States. Once
fineness (fiber diameter), and the color is that happens, hemp could become a billion
recorded. Moisture content is recorded during dollar crop if there is enough investment and
every stage of the growing and production interest, prices are competitive, and high
process. The THC content of the plant is also quality products can be made. Processing
contiguously tested to make sure that the level technology also needs to be upgraded for
does not exceed the 0.3% mark. Research is higher value-added products.
still being conducted on the effects that hemp
would have on the industry. Set standards are Where to Learn More
constantly being altered and changed.
Books
Byproducts/Waste Schreiber, Gisela.The Hemp Handbook. Mu-
nich, Germany: Wilhelm Heyne Verlag
The harvested hemp not used is burned. GMBH & Co. KG, 1997.
During fiber processing, the core fiber is
saved and usually used to make paper, horse
bedding, or construction materials. Most Periodicals
hemp producers recycle the core fiber by re- Adams, John. "Dope Idea: U. Minnesota
moving dust, then baling and packaging. Could Research Uses of Industrial Hemp."
The dust can be pressed into pellets used for Minnesota Daily (March 30, 1999).
237
Anonymous. "Ag Study: Market for Hemp Ward, Joe. "Hemp Advocates Assail U.S.
is Thin." Dese Moines Register (January Report."Courier-Journal (January 26,
30, 2000). 2000).
Kane, Mari. "Hemp Industry Prepares to Other
Grow." In Business (November/December
1999). Geofrey G. Kime, President, Hempline Inc.
11157 Longwoods Rd., Delaware, Ontario,
Katz, Helena. "Smoking Out New Hemp Canada, NOL lEO. (519) 652-0440. http://
Markets." Marketing (November 22, 1999). www.hempline.com. info@hempline.com.
Nickson, Carole. "All-purpose Hemp a Re- North American Industrial Hemp Council,
tail Find." Home Textiles Today (November P.O. Box 259329, Madison, WI 53725-
15, 1999). 9329. (608) 258-0243. http://www.naihc.
org. info@naihc.org.
Sturgeon, Jeff. "Hemp-Gooods Shop Capi-
talizes on Plant's Versatility." The Roanoke Peter Dragla. A Maritime Industrial Hemp
Times (August 8, 1999). Product Marketing Study. Canadian Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Marketing, 1999.
von Roekel, Jr., Gertjan. "Hemp Pulp and http://agri.gov.ns.ca/pt/agron/hemp/hemp-
Paper Production." ATO-DLO Agrotechnol- masaf. htm (January 2001).
ogy (1994).
-Laurel M. Sheppard
von Steinberg, Bob. "In Canada, hemp
hasn't lived up to the hype." Star Tribune
(October 16, 1999).
238
Jawbrea ker
Background temperature to which the sugar is heated. Though originally a trade
Sugar cooked at a low temperature results in
The jawbreaker is a type of hard, round chewy candy; medium heating results in a name, the term
candy that is ideally so difficult to bite down soft candy; and sugar cooked at a high tem-
on that it must be sucked. Jawbreakers range jawbreaker became so
perature becomes hard candy, where the
from the size of a hazel nut to the size of a sugar is fully crystallized. The jawbreaker, widespread that it is
golf ball, and come in many flavors and col- being a type of hard candy, is similar to many
ors. They are popular with children, and often candies popular in the United States in the considered a generic
sold in vending machines. Though originally mid-nineteenth century. These hard candies
a trade name, the term jawbreaker became so name for any brand
were generally sold singly. A storekeeper
widespread that it is considered a generic pulled out the desired number of pieces from candy of this type.
name for any brand candy of this type. a loose bunch in a glass case or jar. By the
mid- 1 800s, there were close to 400 candy
History factories operating in the United States, turn-
ing out penny candy and other types.
Both written and pictorial records indicate
Egyptians prepared sweets with honey, sweet
fruits, spices, and nuts. Sugar was not known The jawbreaker was made famous by the Fer-
in Egypt, and the first written evidence of its rara Pan Candy Company of Forest Park, Illi-
appearance dates to A.D. 500 in India. The nois. The origin of the name, however, is ob-
method of making sugar from the boiled scure. The word jawbreaker first showed up
syrup of the sugarcane plant spread from in the English language in 1839, used to
India through the Arab world, and sugar was mean a "hard-to-pronounce word." Later, it
introduced to Europe sometime around A.D. was used as a slang or derogatory term for a
1100 It was first thought of as a spice, and dentist. Ferrara Pan was founded by an Ital-
even up through the fifteenth century, sugar ian immigrant to the United States, Salvatore
was so rare that it was used, for the most part, Ferrara, in 1919. Ferrara came to the United
only medicinally, prescribed in minute doses States in 1900. Though he was a skilled con-
by physicians. By the sixteenth century, fectioner, for years he worked various odd
widespread sugarcane cultivation and the jobs, including as dishwasher and as a rail-
technology for refining sugar developed suf- road foreman. Eventually, he saved up
ficiently that sugar was not such a precious enough money to open his own pastry shop
commodity. Small manufacturers produced in Chicago in 1908. Among his products was
crude candies in Europe at that time. The a kind of sugar-coated almond known in Italy
methods used were all simple, and produced as confetti. These became so popular that
the kinds of candies that could still be made Ferrara started a separate company to make
at home today. By the late eighteenth centu- them. In 1919, Ferrara teamed up with his
ry, entrepreneurs had developed candy-mak- two brothers-in-law, and founded the Ferrara
ing machinery, and more complex candies Pan Candy Company. The new corporation
were made and on a greater scale. focused on making candies in the hot pan and
cold pan process. Ferrara Pan produced many
Candies are distinguished in broad categories well known confections, including Boston
by their hardness, and this corresponds to the Baked Beans and Red Hots, as well as its
239
During the hot panning process,

sugar is slowly crystallized into original Jaw Breakers. These candies became portant. Candy-making pans are little like
balls that grow into jawbreakers. so popular that the earlier meanings of the pans found in an ordinary kitchen. They are
term jawbreaker disappeared, and it began to huge spherical copper kettles with a wide
be applied to all candies of this type. There mouth. The pans rotate constantly over a gas
are many manufacturers of jawbreakers flame so the sugar inside is kept tumbling.
today, though Ferrara Pan remains the lead- The worker who makes candy in using these
ing maker of hot pan candies in the world. pans is known as a panner.
Raw Materials
Pouring the sugar
The crucial ingredient in the jawbreaker is
sugar. All other ingredients form only a tiny A worker puts granulated sugar into the
percentage of the finished candy. Jawbreak- pan while the pan heats over its gas
ers use natural and artificial flavors and a flame. Each grain of sugar in the pan will
variety of artificial colors. Manufacturers eventually become a jawbreaker as it crys-
may also add calcium stearate, a binding tallizes, and other grains crystallize around
agent, and a wax such as carnauba wax, to it in a spherical pattern. The panner begins
provide a shiny, polished surface. this process by filling a beaker with hot liq-
uid sugar. Using a ladle, the panner careful-
ly pours the liquid sugar into the pan along
The Manufacturing its edges. The liquid sugar adheres to the
Process sugar grains, and the jawbreakers begin to
Jawbreakers are made by the hot pan grow. But this is a lengthy process. With the
process, and the type of pan used is very im- pans continually rotating, the panner keeps
24 0
Jawbreaker
adding liquid sugar at intervals over a period a single layer at this point. The bagging ma-
of 14-19 days. In total, the panner may add chine forms the bags out of this material,
liquid sugar more than 100 times. The pan- fills them, and then seals them. The plastic
ner or another worker inspects the jawbreak- may be imprinted with the logo of the candy
ers visually, to make sure the candies are manufacturer and any other necessary infor-
growing perfectly round, and not lopsided. mation. The machine unwinds a section of
plastic from the roll and pulls it across a
Adding other ingredients form that causes the plastic to fold length-
wise in two. Heated jaws press along the
2 Most jawbreakers are colored only in the fold and melt the two sides together, form-
2outer layers. The panner adds the color ing the side seam. The folded plastic is then
and flavor ingredients to the pan when the drawn upwards again, and another pair of
jawbreakers are almost their finished size. heated jaws clamp the bottom, forming an-
The coloring and flavoring are pre-mea- other seam. Now the machine automatically
sured into a small bottle or beaker, and the cuts the top of the bag and holds it open.
panner pours them in carefully along the The pre-measured amount of jawbreakers
edge of the pan. As the pan rotates, all the from the measuring machine drops in, and
jawbreakers in the pan receive the coloring more heated jaws then clamp the bag shut
and flavoring equally. along the top. The filled and sealed bags
then drop onto a conveyor belt. Workers
Polishing take them off the belt and toss them into
After approximately two weeks, the jaw- packing boxes. At this point the jawbreakers
3 breakers have reached their desired di- are ready for distribution or storage.
ameter, and they are removed from the hot
pan to a polishing pan. This pan looks es-
sentially the same as the hot pan. A worker Quality Control
pours the jawbreakers into the polisher and Quality control is generally simple for jaw-
sets it to rotate. Food-grade wax is added, breakers. They are a relatively pure product,
and coats each individual candy as the pol- since they are close to 100% sugar. Workers
isher revolves. After polishing, the jaw- rely on visual inspection to make sure a
breakers are finished, and are now ready for batch of jawbreakers is forming correctly.
packaging. Since the process of making these candies
takes about two weeks, and the pans are
Measuring open, workers have many opportunities to
observe the jawbreakers and see that they
4The first step of packaging is to measure are shaped right. Each day, a worker may re-
the jawbreakers into small batches. This move several jawbreakers from the batch in
is done by a measuring machine. A worker process and break them open. The crys-
loads the finished jawbreakers onto a tilted talline structure inside should look like con-
ramp. All the different colors can be mixed centric rings. Workers also do a taste test.
together at this point, so that the small batch- Making jawbreakers is a process that re-
es hold an assortment. The jawbreakers roll quires little technology, and quality control
down and fall into the central chute of the does not demand any elaborate chemical or
measuring machine. From the chute, the can- physical analysis.
dies fall into trays that are arranged on spiral
arms around the central chute. Each tray will
only hold a specific weight, for example one Byproducts/Waste
pound. As soon as the weight is reached, the
tray swings out of the way and the next tray If quality control reveals any defective jaw-
loads. As the top trays fill, the bottom trays breakers, they cannot be melted down and
dump into the bagging machine. reused. Since the sugar is crystallized
throughout the product, it would have to be
ground down. So there may be a small
Bagging amount of waste in the process, if a portion
5 Bagging is done automatically on a large of the product has to be thrown out. Other-
machine that holds a wide spool of thin wise, the manufacturing process creates no
plastic on a revolving drum. The plastic is in byproducts.
24 1
Where to Learn More

Books
Broekel, Ray. The Great American Candy
Bar Book. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Com-
pany, Inc., 1982.
Mintz, Sydney W. Sweetness and Power.
New York: Penguin Books, 1985.
-Angela Woodward
24 2
Kaleidoscope
The kaleidoscope makes magic with light variations use more mirrors. Two mirrors David Brewster calculated
and mirrors. It may be considered a child's have the advantage of producing a centered
toy (or a toy for all ages), but it is also a pattern; multiple mirrors split and duplicate that 24 fragments of glass
simple optical device with technical applica- the image many times over. The kaleido- in the object box of a
tions for designers and pattern-makers. scope is infinitely entertaining because the
Greek words are the source of the name; it patterns and combinations are endless and are kaleidoscope could create
comes from kalos, eidos, and skopios mean- not permanent unless photographed.
ing beautiful, form, and view, respectively. more than 1.4 x 1033
History fleeting views.
Background
Although the ancient Greeks, including the
The body of the kaleidoscope has two main mathematician Ptolemy, had contemplated
parts, the viewing tube (with an eyepiece at the effects of abutting multiple mirrors, the
one end) and the object box or case at the kaleidoscope is the creation of one man.
opposite end of the tube. The object box is a David Brewster (1781-1868) was born in
thin, flat box made of two glass disks and a Scotland and educated to become a minister
band circling the edges and holding the at the University of Edinburgh. University
disks and the objects enclosed. Those ob- studies exposed him to the wonders of sci-
jects are fragments of colored glass, beads, ence, however, and he abandoned the
tinsel, or other reflective materials. church in favor of studying the properties of
The outer disk of the object box is ground so light. He became an expert in polarization of
it diffuses the incoming light; that is, it acts light (the linear and planar properties of
like a screen. The viewing tube has a glass light), reflection of light using metal, and
eyepiece at one end; it may be ordinary glass light absorption. For his scientific discover-
or an optical lense with magnifying proper- ies, Brewster was elected a fellow of the
ties. Inside the tube, three strips of mirrors Royal Society (Britain's leading scientific
are joined to form a triangle; the angles of organization) in 1815 and knighted in 1831.
the mirrors also affects the view through the
kaleidoscope. Typically, they are angled at Brewster invented and patented the kaleido-
either 450 or 600. When the object box is scope in 1816. He described its structure and
turned or tapped, the glass or objects inside operations in a 174-page scientific paper ti-
move and tumble freely. As the viewer looks tled Treatise on the Kaleidoscope. In his trea-
through the eyepiece toward a light source, tise, Brewster calculated that 24 fragments of
the mirrors produce symmetrical order out of glass in the object box of a kaleidoscope
the tumbling objects and multiply them six, could create more than 1.4 x 1033 fleeting
eight, or more times depending on the angles views. He also described the most effective
of the mirrors. combinations of colors for kaleidoscopes
based on light properties. In the 1840s, he
A variation of the kaleidoscope-the teleido- used two lenses to produce a three-dimen-
scope-replaces the object box with another sional effect in creating the stereoscope. He
lens that allows the viewer to look at a distant was also a leading advocate of the flat Fres-
object and view it in multiples. Still other nel lens adopted by the British for lighthous-
243
es and was credited with saving thousands of made of material that is compatible with the
lives by protecting vessels against ship- viewing tube. The eyehole or peephole and
wrecks. Brewster taught at the University of the two faces of the object case are usually
Edinburgh and the University of St. Andrews made of plastic or glass. The objects in the
in Scotland, was one of the first editors of the box can be fragments of rock or minerals,
Encyclopedia Britannica, and published gemstones, beads, glass or plastic ampules
many books and scientific papers. (filled or unfilled), shells, bits of glass, bits
of metal, tiny trinkets, or any combination
Following its invention in 1816, the kaleido- of these. The objects can be chosen based on
scope grew in popularity around western similarity or variety in color. Inside the tube,
Europe, and the first one to appear in the mirrors are essential for forming the images.
United States was reported in 1870. It be- Tape holds them together, and some kind of
came a favorite toy for children but also an padding or stuffing like newspaper, cotton,
entertainment for adults in parlor games like or styrofoam keeps the mirrors from rattling
viewing stereoscopic photographs and play- against the inside of the tube. Tape can also
ing charades. The most famous kaleido- be used to hold the endcaps and object box
scopes, other than Brewster's originals, in place. Other connectors or fastening ma-
were made by Charles G. Bush of Boston. terials, attachments, and trims can be made
The Bush kaleidoscope was constructed of a to match the look of the kaleidoscope.
viewing tube of banded black cardboard, a
brass wheel to turn the object box, and a
wooden stand. It was the objects that made Design
Bush's version unique (and a valuable col-
lectible today). He used 35 objects of vari- The designer of the kaleidoscope chooses the
ous colors and shapes, but some were filled size, materials for the case, orientation of the
with liquid containing air bubbles. The air mirrors, type of object case or rotating wheel,
bubbles moved through the liquid even and objects to shape the views. All of these
when the observer held the object case still. choices affect the price of the kaleidoscope
Bush secured the patents for the liquid-filled (to produce as well as purchase) as much as
objects (ampules), for his method of adding the kind of images the designer is trying to
and subtracting objects without taking the create. Miniature kaleidoscopes that can be at-
box completely apart, and for stands and tached to a key chain to those as tall as a per-
other kaleidoscope accessories. son have been made. Cases can be manufac-
tured of simple materials like paper, plastic,
As a tool for designers, the kaleidoscope and wood; many varieties of metals are cho-
produces ranges of colors and patterns used sen from brass to sterling silver and gold-plat-
to create rugs, stained glass, jewelry, archi- ed models. If the kaleidoscope end is a rotat-
tectural patterns, wallpaper, woven tapes- ing wheel, that wheel may be made of
tries, and ideas for painters. The kaleido- gemstones, stained glass, thin slices of agate
scope fell out of popular interest in the early and other minerals and rocks, and more. Ob-
twentieth century, but it revived in the late ject boxes may be filled with crystals, glass
1970s when new styles and the collectible containing embedded threads (laticcino
character of antique kaleidoscopes fired the glass), baubles, gemstones, seashells, chips of
curiosity of new generations. Bush's kalei- glass, or liquid-filled capsules (ampules).
doscope with the liquid-filled objects sold in Kaleidoscopes can also use light sources or
1873 for $2.00; collectors in the early twen- light filters other than natural light. Electronic
ty-first century willingly pay over $1,000. scopes, oil-suspension scopes, polarized light
scopes, and projector scopes are examples.
Rawv Materials Designers may have an individual style, a
The types of materials that can be used to material they prefer to work with, a particu-
make kaleidoscopes are almost as endless as lar type of image or view they want to cre-
the images its mirrors produce. The viewing ate, or objectives related to pleasing their
tube can be made of paper, cardboard, plas- customers. Some are made to be ideal gifts,
tic, acrylic, wood, plexiglass, brass, copper, and some are unique creations for collec-
sterling silver, and other metals and materi- tors. Again, many issues and ideas may mo-
als. The endcap containing the eyehole is tivate the kaleidoscope designer. Interna-
244
Kaleidoscope
tionally known designer Carolyn Bennett equilateral triangle (a triangle with sides of
makes kaleidoscopes from acrylics. Her equal length and internal angles that are all
viewing tubes are often square or rectangu- 600). By connecting every other dot out of
lar and look like interesting sculptures from the six subdivisions of the circle, the outline
the outside as well as producing gorgeous of the three mirrors can be drawn and the
images within. To keep costs down, she uses width of the mirrors is measured. About
stock sizes of plastics and other materials, 0.13-0.25in (0.32-0.64cm) is subtracted
but the design always reflects the environ- from the width of each mirror to allow for
ment or the character of the collector or de- the thickness of the mirror. Three pieces are
signer over the ease of manufacture. About used to create a clear image, although the
half of her designs are made to suit the col- maker can choose many other configura-
ors and budgets of customers that include tions. The lengths of the mirror are equal to
museums and corporations; her designs the length of the tube minus the space at the
made for stores suit her artist's eye with end of the tube for the object chamber. On
some consideration for engineering aspects the order of 0.5-lin (1.27-2.54 cm) should
and constructability. be allowed for a basic, hand-held kaleido-
scope.
Kaleidoscopes have generated a vocabulary
describing their light-adjusting capabilities, 2The kaleidoscope maker can cut his or
materials, and construction. Dichromatic 2her own mirrors or have them cut at a
glass makes different colors depending on glass shop. First-surface mirror with the sil-
the angle light strikes it. Flashed glass is a vering on the surface is usually chosen.
mirror made of two colors, one overlying the Next, the mirrors are taped together to fit in-
other. The oil- suspension scope contains oil side the viewing tube. This is done by fitting
in the object case along with bits of glass or the mirrors together with one hand imitating
other materials that float in the oil. Slumped the tube and with the other free to tape. The
glass is heated until it bends; pieces of mirrors are aligned so the edge of one mirror
slumped glass are held in the object box of is seated on the surface or face of the adja-
some designs. Hot glass is scrap glass that is cent one, which in turn has its edge seated
heated until it fuses and then painted. The on the face of the third. If the mirrors are
teleidoscope (combination of a telescope and connected edge to edge rather than edge to
kaleidoscope) replaces the object case with face, the image will be skewed. With the
another lens so the tree or bird viewed three mirrors held together, tape is wound
through the teleidoscope is reflected in mul- around the outside in a spiral.
tiples. These terms and many others charac-
terize the variety available in kaleidoscopes. 3 The endcap with the eyehole is made by
cutting out a circle as large as the outer
diameter of the viewing tube from a material
The Manufacturing that matches or is compatible with the mate-
Process rial forming the tube. A concentric, smaller
The kaleidoscope described in this section is circle is cut out of the end cap, and a piece
a simple version, and many of the materials of plastic is taped or glued to hold it over the
are not itemized in detail. As the sections opening on the inside of the cap. This hole
above suggest, the choice available to bud- can be left uncovered, but a clear covering is
ding kaleidoscope designers is almost with- a good safety precaution to keep any objects
out limits; and, although some kaleido- from the box or the inside of the tube from
scopes (especially toys) are mass-produced, falling into the viewer's eye. Acrylic, mylar,
the "manufacturing" of a kaleidoscope is acetate, or an optical lense can be used for
creative and artistic. the peephole. The endcap can then be care-
fully glued or taped to the end of the tube; in
The inner diameter of the tube determines more elaborate designs, these are formally
the size of the mirrors that will be insert- made into fittings that can be screwed on or
ed. The tube is selected or made, and the specially mounted to the tube.
inner circle is drawn on a piece of paper. A
compass is used to bisect the circle and sub- 4With the viewing end now closed, the
divide it into six equal parts to measure and maker slides the assembled set of mirrors
plan a system of three mirrors forming an into the tube. If the triangle of mirrors rattles
245
Differing angles of the mirrors cre-

ate different views through the
kaleidoscope.
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
9Q0
/
/
/
/
/
in the tube, it is taken out, and paper, fabric, side the mirrors to secure them, but they are
or other protective material is wrapped likely to be off center, which, again will
around the outside of the mirrors until they skew the image. The mirrors are pushed in to
fit securely. Plastic styrofoam "popcorn" or abut the endcap and to leave space at the
pieces of paper can be pushed down along- other end of the tube for the object box.
246
Kaleidoscope
5 The drawing of the inner diameter of the kaleidoscope factory comes from packing
5tube that was made previously van now boxes that are also recycled.
be used to make plastic pieces for the two
ends of the object box. A circle of clear Quality Control
plastic is cut out and inserted in the tube to
fit against the ends of the mirrors; it must fit Safety for employees is a critical issue. If
so that it is perpendicular to the tube walls. plastics or acrylics are used, acrylic solvents
The distance between this piece of plastic are necessary, and adequate ventilation must
and the open end of the tube is the thickness be provided around each worker in accor-
of the chamber. After measuring this thick- dance with regulations by the Occupational
ness, the maker cuts a piece of cardboard Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)
that is as wide as the chamber thickness and and the Environmental Protection Agency
as long as the inner circumference of the (EPA), both Federal agencies. Other safety
tube. The maker softens the cardboard by issues involve equipment mechanics; band-
working it between the fingers so it can be saws may be used particularly to cut parts
wound around the inside of the tube. It for prototypes, and a sonic welder that is
should be tested to fit smoothly, then taken noisy and is used to seal liquid chambers is
out, glued, and affixed in the tube. This operated inside a box insulator. Plastic and
cardboard piece holds the inner plastic end lengths of mirror have sharp edges, and care
of the object box in place, and it also needs to be taken in handling them.
smooths out any gaps in that plastic piece so Regulations concerning the quality of the
they can't be seen. The outer plastic circle is mirrors and lenses are also checked. The
then cut. This may also be made of clear lens must be firmly attached to guarantee
plastic or it can be sandpapered to make the that no objects are able to fall into the eye.
surface translucent. If it is left clear or trans- Also chips or fractures in the mirrors must
parent, part of the outside world will show be replaced with new materials. The object
through the object case. A translucent finish box is also checked to make sure that any
will blur the incoming light (and its image) ampules are not leaking.
so the inner beads are the objects in focus.
6 The kaleidoscope maker can now begin The Future

Vadding beads or other materials to the In the early 1970s, kaleidoscopes experi-
object case. As the descriptions above sug- enced a rebirth in interest that then had
gest, almost any colorful items can be cho- smaller peaks and valleys in the following
sen as the objects. The maker adds beads or 30 years. In the twenty-first century, kalei-
objects to the case and peeks through the doscopes seem to have a well-established
viewing end to check the color balance. following as an art form, potential gifts, and
When the right combination of objects is se- objects of curiosity for children of all ages.
lected, the frosted end circle is taped or Conventions held by the Brewster Society
glued in place. For this simple kaleidoscope, are an excellent measure of the kaleido-
the object case is not twisted relative to the scope's well-being; over 30 shops, countries
viewing tube. Instead, the whole tube is ro- including Japan and Switzerland, and hun-
tated to change the images. dreds of manufacturers and aficionados
meet annually to support Sir David Brew-
ster's invention and exchange ideas. Society
Byproducts/Waste members, like other hobbyists and enthusi-
asts, firmly believe in the infinite variations
Kaleidoscope-making generates little waste. that are possible in the kaleidoscope which
The manufactured versions are made to
they call "candy for the eye."
strict specifications so tubes and mirrors are
cut to those standards. Some materials (par-
ticularly plastics) can be reground if they are Where to Learn More
faulty and recycled. Some wastage occurs in
the beads and items used for the object Books
cases. A company like C. Bennett Scopes, Baker, Cozy. Through the Kaleidoscope...
Inc., takes spare beads to schools for use in And Beyond. Annapolis, MD: Beechcliff
art projects. The majority of waste at a Books, 1987.
24 7
Baker, Cozy, and Sara Macfarland.Kaleido- Kripalani, Manjeet. "A Rather Strange Ob-
scopes: Wonders of Wonder. Concord, CA: ject." Forbes 150, no. 13, (December 7,
C & T Publishing, 1999. 1992): 232.
Bennett, Carolyn, and Jack Romig. Kalei- Novak, William. "Confessions of a Kaleido-
doscopes. New York: Workman Publishing, scope Collector." Forbes (May 17, 1999):
1994. 348.
Boswell, Thom, ed. The Kaleidoscope
Book: A Spectrum of Spectacular Scopes to
Make. New York: Sterling Publishing Com- Other
pany, Inc., 1992.
The Brewster Society. P.O. Box 1073,
Newlin, Gary. Simple Kaleidoscopes: 24 Bethesda, MD 20817. http://www.kaleido.
Spectacular Scopes to Make.New York: com/brewster.htm.
Sterling Publishing Company, 1996.
C. Bennett Scopes, Inc. 609 West State
Periodicals Street Media, PA 19063. (800) 272-6737.
info@cbennettscopes.com. http://www.cben-
Andrews, Jeanmarie. "The Kaleidoscope." nett scopes.com.
Early American Homes 28, no. 6 (Decem-
ber 1997): 35. -Gillian S. Holmes
248
Litmus Paper
Litmus paper is the most recognized member of pH in which they can survive. For exam- The simple pH scale
of chemical indicators. Like most pH paper, ple, the acid-base ratio in the human body is a
litmus changes color when exposed to an delicate balance. Even a slight change in the ranges from 0-14 with 0
acidic or basic solution. The simple pH scale blood's pH in either direction can result in being the most acidic, 7
ranges from 0-14 with 0 being the most death. Plants are also susceptible to minute
acidic, 7 being neutral, and 14 being the pH changes in the soil. That is why soil that being neutral, and 14
most basic or alkaline. Litmus paper is com- is too acidic for a plant is neutralized with
monly used in educational science classes. calcium carbonate fertilizer, a base. being the most basic or
Because it has such wide recognition, it has alkaline.
become a cultural reference in our society as The simple pH scale ranges from 0-14 with
well. It is common to use the term litmus test 7 being neutral. Numbers less than 7 are
when referring to a test in which a single fac- considered to be acidic and numbers greater
tor determines the outcome. than 7 are considered basic. The smaller the
number the more acidic the solution. This
means that a substance with a pH of 1 would
Background have a greater ability to donate a proton to
another molecule or ion than a substance
Litmus paper allows an observer the oppor- with a pH of 4. For instance, sulfuric acid is
tunity to assess a sample's pH. pH is a way very effective at transferring a hydroxide
to characterize the relative acidic or basic ion, while acetic acid (vinegar) is not.
nature of a substance based on its hydrogen Therefore, sulfuric acid is considered to be a
ion concentration. An ion is an atom that strong acid and acetic acid is considered a
carries an electrical charge and is therefore weak acid. Similarly, there are also strong
reactive with its environment. An acidic and weak bases. A strong base like potassi-
substance releases hydrogen ions (H+) in um hydroxide, with its more abundant hy-
water. Acids are known as proton donors droxide ions, will more readily accept pro-
because the H+ ion has one extra positively tons than a weak base like ammonia. The
charged proton trying to stabilize itself by greater the number, the stronger the base.
combining with a negatively charged ion. A
basic substance releases a hydroxide ion While litmus paper is effective at indicating
(OH-) in water. Bases are called proton ac- whether a substance is acidic or basic, it
ceptors because the hydroxide ion will ac- cannot report an exact numerical pH value.
cept a proton to stabilize itself. Interestingly Universal indicators or pH meters are used
enough, when acids and bases are com- for this purpose. Universal indicators are
bined, the result is a neutral salt. For exam- composed of a variety of materials, each
ple, a strong acid like hydrochloric acid changing different colors at different pH
combined with sodium hydroxide (a strong values which allows the observer to deter-
base) results in a neutralization reaction mine more precisely where the solution in
with the byproducts sodium chloride (table question falls on the pH scale. Universal in-
salt) and water. dicators can be impregnated onto paper and
made into pH paper or they can be used in
pH is an important biological indicator be- the liquid form. A reference color card is
cause most life forms have a very small range provided with each universal indicator that
24 9
correlates a particular color with a pH range. solvents in the United States is a sulfate-
Generally speaking, most universal indica- either sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate.
tors are accurate to within two values on the
pH scale. For example, a green result could The ability of litmus paper to change color
indicate a pH from 8-9. This means univer- when exposed to an acid or base is a result
sal indicators can determine the pH of a of litmus paper being infused with lichens.
sample quantitatively within a certain range. In the plant world, lichens are unique in that
they are actually two distinct organisms, a
pH meters allow for even more precise fungus and an alga, living as one. Botanists
quantification by using electricity to deter- classify lichens as fungi because it is the
mine a numerical pH value. A probe is put fungi that are considered to be responsible
in the test sample and a current of electricity for sexual reproduction. However, each
flows through the probe. Since electricity is lichen has its own distinct name. Approxi-
composed of electrons, which have a nega- mately 15,000 different types of lichens
tive charge, the force of current flowing have been identified. Lichens can be found
through the meter is directly proportional to growing on rocks, trees, and walls, in the
the hydrogen ion concentration. The more soil and even under water in virtually all
H+ ions in the solution, the more current types of climates. Lichens are commonly
will flow through the meter. This number is used as gauge for environmental quality be-
then converted into a numerical pH value cause they are sensitive to various pollu-
that can be read by the observer. tants. Several varieties of lichen are used to
produce litmus including rocella tinctoria,
native to the Mediterranean, and lecanora
History tartarea, a common lichen in the Nether-
The term litmus comes from an Old Norse lands. In fact, the Netherlands is one of the
word meaning "to dye or color." This is fit- largest producers of litmus paper products.
ting since the lichens used to make litmus
have also been used to dye cloth for hun- Design
dreds of years. Very little information is
available about the beginnings of litmus. Most litmus paper and other types of pH in-
There is some data that suggest that litmus dicators are sold through scientific supply
paper was developed by J.L. Gay-Lussac, a houses. Litmus paper is available in both red
French chemist during the early 1800s. Gay- and blue varieties. The natural color for lit-
Lussac is best known for his Law of Com- mus paper is blue. When put in an acidic so-
bining Volumes, which states that whenever lution the blue paper turns red. Red litmus
gases are formed or react with one another paper is first mixed with an acid when it is
at a constant temperature and pressure, their made. This causes the paper to appear red.
volumes are in small whole number ratios. When put in the presence of a base, the
In other words, when gases combine, they paper returns to its natural blue color.
always do so in the same way provided that
the temperature and pressure stays the same. The Manufacturing
Process
Rawv Materials The production of litmus paper has many
features in common with paper manufactur-
The primary raw materials used for making ing. In this process, the wood pulp is con-
litmus paper are wood cellulose, lichens, verted to paper, the paper is infused with the
and adjunct compounds. Litmus paper, as its lichen solution, and the paper is dried and
name implies, is primarily composed of packaged.
paper. The paper used to make litmus paper
must be free of contaminants that could Converting wood pulp
change the pH of the system it is measuring.
Like most paper, litmus paper is made from In this first step, wood is shredded and
wood cellulose. The wood is treated with mixed with a solvent and water under
solvents prior to paper manufacturing in steam pressure. The resulting mass is called
order to remove resinous material and lignin wood pulp. The pulp is spread on a belt of
from the wood. One of the most common wire mesh and passed over rollers. This cre-
250
Litmus Paper
The pH scale.
ates a thin layer that can be dried and made ing white paper in an infusion of the litmus
into usable paper. A wooden box beneath mixture mentioned above. The paper is then
the belt catches water runoff. Since there is carefully dried in open air. Red litmus is
salvageable fiber in this water, it is re-mixed similarly prepared but a small percentage of
with the pulp. sulfuric or hydrochloric acid is added to
cause it to turn red.
2 To speed up the drying process, air suc-
tion pumps beneath the belt are used. As
the paper moves along the belt it passes Packaging
under a mesh or wire cylinder called a After the paper is prepared, it is sent to a
dandy roll. The purpose of the dandy roll is final packaging station. Litmus paper is
to give the paper a weave or watermark that typically sold in pre-cut strips. Manufactur-
identifies the paper grade and the manufac- ers place the strips in re-sealable plastic
turer. The paper continues on its journey vials. It is important that the packaging pre-
down the conveyor belt where it is pressed vents the strips from becoming exposed to
between two felt-covered rolls (couching moisture since any liquid that comes into
rolls) that force the fibers to bind together contact with the litmus paper could cause the
by expressing out additional water. indicator to change color. It is possible, al-
though not as common, to purchase litmus
3From these couching rolls the paper is paper in rolls that can be cut by the user.
pushed through two sets of smooth metal Manufacturers also supply written directions
press rolls leaving the paper with a smooth with every package of litmus paper so that
finish. The paper is completely dried by the user will know how to use the product
subjecting, it to heated rollers, cut by revolv- correctly. In the case of universal indicator
ing cutters and wound onto reels. papers or solutions, written instructions are
not enough. A color reference card is also
Infusion of lichens supplied so the user can match the test result
4To make the paper pH active, it is then to the reference card to determine the pH.
infused with an aqueous solution con-
sisting mostly of lichens. This is done by The Future
running the paper through a bath of the solu-
tion. It absorbs the solution and is then Litmus paper will most certainly continue to
passed to allow it to ferment and dry. be used extensively in education due to its
reasonable cost and ease of use. However,
5 The lichens are allowed to ferment in the some varieties of lichens are becoming ex-
presence of potassium carbonate and am- tinct. As a result, it is possible that manufac-
monia. After fermentation, the mass has a turers of litmus paper may switch to synthet-
blue color and is then mixed with chalk. ic materials in the future. This is already
Blue litmus paper is prepared by impregnat- being done by manufacturers of other types
25 1
of pH papers. Additionally, because litmus "Lichen." In Van Nostrand's Scientific En-

cannot give quantitative results, it cannot re- cyclopedia. 8th Edition. New York: Dou-
place other pH papers and pH meters. In glas M. Considine, 1995.
fact, the trend is to make pH indicators that
are even more accurate and less subjective. Other
One such trend is to utilize fiber optic
probes in pH meters in order to make them Botanical.com. http://www.botanical.com
even more sensitive. (January 2001).
Hanna Instruments Online. http://www.han-
Where to Learn More nainst.com (January 2001).
Books Kiwi Web Chemistry and New Zealand.
Brady, George S. Materials Handbook. 14th http://www.chemistry.co.nz (January 2001).
Edition. New York: McGraw Hill, 1997.
Precision Labs. 9889 Crescent Park Drive
Daub, William G., and William S. Seese. Westchester, OH. (513) 777-3034.
Basic Chemistry. 7th Edition. Upper Sad-
dle, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996. -Sandy Delisle and Perry Romanowski
LaRoe, Edward T. Our Living Resources.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Inte-
rior-National Biological Service, 1995.
252
Lollipop
Background While lollipops may be made at home, most Spangler Candy
people purchase inexpensive suckers at a
Lollipops, or suckers as some call them, are local store. They are beloved by both adults Company produces over
essentially hard candies with a short stick of and children. Children love them for their
some sort. The tightly wrapped white paper one billion Dum Dum
sweetness and novelty. Adults have increas-
stick serves as a handle, and the hard candy ingly turned to them to kick addictions to suckers a year, and the
lollipop is either sucked or bitten apart until nicotine, because the motion of taking the
consumed. Lollipops take an astonishing sucker in and out of the mouth mimics the world's largest lollipop
array of forms. There are the very small and motion of the hand when smoking. Manu-
popular "Dum Dum" lollipops with fruit and maker, Tootsie Roll
factured lollipops are consumed in huge
other flavors; the Tootsie Pop-slightly quantities. Spangler Candy Company pro- Industries, turns out 16
larger and filled with a chocolate chewy duces over one billion Dum Dum suckers a
center; the Blow Pop with its gum center; year, and the world's largest lollipop maker, million lollipops per day.
and very large suckers that take all day to Tootsie Roll Industries, turns out 16 million
eat-such as those often found at circuses lollipops per day.
and carnivals. No matter what size, the lol-
lipop is made primarily of sugar, water, corn
syrup, and flavorings. History
Lollipops are not complicated to make and It is difficult to know when lollipops were
do not really require special equipment for first made by home chefs. Charles Dickens
home production. Sugar-corn syrup solu- refers to candies on a stick in his novels of
tions are cooked until the concentration of the mid-nineteenth century. These sweet hard
the solution reaches a high level, and this candies were sometimes put on the end of
supersaturation of sugar remains upon cool- pencils and sucked on and were popular
ing. A gas or electric stove may be used, around the time of the American Civil War.
with the temperature monitored using a Older cookbooks make it clear that these lol-
hand-held candy thermometer until it reach- lypops were frequently made at home as hard
es 310°F (154°C), or what is referred to as candies that were simply dropped onto wax
the hard crack stage. When the concoction paper in globular form, with a wooden stick
is hot (and it is very hot-hot enough to se- inserted into the hot syrup until set. No molds
verely burn the skin) it is plastic or mal- were necessary and thus the lollipop forms
leable, and may be poured into molds that were rather haphazard. We cannot be certain
can be purchased in a variety of shapes. As which company first began to mass produce
the solution cools, it takes the shape of the these confections. However, it is known that
mold, becoming "glass-like," as it may be George Smith, a candymaker who liked to eat
broken or cracked like a piece of glass. The a competitor's chocolate caramels on a stick,
home lollipop-maker may add any desired attached a hard candy to a stick and referred
colors or flavorings just before the lollipop to this creation as a lollypop (named after a
is poured into the mold. Colorings and fla- favored racehorse of his named Lolly Pop).
vorings are commercially available. Recent-
ly, molds for domestic lollipop-makers have Dum Dum Lollipops were first manufac-
been developed and are easy to obtain. tured by the Akron Candy Company in
253
1924. Apparently, even at that early date process-it may take about nine hours to
marketers were wise to the fact that the melt 180,000 lb (81,650 kg) of sugar (a typi-
name meant everything-Dum Dum was cal amount brought in on the rail car). Once
believed to be a name that any kid could the sugar is dissolved into the hot water, the
say, and ask for by name. The Spangler sugary water is pumped into the pre-cooker.
Candy Company purchased that company in
1953 and continues to expand the line. By 2 Corn syrup, a key ingredient in the man-
1931, Tootsie Roll Industries had inserted -ufacture of lollipops, is also delivered by
their chewy Tootsie Roll into the center of huge trucks and pumped, in liquid form, into
the traditional lollipop, which is also still the pre-cooker. Eventually, there is 55% liq-
going strong. Refinements and variations on uid sugar and 45% corn syrup in the pre-
the traditional lollipop are myriad. Some cooker waiting to be heated.
have jawbreakers embedded in them, gum
in the center, sour centers, sizzling candies
inserted within, and a new twist within the 3 Once the corn syrup-liquid sugar mixture
last year is the lollipop inserted into a radio is in the pre-cooker, the solution is heat-
that turns on only when the lollipop is ed to around 228°F (1090C). The pre-cooker
sucked on. Sugar-free suckers are now pro- is essentially a set of coils through which the
duced, too, in order to help limit tooth sweet slurry is sent. The coils are heated by
decay. An interesting innovation to the tra- steam.
ditional sucker is the manufacture of flexi-
ble cellophane strips in place of the stiff 4This heated syrup is then pumped from
paper stick in order to prevent puncture of the pre-cooker and sent to the final
the child's mouth. Other developments have cooker where it is cooked under a vacuum
included lollipops impressed with Hal- for about four minutes to a temperature of
loween or other holiday motifs, so that some about 290°F (143°F). The vacuum is essen-
kinds of lollipops are manufactured only in tial to this phase as it removes the moisture
season. and heat from the candy. Large final cook-
ers can cook up to 150 lb (68 kg) of candy
in a batch.
Rawv Materials
The ingredients used in the production of 5After the candy is cooked and just be-
lollipops varies by manufacturer. The ingre- fore it is mixed, color, flavor, and citric
dients in a plain, hard-candy lollipop with acid or malic acid are added. (One flavor of
no special center include: water, sugar, corn lollipop is made at a time.) These flavors
syrup, flavorings (both natural and artifi- and colors are in liquid form and have been
cial), and malic or citric acid. The paper carefully pre-measured in a vial before
sticks are generally constructed using tight- being added, by hand, to the candy batch.
ly-wrapped bright white paper that has been Citrus acid and malic acid are extremely
bleached and coated with a fine layer of important to the flavor of these pops. Citrus
wax. Wrappers vary in style. Some are clear acid promotes the flavor of the citrus-based
cellophane, while others are made of printed flavored lollipops and cuts the excessive
and waxed paper. sweetness as well. Malic acid is used to en-
hance the flavor of non-citrus flavors. The
The Manufacturing candy batch, now with flavor and color
added, is thoroughly mixed using two huge
Process arms that push the candy around and lift it
1 Lollipops are made primarily from sugar up, mimicking human kneading. Mixing
and corn syrup. Most manufacturers pro- not only thoroughly distributes flavor and
duce lollipops in enormous quantities and color but reduces temperature and removes
the raw materials are brought into the facto- air bubbles produced from cooking and
ry in bulk. First, dry sugar is brought into mixing. Human touch (using clean gloves)
the plant in huge rail cars called gondola is essential in order to feel the batch to en-
cars. These cars are attached to a liquidizer. sure that the candy is at the right consisten-
The sugar drops down into 180°F (82°C) cy and the right temperature to undergo the
water and is dissolved. This is a lengthy next step, extrusion.
254
Lollipop
A diagram depicting the manu-

6 Now the candy is made ready to be 7The candy rope is then sent to the form- facturing steps involved in making
formed into a lollipop. The cooling ing machine, which presses the heads lollipops.
candy is sent to the batch roller, which ex- into a spherical shape and inserts a paper
trudes the candy through cones and rolls it stick at the same time. The machine is capa-
into a fat rope. Then, the batch is sent to the ble of forming 1,000 pops per minute. The
sizing wheels, which reduces the rope to a lollipops are then cooled in a cooling drum
smaller size. that rotates slowly while the pops are ex-
255
posed to cool air. After four minutes, they temperatures or when the batch reaches a
are at room temperature and come out one certain weight, so these machine-tripping de-
end of the cooling drum. vices must be carefully maintained as well.
Operators use their eyes to discard heads that
8 After the lollipops cool, they are moved are not properly filled out (a problem in
Oby conveyor belts and dropped into the pressing the head) or whose sticks are not
wrapping machine. The pops are automati- properly inserted. Random checks on suck-
cally wrapped and sent to either a boxing ers are performed regularly as well.
operation or a bagging operation, depending
on how they are to be retailed.
Byproducts/Waste
9 Some companies purchase their sticks
9 for the pops. Others manufacture their Any candy that falls onto the floor cannot be
own. Manufacturing of the tightly wrapped consumed by humans. It is usually sent to a
sticks often occurs at the same plant as the landfill. Candy that is determined to be infe-
candy manufacture. First, a roll of paper rior in shape or color is generally ground up,
goes into a cutting machine that cuts 2.5-in melted down, filtered, and pumped back
(6.4-cm) strips that are 15 in (38 cm) long. into the pre-cooker so that it may be re-used
Then, the strips move into a large drum in in a lollipop.
which water is applied. The paper is then
rolled like a pencil, and the roll becomes The Future
tighter and tighter. It is finally cut, dried,
and waxed with a fine coat so that it will not While each company produces new flavors
dissolve when exposed to human saliva. in different ways, one company revealed
how it actively develops new flavors that
sell well immediately upon introduction.
Quality Control New flavors are developed using a hedonic
There are two places for quality control-in taste panel, which tries a variety of potential
the laboratory and on the floor of the plant. new flavors. Each member of the panel
The labs check the quality of all raw ingre- ranks these possible products in a variety of
dients sent to the manufacturing floor. They categories based on whether they like or dis-
check the sugar quality and make sure they like it extremely. Once the potential flavors
have what was ordered. The chemists per- are narrowed down to a few, trained panels
form heat tests on the corn syrup, since of tasters are asked to test them again as a
poorly processed syrup tums brown and can group. Then, decisions are made based on
ruin the color of the lollipop. The laboratory the results of the two panels.
also pulls samples of the candy batch from
the cooker and analyzes the moisture con- Where to Learn More
tent, because too much corn syrup will make
the candy too malleable and it will melt in Other
warmer weather. Flavors and colors are Spangler Candy Company. http://www.span-
carefully checked and tested, and measured gler candy.com (December 19, 2000).
precisely for inclusion in the batch.
Tootsie Roll Industries, Inc. http://www.
In the factory, operators ensure that the ma- tootsie-roll.com (December 19, 2000).
chinery is clean and running properly. Some
machines turn off the processes at certain -Nancy E. V. Bryk
256
Matryoshka Doll
Background traditional Russian vegetable symbolizing The sets of matryoshka
the richness of the earth), and a fourth may
The matryoshka doll is a symbol of Russia carry a basket of strawberries (for the sweet- dolls may include as few
and its culture. It is truly a doll-a child's ness of the garden).
plaything-but it began its history just over as three or as many as 25
100 years ago as a highly collectible art Flowers are one of the most traditional
form. The matryoshka doll (or, simply, the themes with particular flowers representing
nests or dolls; historically,
matryoshka) is a nested doll with two halves the cities where the dolls are crafted; usual- sets containing up to
that can be pulled apart. The outer figure ly, the flowers are painted as designs on the
contains increasingly smaller versions of it- shawls and aprons of the matryoshka. The 1,800 dolls are known.
self. The largest figure is usually on the most highly prized artistic collectibles may
order of 2-12 in (5-30 cm) tall, although not have faces; instead, they tell a story, per-
larger ones up to several feet tall have been haps of a Russian fairytale, all around the
made. And the smallest may be very tiny- exterior. A different scene from the tale ap-
less than 0.25-in (0.6-cm) tall. pears on each nest; stories are also told in
the apron panels of traditional doll styles.
The painted image on the dolls is most often The sets of nested dolls may include as few
a woman wearing traditional Russian cos- as three or as many as 25 nests or dolls; his-
tume. The woman is a mother; the names torically, sets containing up to 1,800 dolls
Matryona and Matryoshka were common are known. A typical set contains three to
Russian country names for generations. twelve dolls.
Both come from the Latin root mater for
mother. So matryoshka has come to mean Souvenir and toy matryoshka also depict
"little mother" based on the idea that the many other kinds of images other than the
outer or largest doll holds her babies inside traditional Russian mother. Sets have been
like an expectant mother and that each made showing great Russian leaders (from
daughter in turn becomes a mother. They Vladimir Putin, the Russian president elect-
are symbols of fertility and motherhood and ed in 2000, back to the czar Peter the Great),
have a modified egg shape. household pets (with the dog usually the
largest and a cat, bird, fish, and mouse in-
From the largest doll to the smallest in a set, side), a traditional Santa Claus (called Saint
each resembles the others, but they are not Nicholas or Father Snow in Russia) with his
necessarily identical. The outer doll may wife and elves as inner dolls, many scenes
wear a costume that is red, the next one from Russian folk tales, or images of histor-
green, the third blue, and so forth. Or the ical landmarks like Saint Basil's Cathedral
costumes may be the same, but each doll in Moscow or the Hermitage Art Museum in
may carry something different in her hands. St. Petersburg. And the figures and scenes
For example, the outer doll may hold a loaf shown are not always Russian. Some ma-
of bread (a symbol of welcome in Russia), tryoshka are sets of American baseball or
the next may carry a bowl of salt (represent- football players or images of paintings from
ing welcome and the family's offering of its the Italian Renaissance. Russian artists are,
wealth to guests-salt was once very rare), for after all, eager to appeal to the buying
the third doll may hold several large beets (a public and eager to show the quality of their
257
artwork. Although the majority of matryosh- made at the Children's Education Workshop
ka show figures that are both Russian and and shows a mother carrying a red-combed
traditional, the origin of the nested doll is rooster-inside are her seven children, the
neither Russian nor particularly old. smallest being a sleeping, bundled baby.
Whether the first matryoshka was Japanese
History or Russian, Russian artists have clearly
made nested dolls a symbol and souvenir of
The "Russian" matryoshka doll came to Russia. Woodworking and turning is an an-
Russia from Japan at the end of the nine- cient Russian craft, and the first paintings by
teenth century. Little more than 100 years Maliutin all came from archaeological and
ago, Russia was experiencing an economic ethnographic (ethnic tradition specific to
boom and a rising sense of culture and na- different regions) sources. Embroidery,
tional identity. New artistic trends were de- clothes, historic dyes and colors, and peas-
veloping, and a "Russian style" was grow- ant culture were sources of inspiration for
ing and focusing on the revival of traditions him. Clothing for the dolls that are tradition-
that were in danger of being lost. In St. Pe- al motherly figures includes an apron, a
tersburg, Russia, in December 1896, an exhi- brightly colored scarf, an embroidered shirt,
bition of Japanese art opened. Among the and sarafan (the national dress of Russia).
exhibits was a doll depicting a Buddhist wise Lace, flowers, fruit and vegetables, tradi-
man named Fukuruma. The sage was shown tional embroidery patterns, and bright colors
as a bald-headed old man with a wooden and complicated designs are copied in detail
body that could be split at the waistline into by matryoshka painters.
two halves; nested inside were the images of
the man when he was younger and bearded The Children's Education Workshop was
and still with hair on his head. The doll came closed in the late 1890s, but the tradition of
from the island of Honshu; the Japanese the matryoshka simply relocated to Sergiyev
claim that they are the inventors of nested Posad, the Russia city known as a toy-mak-
dolls or matryoshka, but they also generous- ing center since the fourteenth century.
ly admit that the first nested dolls made on Sergiyev Posad is located about 45 mi (73
Honshu were carved and painted by a Russ- km) from Moscow and is the site of a fa-
ian monk. That first set of dolls showing mous monastery, the Trinity-St. Sergius
Fukuruma is in the Artistic Pedagogical Mu- Monastery. The founding monk, St. Sergius
seum of Toys (APMT) in Sergiyev Posad, a Radonezhsky, carved wooden toys himself,
city in Russia that is a cultural center for the using the rich woodlands surrounding the
making of matryoshka dolls. monastery for materials. His so-called
"Trinity" toys became famous among pil-
Meanwhile, the matryoshka began develop- grims who came to the monastery and were
ing its Russian identity thanks to an industri- even collected by generations of children of
alist named Savva I. Mamontov the czar. In the 1930s under the Soviet polit-
(1841-1918). Mamontov was also a patron ical system, Sergiyev Posad was renamed
of the arts and a believer in traditional and Zagorsk, and with the fall of the Soviet
nationalistic artistic expression. He estab- Union, the city reverted to its traditional
lished an art studio at his Abramtsevo estate name in 1991. With this long tradition of
near Moscow. This studio was also an inno- wooden toy-making, the artists of Sergiyev
vation and was the first of a number of Posad quickly adopted matryoshka with the
"artistic units" around the country where closing of the Children's Education Work-
folk craftsmen and professional artists shop. Dolls from this center are called
worked together to preserve the skills, tech- Sergiyev Posad or Zagorsk matryoshka.
niques, and traditions of Russian folk art in-
cluding peasant toys. Mamontov's brother, In 1900, Russia participated in the World
Anatoly Ivanovich Mamontov (1839-1905) Exhibition in Paris and entered various
created the Children's Education Workshop styles of matryoshka dolls. The nation's ex-
to make and sell children's toys. The first hibit won a medal and many admirers for
Russian matryoshka set worked by Vassily the nested dolls. The Russian Craftsmen
Zviozdochkin and painted by Sergei Mal- Partnership opened a shop in Paris, and, by
iutin (an illustrator of children's books) was 1911, matryoshka-or dolls la Russe-were
258
Matryoshka Doll
being sold to customers in 14 countries. gold leaf, and less often, watercolors. Lac-
Until about 1930, matryoshka dolls contin- quer and sometimes wax are used to provide
ued to be very individual. Under the Soviet protective layers on the painted artworks.
regime, emphasis shifted to the mass pro-
duction of nested dolls. In the 1980s, the
opening of Russia and the other Soviet Design
countries to the West introduced more free- The source pieces of wood dictate design
dom, and the "author's matryoshka," with somewhat in that they may limit the height,
the highly individual style of the particular diameter, thinness of the shells of the dolls,
artist, began to dominate again. Today, ma- and other factors. The master woodworkers
tryoshka dolls are collected much like paint- are extraordinarily skilled in choosing the
ings or icons on the reputation of the specif- right wood for the work. Although ma-
ic artist over the school or style. tryoshka dolls usually take one of several
basic shapes, the turner is free to choose all
Other major centers for the turning and aspects of shape and size. In painting, the au-
painting of matryoshka dolls are the city of thor's style dominates; that is, the individual
Semyonov, the Russian region of Nizhe- artist is able to select the theme, story, or
gorod (especially the villages of Polkhovsky character of the doll and to decorate it as he
Maidan and Krutets), and the Mordvinia, or she wishes. Design limitations vanished
Vyatka, and Tver' areas. The popularity of with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the
matryoshka painting has spread from Russia opening of Russia to the world marketplace.
to some of the other former republics of the
Soviet Union, particularly the Ukraine
(known for its delicately painted Easter The Manufacturing
eggs), Mari El, and Belarus. Process
Turning
Ravv Materials lIt is essential that the full set of ma-
Matryoshka dolls are made of wood from tryoshka be made from one piece of
lime, balsa, alder, aspen, and birch trees; wood because the expansion-contraction
lime is probably the most common wood characteristics and moisture content of the
type. These woods share softness, light wood are unique; making a set of dolls from
weight, and fine grain texture. In early different pieces of wood would result in a
spring, the trees for matryoshka-making are set that almost certainly would not fit to-
marked for cutting. They are felled in April gether properly. Matryoshka-making begins
when they are full of sap. After cutting, the with the smallest doll-the one is that is a
trees are stripped of most of their bark, al- solid piece and cannot be taken apart. This
though a few inner rings of bark are left to smallest figurine is shaped on a turning
bind the wood and keep it from splitting. lathe first, and her shape and size determine
The top and butt ends of the trunks are those of all the larger dolls that follow. The
smeared with sap to keep them from crack- bottom half of the next doll (the smallest
ing. The logs are stacked in piles in such a one that can be taken apart) is turned first.
way as to leave clearance between the logs The last portion of this lower half that is
so air can circulate. made is the ring fitting the bottom to the
top. When the ring on the lower half is fin-
The logs are aerated in the open for at least ished, the upper part of the matryoshka is
two years. A master woodworker decides made and the inset for the ring is carved.
when they are seasoned enough to be Each doll is turned at least 15 times.
worked. The tree trunks are cut into lengths
appropriate for the heights of the ma- The craftsman uses few tools, including the
tryoshkas to be made and transported to the turning lathe and a variety of woodcarving
woodworker's shop. knives and chisels of different lengths and
shapes. The woodworker completes his job
Raw materials for treating the worked dolls by putting the upper part of the matryoshka
before painting include oil to retain the doll on its lower half and allowing the wood
moisture and a starch-based glue primer. to dry. This tightens the ring to its upper fit-
The artist uses tempera paints, oil paints, ting so the halves of the doll will close se-
259
Matryoshka dolls.
curely. Turning the dolls on a lathe and siz- The painter is the next craftsman to work on
ing them to fit each other takes skill, intu- the matryoshka. Early matryoshkas were
ition, and a master woodworker's experi- painted with gouache, an opaque form of
ence. No measurements are made during the watercolor; today, high-quality tempera
manufacture of a set of dolls. (colloid-based paint like poster paint), oil,
and other paints (the same as those used by
Treating artists on canvas) are used to color the dolls.
Watercolors are also used, but watercolor
The worked doll is almost pure white be- dolls are more rare and expensive because
cause of the color of the source wood. watercoloring wood is a difficult technique.
She is oiled to retain moisture and prevent The painters are true artists who know the
cracking and left to cure over time. After character of the wood, the tradition of the
curing, she is cleaned thoroughly, and one or matryoshka and other wooden toys, and na-
more coats of starchy glue are painted over tional costume and folk tales, as well as
the outer surface as a primer for painting. their own individual artistic strengths. The
The primer is very carefully applied to create themes used to paint the matryoshka are
a smooth surface and to prevent smudging. usually typical of the studio of the artist and
the region and are suited to the size and
Painting shape of the dolls. The artistic style may be
very coarse or extremely fine-sometimes,
3 In the history of the matryoshka doll, the only a single hair from a brush is used to
early dolls were prized for the skills of add eyelashes and threads of lace. Gold leaf
the turner and his ability to make a thin shell is also added to enhance the detailing.
for the matryoshka. Woodworking was
prized above painting. By the 1980s, this Some styles of matryoshka are colored with
balance had shifted and the painting was aniline (synthetic organic) dyes instead of
considered to add more value than the wood paint. The dye has a lighter texture, more
turning. There were also two schools of em- like watercolor, and dolls that are dyed usu-
phasis in painting; one puts more impor- ally have a more childlike style. The colors
tance on the doll's face, and the other fea- tend to be basic green (from a vegetable
tures the costume and its details. dye), fuchsine (a brilliant bluish red), blue,
Matryoshka artists are often also painters of and yellow. Early examples of dolls colored
religious icons (images of Jesus Christ, the with dye were also coated with glue that
Virgin Mary, and other religious figures) dried the colors to dark hues.
that are revered in churches and private
homes. Thus, the detail they can achieve in Although the majority of matryoshkas are
their chosen style is amazing. painted all over, some are not primed so the
260
Matryoshka Doll
native wood is exposed. The wood becomes The same open market that encourages
the background or thematic color of the doll, artists to make matryoshka dolls also dis-
and paint is added to give her a face and courages them, however; the painters partic-
costume. A heated poker is also used in ularly are very gifted artists and often have
some designs to burn in details of the doll experience painting icons and other prod-
including facial features and costume de- ucts that command a still higher price. The
tails. The doll may be left with only the rebirth of religion in the countries of the for-
poker work designs as her character, or the mer Soviet Union has pulled many artists
poker outlines may be filled with paint. All back into the painting of icons. The compe-
painted dolls are covered with lacquer to tition among manufacturers, then, is in
finish them and protect the paint. Some keeping the artists interested in nested dolls
dolls with unpainted wood and poker detail- as a form of artistic and cultural expression.
ing are not lacquered. Only 15 to 20 artists produce the top-quality
matryoshka dolls, and, like a painting bound
Finishing for a museum, each set is a unique master-
piece that may command $2,000. Clearly,
A The painter completes his or her set of interest in matryoshka dolls is well-estab-
qmatryoshka by adding his signature to lished and has come to represent Russian
the bottom of the largest doll as well as a culture. In the future, it remains to be seen
number showing the number of nests in the whether the availability of skilled artists can
set. After the paint has dried, the dolls are meet the demand.
finished with a protective coating. Wax and
varnish are used rarely, and lacquer is the
most common finish. For the artistic sets, at Where to Learn More
least five coats of lacquer are applied.
Books
Byproducts/Waste Soloviova, L. N. Matryoshka. Moscow,
Russia: Interbook Business, 1997.
Matryoshka making does not produce any
byproducts although the artistic centers Soloviova, Larissa, and Marina Marder.
where they are crafted usually make other Russian Matryoshka. Moscow, Russia: In-
wood products. The seasoning of the wood terbook, 1993.
is time consuming, and, when the wood is
ready for turning, woodworkers avoid waste
whenever possible. Similarly, the painters Periodicals
are highly skilled craftsmen and little paint Dunn, Jessica, and Danielle Dunn. "Ma-
or lacquer waste is generated. tryoshka Dolls: Russian Folk Art." Skipping
Stones 9, no. 5 (Novemeber/December
The Future 1997): 26.
The production of matryoshka dolls experi-
enced a huge upsurge with the collapse of Other
the Soviet Union and the greater availability Exclusive Art of Matryoshka. http://ma-
of Russian products to a worldwide audi- tryoshka.itgo.com (December 20, 2000).
ence. Matryoshka dolls are highly prized by
collectors; essentially, they have become Russian Treasure. http://www.russiantrea-
artistic works auctioned through Sotheby's sure.com (December 20, 2000).
and other leading auction houses, with far
less expensive versions sold to tourists and Russian World. http://www.russianworld-
as toys. Unfortunately, the price gap be- online.com (December 20, 2000).
tween the artistic and toy versions is large,
and there is no middle ground. -Gillian S. Holmes
26 1
Mayonnaise
Mayonnaise is regulated Background onnaise were particularly popular items.
When customers began to ask if they could
by the U.S. Food and Mayonnaise is a cold, emulsification used as purchase the mayonnaise itself, the Hellmans
sauce or as a condiment. It is made by blend-
Drug Administration's produced it in bulk and sold it by weight in
ing egg yolks and oil, then flavored with small wooden butter-measuring vessels.
Standard of Identity. It varying combinations of vinegar, mustard,
herbs and spices. Mayonnaise is often used
Eventually the Hellmans were packing their
must contain at least 65% as base for creamy-type salad dressings.
mayonnaise in glass jars. In 1913, they built
oil by weight, vinegar, their first factory in Astoria. A company in
History California, Best Foods Inc., was also enjoy-
and egg or egg yolks. ing success with their version of mayon-
Food historians offer four possible theories naise. In 1932, Best Foods acquired the
for the origin of mayonnaise. The most pop- Hellman's brand.
ular story dates to June 28, 1756, when the
French Duke Richelieu captured Port
Mayon on the Spanish island of Minorca. A variation of mayonnaise, made with a
When preparing the victory feast, the duke's cooked based and labeled salad dressing,
was developed by National Dairy Products in
chef was forced to substitute olive oil for
cream in a sauce. Unexpectedly pleased
1933 at the Century of Progress World's Fair
with the result, the chef christened the result in Chicago. It would eventually become
"mahonnaise" in honor of the place of victo- known as Kraft Miracle Whip Salad Dressing.
ry.
Carame, a French food writer and author of Raw Materials

Cuisinier parisien: Trarte des entries froids Mayonnaise is regulated by the U.S. Food
believed the word was derived from the and Drug Administration's Standard of Iden-
French verb manier, meaning to stir. Anoth- tity. It must contain at least 65% oil by
er food expert, Prosper Montagne main-
weight, vinegar, and egg or egg yolks. Spices
tained that the origin lay in the Old French and other natural seasonings may added with
word moyeu, meaning egg yolk. the exception of turmeric and saffron. These
Still others insist that the creamy sauce was would give the mayonnaise a yellow hue and
thus appear to contain added egg yolks.
a specialty of the town of Bayonne in south-
west France. Thus, what was originally
called bayonnaise was later modified to The FDA's Standard of Identity require-
mayonnaise. ments for salad dressing are 30% vegetable
oil, 4% egg yolk, vinegar or lemon juice,
Regardless of its origins, mayonnaise quickly and spices.
because a popular sauce and spread in Euro-
pean cuisine. In the early 1900s, a German Soybean oil is the most common type of oil
immigrant named Richard Hellmann opened used in the production of mayonnaise. Vine-
a delicatessen in New York City. The salads gar is distilled from distilled alcohol. Lemon
that his wife made with her homemade may- or lime juice is diluted with water.
262
Mayonnaise
Starch Egg Brine Spice
1 4l
A diagram depicting the continu-

The eggs are subjected to pasteurization by of two liquids, in this case vinegar and oil, ous blending system used to man-
heating them without actually cooking them. causes one of the liquids to form small ufacture mayonnaise.
Low-fat versions are made with egg whites. droplets that are dispersed throughout the
To replace the fat from the missing egg other liquid.
yolk, modified food starches are added so
that the low-fat mayonnaise retains the The blend of vinegar and oil moves continu-
creamy texture and thickness of real mayon- ously through a series of positive replace-
naise. These food starches can be made ment pumps. These pumps feature a cavity
from corn, gums, or agar agar (a seaweed or set of cavities fitted with rotary impellers.
extraction). A regulated pumping action causes the cavi-
ties to fill and empty. The impellers move
Salt is added to enhance flavor. The amount the blended fluid from one cavity to another
equals approximately 1/16 teaspoon of salt
per tablespoon serving of mayonnaise. Adding ingredients
Preservatives such as calcium disodium
EDTA are added to increase shelf-life. 2 Pre-measured ingredients are piped in
through openings in the sides of the
pumps or from spigots overhead.
The Manufacturing
Process
Bottling the mayonnaise
Creating the emulsion 3 The mayonnaise is moved through the
1 A continuous blending system is em- 3pumping system to the bottling station.
ployed to sustain the correct degree of Pre-sterilized jars move along conveyer
emulsification. An emulsion (known techni- belts as premeasured amounts of mayon-
cally as a colloid) occurs when the blending naise are poured into the jars. The jars are
263
sealed with metal screwcaps. They are not Where to Learn More
vacuum-sealed.
Books
Coyle, L. Patrick Jr. The World Encyclope-
dia of Food New York: Facts on File, 1982.
Trager, James. The Food Chronology. New
Quality Control York: Henry Holt, 1995.
All raw materials are check for freshness
when they arrive at the processing plant. Other
Stored materials are tested periodically as Association for Dressings and Sauces.
well. Samples of the mayonnaise are drawn http://www.dressings-sauces.org/ (October
off and taste-tested during the manufactur- 2000).
ing process.
Kraft Unit Operations. http://www.kraftuni-
tops.com/ (October 2000).
-Mary McNulty
264
Mouthwash
Mouthwash is a liquid oral product designed centuries. Many of the ancient societies- In 1998, Americans spent
to freshen breath. Certain varieties may also including the Egyptians, Chinese, Greeks,
kill bacteria and/or whiten teeth. Mouthwash- and Romans-had recipes for such prepara- over $652 million on
es are made by combining the appropriate raw tions. They used a variety of ingredients; mouthwash.
materials in large, stainless steel tanks and from edible materials like fruit, honey, or
then filling the product into individual pack- dried flowers to less appealing compounds
ages. First used by ancient societies, techno- such as ground lizard, minced mice, or
logical advances in chemistry have resulted in urine. These products were generally inef-
steadily improving formulas. In 1998, Ameri- fective and in some cases were harmful to
cans spent over $652 million on mouthwash the sensitive enamel which coats each tooth.
While tooth cleaning preparations steadily
Background improved over the years, it was not until the
The need for mouthwash is a result of a con- early 1800s-when the modem toothpaste
dition called halitosis, or bad breath. It is es- was developed-that truly effective oral
timated that over half the population occa- products became available. The first mouth-
sionally has foul-smelling breath. This washes were basically solutions of grain al-
typically occurs upon first awakening or cohol and were likely developed accidental-
after a meal with garlic or onions. It has ly during this era. One of the most famous
been found that bad breath is mostly due to brands, Listerine, was developed during the
bacterial activity in an unclean mouth. 1880s and is still sold today.
Specifically, anaerobic bacteria that grow on The antibacterial effect of fluoride was an
the protein-rich food debris stuck between important discovery for the development of
the teeth or on the tongue. As the bacteria modem mouthwashes. In the early 1900s a
breaks down the proteins, those containing dentist named Frederick McKay found that
sulphur give off foul odor molecules such as some of his patients had a condition called
methylmercaptan and hydrogen sulphide mottled enamel. He found that this condi-
which result in bad breath. tion was linked to a reduction in tooth
Mouthwashes are designed to eliminate bad decay. In 1931, he tested the drinking water
breath in two ways. First, they relieve it by that these patients consumed and found a
killing the bacteria responsible for produc- high level of natural fluoride. By the early
ing the foul odor. The best of these products 1940s, other workers had determined that
prevent bad breath for as long as eight fluoride in drinking water at one part per
hours. The second way that mouthwashes million would reduce tooth decay without
help reduce bad breath is by masking the causing mottling. Various testing went on
odor. This is a much less effective method during the rest of this decade and by the
which lasts no more than 30 minutes. 1950s it was recommended by the United
States federal govemment that all public
water sources be fortified with fluoride.
History This discovery led to the development of
Products used for freshening breath or toothpastes and mouthwashes that contained
cleaning teeth have been in existence for fluoride compounds. During the years that
265
followed, various raw materials have been Design

developed that have an antibacterial effect
but do not contain alcohol. Additionally, In general there are three types of mouth-
materials that prevent tartar, whiten teeth, washes. There are antibacterial products that
and reduce cavities have also been discov- reduce the bacterial population of the mouth.
ered and added to mouthwash formulas. These products have a fresh taste and im-
prove breath odor. The second type are fluo-
ride mouthwashes, which help to improve
Ravv Materials the fluoride layer on tooth enamel. Finally,
Mouthwashes are generally composed of there are remineralizing mouthwashes that
diluents, antibacterial agents, soaps, flavor- help repair various lesions in the mouth.
ings, and colorants. The primary ingredient Mouthwashes are sold in a variety of flavors
in most mouthwashes is water, a diluent, and colors. The most popular is the golden
making up over 50% of the entire formula. colored, medicinal-tasting Listerine. Blue or
The water is specially treated to remove var- green mint varieties are also common. There
ious particles and ions which might impact are mouthwash products that are geared
flavor. Water treated as such is called deion- specifically toward smokers. These products
ized water. The sources of water vary, com- are designed to remove tobacco tar stains as
ing from reserves such as underground well as freshen breath and whiten teeth.
wells, lakes, and rivers. Alcohol is another There are also tartar control mouthwashes
diluent typically used in up to 20% of the and those that kill the germs responsible for
formula. While early mouthwashes used al- gingivitis and plaque.
cohol extensively; today its use is limited
because of govemmental regulations and The packaging for mouthwashes is typically
consumer desires. a clear, plastic bottle. Since the products gen-
erally contain alcohol, child resistance and
Numerous antibacterial agents have been tamper-evidence closures are typically used.
employed in mouthwash formulations. Additionally, some mouthwashes have a dos-
These include ingredients like phenols, ing feature which lets the consumer squeeze
thymol, salol, tannic acid, hexachlo- out an exact amount each time it is used.
raphene, chlorinated thymols, and quater-
nary ammonium compounds. Chlorinated
phenols like parachlormetacresol have both The Manufacturing
an antibacterial effect and a desired flavor. Process
Thymol, which is obtained from volatile After a mouthwash formula is designed, it is
oils, is used at low concentrations and in tested to ensure that minimal changes will
conjunction with other ingredients. Hexa- occur over time regardless of the storage
chloraphene is substantive to the mucous conditions. This testing, called stability test-
membrane which makes it ideal for longer ing, helps detect physical changes in such
lasting formulas. Quatemary compounds things as color, odor, and flavor. It can also
are often used because of their non-toxic provide information about product perfor-
and non-irritant nature. They are effective mance over time. In the United States, the
against plaque. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) re-
Color and flavor are added to the formulas quires that specific stability testing be done
to improve the consumer acceptability of the to ensure product performance during long
mouthwash ingredients. Flavor is an essen- term storage.
tial feature of a mouthwash because it has In general, the process for creating a mouth-
the most consumer perceptible impact. In wash occurs in two distinct steps. First, a
the United States, flavorants such as pepper- large batch of mouthwash is made then it is
mint, menthol, methyl salicylate, and filled in the appropriate packaging.
eugenol are commonly used. The most com-
mon colors, blue and green, are the result of
adding govemmentally approved and certi- Compounding
fied FD&C dyes. Some mouthwash formu- Mouthwash is made via a batch process in
las also include a synthetic detergent to give an area of the manufacturing plant called
extra foaming and cleansing action. compounding. Here operators, called com-
266
Mouthwash
Top Mouthwash Products Leaders

Mouthwash sales rose 3.8% to over $670 million last year for the year ended December 5, 1999
according to Information Resources Inc., Chicago. Sales and unit figures are measured in millions.
Product $ Sales $ Change $ Unit $ Sales
Sales
Listerine $293 7.3% 74 5.8%
Private label $133 1.3% 64 -1.7%
Scope $111 2.3% 41 2.5%
Plax $38 -5.2% 11 -7.1%
Act $19 11% 3 9.4%
Targon $17 23.4% 4 21.7%
Colgate Peroxyl $10 12% 1.5 6.7%
Cepacol $8 -5.5% 3 -4.3%
Act for Kids $8 11.8% 2 10.0%
Biotene $5 22.7% 0.8 22.3%
Category total $677 3.8% 218 1.3%
pounders, make batches of 2,000-3,000 gal is found to be out of a specified range, ad-
(7,571-11,356 L) of mouthwash following justments may be made at this point. For ex-
specific formula instructions. The raw mate- ample, colors can be modified by adding
rials are delivered to the compounding area more dye.
by fork lift trucks. Compounders add them to
the main batch tank where they are thor- A After the batch is approved, it is pumped
oughly mixed. Depending on the formula in- '4 from the main tank to a holding tank.
structions, the batch is heated and cooled to This holding tank may be directly hooked
get the raw materials to rapidly combine. up to the filling lines where the product is
put into individual packaging.
2 Materials which are used in large quanti-
ties-such as alcohol or water-are then Filling
pumped directly into the tank. This is done 5 At the beginning of the filling line there
by simply setting computer controls to the is a large bin called a hopper which con-
appropriate amount and pushing a button. tains the empty bottles that will be filled. In
Computers also control the mixing speed this bin, the bottles are physically manipu-
and temperature of the batch. Depending on lated so that they come out standing upright
the size of the batch and the number of raw on a conveyor belt. They are then moved to
materials, a mouthwash can take anywhere the filling carousel which contains the bulk
from one to three hours to make. mouthwash product.
Batch analysis The filling carousel has a series of piston

Jfilling heads that are designed to deliver
3 When the batch is completed, a sample is an exact amount of mouthwash. As the bot-
3taken to the Quality Control (QC) lab. tles move around the carousel, the piston
The appearance and flavor of the batch is moves down and the mouthwash product is
examined to ensure that it meets the specifi- dispensed into the bottle.
cations laid out in the formula. QC chemists
may also run pH determinations and viscosi- 7After the bottles are filled, they are sent
ty checks. If some characteristic of the batch 7on a conveyor belt to a capping machine.
267
The caps are also held in a large bin and cor- fight bad breath but whiten teeth and help
rectly aligned. As the bottles pass the cap- battle cavity formation and gum recession.
ping hopper, the caps are put on and either
twisted or pushed in place. Some new technologies that will undoubted-
ly be adapted to mouthwash products have
8 From the capping station, the bottles are recently been discovered. For example, re-
Cmoved to a labeling machine. The labels searchers have found a peptide known as
are held on large spools and threaded p1025, which can bond to the teeth and pre-
through the machine. As the bottles pass by, vent the growth of naturally occurring bac-
the label is either stuck on using an adhesive teria. This prevents the cavity-causing bac-
or heat pressed. teria to adhere to the tooth and thus inhibits
cavity formation. Using this technology,
9 Beyond labeling, the bottles are next they have created a mouthwash that may
moved to a boxing station. They are typi- prevent tooth decay for up to three months.
cally gathered in a group of 12 or 24 and
dropped into a box. The boxes then move to Another new mouthwash may actually con-
a palleting machine and stacked. The pallets tain a good bacteria to kill the odor- and
are moved via fork lifts to large trucks and cavity-causing germ Streptococcus mutans.
shipped to distributors. High speed produc- Using genetic engineering, scientists at the
tion lines like these can produce over 20,000 University of Florida College of Dentistry
bottles per hour. developed this bacterium and are now test-
ing it in humans to determine whether it can
be used. Ultimately, this new bacteria may
Quality Control be added to mouthwash products and there-
While quality control is a critical step in the by revolutionizing oral care.
batching process, it is also done at other
points during manufacture. Workers are sta- Where to Learn More
tioned at various points on the filling lines
to inspect the production process. They ex- Periodicals
amine things such as bottle quality, fill lev- Hickey, James. "Oral Care Market." Happi
els, and label placement. They also make (February 2000). http://www.happi.com/
sure that all the caps are put on correctly. special/febOO2.htm (January 2001).
Microbial contamination is also routinely
checked during the filling process. Addi- Hickey, James. "Total Domination." Happi
tionally, the packaging is checked for things (February 1999). http://www.happi.com
such as bottle thickness, appearance, and (January 2001).
weight to make sure the final product has Shaw, Anita. "Oral Care Market is All
the desired characteristics. Smiles." Soap & Cosmetics 75, no.6 (June
1999): 28.
The Future Travis, John. "Wash That Mouth Out With
With advances in chemical technology, Bacteria!" Science News 157, no.12 (March
mouthwashes of the future will be designed 18, 2000): 190.
with a larger array of and more improved Wilson, Jim. "Mouthwash Cancels Cavi-
functions. In the past, mouthwashes were ties." Popular Mechanics 177, no.2 (Febru-
primarily powerful breath fresheners. They ary 2000): 15.
eventually evolved into tooth protectors.
Today, products are available to not only -Perry Romanowski
268
Natural Gas
Background Creek near Fredonia, New York. He piped In 2000, there were over
the gas through hollowed logs to a nearby
Natural gas is a mixture of combustible building where he burned it for illumination. 600 natural gas
gases formed underground by the decompo- In 1865, the Fredonia Gas, Light, and Wa-
sition of organic materials in plant and ani- processing plants in the
terworks Company became the first natural
mal. It is usually found in areas where oil is gas company in the United States. The first United States connected
present, although there are several large un- long-distance gas pipeline ran 25 mi (40
derground reservoirs of natural gas where km) from a gas field to Rochester, New to more than 300,000 mi
there is little or no oil. Natural gas is widely York, in 1872. It too used hollowed logs for
used for heating and cooking, as well as for a pipes. The development of the Bunsen burn-
(480,000 km) of main
variety of industrial applications. er by Robert Bunsen in 1885 led to an inter- transportation pipelines.
est in using natural gas as a source of heat-
History ing and cooking, in addition to its use for
lighting. In 1891, a high-pressure gas de-
Natural gas was known to early man in the posit was tapped in central Indiana, and a
form of seepages from rocks and springs. 120 mi (192 km) pipeline was built to bring
Sometimes, lightning or other sources of ig- the gas to Chicago, Illinois.
nition would cause these gas seepages to
bum, giving rise to stories of fire issuing Despite these early efforts, the lack of a
from the ground. In about 900 B.C. natural good distribution system for natural gas lim-
gas was drawn from wells in China. The gas ited its use to local areas where the gas was
was burned, and the heat was used to evapo-
found. Most of the gas that came to the sur-
rate seawater in order to produce salt. By the
face as part of oil drilling in more remote
first century, the Chinese had developed areas was simply vented to the atmosphere
more advanced techniques for tapping un-
or burned off in giant flares that illuminated
derground reservoirs of natural gas, which the oil fields day and night. By the 1910s,
allowed them to drill wells as deep as 4,800 oil companies realized that this practice was
ft (1,460 m) in soft soil. They used metal costing them potential profits and they
drilling bits inserted through sections of hol- began an aggressive program to install gas
lowed-out bamboo pipes to reach the gas pipelines to large metropolitan areas across
and bring it to the surface. the United States. It wasn't until after World
The Romans also knew about natural gas, and War II that this pipeline program had
Julius Caesar was supposed to have witnessed reached enough cities and towns to make
a "burning spring" near Grenoble, France. Re- natural gas an attractive alternative to elec-
ligious temples in early Russia were built tricity and coal.
around places where burning natural gas seep-
ages formed "eternal flames." By 2000, there were over 600 natural gas
processing plants in the United States con-
In the United States, the first intentional use nected to more than 300,000 mi (480,000
of natural gas occurred in 1821 when km) of main transportation pipelines.
William Hart drilled a well to tap a shallow Worldwide, there are also significant de-
gas pocket along the bank of Canadaway posits of natural gas in the former Soviet
26 9
Union, Canada, China, and the Arabian Gulf cal support. This configuration is often
countries of the Middle East. called a horse head pump because the shape
of the pulling mechanism on the end of the
rocking beam resembles a horse's head.
Rcawv Materials
Raw natural gas is composed of several 2When the raw natural gas reaches the
gases. The main component is methane. surface, it is separated from any oil that
Other components include ethane, propane, might be present and is piped to a central
butane, and many other combustible hydro- gas processing plant nearby. Several hun-
carbons. Raw natural gas may also contain dred wells may all feed into the same plant.
water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, carbon diox-
ide, nitrogen, and helium. Processing
During processing, many of these compo- 3 About 75% of the raw natural gas in the
nents may be removed. Some-such as United States comes from underground
ethane, propane, butane, hydrogen sulfide, reservoirs where little or no oil is present.
and helium-may be partially or completely This gas is easier to process than gas from
removed to be processed and sold as separate oil wells. Regardless of the source, most raw
commodities. Other components-such as natural gas contains dirt, sand, and water
water vapor, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen- vapor, which must be removed before fur-
may be removed to improve the quality of the ther processing to prevent contamination and
natural gas or to make it easier to move the corrosion of the equipment and pipelines.
gas over great distances through pipelines. The dirt and sand are removed with filters or
traps near the well. The water vapor is usual-
The resulting processed natural gas contains ly removed by passing the gas through a
mostly methane and ethane, although there tower filled with granules of a solid desic-
is no such thing as a "typical" natural gas. cant, such as alumina or silica gel, or through
Certain other components may be added to a liquid desiccant, such as a glycol. After it
the processed gas to give it special qualities. has been cleaned and dried, the raw gas may
For example, a chemical known as mercap- be processed further or it may be sent direct-
tan is added to give the gas a distinctive ly to a compressor station and pumped into a
odor that warns people of a leak. main transportation pipeline.
4 If the raw natural gas contains a large
The Manufacturing 1amount of heavier hydrocarbon gases,
Process such as propane and butane, these materials
The methods used to extract, process, trans- are removed to be sold separately. The most
port, store, and distribute natural gas depend common method is to bubble the raw gas up
on the location and composition of the raw through a tall, closed tower containing a
gas and the location and application of the cold absorption oil, similar to kerosene. As
gas by the end users. Here is a typical se- the gas comes in contact with the cold oil,
quence of operations used to produce natur- the heavier hydrocarbon gases condense
al gas for home heating and cooking use. into liquids and are trapped in the oil. The
lighter hydrocarbon gases, such as methane
Extracting and ethane, do not condense into liquid and
flow out the top of the tower. About 85% of
Some underground natural gas reservoirs the propane and almost all of the butane and
are under enough internal pressure that heavier hydrocarbons are trapped this way.
the gas can flow up the well and reach The absorption oil is then distilled to re-
Earth's surface without additional help. move the trapped hydrocarbons, which are
However, most wells require a pump to separated into individual components in a
bring the gas (and oil, if it is present) to the fractionation tower.
surface. The most common pump has a long
rod attached to a piston deep in the well. 5At this point, the natural gas contains
The rod is alternately pulled upward and 5methane, ethane, and a small amount of
plunged back into the well by a beam that propane that wasn't trapped. It may also
slowly rocks up and down on top of a verti- contain varying amounts of carbon dioxide,
270
Natural Gas
.4- -
A diagram depicting the produc-

hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, and other mate- 6 Some natural gas contains a high per- tion of natural gas from under-
rials. A portion of the ethane is sometimes 6centage of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ground source to household usage.
removed to be used as a raw material in var- sulfide. These chemicals can react with the
ious chemical processes. To accomplish remaining water vapor in the gas to form an
this, the water vapor in the gas is further re- acid, which can cause corrosion. They are
duced using one of several methods, and the removed by flowing the gas up through a
gas is then subjected to repeated compres- tower while a spray of water mixed with a
sion and expansion cycles to cool the ethane solvent, such as monoethanolamine, is in-
and capture it as a liquid. jected at the top. The solvent reacts with the
27 1
chemicals, and the solution is drained off 1)The pressure is reduced to below 60
the bottom of the tower for further process- I2 psi (410 kPa), and the gas is distrib-
ing. uted in underground pipes that run through-
out the area. Before the gas is piped into
7Some natural gas also contains a high each house or business, the pressure is fur-
percentage of nitrogen. Because nitrogen ther reduced to about 0.25 psi (1.7 kPa).
does not bum, it reduces the heating value
of the natural gas. After the carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulfide have been removed, Quality Control
the gas goes through a low-temperature dis- Natural gas burns readily in air and can ex-
tillation process to liquefy and separate the plode violently if a large quantity is sudden-
nitrogen. Together, the processes in steps 6 ly ignited. Entire buildings have been lev-
and 7 are sometimes called "upgrading" the eled by powerful blasts resulting from
gas because the natural gas is now cleaner natural gas leaks. In other cases, people
and will burn hotter. have suffocated in closed rooms that slowly
8 If helium gas is to be captured, it is done filled with natural gas. Because natural gas
Cafter the nitrogen is removed. This in- is odorless, foul-smelling mercaptan is
added to the gas so that even a small leak
volves a complex distillation and purifica- will be immediately noticeable. To protect
tion process to isolate the helium from other
high-pressure underground gas pipelines, a
gases. Natural gas is the primary source of
industrial helium in the United States. bright yellow plastic tape is buried in the
ground a few feet above the pipeline to warn
people who might be digging in the area.
Transporting That way, they will uncover the tape before
9Mercaptan is injected into the processed they actually strike the pipeline below.
natural gas to give it a distinctive warn- Warning signs are also placed at ground
ing odor, and the gas is piped to a compres- level along the entire length of the pipeline
sor station where the pressure is increased to as an additional precaution.
about 200-1,500 psi (1,380-10,350 kPa).
The gas is then transported across country The Future
through one of several major pipelines in-
stalled underground. These pipelines range Because natural gas is clean burning, it is
from 20 to 42 in (51 to 107 cm) in diameter. being considered as an alternative fuel for
About every 100 mi (160 km), another com- motor vehicles. Compressed natural gas
pressor boosts the gas pressure to make up (CNG) cars and trucks are already on the
for small pressure losses caused by friction road in many areas. Companies using indus-
between the gas and the pipe walls. This trial processes that require high tempera-
keeps the gas flowing. tures are also turning to natural gas instead
of other fuels in order to reduce the air pol-
1 nWhen the pressurized natural gas lution emitted by their plants. This includes
Vreaches the vicinity of its final desti- companies involved in manufacturing steel,
nation, it is sometimes injected back into the glass, ceramics, cement, paper, chemicals,
ground for storage. Depleted underground aluminum, and processed foods.
gas and oil reservoirs, porous rock layers
known as aquifers, or subterranean salt cav-
erns may be used to store the gas. This en- Where to Learn More
sures a ready supply during the colder win- Books
ter months.
Kroschwitz, Jacqueline I., and Mary Howe-
Distributing Grant (eds.). "Gas, Natural." In Encyclope-
dia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed., vol. 12.
When gas is needed, it is drawn out of New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1993.
underground storage and is transport-
ed through pipelines at pressures up to 1,000 Tussing, Arlon R., and Bob Tippee. The
psi (6,900 kPa). These pipelines bring the Natural Gas Industry: Evolution, Structure,
gas into the city or area where it is to be and Economics. 2nd ed. Tulsa, OK: Pen-
used. nWell Publishing, 1995.
272
Natural Gas
Other
Natural Gas Information and Educational
Resources. http://www.naturalgas.org (No-
vember 1, 2000).
Pacific Gas and Electric Company. "How
Our Gas System Works." http://www.pge.
com/006_news/006c2 gassys.shtml (No-
vember 12, 2000).
-Chris Cavette
273
Needle-free Injection System
The first air-powered Needle-free injection systems are novel ways pensive, and more convenient. It is antici-
to introduce various medicines into patients pated that these systems will increase the
needle-free injection without piercing the skin with a conventional incidence of vaccination and reduce the
systems were developed needle. They can take the form of power amount of prescribed antibiotics. More-
sprays, edible products, inhalers, and skin over, they should reduce the number of
during the 1 940s and patches. While hypodermic needles were first needle stick accidents that have resulted in
introduced during the 1 800s, needle-free sys- some health care workers contracting dis-
1 950s. These devices tems are relatively recent inventions. Today, eases.
were gun-shaped and they are a steadily developing technology
that promises to make the administration of More than a dozen companies have devel-
used propellant gases to medicine more efficient and less painful. oped alternatives to needle injections. Some
of the different designs include nasal sprays,
force fluid medicines nose drops, flavored liquids, skin patches,
through the skin. Background air forced and edible vaccine-packed veg-
etables.
People are given injections to protect them
from influenza, tetanus, cholera, typhoid, The needle-free systems that are most like
and other diseases. When a needle is inserted traditional injections involve the direct
through the skin, the vaccine (or drug) it car- transfer of the medicine through the skin.
ries provides systemic immunity. This is be- One company offers an injection system
cause the vaccine gets into the bloodstream where the drug is dispersed through the skin
and provokes the body to create antibodies as a fine mist or powder. In this system, a
that are carried throughout the entire body. tube-shaped device is held against the skin
and a burst of air forces the molecules of
In the United States, children may get over medicine into the body. The device is de-
13 vaccine injections by the age of 16. Un- signed to force the medicine far enough
fortunately, there are a variety of problems through the skin so it enters the blood-
associated with the hypodermic needles used stream. An application for which this sys-
for these injections. One of the most signifi- tem is particularly useful is for patients who
cant drawbacks is the relatively high cost of need daily doses of growth hormone.
the needles. The cost results in a lower vac-
cination rate, especially for children in de- Patches have been introduced as needle-free
veloping countries. Another problem with delivery systems. These devices, which look
traditional needles is the lack of reusability. like bandages, slowly transfer medicine
If a needle syringe is not sterilized, reusing it through the skin. In one type of patch, thou-
can lead to the spread of disease. Additional- sands of tiny blades are imbedded on its sur-
ly, many people have a fear of needles which face. The patch is covered with medicine
causes them to avoid treatment. These draw- and then placed on the skin. The blades
backs have led to the development of alter- make microscopic cuts in the skin that opens
native delivery systems to needle injections. a path for drugs to enter through. When an
electric current is applied, the medicine is
Needle-free systems are designed to solve forced into the body. This process, called
these problems making them safer, less ex- iontophoresis, does not hurt.
274
Nasal sprays, suppositories, and eye and ple from this disease. This is particularly
nose drops are forms of needle free systems useful for developing countries where pota-
that deliver medications through the mucous toes are a dietary staple and the refrigeration
membrane, where 90% of all infections that is typically required for transporting
occur. The mucous membrane is found vaccines is not readily available.
throughout the body and includes the lining
of the respiratory tract, digestive tract, and
urinary and genital passages. These needle History
free systems prompt the body to produce As long as drugs have been known to cure
both antibodies at the mucosa surfaces and diseases, people have searched for better
system-wide. methods of delivering them. During the
early nineteenth century researchers made a
The nasal shot may be the first needle-free series of discoveries that eventually led to
flu shot. It is a syringe-like device that has the development of the hypodermic needle
an aerosol sprayer substituted for the needle. by Alexander Wood in 1853. This device
It delivers a weak flu virus directly to the was used to give morphine to patients suf-
nasal passages and creates immunity to the fering from sleeping disorders. In subse-
flu with minimal side effects. quent years, the hypodermic needle under-
Inhalers are another type of needle-free de- went significant changes which made them
livery system. In these systems, liquids or more efficient to use, safer, and more reli-
powders are inhaled and delivered into the able. However, needles still have significant
lungs. These devices are good for delivering drawbacks which prompted researchers to
protein drugs because the lungs provide a find needle-free alternatives.
rapid absorption into the bloodstream. In The first air-powered needle-free injection
one system there is a pump unit that atom- systems were developed during the 1940s
izes a powdered medication. This allows the and 1950s. These devices were gun-shaped
patient to inhale the proper amount of medi- and used propellant gases to force fluid
cine without it getting trapped in the back of medicines through the skin. Over the years,
the throat. For diabetics who require daily the devices have been modified to improve
injections of insulin, an aerosol inhaler has the amount and types of medicines deliv-
also been introduced.
ered, and the efficiency and the ease of use.
Oral vaccines are needle-free systems that
may replace vaccine injections. This tech- Rawv MAaterials
nology has been difficult to perfect for many
reasons. The primary problem with this type Since these devices directly contact the
of delivery system is that the environment of body, they must be made from materials that
the digestive system is harsh and typically are pharmacologically inert. The materials
destroys vaccines and other drugs. Also, also must be able to withstand high tempera-
vaccines do not work as well in provoking tures because they are heat-sterilized. Air-
antibody production in the digestive lining. forced injection systems are available in dif-
One of the latest oral vaccines involves ferent shapes as sizes. The outer shell of the
freeze drying the medicine and mixing it device is made from a high strength, light-
with a salt buffer to protect it when it is in weight thermoplastic such as polycarbonate.
the stomach. Other edible forms include a Polycarbonates are polymers produced syn-
sugar solution of a vaccine against the bac- thetically through various chemical reac-
terium that causes ulcers. For travelers, a ty- tions. To make the polymer easier to mold,
phoid-vaccine capsule has been developed fillers are added. These fillers make plastics
as an alternative to the two painful shots more durable, lightweight, and rigid. Col-
typically required. orants are also incorporated into the plastic
to modify the appearance. Prior to manufac-
Genetic engineering has enabled the produc- ture, the plastics are typically supplied in
tion of oral vaccines in food. In 1998, pota- pellet form with the colorants and fillers al-
toes were produced that contained genes ready incorporated. Air-forced systems typi-
from the virus that causes cholera. These cally use carbon dioxide or helium gas to
potatoes showed efficacy in protecting peo- propel the medicine into the body.
275
The three different types of injec- diabetics, can be incorporated into an in-
tions. haler system. Lidocaine hydrochloride, a
local anesthetic is suitable to be delivered
needle free. Other medicines suitable for
needle free systems include Fentanyl (an
opioid analgesic), Heparin (an anticoagu-
lant) and a variety of vaccines. Various ad-
junct ingredients included in these medi-
cines include cyclodextrins, lactose,
liposomes, amino acids and water.
Design
The air-forced needle-free injection systems
are typically made up of three components
including an injection device, a disposable
needle free syringe and an air cartridge. The
injection device is made of a durable plastic.
It is designed to be easy to hold for self-ad-
ministration of medicine. The needle-free
syringe is also plastic. It is sterilized and is
the only piece of the device that must touch
the skin. The syringe is made to be disposed
after every use. For portable units, pressur-
ized metal air cartridges are included. Less
mobile devices have air hook-ups that attach
to larger containers of compressed air. Some
air-forced systems use a re-usable spring to
generate the pushing force instead of pres-
surized air cartridges.
The Manufacturing
Process
There are numerous methods of producing
each needle-free injection system. The fol-
lowing process focuses on the production of
an air-forced system. These systems are
made through a step by step procedure
which involves molding the pieces, assem-
bling them, and decorating and labeling the
final product. The individual pieces are typ-
ically produced off-site and assembled by
the needle free injection system manufac-
turer. All of the manufacturing is done
under sterile conditions to prevent the
spread of disease.
Making the pieces

The first step requires the production of
the component plastic pieces from plastic
pellets. This is done by a process called in-
jection molding. Pellets of plastic are put
Certain types of medicines work better with into a large holding bin on an injection
needle-free injection systems than other. In- molding machine. They are heated to make
sulin, which must be administered daily to them flowable.
276
2 The material is then passed through a hy- and labeling is correct and that all the parts
2draulically controlled screw. As the are included in the final packages.
screw rotates, the plastic is directed through
a nozzle which then injects it into a mold. Since these devices can have various safety
The mold is made up of two metal halves issues, their production is strictly controlled
that form the shape of the part when brought by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
together. When the plastic is in the mold, it Each manufacturer must conform to various
is held under pressure for a specified production standards and specifications. An-
amount of time and then allowed to cool. As nounced and unannounced inspections may
it cools, the plastic inside hardens. occur to ensure that these companies are fol-
lowing good manufacturing practices. For
3 The mold pieces are separated and the this reason detailed records must be kept re-
3plastic part falls out onto a conveyor. lated to production and design.
The mold then closes again and the process
is repeated. After the plastic parts are eject- The Future
ed from the mold, they are manually in-
Many of these needle-free alternative tech-
spected to ensure that no significantly dam- nologies are in the development stage. Com-
aged parts are used.
panies are still working on producing devices
that are safer and easier to use. They are also
Assembling and labeling working on alternatives which can deliver
4 The parts are next transported to an as- even more types of medicines. Inhalers are
4 sembly line. In this production phase being improved as are nasal sprays, forced air
various events occur. Machines apply mark- injectors and patches. In the future, other
ings that show dose levels and force mea- foods may be genetically enhanced to deliver
surements. These machines are specially vaccines and other drugs. These include foods
calibrated so each printing is made precise- like bananas and tomatoes. In fact, bananas
ly. Depending on the complexity of the de- are being looked at as carriers for a vaccine to
vice, human workers or machines may as- protect against the Norwalk virus. Tomatoes
semble the devices. This involves inserting that protect against hepatitis B are also being
the various pieces into the main housing and developed. In addition to new delivery sys-
attaching any buttons. tems, scientists are also investigating methods
for producing longer lasting drugs that will re-
duce the number of needle injections.
Packaging
5 After the assembly step, the injection de- Where to Learn More
5vices are put into packaging. They are
Periodicals
first wrapped in sterile films and then put into
cardboard or plastic boxes. Each part is pack- Henry, C. "Special Delivery." Chemical &
aged so movement is minimal to prevent Engineering News (September 18, 2000):
damage. For consumer products, an instruc- 49-65.
tion manual is included along with safety in- Potera, C. "Making Needles Needless."
formation. These boxes are then stacked on Technology Review (September/October
pallets and shipped via truck to distributors. 1998): 67-70.
Potera, C. "No-Needle Vaccine Techniques."
Quality Control Genetic Engineering News (August 1998):
Quality control checks are done throughout 19.
the manufacturing process. Line inspectors Seppa, N. "Edible Vaccine Spawns Anti-
check the plastic components to assure they bodies to Virus." Science News (July 22,
conform to predetermined specifications. Vi- 2000): 54.
sual inspections are the first test method, but
measuring equipment is also used to check Other
the dimensions including size and thickness. Bioject (December 2000). http://www.bio-
Instruments that can be used include laser ject.com (January 2001).
micrometers, calipers and microscopes. In-
spectors also check to make sure the printing -Perry Romanowski
277
Paintball
The paintball industry Background History
brought in an estimated Paintball is a game developed in the 1980s The game of paintball was first played in
that soon became popular worldwide. Play- 1981. It was invented by Charles Gaines, the
$700 million in 1999, ers shoot pellets of paint from airguns at author of the bodybuilding classic Pumping
and as the number of opposing players in a strategic game similar Iron; Hayes Noel, a New York stockbroker;
to the children's classic Capture the Flag. A and a ski shop owner named Robert
teenagers is expected to trademarked version of paintball, called the Gumsey. Gurnsey, Noel, and Gaines were
Survival Game, is the standard version, old friends who had often discussed ways of
increase over the next though the game is played with many varia- testing survival in a combat or outdoor situ-
decade, overall sales are tions. Most games are played outdoors in ation. They got the idea for the game after
special paintball fields. The owners of the seeing an advertisement for a paint gun used
expected to hit the $1 field typically rent all the equipment neces- to blast paint pellets at steers for marking
sary, and charge players a fee for use of the purposes. This paint gun was developed
billion mark within a few area. The basic equipment for the game in- much earlier by Charles Nelson, of the
years. cludes a specially designed airgun, paint- Michigan-based Nelson Paint Company.
balls, carbon dioxide cartridges to expel the
paintball, and safety goggles. Most people Charles Nelson founded his paint company
play paintball in teams. In officially sanc- with his brother Evan in the 1930s. He was
tioned events, team size is 15 players, but an eager entrepreneur, always looking for
nonofficial games often attract much larger new ways to use or market paint. In the
teams, of 40-50 players, or even more. 1950s, Nelson developed a paint marker for
Paintball has been used as a way to build the Forestry Service. The Forestry Service
team spirit, and so it is popular with busi- was a major consumer of paint that was used
ness groups hoping to increase corporate to mark trees for cutting or clearing. The
communication. Though people of all ages Forestry worker's lot was often hard, as he
and genders can play, paintball's main en- had to lug a five-gal (19 L) bucket of paint
thusiasts are adolescent boys. The paintball through dense woods, sometimes wading
industry brought in an estimated $700 mil- through streams or scrambling up steep
lion in 1999, and as the number of banks. Nelson devised a simple paint
teenagers is expected to increase over the squirter that allowed forestry workers to
next decade, overall sales are expected to mark their trees from a more comfortable
hit the $1 billion mark within a few years. distance. Apparently, sales were not what
As paintball went from a faddish extreme Nelson hoped. But he thought of another
sport to a more mainstream pastime in the market for the device, cattle herders. Cattle
1990s, paintball equipment moved from needed to be marked often, to distinguish
specialty stores into large retailers such as which animals were to be sold, for example,
Kmart. In the United States, there are a or which to be separated for inoculation or
number of magazines devoted to paintball, artificial insemination. Traditionally, cow-
and many players gather information about boys rode up close to the animals and
the sport from prominent websites. marked them with chalk. Nelson modified
his first paint gun for the cattle industry. In-
stead of a squirter, which produced a wide
278
Paintball
splat of paint, he developed paint-filled pel- heavy automatic fire from machine-gun like
lets that could be shot out of an air gun. The paintball instruments.
pellets would break on impact, leaving a
paint mark. Nelson made wax prototypes of Most paintballs were manufactured by phar-
the pellets, and eventually had them manu- maceutical companies that already used the
factured by a Michigan pharmaceutical encapsulating equipment for the pellets in
company, R. P. Scherer. He advertised his other items, such as vitamins and bath
"Nel-Spot Pellet Pistol" in farming and beads. These companies were making over
ranching magazines, boasting that the gun three billion paintballs a year by the end of
was fast, safe, and economical. It could hit 1999. As the sport and the industry grew,
the animal accurately from about 75 ft (23 many specialized manufacturers of paint
m) away, and was useful not only for cattle pellets and other equipment sprang up, and
ranchers but for wildlife game managers and these merged and consolidated in the 1990s.
animal census takers. Industry leaders included the Brass Eagle
Company and ZAP Paintballs, Inc.
At some point, Gaines, Noel, and Gurnsey
saw an advertisement for Nelson's paint
markers, and decided to organize a survival Raw Materials
game using them. They rounded up nine The paint used for paintballs is soluble in
friends and played a capture-the-flag-type water, so that it washes easily out of play-
game on 100 acres (40 hectares) of New ers' clothes. It is nontoxic, as well, in case a
Hampshire woods in June of 1981. The player is hit in the mouth and accidentally
three originators soon formed a corporation, swallows the paint. The basic materials for
the National Survival Game, Inc., and popu- the paint are mineral oils, food coloring, cal-
larized the sport. It received tremendous cium, ethylene glycol, and iodine. The paint
media attention early in the 1980s, and grew is encapsulated in a bubble made from
in epidemic proportions through the decade. gelatin. This is the same material used in en-
By 1989, an estimated 75,000 people were capsulated medicines, such as many pain
playing paintball every weekend in the Unit- killers and cold treatments, and in liquid vit-
ed States, with many more enthusiasts play- amins, such as vitamin E.
ing in Canada, Europe, Australia, and be-
yond. Specialized playing fields and stores
for the equipment sprang up across the The Manufacturing
country, with Southern California alone Process
boasting more than 50 playing fields. Dif-
ferent versions of the game developed, in- Making the paint
cluding "Civil War," where players faced 1 The paint for paintballs is a specialized
each other across a field and loaded their product because it is both water-soluble
pellets one at a time, in the style of weapons and biodegradable, and has been developed
used during the Civil War. The companies for optimum characteristics in the encapsu-
that arranged therapeutic paintball sessions lating process. Typically, the paint is made
for their executives included many bastions at a specialty paint facility, then shipped to
of corporate America, such as Rockwell In- the encapsulating plant. A very large manu-
ternational and Sears. Though paintball used facturer may combine the two operations.
guns, backers emphasized that it was played
for fun, and was not a war game or combat Encapsulation
training. Even church groups went on paint-
ball excursions by the early 1990s. By the 2 Encapsulating the paint is done with spe-
end of the 1990s, paintball had grown to a cialized equipment. When the game of
multimillion dollar international industry. paintball was first getting started, manufac-
The use of paintballs spread beyond the turing was done at pharmaceutical compa-
game, and by the late 1990s, media reports nies, which already had the equipment in
surfaced of paintball big game hunts, such place. As the industry evolved, paintball
as the opportunity afforded to tourists to fire manufacturers furnished their own factories.
paint at an elephant. Paintball weapons also The large machines cost millions of dollars.
advanced in sophistication, resulting in con- At a large facility, making paintballs is done
troversy over the use of potentially harmful as a continuous process, with the machines
279
Spreader
Chute
N1-O N_O N1-o~O >_o NQ~ NQ__
Paintballs are made using encap-

sulating machines. active seven days a week, 24 hours a day. Drying
Several hundred workers staff the factory.
Most are required to wear specialized cloth- 4Next, workers empty the tumblers and
ing and footwear, as well as caps to cover 1place the paintballs on shelves. The
their hair, in order to ensure a clean and rel- shelves are stacked on wheeled racks, and
atively dustless work area. To make the cap- the paintballs are left to air dry. The amount
sules, workers load two wide strips of soft- of time the balls dry varies from factory to
ened gelatin into the encapsulating machine. factory, and this, along with the exact for-
The strips move through two counter-rotat- mula of the gelatin, time in the tumbler, and
ing drums. These drums are lined with many other aspects of paintball manufactur-
pockets or dimples that form the paintball ing, is regarded as a trade secret.
casing. As the gelatin is pushed into the
dimple, the machine automatically injects a Inspection and packaging
precisely measured amount of paint into the 5 When the balls are thoroughly dried,
cavity. It also automatically seals the two they are ready for packaging. Workers
strips together, encapsulating the paint. move the balls to the packaging area. They
visually inspect them for an obvious flaws.
Tumbling and drying A more rigorous quality check is performed
on some of the batch. Workers load the balls
3 The gelatin is soft and warm at this into hoppers, and a machine automatically
point. The balls must be cooled and packages them by weight. Paintballs are
hardened in a tumbling machine. This ma- sold by the case, which is supposed to hold
chine gently shakes the paintballs around. 2,500 balls. But because the machine makes
The rotating action of the tumbler spins the up the case by weight, the actual number in
paintballs, so as they dry, they end up uni- the case usually varies from approximately
formly round. 2,490-2,510 balls.
280
Paintball
Quality Control cally manufactured to be biodegradable.
Both the paint and the gelatin dissolve in
A large paintball facility makes paintballs in water, so the waste from spent paintballs
a continuous process, but the process is still washes way in the rain.
broken up into numbered lots, so that the
manufacturers can perform an exact quality
control process. A certain percentage of Where to Learn More
each lot is set aside for inspection and test- Books
ing. After drying, a worker performs a visu-
al check to find any obvious abnormalities. Barnes, Bill. The Survival Game. New
Then the balls are tested further. Workers Haven, CT: Mustang Publishing, 1989.
place them in testing machines that measure
the balls' weight and diameter. A drop test Periodicals
is done to test for brittleness. A properly Bark, Kathleen Dombhart. "Paintball: Tac-
manufactured paintball should burst on im- tics Help Build Business Teamwork."
pact, but not sooner, so this is a very impor- Memphis Business Journal (May 18, 1992).
tant step. After the paintballs have passed all
these tests, some are taken to a target range "Paintball Business Honors Charles J. Nel-
and shot out of paintball guns as a final all- son for His Contributions to the Paintball In-
around field test. dustry." Paintball Business (Winter 1999).
Byproducts/Waste -Angela Woodward
Because paintballs are, for the most part,

used outside in open areas, they are specifi-
28 1
Patent Leather
The process for making Background skin. The word tanning derives from tannin,
a chemical found in many plants that reacts
patent leather was Patent leather is leather that has been fin- with collagen to strengthen its molecular
ished with chemicals that give it a shiny, re- bonds. When tanned, the original hide be-
invented in 1799 by an flective surface. It is usually black, and has comes strong, elastic, and durable.
Englishman, Edmund Prior. long been popular for dress and dancing
shoes. Most stages of the preparation of The treatment of animal hides to make
patent leather are the same as for other fine leather is an ancient art. The basic tech-
quality leathers. However, it is in the final nique of tanning leather dates back to pre-
finishing stage, when it is coated with a lac- historic times, when primitive peoples ap-
quer to give it its characteristic glossiness. parently tanned hides with plant matter. The
All leather is derived from animal skins or ancient Egyptians and the Hebrews tanned
hides. Most hides are a byproduct of the leather with plant products. The Hebrews
meat industry. The hides of cattle slaugh- used oak bark, and the Egyptians the pod of
tered for beef form the bulk of the leather a plant called babul. The Romans had a
industry. Other common leathers are made thriving tanning industry, using certain tree
from the hides of sheep, goats, and pigs, barks, berries, and wood extracts. Tanning
and so-called novelty leathers are derived was lost in Europe during the Middle Ages,
from reptile skins, such as alligator and but the art was kept alive in the Arab world,
snake, and even from the ostrich. Patent and reintroduced to Europe later. By the
leather is usually light and thin, and usually eighteenth century, tanning was widespread
derived from a calf or a kid. Today, howev- in the Old World and the New. Though tan-
er, patent leather can be made from any ning was a relatively low-technology opera-
kind of hide, and need be of no finer quality tion, it still required some specialized tools,
than most shoe leathers. such as fleshing knives, scrapers, and soak-
ing vats. Up until the late nineteenth centu-
Mammal hides are comprised of three lay- ry, all tanning chemicals were plant deriva-
ers: a hairy outer layer, a thickcentral layer, tives, such as hemlock, oak, or sumac bark.
and fatty inner layer. The process of mak- Tanners salted hides, soaked them in lime
ing leather, called tanning, involves remov- to dehair them, delimed them in an acid so-
ing the fat and the hair, and working a lution, usually manure, and then soaked the
chemical change on the thick middle layer hides in increasingly strong solutions of
to preserve and strengthen it while giving it vegetable tannin.
flexibility. A hide removed from a slaugh-
tered animal begins to decompose within At the end of the nineteenth century, chemi-
just a few hours. So the first step in tanning cal tanning became possible. In this
is to preserve the hide. Throughout history, method, the tanning agent is chromium sul-
this was usually done by salting. Then, the fate. The process was discovered in 1858,
preserved hide is treated in any of a number and the first commercial production of
of ways to remove the hair and dissolve the chrome tanned leather was in New York in
fat. It is then treated with chemicals that 1884. Though the initial method had some
work on the collagen, a fibrous protein drawbacks, chrome tanning quickly re-
making up most of the middle layer of the placed vegetable tanning. As the industry
282
Patent Leather
developed in the twentieth century, the tan- leather was tanned by the usual process for
ning process was increasingly mechanized. making black shoe leather. From there, the
Large machines made high volume possi- tanner carefully coated the leather with a
ble. Earlier tanneries were usually situated varnish imbued with dyes and other ingre-
near a source for vegetable tanning materi- dients. A patent in 1854 described the var-
als, such as the many that grew up in Vir- nish ingredients as "oil, amber, Prussian
ginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina in the blue, litharge, white lead, ochre, whiting,
United States because of the availability of asphalt, and sometimes copal." In practice,
chesnut wood. By the early twentieth centu- many tanners kept their varnish recipe se-
ry, vegetable tannins were being imported cret, and even the ingredients listed in
in large amounts from South America, and patent applications may have been falsified
the ingredients for chrome tanning were not in order to throw off competitors. Linseed
tied to any particular locality. Tanneries oil of sufficient purity and the dye known as
thus could be built anywhere, and centered Prussian blue seem to have been the basis
in the Midwestern region of the United of most patent leather finishes. Starting
States, site of most beef slaughtering. En- with a fine, black leather, the tanner built
tering the twenty-first century, the tanning up layers of varnish, applying as many as
industry in the United States is declining as 15 coats, drying the leather in the sun or in
low labor costs in other parts of the world a stove in between. The trick was to get a
make imported leathers more economical. smooth, hard finish that was also somewhat
elastic, so the leather did not crack later.
Leather has many uses and comes in many The modem process for producing patent
forms, from thick, sturdy cow hide leather leather is not very different, except in
for straps and harnesses to soft kid leather mechanization, from that used in the nine-
for gloves. The most common shoe leather teenth century. The same problem exists of
up through the nineteenth century would finding a balance between a hard finish and
have been a very heavy sort to make sturdy a flexible one, and manufacturers use vary-
boots. For practical purposes, both men and ing recipes and techniques.
women in Europe also wore wooden shoes
or iron-soled shoes called pattens to hoist
the wearer above the mud and muck. From
the time of Louis XIV up through the early
Rawv Materials
nineteenth century, men's shoes were more The earliest patent leathers always started
subject to the whims of fashion than with a fine quality leather. Because the var-
women's, as women's feet were usually nishes used today work better than the early
covered by voluminous skirts. The excep- linseed oil formulas, now almost any quality
tion was dancing shoes. Both sexes of the leather can be given a patent finish. Most
upper classes craved fancy, fashionable flat patent leather today begins with cattle hide.
shoes for balls and parties. It was for this The finish is a blend of polyurethane and
kind of shoe that patent leather first became acrylic. These two materials have different
popular. The process for making patent characteristics. Polyurethane gives a hard
leather was invented in 1799 by an English- finish, shiny and durable, but acrylic results
man, Edmund Prior. Prior patented a in a more flexible final product. So leather
process for painting leather with dyes and chemists combine the two for optimum
boiled oil, and finishing it with an oil var- qualities. The actual finish used thus will be
nish. In 1805 another patent was granted, different from tannery to tannery, and per-
this time to one Mollersten, for a leather haps from batch to batch. The finishing ma-
finishing technique using linseed oil, whale terial is also imbued with black dye. Dye
oil, horse grease, and lamp black. The formulas vary widely from plant to plant, as
shiny, black, waterproof surface offered by well. Other raw materials are common to
this patent or "japanned" leather set off a leather manufacturing as a whole: salt for
craze for it in England and abroad. Patent curing the hides; disinfectants; lime or other
leather first appeared commercially in caustic chemicals for dehairing; various
1822, and remained popular in cyclical acids and salts for deliming the hides and
fashion through the present day. The earli- getting them to the proper pH balance for
est patent leathers would have been made tanning; chromium tanning salts, and water
from fine leathers, such as calf or kid. The for various stages.
283
Animal hides must 6e cured in

order to prevent decomposition. `C~From
killing floor
The Manufacturing and the remaining fat and meat into another
Process separate container. The fat and meat can be
sold by the slaughterhouse. The cleaned
Preparing the hide hides are then loaded into a vat of brine.
1 The hide used is usually cow, and it is
produced as a byproduct of the meat in- At the warehouse
dustry in most cases. That is, cattle are prin- 2 After the hides have cured in the brine
cipally slaughtered for their meat, and then for at least 24 hours, the slaughterhouse
the hide is sold to a tannery. The hide is re- ships them to the tannery. In the United
moved by skilled workers who cut it care- States, most tanneries maintain large ware-
fully to preserve its integrity. Any stray cuts houses for cured hides, and they could store
or marks can seriously affect the quality of hides for as long as a year before any further
the hide. Within hours after removal, the processing. This practice changed around
skin will begin to decay because of the large the late 1970s, and now most domestic tan-
amount of organisms both on the hair side neries work on the "just in time" manufac-
and the meat side. So the skin is immediate- turing principle, keeping very little hide in
ly preserved in salt. The hides may be sim- stock. So though the cured hides could be
ply laid down, covered with salt on both kept for quite some time before tanning, in
sides, and the next hide stacked on top. Al- present-day practices, they might proceed
ternately, in a large commercial slaughter- directly to the next step.
house, the hides are taken from the killing
floor and sent through a chilling machine.
This is a large tumble washer that both Soaking, liming, and bating
cleans off surface dirt and manure, and The cured hides undergo several steps at
brings the temperature of the hide down so Jthe tannery before they are ready for tan-
that the clinging fat solidifies. Next, workers ning. These collectively are called the
pass the hides through another instrument "beamhouse" operations. Total time in the
called a fleshing machine. A pair of workers beamhouse takes 12-24 hours. The term
feed the hides one at a time through the beamhouse derives from ancient practice,
cylinders of the fleshing machine, where the when the hide was hung over a special
manure is knocked off into one container, curved log or table known as a beam for the
284
Patent Leather
To make patent leather, tanned
leather is coated three times with
a polyurethane/acrylic solution
and then vacuum dried to seal the
coating to the leather. Dye is
added to the middle coat to give
patent leather its shiny black look.
TANNING DRUM
TACKING
t.
VACUUM DRYING -
FLOW COATING
dehairing. First tannery workers soak the gets rid of the hair and fat and other unwant-
cured hides in cold water in a vat or drum. ed particles. It also slowly reduces the pH of
This removes the salt from the brine cure. the hides, from highly alkaline to neutral or
Or if the hides have been cured in dry salt, it slightly acidic. The hides are washed, then
rehydrates them. Next lime or another caus- placed in a bath of warm water with some
tic chemical is added to the soak, to loosen calcium salts and an enzyme. More warm
the hair. The hides swell up at this stage, be- water is run into the bath, gradually increas-
coming blue-white and rubbery. Then, the ing the temperature. The action of the en-
hides go through a step called bating. Bating zyme lowers the alkalinity of the hide. The
285
fat also breaks down. Gradually, the water gone through, the leather is still in its origi-
temperature is decreased. The hides are nal shape. It has not been cut except perhaps
washed until all hair, fat, and chemicals to trim some thick or damaged areas. The
have been removed. shoe manufacturer cuts it into many pieces,
with as little waste as possible.
Tanning
ANow the hides are ready for tanning. Quality Control
Workers load them into a huge rotating Quality control differs from tannery to tan-
drum. The drum is filled with the tanning nery, and it depends mostly on for what the
solution, made of chromium salts in water. customer contracts. Good patent leather
The hides soak in the tanning solution for should not crack, the finish should be thor-
eight to 12 hours. The chemical action of the oughly dry and hard to the touch, not tacky,
chrome transforms the hide into leather. and it should not scuff easily. A fully
Dyes in the solution also give the leather its equipped tannery might carry out tests for
color. For patent leather, this is usually all these conditions, as well as chemical
black. Workers remove the leather after the analyses of the finish. Other tanneries may
appropriate time in the bath, and send it to a just visually inspect the end product. Usual-
drying area for at least 24 hours. ly, the customer for the finished patent
leather must agree with the tannery what
Finishing tests should be carried out or what standards
the leather should meet.
5 All the previous steps apply to any
5leather. Only in the finishing is the
leather transformed into the specific product Byproducts/Waste
of patent leather. In the United States, a Tanning leather and finishing it into patent
common finishing technique used to be a leather creates much waste water. And if a
spray application of the polyurethene and/or spray application of the finish is used, this
acrylic. But because of air pollution con- creates air pollution. In the United States in
cems, most patent leather finishing is done the 1980s, the Environmental Protection
by some kind of so-called aqueous disper- Agency (EPA) stiffened its standards for air
sion, that is, a liquid application. One com- emissions from tanneries, and as a result,
mon method is to use a machine called a most now use water-based finish applica-
flow coater. Workers load a tank above a tions. Tanneries must find ways to deal with
conveyor belt with the liquid polyurethane/ waste water, which is heavily polluted with
acrylic. The hides pass beneath the tank on a chemicals. The water can be cleaned in a
belt. A waterfall of overflowing liquid hits wastewater treatment facility. Then the
the traveling hide, and it becomes coated cleaned water can be reused by the tannery.
with the finish. Next, the finished hides are Some leather byproducts can also be reused.
stretched on boards and pass through a heat- Rawhide scraps can be sold as dog chews.
ed tunnel to dry. Depending on the tannery The waste hair, fat, and other animal solids
and the particular application, the drying can be collected and made into fertilizer.
tunnel may use infrared lights or ultraviolet. Though tanning is an industry that has a rep-
The first coat of finish is formulated so it utation for pollution and unpleasant smells,
penetrates the leather completely. After dry- it is possible for a dedicated plant to recycle
ing, the hide is put through the flow coater its waste for miminal environmental impact.
again, this time for a middle coat that in-
cludes dye. Then it is dried as before, and
put through for a third and final top coat. Where to Learn More
This top coat is clear, and dries hard, shiny, Books
and waterproof.
McDowell, Colin. Shoes: Fashion and Fan-
Final steps tasy. New York: Rizzoli, 1989.
6 After the last coat dries, the leather is Thorstensen, Thomas C. Practical Leather
6ready to move on to its buyer, most like- Technology. Huntington, NY: Robert E.
ly a shoe manufacturer. Despite all it has Krieger Publishing Co., 1976.
286
Patent Leather
Welsh, Peter C. Tanning in the United
States to 1850. Washington, DC: United
States National Museum, 1964.
Periodicals
McDowell, John. "Leather Company Cre-
ates Alternative to Landfilling." BioCycle
(June 1998): 32.
-Angela Woodward
287
Pillow
The largest manufacturers Background lavished much attention, detail, and money
on pillows for the dead. The Chinese, how-
of American-mode pillows Americans usually have two or three pillows ever, thought that soft pillows robbed the
on their bed. Today, pillows are stuffed pri-
produce between 10,000- body of vitality, and their pillows were made
marily with materials such as polyester (a of wood, leather, and ceramic materials.
15,000 pillows each day. synthetic), feathers, down, or a combination Some were even filled with herbal remedies
of the latter two. The least expensive pil- to cure disease, tum white hair black, restore
lows to manufacture are polyester, although lost teeth, and inspire sweet dreams.
they are the most durable, easily washed,
and cause few allergic reactions. The most
For centuries, people slept fairly upright with
expensive is the pillow filled with goose
not only a pair of pillows on the bed but a
down. Feathers are a moderately priced
large, cylindrical bolster as well. These bol-
stuffing. Some higher-end pillows may be
sters, sometimes nearly the width of the bed,
filled with a combination of goose feathers
were stuffed with down or some other type
and down, and that ratio may be varied ex-
tensively according to price point (the more of batting and closed up. They were placed
down, the more expensive). The pillow fill- against the headboard and were the founda-
ing is distinguished by the tag on the pillow tion for the pillows. Then, a pair of pillows
was placed upright against the bolster. The
casing, which must be there by law in the
event that the consumer may be allergic to
sleeper would prop himself up against these
pillows, resulting in a sleeping position that
the contents.
was closer to sitting than reclining. Until
Pillows are still manufactured in great quan- about the mid-1800s it was thought this posi-
tities in the United States. They are also pro- tion was better for the body.
duced outside the country, but pillows are
generally not imported to the United States. Other fancy pillows were found on beds of
Shipping is measured by volume and pil- the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
lows are extraordinarily expensive to ship. Sometimes large, square pillows were
Some manufacturers have tried to have pil- placed within a decorative pillow cover and
lows made out of the country-where labor then placed against the pillows actually used
is cheaper-and crush the pillows during for sleeping on a bed. These were often re-
transportation in order to save money. How- moved from the bed before sleep. Until cot-
ever, once the pillow is crushed, it is diffi- ton became easy to obtain around 1840,
cult for it to spring back to its original shape American women showed their needlework
and much of its plushness is lost. prowess by carefully hand weaving and
sewing linen pillow cases and marking them
with their initials and the number the case
History was within a set of pillow cases. As the
The shape and contents of pillows have var- American textile industry flourished
ied little over time. The wealthier Greeks throughout the 1800s, covers for pillows
rested their heads and feet upon richly em- (which housed the stuffing) went from utili-
broidered cushions and bolsters. The Egyp- tarian linen to the sturdy cotton ticking, still
tians, regarding the head as the seat of life, seen on pillows and in fabric stores.
288
Pillow
The traditional filler for pillows was, until the fine down from working its way through
recently, down and feather. However, as the cloth. Polyester batts do not require such
fabrics changed, so too did yams. Synthetic closely woven fabrics. These fabrics may
polyester filling has replaced natural batts as have a starch placed on them during their
it is has acceptable loft and shape retention, manufacture to make them stiffer and more
is relatively inexpensive, may be washed, resistant to penetration. The only other ma-
and few people are allergic to it. terial required for pillow manufacture is a
sturdy thread for sewing the pillow itself.
Ravv Materials
The batting, or filling, itself is the most impor-
The Manufacturing
tant part of the pillow. The most expensive
Process
filling is down. This is the light, fluffy under- The following process will describe the con-
coating of waterfowl, consisting of clusters of struction of a polyester-filled pillow, an in-
filaments growing from a central quill point. expensive and commonly produced pillow.
Down has a quill point but no quill shaft and It is a small-medium size operation which
is more resilient as a result. It is three-dimen- produces between 2,000-3,500 pillows
sional and therefore has more loft. Thousands every day. The largest manufacturers of
of clusters are found in down that trap warm American-made pillows produce between
air to prevent heat loss. Duck down is smaller, 10,000-15,000 pillows each day.
more plentiful, and less expensive. It is im-
portant to note that not all down is the same. The pillow covering must be constructed
Down is rated by fill power, which is the vol- first. Sturdy cotton or cotton-polyester
ume of space in a calibrated cylinder that 1 oz fabric is shipped to the factory in huge bolts.
(28 g) measures. The higher the number, the The fabric must be treated or calendared so
better the fill power. that the sewn casing may be blown apart
and easily separated during filling. Once
Feathers are the principal covering of birds. calendared the fabric is taken to huge tables
They are flat and two-dimensional with a and cut apart-dozens of layers at a time-
hard, tubular quill shaft that runs from one with either heavy shears or fabric cutting
end to the other. Because they are flat, they machines.
are unable to effectively trap air and warmth.
Feathers are strong, but not terribly soft. 2Stacks of rectangular-shaped fabric are
Duck feathers are the most common type of taken to the sewing machines. In fully
feather used in American pillows. Many automated plants, automatic sewing ma-
manufacturers combine down and feather to chines are used to grab the fabric and sew
make an affordable, comfortable pillow. them together. These machines are quite ex-
pensive and many plants still opt for people
An other type of filling is polyester, a syn- to do this work. In this case, a machine op-
thetic material. The cheapest polyester used erator takes two pieces and sews them to-
for pillows is a continuous solid filament gether around the edges, leaving a space of
polyester which has good initial shape but approximately 6 in (16 cm) open in order to
loses loft fairly shortly. A better grade of stuff the pillow. As the operator sews the
polyester is called hollofill, which is also a edges together, the tag that lists the pillow's
continuous filament fiber but has a hollow contents is attached. The operator then turns
core that gives the pillow more loft for a the pillow covering inside out so that the
greater period of time than cheaper grade seams are on the inside of the case.
polyester.
3 The casings are moved to the pillow ma-
The pillow filling determines the fabric cho- 3chine, which blows the polyester filling
sen for the pillow casing. While the casing into the pillows. The machine has been
is generally cotton or cotton-polyester, the loaded with polyester in one of two ways.
weight and closeness of the weave varies ac- More expensive machines need only to have
cording to filling. The feather and down fill- an entire bale (about 600 lb [272 kg]) of
ing require a more expensive, very dense, polyester inserted into the machine and the
tightly woven fabric that will keep the feath- machine unloads and combs it. Less expen-
er shafts from poking the sleeper and keep sive machines require an operator to unload
289
The blowing machine blows poly- ting. This guarantees that the casings can be
ester filling into a pillow case. quickly and evenly sewn. Sewing the casing
of the pillow requires careful work and is
monitored by supervisors as well as sewers.
Polyester batting must be de-baled by hand
(metal bands are removed from the large
bales) and are examined to ensure that the
quality is suitable for pillow inclusion. As
operators load the blowing machine with
polyester they examine the equipment for
defects and inefficiencies. Workers are pre-
sent as the pillows are blown with batting.
Then the stuffed pillows are weighed to en-
sure that they are the weight represented in
the labeling.
Byproducts/Waste
The primary byproducts of the polyester-
filled pillows is the metal baling bands used
to bundle and transport the polyester batt.
baled and tightly packed polyester by hand. This metal is desirable for recycling; one
Once the polyester is inside the machine, the company has neighborhood recyclers pick
blowing machine combs the polyester so it is this up free of charge and recycle it (they may
be paid a fee for the scrap metal). Cartons are
fluffy and has some loft. The 6-in (15- cm) picked up for recycling a well. Because the
opening in the pillow covering is slipped
onto a tube on the machine. Then, a blower fabric is generally produced and calendared
pushes the polyester into the casing. Some elsewhere, bleaches and finishes are not a
machines can fill up to 100 pillows an hour. part of this operation. Polyester fibers them-
selves are not prone to becoming minute air-
4 When the pillow is filled, it is taken to borne fibers. The 2-in (5.8-cm) or 3-in (7.6-
1
another station and workers close the cm) cut lengths of fiber generally do not get
opening in the pillow case using an industri- into operators' lungs and are not the health-
al sewing machine. The pillow is weighed at hazard that other fillings are. Down, with its
that time to ensure that it includes the requi- very short filaments, creates a great deal of
site amount of batting. down dust, and it is imperative to use masks
to protect the lungs when working with down
5 The completed pillows are moved to ma- and, to a certain extent, feathers.
chines for bagging them. The machine
blows air into thin plastic bags to open them
up and then inserts individual pillows. The The Future
bagged pillows are placed into boxes, ready Pillows have varied little since they were
for shipping. first used. They are now also made with
blends of hypo-allergenic fibers so that even
people with allergies or extremely sensitive
Quality Control skin are able to enjoy their comfort. In this
The process described above is really quite age of therapeutic remedies, some pillows
labor-intensive as it includes many workers are reverting back to the Chinese method of
on the floor of the factory in order to fulfill including herbs to relieve aliments and give
the requirements of manufacturing pillows. a better nights rest. Orthopedic pillows are
As a result, these operators are able to scru- also advancing rapidly. They are filled with
tinize the quality of virtually all aspects of or surrounded by foam (some even contain
the manufacturing process. Operators are gel or water that can be heated or cooled)
vigilant that the dozens of layers of fabric that is either already formed or forms
are carefully put down on the cutting table around the head, to fully support the neck.
so that the fabric is not askew prior to cut- These pillows help to relieve neck, back,
290
Pillow
and lumbar pain. Some help to keep the Nylander, Jane. Our Own Snug Fireside.
head elevated to relive congested lungs, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.
sinus problems, and puffy eyes. One compa-
ny even markets a pillow with an unde- Other
tectable speaker built in that plugs into the
headphone outlet in a stereo. Harris Pillow Company. http://www.harris
pillow.com (January 2001).
Where to Learn More Royal Pillow Company. http://www.royal
Books pillow.com (January 2001).
Harris, Eileen. Going to Bed. London: The The Pillowtalker. http://www.pillowtalker.
Victoria and Albert Museum, 1981. com (January 2001).
-Nancy E.V. Bryk
29 1
Pinball
Pinball developed out of a Background popularity, manufacturers also began to pro-
duce smaller table-top versions as toys for
marble game popular in Pinball is a popular coin-operated game fre- children around this time. By the 1880s,
quently found in amusement arcades. Play- both adult and children's versions of
France during the reign of ers shoot small balls through complicated
Bagatelle games were found around the
Louis XIV. paths and into targets on a playing field world. Different arrangements of playing
under glass. The balls are manipulated with fields were given names like Chinese
swinging arms, called flippers, which are
Bagatelle and Russian Bagatelle, and other
connected to the playing field. The games popular versions were called Cockamaroo
are brightly colored and lit, and appeal par-
and Tivoli.
ticularly to young people. Though pinball
has ancient origins, its heyday in the United A major technological advancement altered
States was between the 1930s and 1970s. the game with a patent granted in 1871 to
Montague Redgrave, of Cincinnati, Ohio.
History Redgrave was the first to add a spring-loaded
plunger to the game, so that the ball was shot
Pinball developed out of a marble game onto the playfield mechanically. This early
popular in France during the reign of Louis modification remained in use throughout the
XIV. The French game was called history of the game. Another signal develop-
Bagatelle, named after Castle Bagatelle, the ment came in 1889 when an Englishman,
palace of King Louis' younger brother Duke Henry Pessers, patented a coin-operated ver-
Arthur, an inveterate gambler and gamer. sion of a Bagatelle game. His game was
Bagatelle used a wooden game board with called Pickwick, and was different from
holes in it. Players pushed small balls along most of its predecessors in that it was mount-
the board using a stick, which resembled a ed vertically on a wall, instead of inclined on
miniature pool cue. Players scored if their a table. Several American companies manu-
ball dropped into a hole, though the ball had factured similar coin-operated pinball-type
to negotiate nails driven into the board as games early in the twentieth century. Some
obstacles. Bagatelle was extremely popular games offered prizes for skillful play, though
in sophisticated circles in France by the the prize, often a free beer or cigar, had to be
1780s. French soldiers brought the game to supplied by the owner of the establishment
the United States during the colonies' war where the game was played, and was not
for independence, and it spread across given out automatically. Many innovators
America wherever military men were post- added features to these games, such as the
ed. In England, the game of Bagatelle is glass panel protecting the playing field and
mentioned in Charles Dickens' the Pick automatic score counters.
Wick Papers of 1836, where characters play
the game at a table installed in the back of a One of the most successful early pinball
tavern. Full-size games were common games was Baffle Ball, developed by David
across Europe and the United States by the Gottlieb in 1931. Baffle Ball was a mechan-
1830s, as entertainment in taverns, inns, and ical, coin-operated Bagatelle-type game. It
stagecoach stops. These games were about cost only a penny to play, and the complete
the size of a modern pool table. Due to its game sold for $17.50. It became immensely
2 92
Pinball
popular in the United States, and Gottlieb Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia made opposition
sold more than 50,000 games in its first to pinball a focal point of his mayoral elec-
year. Ray Moloney, one of Gottlieb's dis- tion campaign. Pinball was outlawed in
tributors, invented his own similar game, New York City in 1941, and a mayoral com-
Ballyhoo, in 1932. This brightly colored mission declared that pinball could lead
game became even more popular than Baf- youths to a life of crime. Pinball still flour-
fle Ball. Moloney formed the Bally Manu- ished, however, in suburban locations, par-
facturing Company to manufacture his ticularly in roadhouses beyond city bounds.
games, and sold 75,000 games in 1932.
Bally continued as one of the major pinball The invention of flippers to push the ball on
manufacturers through the twentieth centu- the playing field changed pinball decisively.
ry. Both Bally and Gottlieb's company Flippers were invented by an engineer for
made money, even though the country was Gottlieb Manufacturing, and they were first
in the midst of the Great Depression, and put into the game Humpty Dumpty in 1947.
their success set off a slew of imitators. By pushing buttons on the side of the game
More than a hundred companies began man- table, players could make the finger-like
ufacturing similar games in the early 1930s, flippers bat the balls in play. Other manu-
and pinball became a fixture of not only tav- facturers immediately copied Gottlieb, and
erns, but also drugstores, barbershops, and flippers became standard on all pinball
gas stations. By 1935, the game design had games ever since. Now the game definitely
changed so that the playing field had its own depended on the player's skill, and so pin-
table. The games were electrified, so that ball was able to disassociate itself from
parts of the playing field could light up, and gambling games. A 1956 Federal court case
the game could keep score and pay out prize made a definitive ruling that flipper-type
money automatically. Harry Williams, pinball games were not gambling games and
whose Williams Manufacturing Company could not be regulated as such. However,
became one of the foremost pinball manu- municipalities still made distinctions be-
facturers in the United States, added signifi- tween different types of pinball games. In
cant thrill to the game by electrifying the some areas, machines that rewarded high-
playing field with a "kicker" that could scoring players with a free game were ille-
shoot the ball out of a hole and back onto gal, and in other places, the automatic
the field. Williams's addition made the plungers that shoot the ball onto the play-
game much more fast-paced. field were the banned element. Such ordi-
nances began to be repealed in the late
Pinball in the 1930s was a more a game of 1960s, though it was not until January 1977
chance than of skill. The movement of the that pinball was finally legal again in Chica-
balls was set by the plunger action at the be- go. New York had legalized pinball the year
ginning of the game, and players could only before, and Los Angeles in 1972.
jostle the table to influence its course. The
mathematics of the game had been studied Games increased in artistry in the 1970s,
by French philosopher Blaise Pascal and by particularly with the rise of colorful lighted
Sir Francis Galton in England, who was a backglasses. The backglass is the vertical
cousin of Charles Darwin and best known as portion of the game table that shows the
the father of eugenics. These men had chart- score. These had always been eye-catching,
ed the probability of the ball reaching cer- but in the 1970s they became larger, and
tain holes; skill at the game was close to that with evocative artwork, often with a fantas-
needed at roulette or dice. In the wild prolif- tic theme. Pinball technology also advanced
eration of Depression-era coin-operated in the 1970s with the addition of microchips
games, some manufacturers made ones that that allowed machines to tally scores and re-
emphasized the gambling aspect, such as member them. Games of the late 1970s had
mechanical dog races and horse races. This many new features, such as speech and en-
tarred the reputation of pinball. By the end hanced sound, and more complicated scor-
of the 1930s, pinball shared other gambling ing with bonus balls, mystery points, and
games' bleak reputation, and many munici- triple-level playing fields. Nevertheless, by
palities moved to ban it. Pinball was out- 1982, the pinball manufacturing industry ar-
lawed in Los Angeles and Chicago, centers rived into a slump caused by the popularity
of pinball manufacturing, and in New York, of video games. To keep down costs, com-
293
Examples of historic pinball ma-

chines plicated games were abandoned for simpler signer, who brought together the drawings
versions, and new games were not nearly as and designs from other team members; an an-
innovative as the games of the previous imator to animate images on the scoring dis-
decade. Major manufacturers went bankrupt play; an electrical engineer and a cable de-
or ceased production. By the end of the signer to work out the circuitry and wiring;
1990s, only one manufacturer was left, sculptors and model-makers to build the pro-
Williams Electronics Games, Inc., in Chica- totype devices for the playing field, and a
go, which made both Williams and Bally publications writer to write the technical doc-
brand games. Williams ceased production of uments and manuals. The team might include
traditional pinball games in October 1999. other people, as well, such as someone who
Old pinball games and pinball backglass art kept track of the cost of materials, and people
are avidly collected by fans. working in marketing, sales, and licensing.
The design work starts with a concept,

Design which might be an original idea or might
While a new pinball game took only 20-30 come from a licensed product, such as a
hours to manufacture, the design process was movie. After the concept is agreed upon, the
far more protracted. Designing a new game design team works on the layout of the play-
took a team of professionals from 12-18 ing field. Designers fiddle with placements
months, and the investment cost could run up of any special elements the game will have,
to a million dollars. Games were designed by and try to work out how the player will
teams, with members taking on specialized make shots leading to the element. The
tasks. The team included a game designer, placement of ramps, flippers, kickers, tilt
who came up with the game concept and gen- mechanisms, and such is planned out, while
erally organized the other members; a soft- the mechanical engineer produces proto-
ware developer; an artist to come up with the types for the special elements.
backglass art and playing field graphics; a
mechanical engineer, responsible for the de- After the playfield design is more or less
sign of all the gadgets on the playing field; a completed, the team then produces what is
sound designer to create the music and other called a whitewood version of the game.
sound effects for the game; a mechanical de- This is a bare plywood prototype of the
2 94
Pinball
ABB
A. Playfield. B. Flipper mechanism.

playfield. The designers use computer as- also works with the lighting and sound de- C. Pop bumper.
sisted design (CAD) software to record their signers and animators to run all these ef-
plans, and this software is then used to con- fects. At the whitewood stage, the designers
trol a computer-driven routing machine that can actually play the game they have creat-
cuts the board. The game elements for the ed, and work on developing rules.
whitewood are made by hand and glued on.
Lights, ramps, and flippers are added. The Meanwhile the artist creates sketches for the
whitewood may go through many revisions, backglass. If the game is based on a licensed
as placements are changed or elements theme, the artist needs to submit sketches
taken off or added. When the design seems for approval to the licensing agency. When
satisfactory, the whitewood is wired to the whitewood is near its final form, the
make it playable. Meanwhile the software artist makes sketches for the playfield. Pin-
developer has been creating the unique soft- ball artists in the 1990s utilized traditional
ware to control the game. Williams, the last media such as pen and ink and paint, as well
major American pinball manufacturer, had as computer graphics.
developed its own proprietary pinball oper-
ating system so that a basic framework While the game is in development, team
could be used for each game, simplifying members keep constant track of how much
the design process. The software developer the game might cost to make. If parts need to
295
be ordered from an outside vendor, the team process, also called stencil printing. This is
needs to retrieve estimates from the suppliers. usually done by an outside vendor. From the
The game has a total budget, and sometimes artist's design, the printer makes a series of
the cost of one spectacular effect means that patterns called stencils that break down the
other game elements, such as lighting, have to design into four colors. That is, all the red
be redesigned to make them cheaper. The de- parts of the design are isolated on one sten-
sign team also creates a bill of materials, list- cil, all the blue on another, and so on.
ing every part needed to make the game. Parts Through combinations of four colors, every
are ordered so that everything is in place possible shade can be made. The stencils are
when the game is ready to be mass produced. made of a sieve-like fabric. Ink will pass
through the open weave of the fabric and ad-
After the design is finalized, workers at the here to the material being printed. The print-
plant assemble 10-20 prototypes. These are er lays the stencil, which might be a thin,
completely finished games, just like ones plastic laminate, down on the material. An
that will eventually be sold. The prototypes applicator sprays the color. Then the stencil
help the production plant determine that all is lifted, the material briefly dried, and the
the parts fit together, that the suppliers have next stencil laid down. After the fourth
sent the correct parts, and that mass produc- color, the design is complete. For a back-
tion will go smoothly. Any glitches in the glass, the whole design could be screened as
assembly are caught at this stage. And if any one piece. For the playfield, the artwork is
part of the manufacturing process needs to broken up into small sections. At the pinball
be modified, it is discovered now. The pro- factory, workers punch out the sections and
totypes are also used for testing. adhere them to the playfield. This way, the
artwork is made to fit around the holes for
Raw Materials the targets and other mechanical parts.
The raw materials for pinball are not extra-
ordinary. Inexpensive, sturdy plywood is Hand assembly
used for the playfield, wiring boards, and 3 Most of the remaining work is done by
cabinet. Metal parts, such as screws and hand. Some of the small parts, such as
springs, are made out of a variety of com- spring-loaded bumper mechanisms, may
mon materials, such as stainless steel and have to be put together at the factory from
aluminum. Special elements on the playfield components parts. Then these parts are as-
may be of molded plastic. Manufacturers resembled on the board. The wiring is very
quire vendors to supply parts exactly to complicated. Workers painstakingly connect
specifications, and to hold down production the wires, using screw drivers and soldering
costs, which are considerable, the cheapest guns. The cabinets are made as rectangular
materials possible may be used. hollow boxes. Workers screw rails on to
hold the circuit boards and playfield. The
The Manufacturing screened art for the backglass is inserted in
Process the backglass assembly, and that part at-
tached to the main cabinet. Each game has
Pressuring the ployfield close to 1,000 parts. The whole game takes
1 Almost all the production of a pinball from 20-30 hours to finish, and the factory
game is done by hand. The exception is itself requires about 1,000 workers.
the manufacture of the playfield. The design
for the playfield is programmed into a spe- Quality Control
cial machine. Workers load plywood into
the machine, and it squeezes each board Most of the quality control in pinball manu-
under high pressure. The pressure incises facturing is done before mass production be-
each side of the board with marks, which gins. Individual parts from vendors are in-
show where all the assembly units go. spected and measured to make sure they are
to specification. But the main check the
manufacturer has on total product quality is
Screen printing in the prototypes made after the design
2 Pinball backglasses and playing field art process is complete. These 10-20 prototypes
are made by the silk-screen printing are tested in a variety of ways, including
2 96
Pinball
playability, general safety, and ability to Where to Learn More
withstand shipping. One is played on regu-
larly, for field testing. One prototype is test- Books
ed for sturdiness during shipping-this suf- Bueschel, Richard M. Illustrated Historical
fers a drop test. Another is sent to a private
Guide to Pinball Machines. Vol. 1. Wheat
laboratory for a safety test, to make sure Ridge, CO: Hoflin Publishing Ltd, 1988.
players could not be injured by the game.
Other prototypes are used for publicity pho- Eiden, Heribert, and Jurgen Lukas. Pinball
tographs, for the rules or manual writer, and Machines. West Chester, PA: Schiffer Pub-
perhaps for display at trade shows or promo- lishing Ltd., 1992.
tions. Even after the prototypes pass inspec-
tion, the manufacturer might make a small Sharpe, Roger C. Pinball! New York: E. P.
run of some 50-100 games, just to make Dutton, 1977.
sure that everything is set in the production
room for a bigger batch. -Angela Woodward
297
Polyurethane
Over the years, improved Polyurethanes are linear polymers that have History
a molecular backbone containing carbamate
polyurethane polymers groups (-NHCO2). These groups, called ure- Polyurethane chemistry was first studied by
thane, are produced through a chemical re- the German chemist, Friedrich Bayer in
have been developed 1937. He produced early prototypes by re-
action between a diisocyanate and a polyol.
including Spandex fibers, First developed in late 1930s, polyurethanes acting toluene diisocyanate reacted with di-
are some of the most versatile polymers. hydric alcohols. From this work one of the
polyurethane coatings, They are used in building insulation, surface first crystalline polyurethane fibers, Perlon
coatings, adhesives, solid plastics, and ath- U, was developed. The development of elas-
and thermoplastic tic polyurethanes began as a program to find
letic apparel.
elastomers. a replacement for rubber during the days of
World War II. In 1940, the first polyurethane
Background elastomers were produced. These com-
Polyurethanes, also known as polycarba- pounds gave millable gums that could be
mates, belong to a larger class of compounds used as an adequate alternative to rubber.
called polymers. Polymers are macromole- When scientists found that polyurethanes
cules made up of smaller, repeating units could be made into fine threads, they were
known as monomers. Generally, they consist combined with nylon to make more light-
of a primary long-chain backbone molecule weight, stretchable garments.
with attached side groups. Polyurethanes are
characterized by carbamate groups (-NHCO2) In 1953, the first commercial production of
in their molecular backbone. a flexible polyurethane foam was begun in
the United States. This material was useful
Synthetic polymers, like polyurethane, are for foam insulation. In 1956, more flexible,
produced by reacting monomers in a reaction less expensive foams were introduced. Dur-
vessel. In order to produce polyurethane, a ing the late 1950s, moldable polyurethanes
step-also known as condensation-reaction were produced. Over the years, improved
is performed. In this type of chemical reac- polyurethane polymers have been developed
tion, the monomers that are present contain including Spandex fibers, polyurethane
reacting end groups. Specifically, a diiso- coatings, and thermoplastic elastomers.
cyanate (OCN-R-NCO) is reacted with a diol
(HO-R-OH). The first step of this reaction
results in the chemical linking of the two Ravv Materials
molecules leaving a reactive alcohol (OH) on A variety of raw materials are used to pro-
one side and a reactive isocyanate (NCO) on duce polyurethanes. These include mono-
the other. These groups react further with mers, prepolymers, stabilizers which protect
other monomers to form a larger, longer mol- the integrity of the polymer, and colorants.
ecule. This is a rapid process which yields
high molecular weight materials even at
room temperature. Polyurethanes that have
Isocyanates
important commercial uses typically contain One of the key reactive materials required to
other functional groups in the molecule in- produce polyurethanes are diisocyanates.
cluding esters, ethers, amides, or urea groups. These compounds are characterized by a
298
Polyurethane
(NCO) group, which are highly reactive al- light degradation is a UV screener called hy-
cohols. The most widely used isocyanates droxybenzotriazole. To protect against oxi-
employed in polyurethane production are dation reactions, antioxidants are used. Vari-
toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and polymeric ous antioxidants are available such as
isocyanate (PMDI). TDI is produced by monomeric and polymeric hindered phenols.
chemically adding nitrogen groups on Compounds which inhibit discoloration
toluene, reacting these with hydrogen to caused by atmospheric pollutants may also
produce a diamine, and separating the unde- be added. These are typically materials with
sired isomers. PMDI is derived by a phos- tertiary amine functionality that can interact
genation reaction of aniline-formaldehyde with the oxides of nitrogen in air pollution.
polyamines. In addition to these iso- For certain applications, antimildew addi-
cyanates, higher end materials are also tives are added to the polyurethane product.
available. These include materials like 1,5-
naphthalene diisocyanate and bitolylene di- After the polymers are formed and removed
isocyanate. These more expensive materials from the reaction vessels, they are naturally
can provide higher melting, harder segments white. Therefore, colorants may be added to
in polyurethane elastomers. change their aesthetic appearance. Common
covalent compounds for polyurethane fibers
are dispersed and acid dyes.
Po/yo/s
The other reacting species required to pro-
duce polyurethanes are compounds that con- Design
tain multiple alcohol groups (OH), called Polyurethanes can be produced in four dif-
polyols. Materials often used for this pur- ferent forms including elastomers, coatings,
pose are polyether polyols, which are poly- flexible foams, and cross-linked foams.
mers formed from cyclic ethers. They are Elastomers are materials that can be
typically produced through an alkylene stretched but will eventually return to their
oxide polymerization process. They are high original shape. They are useful in applica-
molecular weight polymers that have a wide tions that require strength, flexibility, abra-
range of viscosity. Various polyether polyols sion resistance, and shock absorbing quali-
that are used include polyethylene glycol, ties. Thermoplastic polyurethane elastomers
polypropylene glycol, and polytetramethyl- can be molded and shaped into different
ene glycol. These materials are generally uti- parts. This makes them useful as base mate-
lized when the desired polyurethane is going rials for automobile parts, ski boots, roller
to be used to make flexible foams or ther- skate wheels, cable jackets, and other me-
moset elastomers. chanical goods. When these elastomers are
spun into fibers they produce a flexible ma-
Polyester polyols may also be used as a re- terial called spandex. Spandex is used to
acting species in the production of make sock tops, bras, support hose, swim-
polyurethanes. They can be obtained as a suits, and other athletic apparel.
byproduct of terephthalic acid production.
They are typically based on saturated aro- Polyurethane coatings show a resistance to
matic carboxylic acids and diols. Branched solvent degradation and have good impact
polyester polyols are used for polyurethane resistance. These coatings are used on sur-
foams and coatings. Polyester polyols were faces that require abrasion resistance, flexi-
the most used reacting species for the pro- bility, fast curing, adhesion, and chemical
duction of polyurethanes. However, poly- resistance such as bowling alleys and dance
ether polyols became significantly less ex- floors. Water based polyurethane coatings
pense and have supplanted polyester polyols. are used for painting aircraft, automobiles,
and other industrial equipment.
Additives Flexible foams are the largest market for
Some polyurethane materials can be vulnera- polyurethanes. These materials have high
ble to damage from heat, light, atmospheric impact strength and are used for making
contaminants, and chlorine. For this reason, most furniture cushioning. They also provide
stabilizers are added to protect the polymer. the material for mattresses and seat cushions
One type of stabilizer that protects against in higher priced furniture. Semiflexible
299
Stainless steel tank Heat exchanger

Paper
Conveyor belt Paper
A diagram depicting the manufac-

turing processes used to create polyurethane foams are used to make car pumped into pipes. The exchanger adjusts
rigid polyurethane foam insulafion. dashboard and door liners. Other uses in- the temperature to the reactive level. Inside
clude carpet underlay, packaging, sponges, the pipes, the polymerization reaction oc-
squeegees, and interior padding. Rigid, or curs. By the time the polymerizing liquid
cross-linked, polyurethane foams are used to gets to the end of the pipe, the polyurethane
produce insulation in the form of boards or is already formed. On one end of the pipe is
laminate. Laminates are used extensively in a dispensing head for the polymer.
the commercial roofing industry. Buildings
are often sprayed with a polyurethane foam. Processing
The dispensing head is hooked up to the
The Manufacturing 3processing line. For the production of
Process rigid polyurethane foam insulation, a roll of
baking paper is spooled at the start of the
While polyurethane polymers are used for a processing line. This paper is moved along a
vast array of applications, their production
conveyor and brought under the dispensing
method can be broken into three distinct head.
phases. First, the bulk polymer product is
made. Next, the polymer is exposed to vari- 4As the paper passes under, polyurethane
ous processing steps. Finally, the polymer is is blown onto it. As the polymer is dis-
transformed into its final product and pensed, it is mixed with carbon dioxide
shipped. This production process can be il- which causes it to expand. It continues to
lustrated by looking at the continuous pro- rise as it moves along the conveyor. (The
duction of polyurethane foams. sheet of polyurethane is known as a bun be-
cause it "rises" like dough.)
Polymer reactions
5After the expansion reaction begins, a
At the start of polyurethane foam produc- second top layer of paper is rolled on.
tion, the reacting raw materials are held as Additionally, side papers may also be rolled
liquids in large, stainless steel tanks. These into the process. Each layer of paper con-
tanks are equipped with agitators to keep the tains the polyurethane foam giving it shape.
materials fluid. A metering device is at- The rigid foam is passed through a series of
tached to the tanks so that the appropriate panels that control the width and height of
amount of reactive material can be pumped the foam bun. As they travel through this
out. A typical ratio of polyol to diisocyanate section of the production line, they are typi-
is 1:2. Since the ratio of the component ma- cally dried.
terials produces polymers with varying char-
acteristics, it is strictly controlled. At the end of the production line, the
Vfoam insulation is cut with an automatic
2 The reacting materials are passed saw to the desired length. The foam bun is
through a heat exchanger as they are then conveyored to the final processing
300
Polyurethane
steps that include packaging, stacking, and ample, scientists have found that by chang-
shipping. ing the starting prepolymers they can devel-
op polyurethane fibers which have even bet-
ter stretching characteristics. Other
Quality Control characteristics can be modified by incorpo-
To ensure the quality of the polyurethane rating different fillers, using better catalysts,
material, producers monitor the product dur- and modifying the prepolymer ratios.
ing all phases of production. These inspec-
tions begin with an evaluation of the incom- In addition to the polymers themselves, the
ing raw materials by quality control future will likely bring improvements in the
chemists. They test various chemical and production process resulting in faster, less
physical characteristics using established expensive, and more environmentally
methods. Some of characteristics that are friendly polyurethanes. A recent trend in
tested include the pH, specific gravity, and polyurethane production is the replacement
viscosity or thickness. Additionally, appear- of toluene diisocyanates with less-volatile
ance, color, and odor may also be examined. polymeric isocyanates. Also, manufacturers
Manufacturers have found that only by have tried to eliminate chlorinated fluoro-
strictly controlling the quality at the start of carbon blowing agents which are often used
production can they ensure that a consistent in the production of polyurethane foams.
finished product will be achieved.
After production, the polyurethane product Where to Learn More
is tested. Polyurethane coating products are Books
evaluated in the same way the initial raw
materials are checked. Also, characteristics Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
like dry time, film thickness, and hardness Technology. John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
are tested. Polyurethane fibers are tested for
things such as elasticity, resilience, and ab- Oertel, G. Polyurethane Handbook. Second
sorbency. Polyurethane foams are checked ed. Munich: Carl Hanser Publishers, 1993.
to ensure they have the proper density, resis- Seymour, Raymond, and Charles Carraher.
tance, and flexibility. Polymer Chemistry. New York: Marcel
Dekker, 1992.
The Future
Ulrich, H. The Chemistry and Technology
The quality of polyurethanes has steadily of Isocyanates. New York: John Wiley &
improved since they were first developed. Sons,1996.
Research in a variety of areas should contin-
ue to help make superior materials. For ex- -Perry Romanowski
30 1
Pool Table
An estimated 36 million Background The first recorded billiard table was one sold
to King Louis XI of France in 1470.
Americans play pool, one In pool (the common American term for
pocket billiards), a ball is struck with the Billiards developed simultaneously in Eng-
of the most popular end of a long, slender stick (cue), causing it land. The rules varied from place to place, as
to roll into other balls and knock them into described in The Complete Gamester, a book
participant sports in the holes (pockets) around the edges of the published in England in 1674. By this time,
country. playing table. A short wall (rail) around the the club-shaped billart had evolved into a
perimeter of the table keeps the balls on the slender cue. It took another century for the
playing surface. The rail is faced with a rub- wire gate and upright wooden peg to gradu-
ber cushion so balls that strike it rebound ally disappear from billiard tables. Because
predictably and remain in play. playing surfaces were made of wood, they
had a tendency to warp. As players began to
In the United States, the game's governing
purposely rebound balls off the table's edge
body is the Billiards Congress of America walls, builders began to pad the banks with
(BCA). One of the BCA's functions is to de- cloth stuffed with horsehair or rags.
fine specifications for equipment acceptable
for sanctioned tournaments. Although it During the 1700s, billiards remained popu-
does not specify the exact size of an ap- lar in France and England, and caught on in
proved pool table, the BCA requires that its the United States. Table sizes varied, but the
playing surface be twice as long as it is 2:1 ratio of length to width became stan-
wide. BCA specifications for the table in- dard. Rails were padded with tightly rolled
clude maximum allowable surface deflec- cloth, producing a somewhat more pre-
tions under a specified vertical force, sur- dictable ball rebound.
face flatness tolerances, size and shape
requirements for the rubber cushion and the The Industrial Revolution contributed to a
pockets, and composition requirements for series of improvements in billiard tables.
the playing surface and its cloth covering. Between 1800 and 1850, chalk was first
used on cue stick ends to increase friction,
History leather cue tips were invented, diamond-
shaped sights were added to rails, slate was
The origin of billiard tables is uncertain. introduced as a superior table surface, and
The most common theory is that around the vulcanized rubber (which maintained its
fifteenth century, tables were used in France properties regardless of temperature fluctua-
and England for an indoor version of a lawn tions) was quickly adapted for rail cushions.
game similar to croquet. A ball (bille in
French) resting on the table was shoved with Subsequent refinements in pool tables have
a stick (billart in French), in order to propel related primarily to construction techniques.
the ball through a wire gate to strike a For example, in older tables horizontal holes
wooden peg. The function of six pockets were drilled in the slate edges and filled
around the edges of the table is unclear. with molten lead; screws running through
Vertical walls (banks in English) around the the vertical edge of the rail were tightened
edges kept balls from falling off the table. into the lead-lined hole. In contrast, rails are
302
Pool Table
A pool table with frame.
Corner brace
attached to modem tables by inserting a bolt lighter and safer to lift, less prone to break,
vertically through a hole in the slate and and easier to level during installation. Prior
tightening it into the bottom of the rail, to shipment, properly sized holes are drilled
pulling the rail and slate together snugly. in the slate for the pockets and for the bolts
Similarly, in older tables brass dowel pins and screws that will be used to attach the
were inserted into lead-lined horizontal slate to the table and rails.
holes drilled into the edges of the three slate
sections where they would join to form the The other major component of pool tables is
playing surface. In modem tables, the slate wood. Usually at least two types are used.
sections are held tightly together by screw- Poplar (tulipwood), a hardwood with superi-
ing them to a wood frame, and joints are or self-healing properties that holds screws
usually sealed with hot wax. tightly and recovers well when staples are
removed, is preferred for the structural
framework of the table. Other hardwoods
Ravv Materials that provide a more attractive finish and are
more resistant to nicks and scratches are
Although some inexpensive pool tables use used for the outer surfaces of the table. Ex-
synthetic slate or plastic honeycomb sheets, amples are oak, maple, and mahogany.
the preferred playing surface (and the only
one sanctioned by the BCA) is natural slate. Rails are usually produced by laminating
It is quite dense, with the amount in a typi- two types of wood-an attractive, durable
cal table weighing 450 lb (200 kg) or more. hardwood for the upper section and a func-
This mass helps keep the table stationary tional softwood (like pine) or poplar for the
during play. Italian slate has long been the lower section. Grade-A vulcanized rubber is
preferred type, but Brazilian slate now has preferred for the rail cushions, which are
some proponents. shaped to a particular triangular profile ap-
proved by the BCA. Canvas fabric is mold-
Slate is prepared at the quarry, where com- ed to the top and base of the cushion for
puter-controlled, diamond-blade saws are proper rebound performance and secure at-
used in conjunction with laser measuring tachment to the rail.
devices to cut it into very flat sheets 0.75-1
in (1.9-2.5 cm) thick. The slate sheets are The cloth used to cover the slate and the
shipped in sets of three panels, which are rails is designed specifically for pool tables.
certified as having been cut from the same By BCA edict, it must be primarily wool;
slab. Three-section table surfaces are pre- available wool/nylon blends range from
ferred because the smaller sections are 100%/0% to 60%/40%. Although it is often
303
A diagram of pool table rail and

blind.
referred to as felt (a fabric formed by com- where pockets will be located. Until the
pressing fibers rather than weaving), it is ac- wood glue is dry, the liners are clamped se-
tually a woven fabric with a nap (exposed, curely to the slate.
short, fuzzy fiber ends) on one surface.
2)Following the pocket cutouts in the slate,
Small components are made from various 2pockets are sawed through the liner. Bolt
materials. Slate-sealing wax is specially for- and screw holes for attaching the rails and
mulated for this purpose, and is harder than the table body are drilled in the liner to
beeswax. Diamond- or circular-shaped match the precut holes in the slate.
sights embedded in the rail tops are usually
made of mother of pearl, abalone shell, or 3 Sides for the body frame are cut from 2
plastic. Pocket irons may be made of cast x 12-in (4 x 28-cm, finished) lumber.
iron, zinc alloy, aluminum, rubber, or high- Corners and top edges of the four sides
impact styrene plastic. Traditionally, pocket must be carefully cut because once assem-
liners are made of leather (solid or net), but bled, they will slope inward at a 150 angle
plastic or rubber is also used. Some tables from top to bottom. The frame is made
use ball return ramps formed of materials smaller than the slate, so the slate overlaps
such as polyethylene, aluminum, or heavy- the frame by 3.5 in (9 cm) on each side of
gauge wire; they may be lined with rubber. the table. The sides are glued and nailed or
screwed together.
The Manufacturing 4Legs are prepared for the table. Solid
Process wood pieces may be carved in decorative
Construction techniques vary among manu- shapes, or hollow legs can be built by as-
facturers. The following description repre- sembling wood sheets in a box shape.
sents a generic process rather than an accu- Wooden leg supports are glued and screwed
rate account of a particular manufacturer's into each corner of the frame.
methods.
5 A slate frame is built on the top edges of
the body frame. Strips of 1.5 x 3-in (4 x
Preparation of components 8-cm) wood are attached so they overhang
1 Edge liners made of 0.75-in (2-cm) thick 1 the body frame by about I in (2.5 cm), ex-
x 8-in (1.9 x 18-cm, finished size) and 1 x cept at the corners. Two cross members
4-in (1.9 x 9-cm, finished) lumber are glued made from 2 x 6-in (4 x 14-cm, finished)
to the bottom of the slate around the edges. lumber are glued and screwed between the
The wider strips are placed under the edges long sides of the slate frame to support the
304
Pool Table
slate seams. A longitudinal support may be O Legs are bolted to the underside of the Once the seams are sealed on the
installed along the center of the frame, be- I Vtable body. The structure is checked pool table frame, the bed cloth is
tween the short sides. Pocket holes are cut in for level, and shims are inserted between the stretched tightly over the frame
the corners and long sides of the slate frame. legs and the body if necessary. and secured.
6 Lower and upper rail components are 11 The three sections of slate are screwed
6sawed from appropriate woods. They are into place atop the table body. Shims
glued together to make six laminated sec- may be placed as needed under the slate lin-
tions 1.75 in (4.5 cm) thick and long enough ers to ensure a flat, level surface. The seams
to fit between each successive pair of pock- between the three slate sections are sealed
ets. The face angles on the rail are cut pre- with hot wax, with any residue being care-
cisely for proper positioning of the rubber fully removed from the top surface.
cushion. A groove is cut along the top edge 1
to accept an anchoring strip for the cloth that Cloth is stretched tightly and uniform-
will ultimately cover the rail. ILly across the slate, with the edges
wrapped over the slate liner and stapled to
7Circular- or diamond-shaped sights are its edges. Rail faces are also covered with
7carefully placed at three locations on cloth.
each rail section. 1 The rail sections are joined by insert-
8 An apron (also called a blind) section
13ing the pins of the pocket irons into
holes drilled in the ends of each rail section.
8about 4 in (10 cm) wide is cut to match Bolts inserted upward through the slate are
the length of each rail section. This compo- used to secure the rail atop the slate. Care
nent will cover the ends of the slate and must be taken to ensure that the sections are
liner, slate frame, and body frame. installed straight and tight. Pocket liners or
ball return ramps are attached.
9Each component is stained, fine sanded,
and finished with catalyzed vamish, lac- 4Blinds are glued and screwed to the
quer, and/or furniture wax. Rubber cushions ''4 bottoms of the rails and the edges of
are glued to the rail sections. the slate liner.
Assembly of components Quality Control

Pool tables are usually shipped in pieces and Major manufacturers cut wooden compo-
assembled during installation of the table at nents with computer-controlled equipment
the purchaser's location. to ensure precision. They assemble the
305
pieces of each table by hand at the factory, same as a wooden table. The manufacturer
checking for proper fit before disassembling claims the table meets BCA specifications.
them for shipment. An installer, employed
by the dealer rather than the manufacturer,
reassembles the pieces at the purchaser's lo-
Where to Learn More
cation. The quality of the manufacturing op- Periodicals
eration and of the installation process are
both important for proper performance of Bowman, Paul M. "Building a Pool Table."
the table. Fine Woodworking (March/April 1989).
http://www.bestbilliard.com/resources[buil
Materials used in the table affect the quality, dtable.cfm. (May 31, 2000).
appearance, and cost of the table. An inex-
pensive table, for example, might have par- Other
ticle board components that do not hold
screws or staples as well as solid wood. Ta- BCA Equipment Specifications. Billiards
bles vary widely in quality and cost; a casual Congress of America. http://www.best
player who wants a table for a few years of billiard.com/resources/specs.htm (January
personal recreation can get one for around 6, 2000).
$600. So-called popularly priced tables,
which are well-built, durable, and attractive, Gandy Pool Tables. http://gandys.com (May
31, 2000).
may cost $1,600-$3,000.
DiPaolo, Dennis. "Pool Table Buyer's
The Future Guide." http://www.seasonalstores.com/
The use of altemative materials continues to
guide.html (May 31, 2000).
be explored. Aiming for durability and sta- Best Billiard Sales and Service. http:/H
bility, for example, one manufacturer recent- www.bestbilliard.com (March 24, 2000).
ly introduced a pool table with a frame made
of steel and rails formed of tempered alu- SAM Billiards. http://www.billaressam.com
minum. The metals are covered with a deco- (June 3, 2000).
rative synthetic veneer. The slate-topped
table weighs 1,050 lb (480 kg), about the -Loretta Hall
306
Popsicle
Background velopment of frozen novelties occurred in Experts calculate that 100
three capital cities-Paris, London, and
The sound of an ice cream truck is a delight New York-in the 1820s. Street vendors ice pop flavors have been
to the ears of children and adults alike on a sold ice cream and penny ices (frozen ice
hot summer day. That truck carries delicious produced in the 75 years
dollops, rather like small snow cones) that
concoctions that the industry calls collec- were held on tiny glass goblets. The cus- since their creation, but
tively "frozen novelties." And it is guaran- tomer bought an ice for a penny and ate it
teed to carry a variety of frozen pops-ices, directly from the goblet (without any spoon cherry, orange, and
sherbets, pops in push tubes, and pops on or stick), and the vendor recycled the goblet
sticks-in fruit flavors and colorful shapes for the next customer.
grape are still the favorite
and sizes. These are often called popsicles flavors among the
after the brand-named frozen pop. The little scoops of frozen ice or ice cream
were called "hokeypokey" (probably derived estimated three million
History from an Italian catchphrase), and the penny-
ice men were also called hokeypokey men. popsicles sold every year.
The frozen pop has its origins in frozen The hokeypokey men were the original
desserts that are as old as civilization. The an- Good Humor men, named for the brand of
cient Romans had blocks of ice carried down ice cream on a stick that was introduced in
from the mountains in the summer. The 1922. Good Humor grew out of two popular
blocks were ground into crushed ice that was inventions. The automobile (and the truck)
flavored with fruit and syrup. The Chinese helped vendors cover a larger area and carry
are credited with the same practice, and these more novelties than the street vendors with
sherbets, sorbets, and frozen ices were served their push carts. And, in 1910, lollipops had
in the thirteenth century court of Kublai Khan become a popular candy for children in
(1215-1294) when the Italian adventurer America and England. Ice cream on a stick
Marco Polo (1254-1324) visited. Other an- and the Good Humor bar followed. Mean-
cient cultures including those of Turkey, Per- while, another icy revolution was underway.
sia (now Iran), the Arabian Peninsula, and
India also knew of frozen, flavored ices. The discovery of the frozen pop is attributed
They were usually a privilege of the wealthy to an 11-year-old boy. In 1905, Frank Epper-
and were made of ice, fruit pulp, fruit syrup, son mixed powdered soda pop and water but
and flowers for flavor, fragrance, and color. forgot about his preparation and left it out-
Frozen treats were served to honor guests at side on the porch of his home in Oakland,
banquets or to cleanse the palate between California. The concoction froze overnight,
courses, as sorbets are still used today. and the stick he had used to stir the powder
in the water stuck in the frozen liquid. Frank
In the sixteenth century, Catherine de Medi- pulled out the whole frozen mass and found
cis (1519-1589), the Italian-born wife of that he had invented a new treat. He named it
French King Henry 11 (1519-1559), brought the "Epperson icicle." The following sum-
recipes for frozen ices from Italy and intro- mer, he made his frozen treats in his family's
duced the concept of freezing the ices artifi- icebox and sold them around his neighbor-
cially by plunging their containers into icy hood under the shortened name of "Epsicle."
brine. The next major landmark in the de- Frank again rechristened his discovery the
307
"popsicle" to show that they were made from Flavors and colors tend to stay in a range of
soda pop. The selling price for the original traditionally accepted fruit flavors. Molds
Epsicles was five cents a piece. Epperson can be made in almost any shape and can
patented his treat in 1924 when he was 30 also be filled in stages to create layered col-
years old as the Popsicle. ors or be coated with outer colors and fla-
vors for contrast. The molds are made in a
From 1920 through the mid-1970s, Good precision design process, however, and are
Humor trucks sold all varieties of frozen very expensive-about $60,000 for each de-
treats until the cost of gasoline and insurance sign. The decision to make a new mold is a
overwhelmed profits. Independent vendors major one for all popsicle makers. When the
still sell frozen treats in many neighbor- costs of modifying nutritional information,
hoods, but the large variety of popsicles in printing new wrappers, and advertising are
grocery stores makes the household refriger- added in, each new product may mean an in-
ator the most familiar pop "vendor" today. vestment of $100,000. Large manufacturers
may produce up to 30 new items per year.
Raw Materials
The two principal kinds of non-dairy frozen The Manufacturing
treats manufactured are the popsicle and the Process
juice bar. The popsicle is 90% water. Its 1 The popsicle begins with making water
other ingredients are sugar, corn syrup, gum, ice in sets of sterilized vats. The vats are
and stabilizers. These ingredients give the refrigerated to 35-37°F (1.7-2.8°C). The
popsicle a texture called "mouth feel" that base material, consisting of sugar, corn
makes it pleasant to eaten. The sugars and syrup, stabilizers, and gum, is mixed with
stabilizers cause the pop to soften in the air water and then subdivided into several sepa-
so it is edible, instead of melting and drip- rate vats where the flavoring and coloring
ping like an ice cube. Flavoring is highly are added. The formulas for the mixes are
concentrated and is usually some traditional constant, but trained inspectors flavor-test
fruit flavor and color. Specialty firms manu- the batches and adjust flavorings and other
facture the flavorings and apply the chem- ingredients to taste. In the refrigerated vats,
istry needed for true flavor and color when the fluid becomes water ice-it does not
the flavoring is reconstituted. Some flavors, quite reach the point of freezing and still can
particularly citrus, also have additives like be pumped easily.
citric acid that gives the flavor its citrus
"bite." Juice bars have the same ingredients 2The water ice is pumped to a million-
except that concentrated fruit juice provides 2dollar machine called a Vita-Line. The
the color and flavor. All other frozen treats machine is circular and about 15 ft (4.6 m)
(like fudge bars) are dairy products. in diameter and transports sets of molds
through several processes to form the pops.
Popsicle makers also need sticks for the han- The machine is made of stainless steel and
dles and printed wrappers. These are supplied supports 200 to 300 strips of molds. Each
by outside sources. The popsicle manufactur- strip may be 6, 8, or 12 molds wide, 4-8 ft
er will commission a design for the printing (1.2-2.4 m) wide, and 30-40 ft (9-12 m)
on the wrapper, which is etched on a plate long. A typical popsicle machine will gener-
and used to print the wrappers. Wrappers are ate 4,320 pops per hour; larger machines
purchased by the truckload, so a new product produce twice as many, and a production
is a major cost commitment. Sticks are made line may include five machines.
of basswood by specialized subcontractors.
Sometimes the sticks are also printed with A continuous chain across the top of the ma-
jokes, funny sayings, or designs; they are chine and around the wheel moves the
bought by the pallet-load in quantities suffi- molds through the process. All fluids are
cient to last the manufacturing season. pumped by electrically powered pumps.
Pneumatics (air pressure) control the move-
Design ments of slave cylinders and the opening
and closing of valves in a simple sequence
Design of a popsicle consists of a combina- of motions. In the first set of steps, the
tion of color, flavor, and shape of the pop. molds are pre-rinsed, washed, rinsed again,
308
Popsicle
Filling
Produce out area
Drain,
Raw material retrieve trough
Two types of popsicle filling and

and sanitized (heated) in a minute-long their sticks. If the pops are to be dipped to sealing machines.
process. The machine inverts the molds so make an outside coating on them, the extrac-
that a spray bar can pre-rinse any materials tor lowers them into a dip tank, and the coat-
out of the molds. Two wash bars, above and ing is flash frozen. The extractor bar then
below the molds, wash and rinse the molds carries the popsicles to the bagging area
in a fresh water rinse. Another bar sanitizes where the bags are blown open by bursts of
the molds. air as the pops are dropped by the extractor.
They fall by gravity into the waiting bags.
3After washing, the molds are reinverted
so they can be filled. The flavored water The bagged pops ride on a conveyor along
ice is pumped through sets of nipples into an assembly line where workers snap open
the molds, and the molds are pulled into a boxes, fill the boxes with bagged pops, tape
tank filled with water containing calcium the boxes closed, and pack sets of boxes into
chloride (salt brine) that is ammonia-cooled a larger set called a master pack. The master
to -25--30°F (-32--34°C). As the molds are packs are taken to the freezer where they are
drawn along the 20-ft (6-m) length of the stored until shipment. In an altemative
tank, their contents pass from the liquid to wrapping process, popsicles are dropped by
frozen state. If several different layers of the extractor bar on sheets of mylar or glas-
flavors make up the particular pop, hoppers sine paper that has been preprinted. The
with different fluids are attached to the same wrapping machine shapes the wrapper
machine that makes single-flavor pops. The around each bar, seals the top and bottom,
first fill is injected, the mold is partially sub- and cuts off the excess paper at both ends.
merged in salt brine to freeze it, and a vacu-
um pump sucks out any remaining liquid on
the frozen surface. During the second fill,
Quality Control
the second flavor is added, flash-frozen, and Quality control includes taste and visual
sucked dry of standing water; finally, the tests. The water ice is "taste-tested" even
third fill is added. Midway through the though the mixture has been made precisely.
process, the water ice is partially frozen. At The tester is usually an expert who knows
this stage, pops designed to have a twisted when the flavor is not quite up to company
appearance are given that twist, and an in- standards despite the perfect measurements
jector pushes the sticks into the pops, which of the ingredients. The tester has the author-
freeze from the outside toward the center so ity to adjust the mixture to the right taste.
the frozen outside supports the stick. In the
last 3 or 4 ft (0.9 or 1.2 m) of the machine, The processes of the Vita-Line that are
the centers of the pops freeze. watched especially closely are the fill process,
the extraction of the pops from the molds, and
4The molds then pass briefly through a the dropping of the pops into the bags. As the
tank containing 180°F (680C) water that pops are boxed, the assembly workers can re-
slightly heats the molds. An overhead ex- ject any pops that look suspicious, so quality
tractor pulls the pops out of their molds by control in the popsicle factory is a "hands-on"
309
activity. Smaller companies benefit from this sicles relies on tradition rather than rapidly
approach because they share a family atmos- changing fads. A long, hot summer is the
phere and pride in their product. popsicle's best marketing tool.
Byproducts/Waste Where to Learn More

There are no byproducts or waste from the
process of making water ice. Some waste Books
water containing sugar may result from the Dickson, Paul. The Great American Ice
steps in rinsing the molds, but the water is Cream Book. New York: Atheneum, 1972.
simply transported as waste water through
the city's water treatment system-that is, Liddell, Caroline, and Robin Weir. Frozen
no special treatment is required. Desserts. New York: St. Martin's Press,
1995.
Major safety issues in the factory include
the refrigeration process in which liquid am- Wardlaw, Lee. We All Scream for Ice
monia must be handled. Low-pressure steam Cream. New York: Harper Trophy, Harper-
is used in cleaning and sanitizing the molds Collins Publishers, Inc., 2000.
and machinery, and, of course, electricity Wulffson, Don L. The Kid Who Invented
supplies the power. Workers are trained in the Popsicle: And Other Surprising Stories
the operation of machines, so safe practices About Inventions. New York: Penguin Put-
are ingrained and safety becomes a minimal nam Books for Young Readers, 1997.
concern.
Periodicals
The Future
Belleranti, Shirley W. "A treat from Marco
The future of the popsicle will follow the de- Polo." Hopscotch 8, no. 2 (August-Septem-
mands of the public. Tastes lean toward tra- ber 1996): 9.
ditional flavors and colors, so the refining
and improving of traditional products is a Onoe, Phil. "At Large and At Small." Amer-
primary interest among popsicle makers. Ex- ican Scholar 67, no. 4 (1998).
perts calculate that 100 ice pop flavors have
been produced in the 75 years since the cre- Ward, Carol J. G. "Try frozen Popsicle
ation of the Epsicle, but cherry, orange, and treats to cool down this summer." Knight-
grape are still the favorite flavors among the Ridder Newspapers (August 10, 1999).
estimated 3 million popsicles sold every
year. "Boutique" flavors such as daiquiri or Other
huckleberry are made to catch the fancy of Ching Tan Machinery Works, Taiwan.
adventurous tastes, and combinations of http://www.foodmachine.com.tw/e/d.htm
types of pops like ice cream bars with an ice (June 29, 2000).
coating or popsicles with a small quantity of
ice cream in the mixture are ways of produc- Good Humor-Breyers Ice Cream. http://
ing new products that do not stray too far www.icecreamusa.com (June 29, 2000).
from tradition but appeal to consumers unde-
cided between dairy and non-dairy novelties. The Ice Screamer. P.O. Box 465, Warring-
ton, PA 18976. http://www.icescreamers.
Manufacturers also watch their competitors, com (June 29, 2000).
but small companies cannot match the invest-
ment needed for new sets of molds (for ex- Perry's Ice Cream. http://perrysicecream.
ample) that may not be big sellers. Each new com. (June 29, 2000).
item also requires new labels with correct nu-
Popsicle Zone. http://www.popsicle.com
tritional information that conforms to govern- (June 29, 2000).
ment labeling requirements and other details,
and that can be very expensive. Cost does not Waukesha Cherry-Burrell Ice Cream. http://
seem to impede the popsicle's future, howev- www.gowcb.com/products/IceCream/freez
er; 98 new novelties were introduced in 1998, eindex.htm (June 29, 2000).
not counting the pop called "Frosty Paws,"
which was made for dogs. The future of pop- -Gillian S. Holmes
3 10
Raincoat
Background By the eighteenth century, Europeans were When European explorers
experimenting with waterproofing fabric for
Raincoats are jackets made of fabric that is clothing. Fran,ois Fresneau devised an early came to the Americas in
specially treated to repel water. In 1836, idea for waterproofing fabric in 1748. Scot-
Charles Macintosh invented a method for the sixteenth century, they
land's John Syme made further waterproof-
combining rubber with fabric, which was ing advances in 1815. In 1821, the first rain- observed the indigenous
used in the first modem raincoats. Because of coat was manufactured. Made by G. Fox of
his inventions, all raincoats are called Mack- London, it was called the Fox's Aquatic. people using a crude
intoshes or Macs by those in Great Britain. The raincoat was made of Gambroon, a
Most modem day raincoats are inspired in one procedure and rubber to
twill-type fabric with mohair.
way or another by Macintosh's brainchild.
waterproof items like
While these early attempts at waterproofing
Today there are many kinds of raincoats fabrics sometimes involved rubber, they footwear and capes.
made of all types of fabric. An all-weather were not particularly successful. When rub-
raincoat has a removable lining so it can be ber was used in clothing, the articles in-
worn in any weather. Fold ups are foldable volved were not easy to wear. If the weather
and usually made of vinyl. Vinyl raincoats was hot, the clothing became supple and
are made of vinyl or of fabric that has a
tacky; if cold, the clothing was hard and in-
vinyl finish. Trenchcoats are worn by both flexible. This problem was solved in the
men and women, and are often made of early nineteenth century by Macintosh.
lightweight cotton/polyester fabric.
The native of Scotland was a chemist and
What is important to raincoat manufacture is chemical manufacturer. Through experi-
efficient waterproofing. There are two im- ments, Macintosh discovered a better way to
portant qualities: absorption (how much use rubber in clothing. At the time, the gas
water can be soaked by the fabric) and pene- industry was new. Coal-tar naphtha was one
tration (the amount of water that can sink byproduct of the fractional distillation of pe-
into the fabric). Raincoat fabrics are either troleum, which was used in gasworks. This
absorbent or repellent. The best raincoats volatile oily liquid was a hydrocarbon mix-
are made of tightly woven fabric. ture. Macintosh dissolved rubber in naphtha,
making a liquid. This liquid was brushed on
History fabric making it waterproof.
People have been trying to make items of In 1823, Macintosh patented his process for
clothing waterproof for hundreds of years. making waterproof fabric. This process in-
As early as the thirteenth century, Amazon- volved sandwiching a layer of molded rub-
ian Indians used a milky substance (rubber) ber between two layers of fabric treated with
extracted from rubber trees for this purpose. the rubber-naphtha liquid. It took some time
When European explorers came to the to develop the industrial process for spread-
Americas in the sixteenth century, they ob- ing the rubber-naphtha mixture on the cloth.
served the indigenous people using a crude The patented waterproof fabric was pro-
procedure and rubber to waterproof items duced in factories beginning in 1824. The
like footwear and capes. first customer was the British military. Mac-
311
Once designed and sized, the

raincoats are sewn.
DESIGN
SEWING
intosh's findings led to other innovative signed with slits to make them cooler for
uses of rubber, including tires. their wearer.
The process for vulcanizing rubber was de- Macintosh's fabric was not the only kind of
veloped by Charles Goodyear, a hardware waterproof fabric invented in the nineteenth
merchant in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in century. In 1851, Bax & Company intro-
1839. Vulcanization means to heat rubber duced Aquascutum. This was a woolen fab-
with sulfur, which made rubber more elastic ric that was chemically treated to shed
and easier to meld. Four years later, Thomas water. This raincoat became popular at the
Hancock took the waterproof fabric invent- end of the Crimean War (c. 1856).
ed by Charles Macintosh and made it better Chemicially treated fabrics gradually began
using vulcanized rubber. to predominate by the early twentieth centu-
ry. For World War I, Thomas Burberry cre-
Americans continued to improve on Macin- ated the all-weather trench coat. The coat
tosh's process with the advent of the calen- was made of a yam-dyed fine twill cotton
dering process in 1849. Macintosh's cloth gabardine. The gabardine was chemically
was passed between heated rollers to make processed to repel rain. Though these trench
it more pliable and waterproof. Another in- coats were first made for soldiers, after the
novation involved the combination of only war ended in 1918, they spread in populari-
one layer of cloth with a layer of rubber. ty. They were also much cooler than those
While such improvements made the cloth made of Macintosh's fabric.
lighter than Macintosh's original, these rain-
coats were still rather hot even into the early By 1920, raincoat design moved beyond the
twentieth century. Many raincoats were de- trenchcoat, though that coat remained a
312
Raincoat
classic. Oil-treated fabrics, usually cotton of fabric. Waterproofing materials include
and silk, became popular in the 1920s. Oil- resin, pyridinium or melamine complexes,
skin was made by brushing linseed oil on polyurethane, acrylic, fluorine or Teflon.
fabric, which made it shed water. Car coats
were introduced in the 1930s. These rain- Cotton, wool, nylon or other artificial fab-
coats were shorter than trenchcoats and rics are given a coating of resin to make
made for riding in automobiles. Rubber- them waterproof. Woolen and cheaper cot-
covered and -backed raincoats, made of all ton fabrics are bathed in a paraffin emul-
kinds of fabrics, resurged in popularity be- sions and salts of metals like aluminum or
tween the wars as well. zirconium. Higher quality cotton fabrics are
bathed in complexes of pyridinium or
After 1940, raincoats made of lightweight melamine complexes. These complexes
fabric became more popular. Military re- form a chemical link with the cotton and are
search led to the creation of raincoat fabrics extremely durable. Natural fibers, like cot-
that could be dry-cleaned. Vinyl was a pre- ton and linen, are bathed in wax. Synthetic
ferred fabric in the 1950s for its impressive fibers are treated by methyl siloxanes or sili-
waterproofness, as was plastic (through the cones (hydrogen methyl siloxanes).
1970s), though such raincoats retained heat.
Innovations in fabrics continued to affect In addition to the fabric, most raincoats con-
raincoats. Wool blends and synthetic blends sist of buttons, thread, lining, seam tape,
were regularly used to make raincoats be- belts, trim, zippers, eyelets, and facings.
ginning in the 1950s. Such blends could be Most of these items, including the fabric, are
machine washed. There were also improved created by outside suppliers for raincoat
chemical treatments of cloth. Heat-welded manufacturers. The manufacturers design
seams were introduced as well, increasing and make the actual raincoat.
how waterproof the fabric was.
In the 1960s, nylon was used to make rain- Design
coats, and in the 1970s, double-knit became To capture part of the market, raincoat de-
a preferred fabric. Double-knit raincoats sign changes with the season and current
were not as water repellent as those made fashion trends. Fabrics, lengths, cut and
with other fabrics, but were designed differ- look are important to appeal to the con-
ently to compensate. Still such raincoats sumer. Style is everything; the cut is impor-
were not as comfortable, and double-knit tant to distinguishing items on the market.
faded throughout the decade. Vinyl rain- For men, women, and children, there are
coats briefly had a renewed popularity, es- many different styles of raincoats: short,
pecially among women. commuter, car coats, sport, utility, and long
Modem day raincoats come in many fabrics, raincoats. New fibers and finishes are regu-
styles and colors. The gabardine trenchcoat larly introduced.
remains a favorite. While natural and artifi- Computer-aided design (CAD) gives de-
cial blends, rubber and plastic are still used, signers the ability to combine fabrics, styles,
plastic-coated artificial fibers used for Gore- and colors onscreen without having to make
Tex are very popular. Microfibers and other a sample. Designers create the pattems for
high-tech fabrics are taking over more of the the manufacturing process using CAD.
raincoat material market.
Racw Materials The Manufacturing

Process
The primary material in a raincoat is fabric Much of the manufacturing process is done
that has been specially treated to repel water. by Computer Aided manufacturing (CAM).
The fabric of many raincoats is made of a Machines are run by computers, ensuring
blend of two or more of the following materi- speed and efficiency.
als: cotton, polyester, nylon, and/or rayon.
Raincoats can also made of wool, wool gabar-
dine, vinyl, microfibers and high tech fabrics. Waterproofing the fabric
The fabric is treated with chemicals and In this automated process, fabric passes
chemical compounds, depending on the kind through a series of rollers and into a tank
313
Waterproof material used for rain-

coats is tested for its level of absorp-
tion or ability to repel moisture.
TESTING
containing a bath of the appropriate water- small parts of the raincoat, including the
proofing materials. collar, belt, sleeve straps and pocket welts.
2 Chemicals are allowed to soak into the 4The facings (the underply of the coat that
2fabric. is sewn to the front edge) are set to the
front edges of the fabric shell that makes up
3 After the material leaves the bath, it is a coat's exterior. This is also done by a
3heated so the chemicals soak evenly into worker on an industrial sewing machine.
the fabric.
5 The large parts of the shell of the rain-
4The fabric passes through another series 5coat are assembled on an industrial
of rollers and allowed to cool. This al- sewing machine by a worker. Most come in
lows the chemicals to harden and stay in pairs. First the right back panel and left back
place on the fabric. panel are joined together, creating a back
seam. Then the rest of the large parts of the
5The treated fabric is re-rolled into bolts raincoat (the front of the raincoat, the
and readied for shipment to raincoat sleeves etc.) are created in similar fashion.
manufacturers.
On a separate line in the factory, a lining
Manufacturing the raincoat Vhas been made. It is sewn into the appro-
The pieces that make the body of the priate pieces of the shell by a person.
raincoat are cut by a computer-operated 7All the large pieces of the raincoat are
cutter or large electrical cutter. The fabric is now assembled and sewn together by a
cut according to patterns that have been worker using an industrial sewing machine.
graded to each size the raincoat will be
made in. 8An automated machine makes button-
2 The interlining (which makes collars,
8holes and sews the buttons on the rain-
coat.
cuffs, front facings, sleeve straps, belts
and pocket welts stiff) is put inside the ap- 9Using an industrial sewing machine, the
propriate parts. Each part that contains inter- 9 trim and sleeves are sewn on by hand.
lining is fused by an automated fusing ma- The belt is put on by hand as well.
chine. The fusing process uses high heat and
pressure to ensure the interlining is put in 1 The finished raincoat is examined by a
evenly. inspector for quality control purposes.
3 An industrial sewing machine operator A worker puts tags on the coat and
uses an industrial machine to sew all the puts it on the hanger.
3 14
Raincoat
12 A polybag is put over the coat, usually lency, stain resistance, and wrinkle resis-
by a machine called an automatic bag- tance. The fabrics themselves will have new
ger. weaves.
13 The bagged coats are loaded into the Another direction the future of raincoats
13shipping container by a worker. might head is toward mass customization.
This means the coat would be specially
Quality Control made to fit the consumer's body. Such a
process would involve computers and the
Quality control takes place at many steps of advent of certain kinds of software and
the manufacturing process. Before raincoats scanning devices.
are even made, the quality of the fabric and
dye are inspected. After the fabric is cut, the Where to Learn More
patterns must match and sizes must be right.
As each piece is sewn together, the sewing Books
is checked. The qualities inspectors look for
include: stitch length, hem stitching, button-
Schoeffler, 0. E., and William Gale. Es-
quire's Encyclopedia of 20th Century
hole stitching and alignment, and seam type. Men's Fashions. New York: McGraw-Hill
Anything defective is corrected. When the Book Company, 1973.
raincoat is completed, each part of it is in-
spected by hand. Stone, Elaine. The Dynamics of Fashion.
New York: Fairchild Publications, 1999.
Byproducts/Waste
In the actual production of raincoats, only Periodicals
scraps are created. They are usually thrown Bober, Joanna. "Fashion 101: In the Trench-
away. es." InStyle (March 1, 1999): 141.
-Annette Petrusso
The Future
The raincoat's fabric and its finishes will
change. There will be improved water repel-
3 15
Roller Coaster
In May 2000, the Background coaster opened in Paris in 1804, and the
coaster craze quickly spread throughout
Millenium Force opened A roller coaster is an amusement park ride France. As the popularity of the rides grew,
where passengers sit in a series of wheeled operators vied for the public's patronage by
at Cedar Point in cars that are linked together. The cars move
building faster and more exciting coasters.
Sandusky, Ohio. At 310 along a pair of rails supported by a wood or Unfortunately, safety devices did not keep
steel structure. In operation, the cars are car- pace with the speed, and accidents were
ft (94 m) tall and going ried up a steep incline by a linked chain. common. By the mid-1800s, the increasing
When the cars reach the top of the incline, number of injuries and a general loss of pub-
92 mph (148 kmp), it is they roll free of the chain and are propelled lic interest took their toll. One-by-one the
the tallest and fastest downward by gravity through a series of Russian Mountain coasters were dismantled.
drops, rises, and turns. Finally the cars are
roller coaster in the world. braked to a stop at the starting point, where The development of the roller coaster might
the passengers get out and new passengers have stopped there had it not been for a de-
get on. Roller coasters are considered by funct coal-hauling railroad in the United
many to be the most exciting ride in any States. The Mauch Chunk inclined railroad
amusement park. was built in Pennsylvania in the early 1800s
to haul coal from a mine atop a mountain to
History barges in a canal below. Mules hauled the
empty cars up the hill, and gravity brought
The origins of the roller coaster probably the loaded cars, along with the mules, back
date back to Russia in the 1400s, where ice down. In 1874 mining operations changed,
sledding was a popular winter activity. It be- and the railroad began hauling sightseers in-
came so popular that people in relatively flat stead of coal. The one-and-a-half hour
areas constructed their own hills out of snow round trip cost one dollar and was an imme-
and ice. The tops of these artificial hills diate success. The railroad continued to
were reached by way of elevated wood tow- carry passengers until it closed in 1938.
ers with stairways from the ground. For a
small charge, people could climb the stair- The success of the Mauch Chunk inclined
way and take a quick, exciting ride down the railroad as a tourist attraction provided the in-
hill on a sled. spiration for several similar amusement park
rides on a smaller scale. In the United States,
By the 1700s, many owners of ice hills LaMarcus Thompson built his Gravity Plea-
found a way to extend the profit potential of sure Switchback Railway ride at the beach on
the ride beyond the winter months. They Coney Island, New York, in 1884. For a
mounted wheels under small sleds and re- nickel, riders rode cars that coasted from one
placed the ice hills with ones constructed of elevated station to another over a series of
wood. Brightly colored lanterns were hung gentle hills supported on a wooden trestle. At
along the slope to allow night operation. the opposite end, the cars were switched onto
a parallel track for the return trip.
Visitors from France saw these rides, which
they called the Russian Mountains, and took The second roller coaster on Coney Island
the idea back with them. The first wheeled was built in late 1884 when Charles Alcoke
316
Roller Coaster
opened his Serpentine Railway. Alcoke's Flags Great America in Gumee, Illinois,
coaster was the first to use an oval-track de- used 2,000 concrete foundations; 1.6 million
sign. Riders sat sideways on open benches ft (487,680 m) of wood; 60,720 bolts; and
as they were whisked along at what was 30,600 lb (13,910 kg) of nails. It was coated
then considered to be a break-neck speed of with 9,000 gal (34,065 L) of paint.
12 mph (19 kph). A third coaster was built
on Coney Island in 1885 by Phillip Hinkle. Steel coasters may use thin, trestle-style
Hinkle's coaster incorporated a chain lift to structures to support the track, or they may
carry the cars up the first hill, thus allowing use thick tubular supports. The track is usu-
the passengers to board at ground level and ally formed in sections from a pair of weld-
saving them a climb. ed round steel tubes held in position by steel
stanchions attached to rectangular box gird-
Roller coaster development hit its peak in er or thick round tubular track supports. All
the 1920s when there were more than 1,500 exposed steel surfaces are painted. Steel
wooden coasters in operation in the United coasters can be just as complex as wooden
States. The economic hardships of the 1930s ones. For example, the Pepsi Max Big One
and the wartime material shortages of the coaster at Blackpool Pleasure Beach in
1940s put an end to that era. Amusement Blackpool, England, used 1,270 piles driven
parks closed by the hundreds, and their into the sandy soil for the foundation; 2,215
wooden roller coasters either fell into disre- tons (2,010 metric tons) of steel, and 60,000
pair or were tom down. It wasn't until Walt bolts. There were 42,000 sq. yd (35,087 sq.
Disney opened the Matterhom Bobsled ride m) of painted surfaces.
at Disneyland in 1959 that the era of modem
steel roller coaster design began. Ironically, The track and lift chain on both wooden and
it took the construction of a new wooden steel coasters are made of steel, and the cars
coaster-the massive Racer at Kings Island usually have steel axles and substructures.
near Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1972-before the The car bodies may be formed from alu-
coaster craze really caught on again. minum or fiberglass, and the car wheels
may be cast from urethane or some other
By the late 1990s it was estimated there long-wearing, quiet-running material.
were over 200 major roller coasters in oper-
ation in the United States, with more being
added every year. In May of 2000, the Mil- Design
lenium Force opened at Cedar Point in San- The design of a roller coaster ride is the first
dusky, Ohio. At 310 ft (94 m) tall and going and most important part of the manufactur-
92 mph (148 kmp), it is the tallest and ing process. Because each roller coaster is
fastest roller coaster in the world. unique, every detail must be designed liter-
ally from the ground up.
Raw Materials To begin, roller coaster designers must con-
Roller coasters are generally classified as ei- sider what kind of riders will use the coast-
ther wooden coasters or steel coasters deer. If the coaster is designed for small chil-
pending on the materials used for the sup- dren, the hills and curves will be gentle, and
port structure. the cars' speed will be relatively slow. Fam-
ilies usually want a somewhat faster ride
Wooden coasters use massive wooden tres- with plenty of tums and moderate forces.
tle-style structures to support the track above Ultimate thrill seekers want extreme heights
the ground. The wood is generally a con- and speeds.
struction grade such as Douglas fir or south-
ern yellow pine and is painted or otherwise Designers must then consider the space
treated to prevent deterioration. The wooden available for the coaster. Roller coasters not
components are supported on concrete foun- only take a lot of ground space, but also a lot
dations and are joined with bolts and nails. of air space. Designers look at the general
Steel plates are used to reinforce critical terrain, other surrounding rides, power lines,
joints. As an example of the immense num- access roads, lakes, trees, and other obsta-
ber of parts required to build a wooden cles. Some amusement parks have added so
coaster, the American Eagle built for Six many rides that a new roller coaster has to
317
be designed to thread its way through exist- working prototype of the new features may
ing rides and walkways. be built for testing and evaluation. The pro-
totype is erected at the manufacturer's facil-
The next objective for the designers is to ity, and weighted test cars outfitted with in-
achieve a unique "feel" for the coaster. De- strumentation are propelled through the test
signers can draw on a number of techniques section at the desired speed. Based on these
to provide a memorable ride. The initial in- tests, the designers may alter their original
cline can be made steeper or the speed of the design before building the final product.
lift chain can be made slower to heighten the
apprehension of the passengers. Once up the When the calculations, design, and testing
incline, the first drop is usually designed to are complete, a computer-aided drafting
be the steepest, and therefore the fastest and (CAD) program is used to prepare detailed
scariest. Other drops can be designed with a drawings for each of the thousands of parts
brief flattened section in the middle, and are that will be used to build the new coaster.
called double dips. Drops with very abrupt
transitions to a flat or upturned section are
called slammers because they slam the pas- The Manufacturing
sengers down into their seats. Letting the Process
cars run close to the ground, in what is The actual physical construction of a roller
called a gully coaster, gives the illusion of coaster may take place in a factory or on the
increased speed. amusement park site depending on the type
and size of the coaster. Most steel coasters
The advent of steel construction for coasters are built in sections in a factory, then
has allowed a number of variations on the trucked to the site and erected. Most wood-
basic roller coaster ride. In some modern en coasters are built piece-by-piece on the
coasters, the passengers sit suspended below site. Here is the typical sequence of opera-
the tracks rather than riding on top of them. In tions for manufacturing both modern steel
others, the passengers ride standing up rather coasters and classic wooden coasters.
than sitting down. Some coasters, known as
bobsleds, have no track at all, and the cars roll
free in a trough, like a bobsled run. Preparing the site
Before the roller coaster can be installed,
Most of the actual design and layout of a the area where it is to be located needs to
roller coaster is done on a computer. The be cleared and prepared. This is usually
height of the first incline must be calculated done in the off season when the amusement
to give the cars enough energy to propel park is closed. If it must be done while the
them all the way through the ride and back to park is still open, the area is fenced off to
the station. The horizontal and vertical forces prevent the public from wandering onto the
that the loaded cars exert on the track must construction site.
be calculated at every point to ensure that the
support structure is adequate. Likewise, the 2If there are existing structures, vegeta-
forces exerted on the passengers must be cal- tion, or utilities that need to be moved or
culated at every point. These forces are usu- demolished, this work is done first. If any of
ally expressed as "g's," which are multiples the surrounding terrain needs to be filled or
of the force that gravity exerts on our bodies. excavated, that work is also done at this
For example, if a person weighs 100 lb (45.5 time.
kg), then a 2 g force would exert 200 lb (91
kg) of force on that person. Coasters in the 3 Holes for the support structure founda-
United States generally exert no more than 3tions are surveyed and drilled or dug.
about 3.5 g's, which is the limit that most Sturdy wooden forms are constructed to hold
people find tolerable. Three coasters outside the concrete for each foundation point. In
the United States exert more than 6.5 g's and some areas where the soil is very sandy, large
are considered ultra-extreme. Jet fighter pi- wooden piles may be driven into the ground
lots black out at about 10 g's. as foundations rather than using poured con-
crete. If concrete is used, it is brought to the
Because each coaster usually incorporates site in mixer trucks and pumped into place by
one or more new and untried features, a a concrete pump with a long, articulating arm
318
Roller Coaster
Laminated wood track base with

flat steel rail screwed on top
An example of a wood-construct-
that can reach each foundation form. Connec- from the computer. On wooden coasters, the ed roller coaster.
tor plates are imbedded into the concrete on material for the supports is usually shipped
top of each foundation to allow attachment of to the site as unfinished lumber and the indi-
the supports. vidual pieces are cut and assembled on site.
In either case, the lower portions of the main
supports are lifted by a crane and are at-
Erecting the main support structure tached to the connector plates protruding
4When the foundation is in place, work from the foundation points.
begins on the main support structure.
The supports for steel coasters-in fact, al- Once the lower supports are in place,
most all the parts for steel coasters-are Jthey may be temporarily braced while
made in a factory and shipped to the job site the upper sections are lifted into place and
in sections on trucks. In the factory, the connected. This work continues until the
pieces for each support are cut and welded main support structure is complete.
into the required shape using fixtures to hold
them in the proper orientation to each other. Installing the track
If a complex three-dimensional bend is re-
quired, this may be done in a hydraulic tube With the main support structure in place,
bender that is controlled by information 6the track is installed. On steel coasters,
3 1 9
An example of a steel-constructed
roller coaster and car. sections of track are fabricated in the factory access and emergency evacuation of passen-
with the stanchions and tubular tracks weld- gers. On wooden coasters, the portions of
ed to the track supports. After the sections the tie beams outside of the track are used as
are brought to the site, they are lifted into walkways, and handrails are installed.
place, and the track ends are slid together.
The sections are then bolted to the main sup- 8 The lift chain and anti-rollback mecha-
port structure and to each other. On wooden 8nisms are installed on the lift hill, and the
coasters, wood tie beams are installed across braking device is installed on the final ap-
the top of the main support structure along proach to the station.
the entire length of the ride. Six to eight lay-
ers of flat wood boards are installed length-
ways on top of the tie beams in two rows to Fabricating the cars
form a laminated base for the rails. The rails oThe individual carsfor the coaster are
themselves are formed from long, flat strips 9 fabricated in the factory. The subframe
of steel screwed into the wood base. pieces are cut and welded. The bodies are
stamped from aluminum or molded in fiber-
7On steel coasters, walkways and glass, then fastened to the subframe. Seat
7handrails are welded in place along the cushions may be cut from foam, mounted on
outside of the track to allow maintenance a base, and covered with an upholstery.
320
Roller Coaster
Running wheels and guide wheels are bolted near future. This is especially true now that
in place with locking fasteners. Brake fins, roller coasters have become popular in Eu-
anti-rollback dogs, and other safety compo- rope, Asia, and many other foreign coun-
nents are installed. tries. In the meantime, coaster designers will
be looking for new ways to give riders a
Finishing the ride physical and visual thrill.
When the main construction is com-
l Vpleted, electrical wiring is installed Where to Learn More
for the lighting, and the entire ride may be Books
painted. The boarding station is constructed,
signs are installed, and the landscaping is Bennett, David. Roller Coaster: Wooden and
put in place. Steel Coasters, Twisters, and Corkscrews.
Edison, NJ: Chartwell Books, 1998.
Quality Control Cook, Nick. Roller Coasters, or, I Had So
The design and construction of roller coasters Much Fun, I Almost Puked. Minneapolis,
are covered by numerous governmental safe- MN: Carolrhoda Books, Inc., 1998.
ty regulations. The materials used must meet
certain strength requirements, and the actual Periodicals
construction is subject to periodic inspection. Lindsay, D. "Terror Bound." American Her-
Every day, the coaster must be thoroughly in- itage (September 1998): 76-89.
spected before it goes into operation.
Ruben, P. L. "Scream Machines." Popular
Before the ride is open to the public, the cars Mechanics (August 1998): 80-83.
are filled with weighted sandbags and sent
through several circuits to ensure everything
is operating properly. Government safety in- Other
spectors check make a final review before World of Coasters. http://www.rollercoast-
they give approval to operate. er.com (November 29, 1999).
The Future -Chris Cavette
The current trend to higher, longer, and

faster coasters will probably continue for the
32 1
Rubber Cement
In 1996, over 12 billion Background of the joints and the service life of the bond-
ed structure. The adhesives must be able to
lb (5.4 billion kg) of Rubber cement is a solution of unvulcanized wet and spread properly on either surface to
(gum) rubber in a solvent, and is used as an achieve molecular contact between the ma-
adhesives were used in adhesive. Ideally, it is meant to join two terials. Adhesives are used in a wide range
the United States. pieces of rubber together, which involves a of industries, including packaging, construc-
chemical cohesion process. When joining tion, electronics, transportation, fumiture/
two pieces of rubber, only one surface has to
woodworking, and medical.
be coated with rubber cement since they are
the same material. However, when joining In 1996, over 12 billion lb (5.4 billion kg) of
paper together, both pieces need to be cov- adhesives were used in the United States.
ered with rubber cement. When rubber ce- Construction applications had the highest
ment dries, only the parts in contact with the share at 40%. This is also one of the largest
paper remain, which holds the two pieces applications for rubber cement. Other appli-
together. Despite this limitation, the house- cations include heating, air conditioning,
hold type of rubber cement finds wide use and automotive equipment. Manufacturers
for applications such as mounting pho- of rubber cement also sell a lot of their prod-
tographs. Unlike with white glue, the joined uct to repackagers who market the product
pieces of paper can be pulled apart without under their own name.
damaging either piece.
Some analysts put the global market for ad-
Adhesives are made from either natural ani- hesives at $19.1 billion in 1997. Packaging,
mal or plant products or synthetic polymer. construction, and furniture/woodworking
Natural adhesives are easy to apply and in are the three largest segments of this global
general are water soluble. Synthetic adhe- market, with over 65% of market revenues.
sives are divided into four chemical cate-
gories: thermoplastic, thermosetting, elas- History
tomeric, and combinations thereof.
Thermoplastic adhesives, such as polyvinyl Natural adhesives have been around for at
alcohol and acrylics, can be resoftened since least several thousand years. Egyptian carv-
the materials do not crosslink upon curing. ings show the gluing together of thin pieces
They require heat or a solvent to create a of veneer to a wooden plank. Fibers in an-
bond. Thermosetting adhesives, which in- cient fabric were joined together with flour
clude epoxies, cannot be heated and resoft- paste, and gold leaf was bonded to paper
ened after curing because they do crosslink with egg white. Animal glues improved dur-
upon curing. Elastomeric adhesives are ing the eighteenth century and a century
based on isoprene rubber or synthetic poly- later, rubber- and nitrocellullose-based ce-
mers that combine both elasticity and tough- ments were introduced. During the 1900s,
ness. Silicone is a typical example. significant advances occurred, leading to the
development of many synthetic adhesives
The properties of the adhesive, the types of that replaced some of the natural adhesives.
materials to be joined, and the condition of Adhesives now had to be much stronger and
the surfaces all determine the performance more corrosion resistant.
322
Rubber Cement
Natural rubber is derived from the
sap or latex tapped of the Hevea
brasiliensis tree.
Natural rubber was first discovered by the usually shipped by tank truck to the manu-
Mayas and Aztecs over 2,500 years ago facturer.
and used to make shoes and clothing wa-
terproof. Centuries later in 1823, the Natural rubber comes from the Hevea
Scottish chemist Charles Macintosh also brasiliensis tree originally found in Brazil.
investigated making waterproof textiles. To make solid rubber, the tree is tapped and
He experimented with dissolving rubber the latex is collected in a small cup, where it
in various chemicals and had the most coagulates into a lump. This lump, together
success with naphtha. With this material with the leftover flow and other pieces are
he made a rubber paste and used it to join collected together and processed at high
together two layers of cloth to make a temperature. This destroys most of the pro-
raincoat. teins and produces a solid material.
Synthetic rubbers include neoprene and
latex. Synthetic rubbers are made using var-
Raw Materials ious chemical processes. The application de-
Rubber cement is an opaque liquid that termines what types of rubber and solvent
contains pulverized natural or synthetic are used.
rubber and a solvent based on hexane or
heptane. Grades of rubber cement may Design
contain 70-90% heptane or hexane and 1-
15% isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol) or The properties and performance of the rub-
ethyl alcohol (ethanol). The rubber is re- ber cement are determined by the type and
ceived in the form of large blocks or slabs, amount of ingredients. Typically, formula-
typically 100 lb (45 kg) in size. Thousands tions are determined by the laboratory and
of gallons (liters) of liquid solvents are then given to production.
323
The Manufacturing After mixing, each batch is also tested for

Process viscosity, tackiness, heat load, and other
properties before being packaged. Up to 20
The process to make rubber cement is rela- different tests may be performed. After
tively simple. After the rubber is broken packaging, the containers are checked to
down into smaller pieces, it is mixed with the make sure they are properly labeled.
hexane- or heptane-based solvent and then
various sizes of containers are filled with the
liquid. Most equipment is automated. Byproducts/Waste
Because of the tight controls and automated
Mixing equipment, no waste is produced. The filling
1 First, the blocks or slabs of rubber are machine is programmed for the exact vol-
broken into smaller pieces. Rubber mills, ume of each size of container. Any leftover
equipped with two large rollers, are used. material is recycled back into the process.
The rubber may be reduced in large high Rubber cement is shipped with a material
speed mixers equipped with sharp blades, safety data sheet (MSDS) that outlines prop-
which pulverize the rubber into a size simi- er handling procedures since the ingredients
lar to sawdust. The solvent ingredients are are hazardous and flammable. The solvent is
mixed in tanks, ranging from 40 to 6,000 gal a volatile organic compound and is also sub-
(150 to 22,700 1), equipped with paddles. ject to regulation as a hazardous air pollu-
The rubber is added slowly until it is wetted tant under the 1990 Clean Air Act Amend-
by the solvent and is suspended or dissolved ments. The U.S. Environmental Protection
in the solution. Agency also has included adhesives as one
of the target categories that must comply
Packaging with certain Maximum Achievable Tech-
nologies (MACT). A MACT sets a level of
2 Once the solution is thoroughly mixed it control designed to protect public health.
is fed into an automated filling line,
which fills each container, caps it, and tight-
ens the cap. Rubber cement is packaged in The Future
4, 8, and 16 oz (118, 237, and 473 ml) bot- Demand for all adhesives in the United
tles or quart (946 ml) and gallon (3.8 1) con- States is expected to reach over 15 billion lb
tainers. Because the rubber cement is flam- (6.8 billion kg) by 2003, a 2.6% annual
mable, explosion proof equipment is used. growth rate. The global market is expected
The containers are then packaged in card- to reach $26.2 billion in 2003, with a com-
board cases and properly labeled. For larger pound annual growth rate of 5.3%. Solvent-
containers (tank trucks or drums), the solu- based adhesives will continue to be replaced
tion is gravity fed or pumped into these con- by water-based adhesives since they are
tainers from the bottom. more environmentally friendly.
Quality Control Where to Learn More

The raw materials are supplied according to
the manufacturer's specifications. Each Other
batch is checked for solids content, since Starkey Chemical Process Co. P.O. Box 10,
better quality grades contain higher content. 9600 W. Ogden Ave., LaGrange, IL 60525-
The percent solids content is obtained by 2534. (708) 352-2565.
weighing a sample, evaporating the liquid,
and then weighing the remaining solid. -Laurel M. Sheppard
324
Sailboat
Background Of course, the sailboat is distinguished from The Egyptians and other
other craft by its sails. A sail is simply a
For people who like to be near the water, piece of fabric that is used to catch the wind ancient people wove
sailboats provide a means of skimming over to drive the boat across the water. Most
its surface. Even when the water is frozen, modem sails are made of Dacron, a poly-
reeds together in mats to
iceboats (sailboats with runners or blades on
the hull) can glide across the ice. The sail-
ester fiber. Because the fabric is heated to make sails, but the
meld the fibers together, the wind cannot es-
boat is a form of transportation, a type of cape through pores like those in woven Egyptians were also the
recreation ranging from simple craft to the cloth, and the surface has a very low friction
most elaborate racing yacht, and even a first to make cloth sails as
factor. Polyester sails are also lightweight
form of housing. A huge yacht with custom
fittings and a crew is a symbol of wealth. A
with little stretch. early as 3300 B.C.
one-person boat with a tiny sail represents Sails fall into two major categories and then
freedom. A majestic old clipper ship hear- into many subclasses. The two major cate-
kens back to historic battles, the spice and gories are square and triangular sails.
tea trades, and sea legends like the "Flying Square sails are mounted across the main
Dutchman." And a bay or lake filled with axis of the boat to use the wind pressure to
sailboats and whitecaps with clouds rippling power the boat. Wind strikes only the back,
above makes a picture perfect for painting or afterside, of square sails. Triangular sails
and a lasting memory. follow the same axis as the boat, with fore
sails at the front or bow of the ship and aft
sails at the rear or stem. Both sides of trian-
Sailing was once a hobby of the rich, but the gular sails are used for forward motion, and
availability of free time and more cash to the they can be adjusted to make the best use of
"average" person has made sailing one of the wind's force.
the most popular forms of recreation. Sail-
boats may be handcrafted or factory built in The subclasses of sails are named for the
all sizes from day-sailers and other boats pieces of rigging that support them or for
less than 11 ft (3.4 m) long, to the dinghy, neighboring gear. Masts are significant
larger single-masted sailboats, two-masted identifiers. A three-masted sailboat has a
boats called yawls, and large yachts. Yachts foremast, mainmast, and mizzenmast (to-
are pattemed after historic sailing vessels ward the stem). Single-masted boats have a
called brigantines, cutters, clipper ships, and mainmast only. Two-masted vessels may
schooners. Boats used for racing are special- have either a foremast and mainmast or a
ly designed for speed and maneuverability, mainmast and mizzenmast, where the
while sailboats of all sizes that have onboard mizzenmast is the shorter of the two. Sails
quarters for passengers and crew are sturdier named for parts of the ship include gaff
in design with more details for comfort. sails, jib-headed sails, spritsails, and lateen
Many sailboats also carry inboard or out- and lugsails. Sails are also named for spe-
board diesel-powered motors in the event cialized uses: summer sails are for tropical
they are becalmed (motionless from lack of conditions, storm sails are used in bad
wind) or their sailors simply want a speedier weather, racing sails are needed only by rac-
return to port. ers, and cruising sails are the standard set
325
for everyday conditions. A three-masted to skim the sailboat over the ice by mounting
square-rigger can be equipped with as many it on runners or blades. Archaeologists have
as 20 sails with unique names and purposes. found evidence of iceboats in Scandinavia
dating back to 2000 B.C. Eyewitness accounts
from Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and
History Baltic Coast countries like Latvia and Russia
Animal skins were used as sails for the earli- are much more recent, with the earliest from
est boats and rafts. The Egyptians and other the seventeenth century. In the United States,
ancient people wove reeds together in mats the first known iceboat in the New World
to make sails, but the Egyptians were also traveled up and down the Hudson River in
the first to make cloth sails as early as 3300 New York in 1790. Like their warm-water
B.C. Great sailors of the Mediterranean re- counterparts, iceboats that race are called ice
gion like the Phoenicians sailed under cloth yachts, and ice yachting as an acknowledged
sails. Over the centuries, sails woven from a sport dates from the nineteenth century.
variety of fibers, such as hemp, flax, ramie,
and jute, were sailmakers' favorites; but flax
fiber was the primary material for sails Raw Materials
throughout the age of exploration (approxi- Sailboat manufacturers either fabricate their
mately 1450-1650). Cotton gradually re- own parts or order them, depending on the in-
placed flax as cultivation and processing of tended volume of production. Items that are
cotton increased. It was the victory of the usually provided by specialty suppliers in-
racing yacht America in 1851 that crowned clude masts, sails, engines, and metal fittings.
the cotton sail as supreme. This United Boatbuilders make their own fiberglass hulls,
States yacht defeated 14 British vessels in a however, and the materials used to cast rein-
sailing race around the Isle of Wight off the forced fiberglass include Gelcote polyester
south coast of England and was the source resin, a catalyst for the resin, woven fiber-
of the name for the America's Cup Race, the glass roving, and fiberglass. Manufacturers
greatest yacht race in the world. who build hulls from wood similarly order,
age, and shape their own wood.
Sailboats themselves began as single logs and
simple rafts. More sophisticated shapes for Roving is strand-like material that resem-
hulls that would cut through the water grew bles burlap. It can be woven with biaxial,
out of military use, but also from merchant triaxial, or knit strands, and the designer
sailors who built extensive trading networks specifies the type of roving depending on
crisscrossing the Mediterranean Sea. When the planned design and weight of the fin-
day-sailers were built for fishing and recre- ished sailboat; sailboats range from light-
ation, they were essentially miniature copies weight and very fast to strong and highly
of naval ships like schooners and cutters. The seaworthy.
elaborate yachts that were the playthings of
royal families and the wealthy also copied
naval sailing ships. By about 1850, a new en-
Design
gineering discipline called naval architecture Manufacturers usually make several specific
was begun to design efficient hulls and other lines of sailboats. Their designs are drawn
parts of sailboats according to the laws of and printed on blueprints or drafted by com-
physics and engineering and architectural puter design methods. When a design is
principles. Sails and rigging and their effects new, a wooden plug is made from the blue-
on the speed of sailboats were essentially ig- prints to exactly match the configuration of
nored until 1920. Since that time, aerody- the outside of the empty hull. The wooden
namics have been used in their design. plug is sanded, polished, and covered with a
Today, modifications to complex craft like slick coating, something like boat-builder's
the boats that participate in the America's Teflon, from which other materials can be
Cup Race are based on wind-tunnel testing removed.
and many other sophisticated analyses ap-
plied to boats, water, wind, and sails. A mold is built up on the outside of the
plug; the inside of the mold is then the
In parts of the world where waters are frozen model for the outside of the sailboat-to-be.
for most of the year, iceboats were developed This mold is cast of fiberglass, and it must
326
Sailboat
A sailboat.
BOW
PORT
STARBOARD
STERN
Keel
Rudder
be perfect. The process of making a plug After the mold is completed and approved,
and mold is very expensive, so the designers it is ready for use in duplicating sailboats of
must be sure of the plan on paper before this design. The blueprint plan, plug, and
proceeding to plug construction. mold are used to calculate the number and
327
Catboat Ketch Yawl
Cutter Sloop Schooner
Examples of different types of rigs.

types of fittings on the sailboat and deck, this is enough to keep the pattern of the rov-
engines, sails, and outfitting of any interior. ing from bleeding through to be detectable
These items are ordered from specialty sup- on the outer finish of the sailboat. Gelcote is
pliers in advance of production. applied to harden the fiberglass. This chemi-
cal resin reacts with a catalyst that causes a
chemical reaction that converts the pliable
The Manufacturing fiberglass into a hard material.
Process
Manufactured sailboats typically range from 2 Woven, 24-oz (746-g) fiberglass roving is
11-ft-long (3.4-m-long) day sailers to 28-ft- placed against the skincoat. Layers of rov-
long (8.5-m-long) and sometimes longer ing are rolled out by hand and are bound to-
luxury craft equipped with diesel motors gether for reinforcement and built up for
and living quarters. The process described thickness and strength. It is also pressed and
below is for the construction of small, fiber- molded into shape against the outer layers
glass craft, but some remarks address larger and the mold itself. Gelcote again is applied
varieties. to begin the hardening of the fiberglass. The
resin and catalyst are sprayed on with a care-
fully metered spray until the roving is saturat-
The hull ed. After the Gelcote is applied, the fiberglass
Building the hull of the sailboat begins workers have 30-40 minutes to finish manip-
from the outside in. The contact surface ulating the fiberglass while it is in a state
along the inside of the mold is the outside of somewhat resembling cookie dough and be-
the hull. The mold is lined with a parting fore it begins to harden. The process of build-
agent-a non-stick coating that will help re- ing up the fiberglass and spraying on the
lease the sailboat hull from the mold when resin and catalyst is done in a temperature-
the hull is complete. Color pigment is laid controlled room in which the temperature is
against the inside of the mold; effectively, the maintained at 72°F (22.2°C). Workers lami-
"paint job" is the first part of the sailboat to nate the fiberglass for one-half of the hull
be made, although the pigment incorporates (i.e., one side of the sailboat) at a time. Each
into the outermost fiberglass and resin. Sail- half then cures for 24 hours to allow the cata-
boats can be colored in a rainbow of hues, lyst to complete its chemical conversion.
thanks to the variety of pigments available.
3 The first layers of the remaining half of
The skin coat of the boat is made with 4-5 3the sailboat are laminated and cured, and
oz (124-156 g) of blown fiberglass that re- the workers then return to the first side to
sembles cotton candy. Unlike the roving continue adding more layers to thicken the
that will follow, the skin coat fiberglass is hull. Boats in the 18- to 24-ft-long (5.5- to
random-strand fiberglass that is blown in 7.3-m-long) size range are typically made of
and then spread by hand. The skin coat is three layers of roving. During the process of
about 5 mils (0.005 in; 0.13 mm) thick, but "glassing" the boat, stiffeners are also added
328
Sailboat
to the hull. Sections of precut and preformed
marine plywood are laid in the bottom of the
empty hull. As more roving thicknesses are
added, the plywood is glassed into place; the
resin and catalyst harden the plywood into
place as structural components of the fiber-
glass. Depending on the design and size of
the sailboat, the plywood components may
consist of a system of stringers, ribs, and
bulkheads that strengthen the boat against
the impact and bending forces of waves.
4In another part of the glassing room, the
'4deck of the sailboat is being constructed.
A corresponding deck mold is made. Like
the lid of a shoebox, it fits over the top of
the open hull and is mechanically fastened
in place. The fiberglass deck is made by ex-
actly the same process. A parting agent is
applied to the underside of the deck mold
(the upper side of the deck), pigment is
placed, and a skin coat of blown fiberglass
is sprayed on followed by application of the
resin and catalyst. The layers of the deck are
built up of fiberglass roving, stiffening sec-
tions of marine plywood are glassed into
place, and special reinforcements are lami-
nated into place wherever hardware or fas-
teners will pass through the deck. Rein-
forcement pieces are made of marine
plywood or aluminum.
5 When fiberglass laminating has been
5completed on both the hull of the sail-
boat and its matching deck, the thoroughly
cured sections are removed from their
molds. A wooden wedge is driven between
the mold and the fiberglass section, and the
section pops out. Altematively, the mold
and section are submerged in water, and the
water pressure between the two pieces pops
out the fiberglass section. A chain hoist is
used to lift the section out of its mold, and it
is placed on an assembly cart so workers can
move and access it easily. rooms and areas, toilets (called heads on
boats), and sleeping areas. Usually, larger
6The assembly phase begins with "green craft are custom-built, and these systems are
trimming," a process in which bits of made of wood.
flashing (fiberglass and resin excess) are
trimmed off. The deck and hull sections of 7Plumbing is installed next. Flexible pipe
the sailboat are sanded and cleaned, all is used. Hoses are needed from fresh
edges are checked for smoothness, and all water tanks that store water for toilets and
joints are inspected for precise fit. Obvious- showers (again, on larger vessels), and return
ly, larger boats require many more assembly hoses are also required to return dirty water
steps than day-sailers. If the boat is larger to the onboard sewage tank. Electrical lines
than 22 ft (6.7 m) long, it will be fitted with are installed in accordance with electrical
a cockpit liner, interior liner, cabins, sitting code requirements. Engines (if any) and me-
329
chanical equipment are fitted into the sailboat The sails

next. If the boat has an onboard engine, it is
fitted to motor mounts that are installed on Sails are made by sailmakers who are high-
stringers-structural parts of the hull. A pro- ly skilled in design and material properties.
peller shaft and propeller are fastened into A sailboat manufacturer may provide the sail-
place, and the engine controls are hooked up. maker with a plan or the sailmaker may mea-
sure the boat's rigging and design the sails
8 The green-trimmed and polished deck is from that. Mathematics enter sail design in es-
Vinverted and fitted over the hull. A "dry timating the stretch of a sail with wind pres-
fit" is done first to make sure the deck still sure applied, and the curvature of each sail's
fits the hull snugly. Mechanical fasteners surface is calculated. This curvature is called
made of stainless steel are passed through the sail's draft, and it provides forward mo-
matching reinforced sections of the deck and tion from the wind just like the curved wings
hull. Before the deck is locked into place, a of an airplane provide uplift. The sailmaker's
leakproof sealant especially made for marine shop (called a sail loft) is a critical tool be-
construction is applied. The fasteners are cause the plans for each sail are outlined in
then mechanically tightened. Deck hardware chalk on the floor and to full scale. The fabric,
is installed. Hardware may include winches which is usually polyester, is laid over the
and turning blocks for winding lines and plan, and the outlines are transferred onto the
sails, rails, stays, and other features. Installa- fabric. Each sail shape is numbered.
tion of hardware is an important indicator of
the quality of the sailboat; the hardware it- 2 The sails are cut out according to the
self, as well as the backing plates and lock- 2outlined dimensions drawn on them.
ing nuts and bolts, must withstand heavy use Sails consist of several pieces, and these are
and intense water action. Hardware is a very sewn together with sail twine, a specialized
expensive part of sailboat construction; a fiber that is stronger than typical thread.
single winch for a yacht made for the Ameri- When the sewing needle is threaded with
ca's Cup Race may cost $20,000. sail twine, the twine is twisted to add
strength, and wax is applied so the twine
9The mast is the last piece of major hard- will hold that twist.
ware added. Inside the hull, a wooden
block or shoe called a tabernacle is installed 3 After all the pieces of each sail are sewn
as a seat for the mast. Masts are usually 3together, reinforcement is added to the
made of aluminum for light weight. When parts the
of sail that will take the most strain.
the mast is seated on the tabernacle, wires Patches (reinforcements) are added to each
called stays are used to hold the mast in corner and tabling (a thickened hem) is sewn
place. The stays are made from stainless along the forward edge (called the luff) and
steel wire and custom fit to each sailboat; the foot of the sail. When the tabling is com-
manufacturers usually make their own stays pleted, ropes are also sewn inside the luff
in-house to assure the correct tension to sta- and foot edges of the sail to reinforce these
bilize the mast. parts of the sail against stretching.
1 O All wires (if any) for electrical connec- A Finally, hardware and fittings are at-
Vtions and hoses for plumbing (if any) tached to each sail. These may include
are hooked up and tested. If the sailboat is of metal slides, grommets, and reef points de-
the size and design to have windows in the pending on the design of the boat and the
cabin, templates are placed on the hull, and the purpose of the sail. The sails are shipped to
outlines of the portholes are cut out. Sealant is the sailboat manufacturer, and sets are
added around the edges of the openings, and stored on the sailboats to which they belong.
windows consisting of frames and glass are set
in the openings. Additional sealant is applied
to make secure seals. The painting of the exte-
Quality Control
rior is checked for any mars or marks and de- Quality control is a continual process. All
tailed. Accents are painted on and feature tape fittings and materials received from outside
is added for stripes and other decorations. De- suppliers are checked upon receipt. Items
cals, numbering, and manufacturer's infonna- like electrical wiring are bench-tested before
tion is also added. installation in the boats, checked immediate-
330
Sailboat
ly after installation, and tested again during building must also be controlled in accor-
a final quality check. dance with the regulations of the U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA). Work-
Specialties such as glassing the fiberglass ers wear Tyvex suits to guard against
hull have critical requirements for tempera- splashing hazards, and chemicals are care-
ture and placement. The Gelcote is applied fully stored and disposed according to regu-
against an indexing gauge because it cannot latory requirements.
be too thick or too thin. Over catalyzing the
resin produces intense internal temperatures
in the material, and it cannot be worked. If The Future
catalyzing fails, the resin has to be chipped Sailboats are symbols of beauty and free-
out-an expensive, time-consuming process. dom. They are highly desirable forms of
Errors in design of fiberglass thicknesses and recreation and symbols of success, indepen-
placement of hardware as well as such errors dence, and free time. Periods when the econ-
in construction affect the weight and balance omy is strong lead to greater sailboat produc-
of the sailboat and how it will sit on the tion and more sails visible on local bodies of
water; if the balance is off, the static list of water. A sailboat as a retirement home is the
the boat will be wrong. dream of many. The variety of sizes of sail-
boats suits them to a similar variety of
Details are also important, and quality con- lifestyles. All of these aspects seem to insure
trol checks are scheduled so they are cor- the future of the sailboat. They are a simple,
rected immediately. An uncorrected mistake elegant, and ancient form of transportation
within the hull may not be easy to reach made modem; they also provide opportuni-
after the deck is fastened in place. The final ties for people to enjoy that unique environ-
quality check should reveal only minor ment where the wind meets the water.
problems like tiny flaws in the exterior that
are quickly repaired.
Where to Learn More
Sailboat manufacturers do not typically make Gustafson, Chuck. How to Buy the Best Sail-
byproducts, and they tend to specialize in boat. New York: Hearst Marine Books, 1991.
several closely related lines. Only the largest Hines, Vernon. About the America's Cup.
companies have much wider ranges of prod- Grand Junction, CO: Bookcliff Publishing
ucts; their larger production allows an econo- Company, 1986.
my of scale in purchasing hardware and other
supplies that appear to give them an advan- Kentley, Eric. Boat. New York: Alfred A.
tage over smaller builders. Small builders Knopf, Inc., 1992.
know, however, that a lovingly crafted prod-
uct is their boast, and they are willing to pur- Langone, John. National Geographic's
chase smaller quantities (and waste less as How Things Work: Everyday Technology
well) in favor of custom quality. Explained. Washington, DC: National Geo-
graphic Society, 1999.
Waste is a minor issue. Most materials can Marshall, Roger. Designed to Win. New
be recycled, and the business requires such York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1979.
strict quality control that waste is minimized
by careful workmanship. Safety is a major Other
concern, by contrast. Thirty years ago, the
manufacture of sailboats was unregulated, Boat Talk Boating Information Bureau.
and many boat builders ran "cottage indus- http://www.boattalk.com (October 1, 2000).
tries" in their back yards. Regulations have
made this almost impossible. Workers are Glen-L Marine Designs. http://www.glen-
trained in safety issues, particularly related l.com (September 29, 2000).
to air quality, and they must wear respirators Martini Marine. http://www.martinima-
throughout the construction of fiberglass rine.com (September 29, 2000).
hulls because of the fumes generated by the
catalyzing process. Air emitted from the -Gillian S. Holmes
33 1
Salad Dressing
By the end of the Background By the end of the twentieth century, over
60 million gal (227 million 1) of salad
twentieth century, over 60 Salad dressing is a type of sauce used to dressings were sold in the United States.
bind and flavor greens and/or vegetables. The most popular flavor by far was ranch
million gal (227 million I)
dressing. The original brand, Hidden Val-
of salad dressings were History ley Ranch, was created by Steve Henson
who devised the recipe as a dry mix to be
sold in the United States. Using oil and vinegar to dress greens and
blended with mayonnaise and buttermilk.
vegetables dates to Babylonian times, some
Henson and his wife Gayle served it at
2,000 years ago. The word salad can be
traced to the ancient Romans who sprinkled their California dude ranch, called the
salt on grasses and herbs, calling it herba Hidden Valley Guest Ranch, in the late
salata. It was not long before Roman and 1950s and early 1960s. Guests reported
that the dressing was so popular, they
Greek cooks experimented with combina-
often poured it on steaks and ice cream as
tions of olive oil, vinegar, and salt, then
adding wine, honey, and a fermented fish
well as on salads.
sauce known as garum. The latter was made Guests began to request jars of the dressing
by soaking the intestines and other pieces of to take home with them. When one man
mackerel, salmon, sardines, and shad in wanted 300 jars to take back to Hawaii,
brine and herbs. Henson offered to provide him with enough
The kings and queens of Europe were no- packages of the dried mixture instead. This
tably fond of salads with royal chefs tossing led to a very lucrative mail-order business.
together as many as 35 ingredients. Henry The family eventually sold the business,
IV of England was known to prefer a bowl which is now owned by Clorex.
of sliced new potatoes and sardines splashed
with herb dressing. For Mary, Queen of Rcawv Materials
Scots, it was lettuce, boiled celery root, truf-
fles, chervil, and hard-cooked eggs in a The primary ingredient in salad dressing is
mustard dressing. oil. In the United States, soybean oil is the
most common type used in the production of
Salad dressings were made from scratch in salad dressings. Olive, peanut, and sun-
home kitchens until the turn of the nine- flower oils may also be used.
teenth century when restaurant owners
began packaging and selling their own Stabilizers and thickeners, such as modified
dressings. One of the first was Joe Marzetti, food starch, are mixed with the oil. The
proprietor of a Columbus, Ohio, restaurant. thickeners develop viscosity and protective
In 1919, Marzetti began to bottle a variety colloid characteristics that help to prevent
of dressings from old country recipes. the breakdown of the blend during the vari-
ous processing steps.
The Kraft Cheese Company entered the
salad dressing industry in 1925; its first fla- Other food ingredients are added depending
vor was french, an oil and vinegar-based on the type of dressing, including any or all
dressing flavored with tomato and paprika. of the following: eggs, vinegar, salt, honey,
332
Salad Dressing
An example of continuous flow
machinery used to make salad
dressing.
sugar, spices and herbs, tomato, vegetable The Manufacturing

bits, sherry, and lemon or lime juice. A large Process
sub-industry is involved in the processing of
these ingredients. Herbs and vegetables are Creating the emulsion
usually blast-frozen and cut into pieces or The commercial salad dressing industry
reduced to flakes. uses a continuous blending system to at-
tain the correct degree of emulsification so
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is a food ad- that the mixture does not break down. An
ditive developed in the early 1900s from emulsion, or colloid, forms when the blend-
seaweed. Today in the United States, MSG ing of two liquids, such as oil and water,
is extracted from the gluten of cereals. It is causes one of the liquids to form small
used in variety of foods, including salad droplets that are evenly dispersed through-
dressings, to enhance flavor. However, the out the other liquid. In the production of
increase of allergic reactions experienced by commercial dressings, this basic blend
consumers have caused some processors to moves continuously through a series of
cease using it. pumps and heat exchangers as the other in-
gredients are added.
Design Positive replacement pumps feature a cavity

or set of cavities fitted with rotary impellers.
The salad dressing industry is constantly A regulated pumping action causes the cavi-
creating new and so-called improved fla- ties to fill and empty. The impellers move
vors. Low fat and non-fat varieties are of the blended fluid from one cavity to another.
particular interest to the consumer. The larg-
er companies have food laboratories on site. 2 Manufacturers may use a rotational vis-
Smaller companies and start-up companies cometer to test the viscosity, or consis-
often rely on research conducted by univer- tency, of the dressing. This machine consists
sity food science institutes. of a solid cylinder fitted inside a hollow
333
cylinder with a space of about (0.08 in) 2 prika products. Salad dressing must contain a
mm in between. A sample of the dressing is minimum of 30% vegetable oil, 4% egg yolk
poured into the space, the top is sealed and ingredient, vinegar or lemon juice, and spices.
the cylinders are set spinning. As the dress-
ing spins, it exerts torque on the center At the processing plant, each shipment of
cylinder. A gauge then measures the consis- raw and processed ingredients are tested
tency. Adjustments are made as necessary. upon arrival. Daily samplings are taken of
all stored materials to insure their freshness.
Adding ingredients
3 Pre-measured ingredients are piped Where to Learn More
3through openings in the sides or from Books
spigots up above. Coyle, L. Patrick, Jr. The World Encyclope-
dia of Food. New York: Facts on File, 1982.
Bottling the dressing
4 When the dressing is completely blended Schlesinger, Chris, and John Willoughby.
1 according to the recipe, it flows to the bot- Lettuce in Your Kitchen. New York: William
tling station. Here, pre-sterizilized jars or bot- Morrow, 1996.
tles move along a conveyer belt as overhead Trager, James. The Food Chronology. New
spigots drop premeasured amounts of dress- York: Henry Holt, 1995.
ing into each container. The containers are
immediately sealed with metal or plastic caps. Periodicals
Labeling Barr, Susan Leamer. "Well-dressed." Shape
(August 1997).
5 Labels are mechanically affixed to each
5container. All ingredients and nutritional Other
informnation must be printed on each label.
Association for Dressings and Sauces.
http://www.dressings-sauces.org (Decem-
Quality Control ber 2000).
In the United States, the Food and Drug Ad- Kraft Unit Operations. http://www.kraftuni-
ministration (FDA) sets Standards of Identity tops.com (December 2000).
for french dressing, and the modified mayon-
naise called salad dressing that is used as the Hidden Valley Ranch. http://www.hidden-
basis for most creamy dressings. French valleyranch.com (December 2000).
dressing must contain at least 35% vegetable
oil by weight, vinegar, and tomato and/or pa- -Mary McNulty
334
Saxophone
Background patented this instrument. Smaller saxo- The typical saxophone is
phones such as the alto and tenor were creat-
A saxophone is a single reed, woodwind ed a short time later. a single reed instrument
instrument first developed in the mid-
1800s by Adolphe Sax. It is composed of a In addition to his instrument-making constructed from brass
mouthpiece, conical metal tube, and finger prowess, Sax was also an entrepreneur. To
keys. Sound is produced when air is blown with a curved bottom.
promote his new instrument he staged a
through the instrument causing the reed to "battle of the bands" between the traditional
vibrate. This sound is amplified as it trav- French infantry band and one that used his
els through the instrument's main body. saxophone. Sax's group won the contest,
Saxophones consist of numerous parts and and the military officially adopted the saxo-
pieces which are made separately and then phone into their bands. This caused a signif-
assembled. icant level of resentment toward Sax and
many instrument manufacturers and musi-
History cians rejected the saxophone as an accept-
able instrument, refusing to produce or play
Most instruments have steadily evolved it. This prevented the saxophone from being
over many years. In fact, no one person can used for its original purpose in the orchestra.
be said to have invented common instru-
ments like the flute or the oboe. The saxo- However, many composers were impressed
phone however, can be directly credited to with the sound of the saxophone and
Adolphe Sax who invented it during the steadily incorporated it into their pieces.
1800s. Sax was born in Belgium in 1814 This versatile instrument was used in many
and learned to make instruments from his musical styles. For example, it has been
father who was a musical instrument maker. used in opera such as Bizet's l'Arlesienne
By the age of 16, Sax was already an ac- and also worked into Ravel's orchestral
complished instrument maker himself. piece, Bolero. In the United States, the in-
Some of his achievements included improv- strument was made famous by J. P. Sousa
ing the clarinet's design and adding piston who used it extensively in his marching
valves to the cornet. During his time, he pro- band compositions.
duced some of the highest quality clarinets,
flutes, and other instruments. The true potential of the sax was realized by
jazz musicians during the early 1900s.
When he set out to develop the saxophone, Artists like Charlie Parker and John
he wanted to create an instrument that could Coltrane helped make it the most popular
blend the orchestral sounds of the wood- woodwind solo instrument for jazz. Both of
winds with the brass instruments. His new these musicians had distinctly different
instrument would have the tone quality of a sounds. The individualized sound is a result
woodwind and the power of a brass. The of various mouthpiece materials and struc-
first saxophone he built was a large, bass tures, reed hardness, and the musicians
saxophone. Since a conical shape was need- mouth position. For jazz musicians, the
ed, it was easier to make the instrument out mouthpiece was modified so the instrument
of brass than wood. On March 20, 1846, Sax would be louder.
335
Raw Materials The reed is attached to the saxophone and vi-

brates to create the sound. Saxophone reeds
Saxophones are primarily made from brass. are made from bamboo (Arundo donax)
Brass is a composite alloy made up of met- which is grown in southern France. The reed
als including copper, tin, nickel, and zinc. can be made soft or hard depending on the
The most common type used for instruments desire of the musician. The ligature is the
is yellow brass which contains 70% copper part that holds the reed on the mouthpiece. It
and 30% zinc. Other types include gold attaches to the mouthpiece with screws.
brass and silver brass which have different They can be made from innumerable materi-
ratios. The zinc in brass makes the alloy als such as leather, metal, or plastic.
workable at lower temperatures. Some cus-
tom manufacturers use special blends of The crook is the part that joins the mouth-
brass for different saxophone parts. A small piece and the main instrument body. At the
amount of arsenic or phosphorous also may top of it is a cork which is important for tun-
be added to make the brass more useful in ing the instrument. The tone changes de-
tubing applications. pending on where the mouthpiece is posi-
tioned on the cork. The other end of the
Other materials are used to make the saxo- crook is a metal joint that fits into the main
phone. Most of the screws are composed of body of the saxophone. It connects with a
stainless steel. Cork is used to line the joints screw to keep the crook in place.
and water keys. In some cases, a wax is ap-
plied to these joints. Mouthpieces can be Saxophone keys are of two types, closed
made from various materials, however, the standing and open standing. Closed standing
material has little effect on the sound. The keys are those that are held closed by a
most common material is black, hard rubber spring when the instrument is not being
or ebonite. Metal or glass mouthpieces are played. When the key is pressed, the hole it
also available. Plastic resonators are made covers is opened. Open standing keys are
and the instrument is often coated with a held open by a spring and close when the
lacquer. Nickel plating on the keys helps key is pressed. Each key has a pad on its end
strengthen them and keeps them attractive. which provides an airtight seal on the hole.
The saxophone tube is a long, metal tube
Design which steadily gets wider at one end. It has
The typical saxophone is a single reed in- holes drilled in the side at specific spots to
strument constructed from brass with a create notes. When all the holes are closed,
curved bottom. Originally available in 14 the instrument works much like a bugle am-
different sizes and keys, today that number plifying the sound of the vibrating reed.
has been reduced to six. This includes-in When a hole is opened, the sound is modi-
order of pitch from highest to lowest-the fied producing a different note. The conical
sopranino, soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, and shape of the saxophone makes the overtones
bass saxophones. Generally, the smallest in- octaves. This makes fingering easier because
strument is the sopranino and the largest is the higher pitched notes are produced with
the bass. the same fingering as lower pitched ones.
The saxophone mouthpiece is the part of the

instrument that the musician blows in to pro- The Manufacturing
duce the sound. The construction of the Process
mouthpiece has an important effect on the Since saxophone demand is relatively high,
final sound of the instrument. It makes the their manufacture is largely an automated
difference between the sax player in a sym- process. The primary production steps in-
phony orchestra and one in a rock band. clude piece formation, assembly, and final
There are two main parts of the mouthpiece polishing.
that affect tone: the tone chamber and the lay
(or the facing) which is the opening between Parts production
the mouthpiece's reed and its tip. Mouth-
pieces are typically marked with a letter or Production of the various saxophone parts is
number to denote the width of the lay. a specialized operation and often done by
336
Saxophone
contract manufacturers. They produce the
pieces and send them to the saxophone pro-
ducers for assembly.
The main body of the saxophone is pro-
duced from brass. This is made by first
putting a brass tube on a long, tapered man-
drel and then lubricating it. The brass is re-
shaped and made a consistent thickness by a
doughnut-shaped die that is drawn down the
mandrel. The tube is then heated to make it
more malleable. Since heating creates an
oxide residue on the tube's surface, it is
soaked in a sulfuric acid bath.
2 Depending on the type of saxophone, the
2modified tube is taken to a shaping sta-
tion where it is bent to give it a curl if need-
ed. Two types of bending methods may be
employed. In one case, the tube is put in a
die which matches the desired curve. Highly
pressurized water is then forced through the
tube causing it to expand and conform to the
walls of the die.
3 The tone holes can be produced by hand
3or machine. In the traditional method,
workers would slip the brass tubes on a steel
mandrel that was loaded with pulling balls.
A drill press was then lowered and threaded
into the pulling ball. The drill press was then
raised, pulling the ball through and creating
a hole with a rim or chimney. This same
process was done with each tone hole in the
shaft. In more modem production opera-
tions, several tubes are loaded into a ma-
chine which automatically creates the tone
holes. Computer controls ensure that the in-
struments are perfect each time. After the
tubes are formed, the body is coated with a
clear lacquer finish.
Key construction
4 Saxophone keys were first forged by
Ahand but today they are die-cast or
stamped. In the die-casting method, a
molten alloy is forced into a steel die. When
it cools, the metal takes on the desired key
shape. The stamping method involves a
large stamping machine which cuts the keys
from a sheet of metal. Depending on the use, 5Most keys have pads attached to them.
the keys may be soldered together and pol- 5These pads are made of layers of card-
ished. Polishing is done in a tumbling ma- board, felt, or leather. They are typically
chine or by hand. The keys may also be stamped or cut and then glued to each key
metal plated, improving the appearance and by line workers. The keys are finished by
durability. being drilled and fitted with springs and
337
Upper octive key

Key rod
Mouthpiece /
with single reed Ligature
Lower
Keys for the

left thumb
Key Mother-ofpearl
rod touchpiece button
K Roller
- Key rod
Key rod
Key
guard
Keys for the Keys for the

right hand left little finger
Key
Keys for the
right little finger
A tenor saxophone and its parts.

screws that allow them to be attached to the posts to hold the key springs. The keys are
instruments. then screwed onto the posts and seated on the
tone holes. Since an airtight seal is needed for
Final assembly the instrument to perform correctly, the seal
When all the pieces is tested and adjusted if necessary.
are formed, they are
6assembled into a complete instrument.
The keys are mounted to the main tube on 7The crook is attached to the main tube,
small posts. These posts are first screwed 7as is the mouthpiece. Typically, the
onto the main body. Holes are drilled into the mouthpiece is manufactured separately out
338
Saxophone
of hard rubber. Other things such as the sound less sharp or filled in with shellac to
strap ring are attached at this point. The make it sound less flat.
joints are usually lined with cork and waxed
so they fit together smoothly. The main The Future
body is stamped with the manufacturers
name and all other finishing steps are done. Saxophone manufacturing and design is still
changing. Since popularity has grown with-
Q When the instrument is assembled, it is in the last few years, saxophones with dif-
Oplayed to ensure that it produces a quali- fering bow radiuses and bell flares have
ty sound. After this step, the saxophone is been produced. More parts are now remov-
disassembled and put into a cushion lined able and enable easier cleanup. The Selmer
case. The case is then shipped to the retailer. Series III alto even has an additional tone
hole to improve pitch. As developments
continue with this instrument, quality and
Quality Control sound continue to improve.
Each saxophone piece is checked during the
various phases of manufacture. This is done Where to Learn More
typically through visual inspection by Books
trained workers. Inspectors check for things
such as deformed parts, inadequate solder- Harvey, Paul. Saxophone. London: Kahn &
ing, and other unacceptable variations. Ad- Averill, 1995.
ditionally, more rigorous evaluations can be Kemfeld, Berry. Saxophone. The New Grove
performed. Measuring devices like a vernier Dictionary of Jazz. London: Macmillan,
caliper or micrometer are used to check the 1988.
physical dimensions each part.
Othmer-Kirk. Encyclopedia of Chemical
Sound quality is also tested prior to ship- Technology. Vol. 22. Wiley-Interscience,
ment. Manufacturers employ professional 1992.
musicians who can verify that tone quality,
intonation, and playability are within ac- Other
ceptable limits set for the specific model of
instrument. The instrument sound may also Classical Saxophone Online. http://www.
be checked under different acoustical set- classicsax.com (January 2001).
tings. In general, if the saxophone is pro- International Saxophone Home Page. http://
duced according to specifications no adjust- www.saxophone.org (January 2001).
ments are needed. However, the tone holes
can be drilled further to make the instrument -Perry Romanowski
339
Seedless Fruits
and Vegetables
Seedless fruits and Background lay fallow for some time, then was rapidly
extended in the early twentieth century. By
vegetables are produced The fruits that are grown, sold, and eaten are the middle of the twentieth century, re-
essentially the ripened ovary of a plant. In searchers had established that inheritance is
by meticulous cross- the wild, fruit-bearing plants spread their transmitted by genes, which express chemi-
seeds either by dropping their ripe fruits to cal information resulting in characteristic
breeding, and it con take the ground or by being eaten by animals, traits. For seedless fruits, it is important to
decades to bring a new who then excrete the seeds. The tasty fruit is understand more of the details of genetic
merely the mechanism by which the plant transmission. Genes in plants and animals
strain to commercial passes its seeds along. But from the human are usually deployed in pairs, called an al-
consumer's point of view, the seeds can be a lele. One gene in the allele is usually domi-
viability. nuisance. Spitting out hard, bitter seeds nant, and the other recessive. This means
lessens the pleasure of eating grapes, for ex- that typically only one trait is expressed in
ample. As a result, horticulturists have de- the biological makeup of the organism,
veloped seedless varieties of popular fruits though there is still a second gene for that
and vegetables. Seedless varieties make up trait. This is important because every cell in
over half the United States grape market, the
an organism carries a complete genetic map
seedless navel orange is a mainstay of the of itself, called the chromosomes, in its nu-
orange industry, and the seedless watermel- cleus. When a cell divides, the chromo-
on saw increasing popularity since its intro- somes double, and then a copy goes into the
duction in the 1990s. Seedless fruits and new cell. The exception is the sex cells, the
vegetables are produced by meticulous ovum and sperm. These cells only carry half
cross-breeding, and it can take decades to the genetic material, which is one chromo-
bring a new strain to commercial viability. some, or one half of each gene pair. When
the ovum and sperm meet, the gene pairs re-
combine, and the new individual created
History through sexual reproduction has a new full
Careful breeding of plants to yield desired set of genetic material, with half inherited
results, such as small seeds or bigger fruits, from each parent. In traditional plant breed-
has been done since the dawn of agriculture. ing, the horticulturist tries to optimize a trait
The scientific underpinning of plant breed- by breeding together plants that both have,
ing began to be understood in the mid-nine- for example, small seeds. If the new genera-
teenth century, with the work of Gregor tion of plants has inherited the small seed
gene from both parents, it should also have
Mendel. In 1856, Mendel, the father of ge-
netics, was the first to publish his findings small seeds, and be able to pass this trait to
on the statistical laws governing the trans-
its offspring in tum. Many factors compli-
mission of plant traits between generations. cate the picture, so that in real circum-
Mendel studied how specific traits in the pea stances only a small percentage of the off-
plants in his garden were passed down to spring may show the desired trait.
succeeding generations, and he formulated
the idea of some sort of unit within plants Seedless oranges and seedless grapes are the
that was responsible for heredity. His work result of cultivation of naturally occurring
340
Seedless Fruits and Vegetables
seedless plants. The navel orange is de- melons. But the new plants must be pollinat-
scended from a seedless orange tree found ed by standard diploid watermelons in order
on a plantation in Brazil in the nineteenth to produce fruit.
century. This tree was a mutation, that is,
something in its genetic material had spon-
taneously changed, resulting in this unique Research & development
plant. Orange growers propagated new trees The development of a new strain of seedless
from the original navel, so that all the navel fruits or vegetables is a painstaking process.
oranges available in markets today are de- Research is typically carried out by horticultur-
scended from that Brazilian tree. The com- ists working at an agricultural development
mon supernarket green seedless grapes are laboratory or government research station,
descended from a European seedless grape where they can devote years to the work. A re-
strain that probably originated between the searcher studies thousands of seedlings to find
Black and Caucasus Seas. Grape growers ones with the desired characteristics. In search-
spread this variety all over the world, and ing for a seedless variety, other factors have to
the same species exists under many different be taken into account, as well. The seedless
names. It has been grown in the United fruit will not be commercially viable if it does
States since at least 1872 under the name not have good flavor, if it is prone to disease, if
Thompson. Other seedless grape varieties, it is misshapen, etc. The fruit must be as good
even red and black varieties, are also de- as seeded varieties, with seedless as an added
scended from the Thompson. The Thomp- advantage. So the researcher breeds likely
son has a genetic abnormality that causes plants, studies the offspring, and breeds these
the seeds to arrest development. Though the with other likely plants. The developer of the
flower is pollinated and the ovum fertilized, Flame Seedless, a red seedless grape, experi-
the seeds stop growing after a few weeks. mented with over 100,000 seedlings in the
So, the grape is not entirely seedless; rather, course of the quest. The plant that produced the
the seeds are aborted, and exist as tiny Flame was a cross of five different varieties.
specks inside the fruit. Commercial growers
treat the plants with a growth hormone The traditional process for breeding seedless
called gibberillin, which is normally secret- fruits was to cross a seeded female plant
ed by developing seeds. The flowers are with a strain of seedless male. The offspring
dipped or sprayed with the hormone so that were seedless about 15% of the time. Then a
the grapes grow big and juicy despite the ar- successive generation could be produced
rested seeds. from this 15%. Starting in the 1980s, horti-
culturists found ways to speed up the
Seedless watermelons began to be a big seller process by culturing the tissue of seedless
in United States markets in the 1990s. Be- plants. With grapes, the aborted seeds of the
sides the convenience of having few or no seedless strain are grown in a petri dish or
hard black seeds when consuming the fruit, test tube. Then these seedless strains can be
the new variety has a hard shell, making it crossed with other seedless strains, resulting
easy to ship and giving it longer shelf life. in offspring that is 50-100% seedless. This
Seedless watermelons are sterile, that is seed- technique has been used with great success
less, because they have three sets of chromo- with grapes, speeding up the time it takes to
somes. This condition is called triploid. Stan- bring a new seedless variety to market. With
dard watermelons, like Thompson grapes and watermelons, the sprouting tip of a seedless
most other organisms, have two sets of chro- plant is placed in a petri dish filled with
mosomes, and are called diploid. To produce growth regulators and nutrients, and the one
triploid watermelons, a diploid parent is pol- tip will sprout as many as 15 clone plants.
linated by tetraploid watermelon, which has This technique has also been used to pro-
four chromosomes. During sexual reproduc- duce seedless tomatoes.
tion, the new organism inherits half of each
parent's genetic material. As a result, the new
watermelon gets one chromosome from the Cultivation
diploid parent, and two from the tetraploid,
making it triploid. The triploid hybrid is vir- Scaling up
tually seedless. It produces a very few seeds, 1 After a new strain is developed, commer-
and these can be planted to grow new water- cial seed growers license the stock and
34 1
Mendel's Second Law.
342
Seedless Fruits and Vegetables
begin producing enough seed on a large color than the triploid, so it is clear which
enough scale to sell to farners. The follow- one is seedless. Both varieties grow and ma-
ing process given is for seedless watermel- ture, and bees pollinate the flowers. The
ons. The commercial seed grower obtains triploid plants produce seedless watermel-
seed or seedlings from the developer, and ons. These are harvested and sold. To grow
plants them in an isolation field. These are more triploid watermelons the next year, the
the tetraploid (four chromosomal) plants. farmer must start over with new seed.
The isolation field must be three miles from
any other watermelon field, so that bees do The Future
not pollinate the seedless plants with other
varieties. Or, the isolation field may be sur- Because of the success of sophisticated tis-
rounded by another plant, such as corn. The sue culture methods, the time it takes to de-
isolation field is typically one to five acres. velop seedless fruits and vegetables is less-
The grower carefully maintains the plants, ening. This means horticulturists can plan
probably treating them with a growth hor- varieties to fill specific market gaps, such as
mone. Bees pollinate the plants, which pro- a seedless black grape that matures in Au-
duces possibly hundreds of pounds of stock gust, when few black grapes are available.
seed. Next, this stock seed is planted in a Another technique that may quicken the
seed production field along with a variety of production of seedless varieties is gene
regular diploid watermelons. When the transfer. Biologists can fuse a new gene into
plants flower, the cultivators pollinate them a fruit plant that tells the plant to produce a
by hand. Pollen from the male diploid plant growth hormone. The growth hormone stim-
is transferred to the female tetraploid ulates the growth of the fruit even without
flower. The fruit that results has triploid pollination. The unpollinated plants produce
seeds. These seeds are sold to farmers. no seeds. In the late 1990s, this method was
successfully conducted on tomatoes and wa-
Germination termelons. This kind of biotechnology is
one of the fastest growing areas of plant sci-
2 Because the triploid plants are generally ence. So the future may produce many more
2fragile and easily killed by improper seedless fruit and vegetable varieties, with-
temperatures, they are usually germinated in out the long testing and development time
a greenhouse and transferred to the field as needed in the past.
seedlings. Triploid seeds also have an un-
usually thick coating, so the farmer may
nick the rounded end of the seed before Where to Learn More
planting, to speed germination. The farmer Periodicals
buries the seeds in light potting soil and
adds a little water. The greenhouse then Mlot, Christine. "Seedless Wonders for
needs to be maintained at around 85°F Winter Markets." Science News (December
(29°C). After most of the seeds have sprout- 6, 1997): 359.
ed, the temperature is lowered to between
70-80°F (21-27°C). "No More Seeds in Watermelons?" USA
Today Magazine (June 1993):7.
In the field Tracy, Eleanore Johnson. "Flame Seedless:
3 When the seedlings are three to four the Hottest Thing in Grapes." Fortune (July
weeks old and have developed two or 23, 1984): 81.
three leaves, the farmer transplants them
into the field. The farmer also must plant a Other
standard diploid watermelon in the field, Access Excellence: About Biotech. http://
one row for every two or three of the www.accessexcellence.org (January 2001).
triploid. These may have been directly seed-
ed into the field earlier, or transplanted at Nebraska Cooperative Extension. http://
the same time. The diploid variety is chosen www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/horticulture (Janu-
to mature at the same time or earlier than the ary 2001).
triploid. To avoid confusion at harvest time,
the diploid should also have a different rind -Angela Woodward
343
Semiconductor Laser
The concept behind lasers Background conductors and insulators. By doping a
semiconductor with specific amounts of im-
was first proposed by A laser, which is an acronym for Light Am- purities, the number of negatively charged
plification by Stimulated Emission of Radi- electrons or positively charged holes can be
Albert Einstein, who ation, is a device that converts energy into changed.
showed that light consists light. Electrical or optical energy is used to
excite atoms or molecules, which then emit Compared to other laser types, semiconduc-
of wave energies called light. A laser consists of a cavity, with plane tor lasers are compact, reliable and last a long
or spherical mirrors at the ends, that is filled time. Such lasers consist of two basic compo-
photons. with lasable material. This material can be nents, an optical amplifier and a resonator.
excited to a semistable state by light or an The amplifier is made from a direct-bandgap
electric discharge. The material can be a semiconductor material based on either galli-
crystal, glass, liquid, dye, or gas as long as it um arsenide (GaAs) or InP substrates. These
can be excited in this way. are compounds based on the Group III and
Group V elements in the periodic table. Al-
The simplest cavity has two mirrors, one loys of these materials are formed onto the
that totally reflects and one that reflects be- substrates as layered structures containing
tween 50 and 99%. As the light bounces be- precise amounts of other materials.
tween these mirrors, the intensity increases.
Since the laser light travels as an intense The resonator continuously recirculates
beam, the laser produces very bright light. light through the amplifier and helps to
Laser beams can also be projected over focus it. This component usually consists of
great distances, and can be focused to a very a waveguide and two plane-parallel mirrors.
small spot. These mirrors are coated with a material to
increase or decrease reflectivity and to im-
The type of mirror determines the type of prove resistance to damage from the high
beam. A very bright, highly monochromatic power densities.
(one wavelength or one color) and coherent
beam is produced when one mirror trans- The performance and cost of a semiconduc-
mits only 1-2% of the light. If plane mirrors tor depends on its output power, brightness,
are used, the beam is highly collimated and operating lifetime. Power is important
(made parallel). The beam comes out near because it determines the maximum
one end of the cavity when concave mirrors throughput or feed rate of a process. High
are used. The type of beam in the first case brightness, or the ability to focus laser out-
makes lasers very useful in medicine since put to a small spot, determines power effi-
these properties allow the doctor to target ciency. Lifetime is important because the
the desired area more accurately, avoiding longer a laser lasts, the less it costs to oper-
damage to surrounding tissue. ate, which is especially critical in industrial
applications.
A semiconductor laser converts electrical
energy into light. This is made possible by The simplest semiconductor lasers consist
using a semiconductor material, whose abil- of a single emitter that produces over one
ity to conduct electricity is between that of watt of continuous wave power. To increase
344
Semiconductor Laser
power, bars and multibar modules or stacks was first demonstrated by Russian re-
have been developed. A bar is an array of 10 searchers. Bell Labs followed the Russian
to 50 side-by-side individual semiconductor researchers' success, while also improving
lasers integrated into a single chip and a laser lifetimes. In 1975, Diode Laser Labs of
stack is a two-dimensional array of multiple New Jersey introduced the first commercial
bars. Bars can produce 50 watts of output room-temperature semiconductor laser.
power and last over 5,000 hours. Because
such high powers produce a lot of heat, Despite this progress, these lasers still were
cooling systems must be incorporated into inadequate for telecommunications applica-
the design. tions. Instead they found wide use (after
other performance and lifetime improve-
ments) in audio compact disks after Philips
History (The Netherlands) and Sony (Japan) devel-
The concept behind lasers was first pro- oped a CD in 1980 using a diode laser. By
posed by Albert Einstein, who showed that the end of the decade, tens of millions of CD
light consists of wave energies called pho- players were being sold every year. More
tons. Each photon has an energy that corre- recently, digital video disks have become
sponds to the frequency of the waves. The available for optical storage, which are also
higher the frequency, the greater the energy based on diode lasers.
carried by the waves. Einstein and another
scientist named S. N. Bose then developed As power has increased, semiconductor
the theory behind the phenomenon of pho- lasers have expanded into other applications.
tons' tendency to travel together. Since 1995, performance of high-power
diode lasers has jumped by a factor of 25.
Laser action was first demonstrated in the With this higher reliability, large groups of
microwave region in 1954 by Nobel Prize diode lasers can now be combined to create
winner Charles Townes and his co-workers. "stacks" of up to 25 individual diode lasers.
They projected a beam of ammonia mole-
cules through a system of focusing elec- In 1999, laser-diode revenues represented
trodes. When microwave power of appropri- 64% of all lasers sold, up from 57% in 1996,
ate frequency was passed through the and were projected to reach 69% in 2000. In
cavity, amplification occurred and the term terms of units sold, semiconductor lasers
Microwave Amplification by Stimulated have accounted for about 99% of the total
Emission of Radiation (M.A.S.E.R.) was (over 400 million units), which means most
bom. The term laser was first coined in laser light is now produced directly or indi-
1957 by physicist Gordon Gould. rectly (via diode pumping) by semiconduc-
tor lasers. In addition to industrial applica-
Townes also worked with Arthur Schawlow tions, semiconductor lasers are being used
and the two proposed the laser in 1958, re- as pump sources for solid state lasers and
ceiving a patent in 1960. The first practical fiber lasers, in graphics applications such as
laser was invented that same year by a color proofing and digital direct-to-plate
physicist named Theodore Maiman, while printing, and for various medical and mili-
he was employed at Hughes Research Labo- tary applications (target illumination and
ratories. This laser used a pink ruby crystal ranging). In 2000, Laser Focus World esti-
surrounded by a flash tube enclosed within a mated that about 34% of medical therapy
polished aluminum cylindrical cavity cooled lasers were of the semiconductor type.
by forced air. Two years later, a continuous
lasing ruby was made by replacing the flash Rcaw Materials
lamp with an arc lamp.
The conventional semiconductor laser con-
In 1962, laser action in a semiconductor ma- sists of a compound semiconductor, gallium
terial was demonstrated by Robert Hall and arsenide. This material comes in the form of
researchers at General Electric, with other ingots that are then further processed into
United States researchers soon following. It substrates to which layers of other materials
took about another decade for the first semi- are added. The materials used to form these
conductor diode laser to be developed that layers are precisely weighed according to a
could operate at room temperature, which specific formula. Other materials that are
345
A double heterostructure laser.
Cladding layer
Active layei
Output light
used to make this type of laser include cer- The width of the junction can also affect the
tain metals (zinc, gold, and copper) as addi- performance. A narrow dimension confines
tives (dopants) or electrodes, and silicon the current to a single line along the length
dioxide as an insulator. of the laser, increasing the current density.
Peak power output must be limited to no
more than 400 watts per cm (0.4 in) length
Design of the junction and current density to less
The basic design of a semiconductor laser than 6,500 amperes per centimeter squared
consists of a "double heterostructure." This at the junction to extend the life of the laser.
consists of several layers that have different
functions. An active or light amplification The Manufacturing
layer is sandwiched between two cladding Process
layers. These cladding layers provide injec-
tion of electrons into the active layer. Be- Making the substrate
cause the active layer has a refractive index The substrates are made using a crystal
larger than those of the cladding layers, light pulling technique called the Czochralski
is confined in the active layer. method, where a crystal is grown from a
melt. The elements are first mixed together
The perfornance of the laser can be im- and then heated to form a solution. The solu-
proved by changing the junction design so tion is then cooled, which solidifies the ma-
that diffraction loss in the optical cavity is terial. A seed crystal is attached to the bot-
reduced. This is made possible by modify- tom of a vertical arm so that the seed barely
ing the laser material to control the index of contacts the material at the surface of the
refraction of the cavity and the width of the melt. The arm is raised slowly, and a crystal
junction. The index of refraction of the ma- grows undemeath at the interface between
terial depends upon the type and quantity of the crystal and the melt. Usually the crystal
impurity. For instance, if part of the gallium is rotated slowly in order to avoid producing
in the positively-charged layer is replaced impurities in the crystal. By measuring the
by aluminum, the index of refraction is re- weight of the crystal during the pulling
duced and the laser light is better confined process, computer controls can vary the
to the optical cavity. pulling rate to produce any desired diameter.
346
Semiconductor Laser
Growing the layers laser resonator is formed by cleaving the
wafer along parallel crystal planes. The
2 The most common method for growing
completed laser devices are then attached to
2the layers onto the substrate is called liq- a copper heat sink on one side and a small
uid-phase epitaxy (LPE). Layers that have electrical contact on the other.
the same or fixed crystal-growth direction as
that of the substrate can be grown on the
substrate when the substrate comes into con- Quality Control
tact with a solution of the desired composi- The substrate onto which the semiconductor
tion. As the temperature is decreased, the structure is grown must meet certain re-
semiconductor compound (such as GaAs) quirements regarding crystal direction, etch
comes out of the solution in crystalline form pit density (EPD), impurity concentration,
and is deposited onto the substrate. substrate thickness and wafer size. The crys-
An LPE system consists of a reactor (where tal direction must be within several degrees.
the layers are grown), a substrate loading Etch pits, which are rectangular hills or
system, a pump and exhaust system (for re- holes, are revealed by selectively etching
moving air or impure gases after the materi- the substrate with some type of acid solu-
als are put in or taken out), a gas flow sys- tion. The etch pit density (number of etch
tem (to move hydrogen gas through the pits per square centimeter) is used for esti-
reactor to remove impure gases) and a tem- mating dislocation density, which affects the
perature control system. Pure materials are laser lifetime. An EPD of 1O' per centimeter
used for making the reactor so that the lay- squared or less is required. Impurity concen-
ers are not contaminated. The loading box is trations are around 10'3 per cubic centime-
usually filled with nitrogen gas to purge the ter. Substrates can range in size up to 3 in
air while opening the reactor. The reactor (7.6 cm) in diameter and typically are sliced
typically consists of a quartz tube, in which into 350-micron thick pieces.
a graphite boat and boat holder are placed. After the growth process, the surface of the
The graphite boat consists of an outer frame, semiconductor wafer is examined by an op-
a substrate holder, a spacer and a melt box. tical microscope. To examine the layered
3 The source materials for the layers are first structure, a ground or cleaved cross section
3rinsed and etched in order to clean the sur- of wafer is stained and etched to increase the
contrast of the layers using a scanning elec-
face. After drying the etched materials, they
are loaded into each melt box of the graphite tron microscope. X-ray diffraction is used to
boat. To grow each layer, the materials are determine the compositions of the layers
first melted by heating to a specific tempera- and to measure the lattice pattems of the
ture and then the substrate holder is pulled structure. The impurity concentration and
along with the substrate from the first melt to refractive index of the layers is also mea-
the next. The substrate is kept at each melt for sured using several analytical methods.
a certain time under a fixed cooling rate, usu- After the laser device is fabricated, such op-
ally 33°F (0.5°C) per minute, according to a erating parameters as voltage/current
specific program designed for each composi- curves, threshold current density and spec-
tion. The temperature is automatically con- tral characteristics are measured.
trolled using thermocouple sensors.
The Future
Fabricating the laser device Industry analysts from Frost & Sullivan pre-
4 After the layered structure is grown, sev- dict that the diode laser systems market will
1
eral other processes are completed to reach nearly $4.6 billion by 2005. This
form the laser device. First, the substrate is growth is partially due to expanding appli-
mechanically polished until the thickness cations in materials processing as high-
decreases to 70-100 microns in preparation power diode lasers become less expensive
for cleaving. Next, a very thin silicon diox- than solid state lasers. The compact size and
ide film is formed on the substrate surface. electrical efficiency also make high-power
Stripes are formed by photolithography and semiconductor lasers attractive for industrial
chemical etching. Contact electrodes are ap- applications such as heat treating and weld-
plied using an evaporation method. Next, a ing. New material compositions and pro-
347
cessing methods are also being developed to Photonics Design and Applications Hand-
expand the applications. boook 2000 Pittsfield, MA: Laurin Publish-
ing, 2000.
Where to Learn More "Making Photons: Lasers and Light
Books Sources." Photonics Spectra (January 2000):
Iga, Kenichi, and Susumu Kinoshita. 90-92.
Process Technology for Semiconductor
Lasers: Crystal Growth and Microprocess- Matthews, Steve. "Out of the Lab and into
es. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1996.
the Home." Laser Focus World (May 2000).
http://lfw.pennnet.com (January 2001).
The Photonics Dictionary, 4th International
Edition. Pittsfield, MA: Laurin Publishing, Matthews, Steve. "Semiconductor Lasers
2000 2000: The Early Years: Promise and Prob-
lems." Laser Focus World (April 2000).
Periodicals
Anderson, Stephen. "Diodes Dominate McComb, Stephen, and Michael Atchley.
Laser Applications." Laser Focus World "High-Power Laser Diodes: Reliable, Mul-
(April 2000). http://lfw.pennnet.com (Janu- tikilowatt Semiconductor Lasers Mature."
ary 2001). Laser Focus World (December 1999).
Lang, Robert. "Semiconductor Lasers:
What's Vital to Commercial Devices." The -Laurel M. Sheppard
348
Shoelace
Background sign as desired to produce an array of laces. Eyelets for shoelaces,
Recently, some new machinery has been de-
It is understand how important shoes are for veloped for the completely computerized which guided shoelaces
protecting feet from hazards and weather, weaving of a shoelace on a narrow fabric
and proper fit is necessary to maximize pro- loom. Much of this machinery is European in
as they passed through
tection and comfort for the shoe's wearer. manufacture and it is not universally adopted the shoe, were hand-sewn
The shoelace is one way to ensure the prop- in the United States (wholesale replacement
er fit, and a simple pair of laces, costing less of older machinery by an established compa- of sturdy thread until
than two dollars, can make all the difference ny would be quite an investment).
in the world to the look and fit of a shoe. about the 1840s, when
The lace is just a simple, woven band that metal eyelets were
pulls the shoe together to hold it to the foot. History
A shoelace consists of only two compo- developed.
nents: the woven tape that pulls the shoe The history of shoelaces is inextricably
tightly together, and the aglet, the hardened, bound with the history of the shoe and how it
taped end that fits through the eyelets on a was secured and designed in different eras
shoe or boot. and cultures. In 2000 B.C., ancient
Mesopotamians wore simple pieces of
Shoelaces have surprising importance in our leather that fit beneath the foot and were
lives. A real watershed in a child's life is bound to the foot and ankle with laces that
when he has finally learned to tie his shoes. were likely of rawhide. Without these laces,
Athletes are vehement about checking and the soles were useless. The footwear of an-
double-checking shoelaces before races or cient Greeks included sandals with rawhide
other fast-moving events lest they trip on lacing, and the ancient Etruscans donned
them or take time on the field to retie them. high-laced shoes with turned-up toes.
American championship skater Tonya Hard- Roman soldiers spread the use of shoes to
ing nearly forfeited time on the ice during western Europe, particularly the utilitarian
championship competition in 1994 because footcovering of the marching soldier. An-
her skate lace had broke and her skate fit cient Britons adopted the Romans' simple
improperly. sole with a thong between the large toe and
second toe, with rawhide straps securing the
Shoelaces are still manufactured in the Unit- sandal to the foot. There was a fair variety of
ed States although they are also made over- laced shoes during this period, including
seas where labor is cheaper. They are made shoes of more luxurious fabrics and furs that
in one of two ways in the United States The have not survived. Many of the more expen-
more common method includes the old-fash- sive shoes were secured with pins rather than
ioned braiding of the shoelace using bobbins laces. Both ancient Romans and Greeks de-
on machines that may be decades old. It is a plored carelessness in appearance, and those
simple process but still effective in producing with haphazardly tied laces were ridiculed.
significant numbers of laces a day. This
method permits extensive variation within Shoes of the Middle Ages are less frequent-
lace manufacture-one may vary fibers used, ly found in excavations than those of the
color, the number of ends or yams, and de- Romans, perhaps because the sturdy leather
34 9
A. Shoelace tipping machine. B.

Tipping mechanism. C. The frog
that wraps the lace and secures the
ends in preparation for tipping.
of the Roman sandal seems to defy deterio- boots, covering the upper portion of the
ration. Nevertheless, there was a variety of foot, and strapped together. Later in the
footwear during this era as well. The poor Middle Ages, cordwainers (shoemakers)
went without shoes. Other shoes were actu- were able to fit boots and shoes of the
ally breeches of linen that were laced to the wealthy more precisely and some of these
leg and down over the foot, leaving the toes shoes were secured with buttons or just a
exposed. Other shoes were moving toward few short laces.
350
Shoelace
In the Elizabethan era, shoes were often se- shoelace. Attached to the machine is a basket
cured with straps, laces, buckles and pins- that will catch the shoelace as it is woven.
both plain and jeweled. Prosperous Ameri-
can colonists generally secured their colored 2Next, the braiding begins. Electric mo-
leather or fabric shoes with buckles or rib- tors start the braiding machinery. The
bons, while those with less money wore stur- bobbins start weaving the thin shoelace,
dy, simple leather shoes and boots tied with with the braiding action resembling a may-
short rawhide laces. Eyelets for shoelaces, pole as the bobbin thread is deployed in a
which guided shoelaces as they passed specific order. Side gears on the machine
through the shoe, were hand-sewn of sturdy tell the machine how fast to take up the yam
thread until about the 1840s, when metal eye- to vary the tightness of the weave. The more
lets were developed. Victorian boots for quickly the yarm is taken up, the looser the
women were secured in a variety of ways. braid. As the braid becomes longer and
Popular gaiters actually used elastic gores longer, it falls directly into a can that holds
that made it easy to pull the boots on and off, it there until the braid is finished. Each
and that held the boots tight to the feet. But- braiding machine can produce about a gross
ton boots were popular, as were ankle-high (144 shoelaces) every thirty minutes. Gener-
boots with metal eyelets for fabric laces. ally, the can holds about 13 lb (5.9 kg) of
Shoes and laces were mass-produced in New braid. The amount of braid this basket may
England, particularly Massachusetts and hold varies according to thickness of the
New Hampshire, around the time of the Civil braid. Heavy sport laces, such as hockey
War. Textile braiding machinery, construct- laces, quickly add up to 13 lb (5.9 kg).
ed by New England firms for the purpose of
making shoelace braid, was readily avail- 3 The cans of braids are moved to the tip-
able. Some of it is still in use in this country 3ping department. Each piece of braid is
as the basic process of weaving the shoelace put into a machine that performs a variety of
braid has changed little, even though fibers functions. First, the automatic tipping ma-
and colors have changed. chine immerses the braid in acetone. (The
acetone will allow the braid to hold the plas-
tic tip tightly.) Then, the braid is automati-
Raw Materials cally inserted into a die that holds acetate
tape. The die is heated and presses the ac-
The materials used for shoelaces vary accord-
etate tape at specific intervals (the length of
ing to the type of lace under construction.
Typical fibers used for laces today include the shoelace). Together, the acetone, the heat
cotton, textured polyester, spun polyester, and the die pressure ensure that the shoelace
will accept the acetate permanently. So, the
nylon, and polypropylene. The aglet, the hard
plastic end of the shoelace that pushes braid is one long piece of shoelace that has a
through the eyelet in the shoe, is made of clear, 1-in (2-cm) wide band of acetate every
clear plastic. Acetone is used in the process 30 in (76 in) or so. Now the shoelaces are
of securing the aglet to the braided lace. hung on the machine to dry (the acetone
must evaporate) for about 20 minutes before
the long braid is cut apart.
The Manufacturing
Process 4The laces move along and another die
advances and cuts each band of acetate
This essay will discuss the method of in half. Thus, each aglet is now about 0.5 in
shoelace manufacture that uses a braiding (1.3 cm) wide (the acetate band was about I
machine to make shoelaces. It should be in (2 cm) wide but was cut in half). The
noted that the tipping and cutting of the process of cutting the aglet in half cuts apart
woven braid described below is fairly stan- the shoelaces as well. The laces fall into a
dard across American factories. basket as they are cut. The basket counts the
laces as they are dropped in. One basket can
First, there is a large room filled with hold a half a gross of laces at a time.
dozens of shoelace braiding machines.
Each machine resembles a horizontal circle 5 Now the lace must be paired up. An op-
and is equipped with 44 bobbins that all con- 5erator takes two baskets, or one gross, of
tribute to the manufacture of a single shoelaces, and places the baskets on his or
35 1
her lap. Then, the operator takes a lace in Maintaining machinery is essential to the
the right hand and one in the left, and feeds successful operation of the business. The
them into a pairing machine. The laces are older braiding machines are decades old and
sucked up into this elevator at right and left, are still efficient and precise because they
are wound around a cardboard cylinder as a are thoroughly cleaned and oiled each week.
pair, and are pushed through a chute for
packaging. Byproducts/Waste
6 The pair of laces wound on a cardboard Those companies that dye their own yarns
Vcylinder are sent to the blister packaging must deal with the liquid effluvia ejected
machine. Cardboard is put behind the laces, from their factory and reclaim the water.
polystyrene in front, and the package is heat- Bleaches and dyes are an environmental
sealed. The pairs are sent to a cardboard ship- concem, and governmental authorities mon-
ping box for movement out of the factory. itor their disposal. Acetone disposal, should
there be any, is also a concem. Some
shoelace companies even produce their own
Quality Control cardboard packaging (others purchase it).
Control of product varies by factory and One such company has been cited for using
method of production. However, one compa- solvent-based coatings for the cardboard
ny that utilizes braiding machines controls and causing environmental problems as a re-
quality in three ways. First, the most impor- sult. The company has been urged to move
tant way that the employees control quality is to water-based cardboard coatings.
in monitoring the bobbins as they weave the
braid. When the bobbin is empty it drops Where to Learn More
down and the action stops until a new bobbin
is put on. However, the new yam must be Books
knotted into the braid to continue the weav- Swann, June. Shoes. New York: Drama
ing. The operator ties a large knot into the Books Inc., 1982.
shoelace so that the flaw is noticeable. The
operator must remove that shoelace with a Wilson, Eunice. A History of Shoe Fash-
knot before it moves into the automatic tip- ions. London: Pitman Publishing, 1974.
ping machine, or the big knot will explode the
heated metal die (it is too bulky for the die). Other
Also, operators inspect each and every Artur Mueller Company. http:// www.artur-
shoelace that is produced. Some laces are mueller.com (January 2001).
dirty and if so, they are removed and consid- St. Louis Braid Company. http:// www.st-
ered flawed. Inspection occurs when the louisbraid.com (January 2001).
laces are hanging to dry and as the operator
is sending them into the pairing machine. -Nancy E.V. Bryk
3.52
Shortbread
Background shortbread variations. For example, in Shet- In 192 1, the British
land and Orkney the people add caraway
Shortbread is a traditional Scottish baked seeds and call it "Bride's Bonn." At holiday government proclaimed
good with a relatively simple recipe that con- time in Edinburgh, shortbread is commonly
sists of three basic ingredients (flour, butter, adorned with pieces of citrus peel and al-
that in order to be called
and sugar). Like most baked goods, it is pro- monds. Shortbread has a reputation as being shortbread a product must
duced in three steps consisting of ingredient a tea-time accompaniment, but it is also en-
mixing, product forming, and baking. Al- joyed with milk, coffee, wine, or champagne. get at least 51 % of its fat
though shortbread is frequently eaten around
Christmas and the New Year, it is consumed from real butter.
year round in many countries. In essence, Raw Materials
shortbread-with its centuries' old history- The main ingredient in shortbread is white
is the granddaddy of all butter cookies and a flour. Flour is made from wheat seeds,
mainstay in Europe. Today, there are several which in turn are made of three main parts:
companies in the United States that manu- the outer coat or bran, the germ, and the en-
facture shortbread exclusively. dosperm. In white flour the bran and germ
are removed leaving only the endosperm.
History The endosperm is made primarily of starch
and protein, and it enables the dough to be
Shortbread's namesake is a bit of a conversa- stretched and rolled without breaking.
tion piece. The majority classify shortbread
as a cookie, but there are some who consider Most "authentic" shortbread recipes rely on
it a biscuit or even a cake. One would be real butter for their fat. Vegetable shorten-
hard pressed, though, to find someone willing tends to give the cookie an undesirable
ing to classify it by its given name-a bread. texture and flavor. In fact, in 1921 the
This confusion surrounding the classification British government proclaimed that in order
of shortbread is further complicated by why to be called shortbread a product must get at
shortbread is called short. A review of the least 51% of its fat from real butter. Cookies
literature on shortbread turns up at least two marketed as shortbread outside Britain,
reasons. First, shortbread calls for a large however, do not have such a requirement.
percentage of shortening thus the name Typically unsalted or sweet butter is recom-
shortbread. Second, short refers to the de- mended in shortbread recipes so as not to af-
sired crispness or "shortness" of the final fect the taste of the cookie.
product. Historically, the namesake short-
bread was defended by early Scottish bakers Shortbread recipes usually call for granulat-
who fought to prevent shortbread from being ed or confectioners' sugar. All refined sugar
classified as a biscuit to avoid paying a gov- is made from sugar cane or sugar beet. Hot
ernment tax on biscuits. water is used to draw out the sugar in a
process called diffusion. The resulting juice
However, one thing that is not typically con- is purified and concentrated by evaporation.
tested about shortbread is its origination. It is then cystallized out of solution. Differ-
Scotland is credited as the birthplace of short- ent types of sugar can be made from this
bread. In Scotland one can find regional point based on the size of the sugar crystal.
353
Once the ingredients are mixed,

the dough is extruded into the de-
sired shapes and baked in a tun-
nel oven. Dough mixture
Mixing The shapes are extruded.
The more screening or refining that the crys- Design

tals undergo, the smaller the particle. For
example, granulated sugar has a much larger Today, you can find shortbread in a variety
crystal size than confectioners' sugar. of shapes and sizes. One specialty short-
bread manufacturer will even put cus-
Beside the three primary ingredients, many tomers' own photographs on their cookies.
shortbread recipes call for salt, which helps Traditionally, however, shortbread was one
to enhance the taste. One of the distinguish- large round cookie with notched edges made
ing features of traditional shortbread is its by pinching the dough between the finger
simple almost bland taste. In order to im- and the thumb.
prove the subtle flavor, some manufacturers
add eggs, cream, dried fruits, nuts, and even The Manufacturing
chocolate. Some larger commercial bakeries Process
take additional liberties with their short-
bread. For example, they may use vegetable Ingredient handling/warehousing
shortening instead of butter t o keep costs Most of the major ingredients are deliv-
down. Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) is ered to the bakeries in large quantities
also used in some recipes to help the dough and stored in bulk tanks or silos made of
to rise. stainless-clad steel. It is important that the
354
Shortbread
internal environment of the tanks is con- 6 After the shortbread is baked, it must be
trolled so that the temperature and humidity 6cooled on a cooling conveyor. Con-
are just right. Some tanks are refrigerated to trolled cooling helps the shortbread to retain
keep the raw ingredients from spoiling. appearance, taste, and texture. Controlled
cooling also prevents condensation when
the shortbread is packaged.
Ingredient assembly
2 Keeping track of numerous bulk ingredi- Packaging
2ents is a big task. In most large bakeries 7The last step in the manufacturing
there is a department responsible for gather-
ing the exact quantities of each ingredient 7process is packaging. Because one of
and delivering it to the mixing area. Scales shortbread's desired properties is crispness,
are used to ensure the correct amount of it is important that the manufacturer pack-
each ingredient. Additionally, some ingredi- age shortbread in a rigid and airtight con-
ents require processing such as milling or tainer to prevent the cookies from breaking
grinding before they are sent to be mixed or getting soggy from moisture. Often man-
and formed. ufacturers choose a tin box or canister to
hold the shortbread. Other manufacturers
house the shortbread in plastic trays sur-
Mixing and forming rounded by some type of outer paper pack-
aging. The outer package, whether it is tin or
3 There are a variety of factors that are im- paper, is decorated to make it appealing to
portant when it comes to mixing the the consumer. Oftentimes shortbread manu-
dough: the temperature of the ingredients, facturers choose a traditional Scottish plaid
the mixing time, and the order in which in- design for their packages. Individual short-
gredients are added. Shortbread dough re- bread packages are then put into case boxes
quires that the shortening be at room tem- that are stacked on pallets for shipment to
perature for proper mixing. Over mixing stores. All individual boxes and cases are
shortbread dough causes it to become tough coded so that they can be traced back to the
and oily. Additionally, the sugar and short- time and place of manufacture.
ening are typically mixed first with the flour
being folded in later.
Quality Control
4Once the dough is mixed, it must be Quality control begins with the ingredient
formed into individual cookies. Short- assembly stage of production during the
bread comes in a variety of shapes, but it is measuring, weighing, and processing of the
typically molded by a rotary molding ma- raw ingredients. Additionally, most large
chine. The thickness of the dough is crucial. manufacturers have quality control (QC)
If it is too thick it will be too doughy. On the labs responsible for making sure the materi-
other hand, if it is too thin it may be too als meet determined specifications. Charac-
crispy or even bum. The molding machine teristics such as appearance, color, odor, and
ensures a uniform shape for baking. flavor are checked. QC technicians also test
for particle size, viscosity of oils, and pH of
Baking and cooling raw materials.
Once the dough is properly mixed and In addition, there are a variety of non-tech-
5Jformed, it must be baked. Ovens in com- nical measures that bakeries take to prevent
mercial bakeries are 300-ft (91-m) long tun- product contamination. For instance,
nels with adjustable speed conveyor belts throughout the bakery haimets are worn.
and extremely sensitive temperature con- Also, most bakery personnel wear special
trols. Many chemical and physical changes uniforms with no pockets and are forbidden
take place during baking so it is important from wearing jewelry. These precautions
that the process is closely monitored. Each will keep personal items from accidentally
18-30 ft (5.5-9.1 m) section of the oven has falling into the raw ingredients or dough.
its own temperature controls and doors that
allow employees to observe the cookies and The finished product is also carefully moni-
vent the oven if necessary. tored. Like the inspection of the raw material,
355
the finished products must be examined for sumed in both its traditional format and
appearance, flavor, texture, and odor. The "healthy" varieties.
product is compared to a standard established
during product development. Specially
trained testers are responsible for detecting Where to Learn More
subtle differences that deviate from the norm. Books
Karoff, Barbara. The Best 50 Shortbreads.
The Future San Leandro, CA: Bristol Publishing, 1995.
As a product with a lot of history behind it,
shortbread is shrouded in tradition. With its Other
high fat content shortbread does not pretend ABC Official Girl Scout Cookie Bakers.
to be a health food, although food industry
ABC Bakery and Marketing Consultants.
trends are for low-fat and organic products. (1997). http://www.girlscoutcookiesabc.com/
In an attempt to keep up with these trends,
pages (January 2000).
some shortbread manufacturers have started
making low-fat and organic varieties. Like Irish Sugar. Sugar Educational Website.
many products nowadays, shortbread is also http://www.irish-sugar.ie/pages/product/
beginning to be marketed and sold via the prodtext/prodi/mprodi.htm (January 2000).
Internet. This online option makes it easy
for new and repeat customers to enjoy au- The Scots Kitchen. Scotweb Ltd. http://
thentic shortbread made by small to medium www.scotweb.co.uk/kitchen/BAK/short
sized bakeries in Scotland and England. bread.html (January 2000).
Shortbread has stood the test of time and
will continue to be manufactured and con- -Sandy Delisle & Perry Romanowski
356
Silicon
Background brass, alumiinum, and bronze. When small In 1999, world
amounts of silicon are added to aluminum, alu-
Second only to oxygen, silicon is the most minum becomes easier to cast and also has im- production of silicon was
abundant element in Earth's crust. It is proved srength, hardness, and other prperties. In
found in rocks, sand, clays and soils, com- around 705,467 short
its oxide or silicate form, silicon is used to make
bined with either oxygen as silicon dioxide, concrete, bricks, glass, ceramics, and soap. Sili- tons (640,000 tonnes)-
or with oxygen and other elements as sili-
con metal is also the base material for making sili-
cates. Silicon's compounds are also found in cones used in such products as synthetic oils, excluding China-with
water, in the atmosphere, in many plants, caulks and sealers, and anti-foaming agents.
and even in certain animals. Brazil, France, Norway,
Silicon is the fourteenth element of the peri- In 1999, world production was around and the United States
odic table and is a Group IVA element, 640,000 metric tons (excluding China), with
Brazil, France, Norway and the United major producers.
along with carbon germanium, tin and lead.
Pure silicon is a dark gray solid with the States major producers. This is a continued
same crystalline structure as diamond. Its decline compared to the last several years
chemical and physical properties are similar (653,000 tons in 1998 and 664,000 in 1997).
to this material. Silicon has a melting point of Though data is not available, China is be-
25700 F (14100 C), a boiling point of 42710 F lieved to be the largest producer, followed
(23550 C), and a density of 2.33 g/cm3. by the United States. One estimate puts
China's production capacity as high as
When silicon is heated it reacts with the 400,000 metric tons per year, with over 400
halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and producers. Exports from this country have
iodine) to form halides. It reacts with certain increased in recent years.
metals to form silicides and when heated in
an electric furnace with carbon, a wear resis- Consumption of silicon metal in the United
tant ceramic called silicon carbide is pro- States was roughly 262,000 metric tons, at a
duced. Hydrofluoric acid is the only acid that cost of 57 cents per pound. The annual
affects silicon. At higher temperatures, sili- growth rate during 1980-1995 was about
con is attacked by water vapor or by oxygen 3.5% for silicon demand by the aluminum
to form a surface layer of silicon dioxide. industry and about 8% by the chemical in-
dustry. Demand by the chemical industry
When silicon is purified and doped with (mainly silicones) was affected by the Asian
such elements as boron, phosphorus and ar- economic crisis of the late 1990s.
senic, it is used as a semiconductor in vari-
ous applications. For maximum purity, a
chemical process is used that reduces silicon History
tetrachloride or trichlorosilane to silicon.
Single crystals are grown by slowly drawing Silicon was first isolated and described as an
seed crystals from molten silicon. element in 1824 by a Swedish chemist, Jons
Jacob Berzelius. An impure form was ob-
Silicon of lower purity is used in metallurgy as a tained in 1811. Crystalline silicon was first
reducing agent and as an alloying element in steel, produced in 1854 using electrolysis.
357
The reaction between silica and form an arc. The heat generated by this arc
carbon within an electric arc fur- (a temperature of 40000 F or 2350 C)
nace produces silicon. 2C + SiO2 -> 2CO + Si melts the material and results in the reaction
of sand with carbon to form silicon and car-
bon monoxide. This process takes about six
to eight hours. The furnace is continuously
The type of furnace now used to make sili- charged with the batches of raw materials.
con, the electric arc furnace, was first in-
vented in 1899 by French inventor Paul 2 While the metal is in the molten state, it
Louis Toussaint Heroult to make steel. The is treated with oxygen and air to reduce
first electric arc furnace in the United States the amount of calcium and aluminum impu-
was installed in Syracuse, New York in rities. Depending on the grade, silicon metal
1905. In recent years, furnace technology, contains 98.5-99.99% silicon with trace
including the electrodes used for heating el- amounts of iron, calcium and aluminum.
ements, has improved.
Cooling/Crushing
Raw Materials Oxidized material, called slag, is poured
Silicon metal is made from the reaction of 3off into pots and cooled. The silicon
silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) and carbon ma- metal is cooled in large cast iron trays about
terials like coke, coal and wood chips. Silica 8 ft (2.4 m) across and 8 in (20 cm) deep.
is typically received in the form of metallur- After cooling, the metal is dumped from the
gical grade gravel. This gravel is 99.5% sili- mold into a truck, weighed and then dumped
ca, and is 3 x 1 or 6 x 1 in (8 x 3 cm or 15 x in the storage pile. Dumping the metal from
3 cm) in size. The coal is usually of low ash the mold to the truck breaks it up sufficient-
content (1-3% to minimize calcium, alu- ly for storage. Before shipping, the metal is
minum, and iron impurities), contains sized according to customer specifications,
around 60% carbon, and is sized to match which may require a crushing process using
that of the gravel. Wood chips are usually jaw or cone crushers.
hardwood of 1/2 x 1/8 inch size (1 x .3 cm
size). All materials are received as specified Packaging
by the manufacturer.
4 Silicon metal is usually packaged in
'+large sacks or wooden boxes weighing
The Manufacturing up to 3,000 lb (1,361 kg). In powder form,
Process silicon is packaged in 50-lb (23-kg) plastic
The basic process heats silica and coke in a pails or paper bags, 500-lb (227-kg) steel
submerged electric arc furnace to high tem- drums or 3,000-lb (1,361-kg) large sacks or
peratures. High temperatures are required to
boxes.
produce a reaction where the oxygen is re-
moved, leaving behind silicon. This is Quality Control
known as a reduction process. In this
process, metal carbides usually form first at Statistical process control is used to ensure
the lower temperatures. As silicon is quality. Computer-controlled systems are
formed, it displaces the carbon. Refining used to manage the overall process and
processes are used to improve purity. evaluate statistical data. The two major
process parameters that must be controlled
are amounts of raw materials used and fur-
The Reduction Process nace temperatures. Laboratory testing is
The raw materials are weighed and then used to monitor the chemical composition
placed into the furnace through the top of the final product and to research meth-
using the fume hood, buckets, or cars. A ods to improve the composition by adjust-
typical batch contains 1000 lb (453 kg) each ing the manufacturing process. Quality au-
of gravel and chips, and 550 lb (250 kg) of dits and regular assessments of suppliers
coal. The lid of the furnace, which contains also ensure that quality is maintained from
electrodes, is placed into position. Electric extraction of raw materials through ship-
current is passed through the electrodes to ping of the final product.
358
Silicon
Byproducts/Waste drothermal method for making porous sili-

con powder for optical applications.
With statistical process control, waste is kept
to a minimum. A byproduct of the process,
silica fume, is sold to the refractory and ce- Where to Learn More
ment industries to improve strength of their Books
products. Silica fume also is used for heat in-
sulation, filler for rubber, polymers, grouts Kirk-Othmer. Encyclopedia of Chemical
and other applications. The cooled slag is Technology. New York: John Wiley &
broken down into smaller pieces and sold to Sons, Inc. 1985.
other companies for further processing.
Some companies crush it into sandblasting Periodicals
material. Because electric arc furnaces emit Bendix, Jeffrey. "The Heart of Globe is in
particulate emissions, manufacturers must Cleveland." Cleveland Enterprise (Fall
also comply with the Environmental Protec- 1991).
tion Agency's (EPA) regulations.
Ward, Patti. "Heroult Electric Arc Furnace
The Future Stands the Test of Time." Iron and Steel-
maker 26, no. 11 (November 1999). http://
Though industry analysts predicted demand www.issource.org/magazine/Web/99 11/Wa
for chemical-grade silicon by Western coun- rd-991 1.htm.
tries would increase at an annual average
rate of about 7% until 2003, this growth Other
may be slower due to recent economic de-
clines in Asia and Japan. If supplies contin- Annual Minerals Review: Silicon. U.S. Ge-
ue to outpace demand, prices may continue
ological Survey, 1998.
to drop. The outlook for the automotive Mineral Commodity Summaries: Silicon.
market is positive, as more car makers U.S. Geological Survey, February 2000.
switch to an aluminum-silicon alloy for var-
ious components. Mineral Industry Surveys: Silicon in Febru-
ary 2000. U.S. Geological Survey, May
Other methods for making silicon are being 2000.
investigated, including supercooling liquid
to form bulk amorphous silicon and a hy- -Laurel M. Sheppard
359
Skateboard
In 1997, there were 8.2 Background of 2x4 ft (61x121.9 cm) piece of wood and
four metal wheels taken from a scooter or
million skateboarders and A skateboard is a small piece of wood in the roller skates. This version of the skateboard
shape of a surfboard with four wheels at- featured rigid axles which cut down on the
around 48, 186 reported tached to it. A single person rides the skateboard's maneuverability.
injuries, 0.006% of which board, guiding the movement with his feet.
While some use skateboards as transporta- Recognizable skateboards were first manu-
resulted in hospitalization. tion over short distances, most are used to factured in the late 1950s. These were still
perform stunts. made of wood and a few were decorated
with decals and artwork. Skateboards be-
Skateboards consist of three parts: the deck came especially popular among surfing en-
(the actual board), the truck (a component thusiasts, primarily in California. Surfers
usually made of metal that holds the wheels practiced on skateboards when the ocean
to the deck), and the wheels. The average was to rough, and they soon became known
skateboard deck is about 32 in (81.3 cm) as "sidewalk surfers." One of the first com-
long, 8 in (20.3 cm) wide, and is a little less petitions was held for skateboarders in
than 0.5 in (1.3 cm) thick. The deck has a 1965. While skateboards were popular
defined nose and tail with a concave in the through most of the 1960s, riders were not
middle. Skateboard wheels are usually made respected and the activity was banned in
of polyurethane and range in width from some cities. The first wave of skateboard
about 1.3-1.5 in (3.3-3.8 cm). While nearly popularity was over by 1967.
all skateboards have similar shapes and
characteristics, their dimensions vary slight- Five years later, in 1973, there was a re-
ly based on use. There are skateboards built newed interest in skateboards when wheels
for speed, slalom, and freestyle. made of polyurethane were introduced.
These early polyurethane wheels were
Since skateboards first came into wide- composites of sand-like material that was
spread use in the 1960s, their popularity has formed into a wheel with an adhesive
come in waves. Newfound interest is usual- binder under extreme pressure. With the
ly related to technical innovation, though a advent of polyurethane wheels, boards be-
core constituency of skateboard enthusiasts came easier to control and more stunts
has always remained. were possible.
History Also in the 1970s, skateparks were intro-

duced. Skateparks were specially designed
Though there is unconfirmed evidence that a places that catered to skateboarders. They
skateboard-like apparatus existed as early as had obstacle courses, pools (empty bowls,
1904, the more commonly accepted prede- usually below ground level like an empty
cessor to the skateboard was created in the pool), and pipes (large, circular type) to
1930s. In Southern California, a skate- challenge skateboard riders. With
scooter was made out of fruit crates with skateparks also came more competition,
wheels attached to the bottom. This evolved recognition, and sponsorship. Skateboard-
into an early skateboard that was made out ers sometimes decorated the bottom of their
360
Skateboard
boards with logos of their sponsors. By the Raw Materials

end of the 1970s, skateboarding again be-
came controversial after it became identi- Most skateboard decks are made of glue and
fied antisocial behavior. Due to the amount wood (usually maple), but some are made of
and severity of the injuries, skateparks composites, aluminum, nylon, Plexiglas,
closed in fear of lawsuits and the sport re- fiberglass, foam, and other artificial materi-
tumed underground. als. They are usually decorated by screen-
printing. Skateboard trucks are usually made
When popular interest in skateboarding of aluminum or other metal (steel, brass, or
briefly re-emerged in the mid-1980s, it was another alloy), though a few are made of
not due to any particular technical innova- nylon. Skateboard wheels are made of poly-
tion, though skateboard manufacturers were urethane (a synthetic rubber polymer).
always experimenting with different materi-
als in the production of decks. Instead, While some low-end skateboards are assem-
skateboarding videos featuring skateboard- bled by manufacturers, most components
ers performing extremely difficult and dan- are sold separately to consumers who put
gerous stunts using ramps, stairs, and even them together on their own. To assemble a
handrails generated new interest in the skateboard, the consumer also needs ball
sport. At the same time skateboard art had bearings (usually full precision and made of
also emerged. The bottom of skateboard metal) and a piece of grip tape. Grip tape
decks were now elaborately decorated with comes in a large piece bigger than the deck
logos and other designs. Continued resis- and looks like a piece of sandpaper. It is put
tance to skateboarders led to another down- on the top of the deck to provide traction.
tum in popularity at the end of the 1980s,
though not as severe as previous years. Design
By the middle of the 1990s, skateboarding Skateboard decks, trucks, and wheels have
again became popular mainly due to high- different designs depending on how the
profile exposure like ESPN and MTV's X- skateboard will be used. Decks differ in their
Games competitions. These televised events angle of concavity and the shape of the nose
of "extreme sports" showed the best of and tail. Manufacturers design their own
many kinds of skateboarding. Skateboarding boards with their own signature styling.
was regarded as the first extreme sport. They use templates to impose their design on
Though skateboarding was still banned or the shape of the board. Companies that man-
regulated in many communities, such expo- ufacture decks and wheels also make their
sure gave the sport an air of legitimacy. It is products stand out by their individual art de-
not as dangerous a sport as many think. In signs. While some of this artwork is created
1997 there were 8.2 million skateboards and on computer, some is also done by hand.
around 48,186 reported injuries, 0.006% of
which resulted in hospitalization. Compared
to a more commonly accepted sport like The Manufacturing
basketball-which had 4.5 million partici- Process
pants in 1997 and 644,921 reported injuries Decks
(0.124% resulting in hospitalization)-the
fear seems misplaced. 1 A piece of maple wood undergoes a treat-
ment that allows it to be peeled into ve-
Skateboard art also continued to evolve. Art neers (thin sheets of wood) that are then de-
was based on street trends and whatever was livered to the deck factory. They are stored
hot at the moment: comics, bands, logos, and in a climate-controlled environment to en-
original art. In the mid-1990s, deck manu- sure the moisture content is optimized. Too
facturers would introduce an average of six much moisture is not good for the manufac-
board designs per month, making only 1,000 turing process.
of each. While skateboard manufacturers ex-
perimented with different thicknesses of ve- 2 Each veneer is then put into a glue ma-
neers that made up decks, little changed in chine by hand. This machine evenly
the actual manufacture of skateboards at the coats each veneer with a water-based glue
beginning of the twenty-first century. specially designed for wood.
36 1
101111
GLUE IS APPLIED PRESSING
SEALING THE DECK DRILLING
SCREEN PRINTING
The manufacturing steps to make

the skateboard deck. After being coated, the veneers are num- and tail of each skateboard. Each press
3bered and stacked according to grain and makes five to 15 decks at one time. The re-
level of use. Each skateboard is made of sulting laminate sits in the press for any-
seven layers of veneer. The first, second, where from a few minutes to a few hours.
fourth, sixth, and seventh layers have the The longer the time, the more naturally the
grain running from the nose to the tail of the wood and glue set.
board. The third and fifth have the grain
running from side to side. These stacks are 4After the laminates are removed from
put into a two-part mold inside a hydraulic the press, eight holes for the truck mount
press. The mold creates the nose, concave, are drilled by hand with a drilling rig.
362
Skateboard
5 A worker-called the shaper-takes the The wheel is removed by hand and
vnewly drilled board and, with a previous- cured on trays. Many wheel molds are
ly made template, hand-shapes each deck running at the same time on a conveyor sys-
with a band saw. The deck is hand sanded tem and 300 wheels can be made per hour.
and coated with a paint or sealant.
1 The resulting wheel slug is cut to
6 After the deck is dry, a decorative design shape by hand on a lathe. With a
is imposed by screenprinting. Each color blade, the sidewalls (also known as the ra-
is hand painted separately on a custom dius) and tread (riding surface) are cut into
screenprinting machine. The decks are then the wheel.
dried and readied for shipment.
1 If the wheel is to be decorated, this
semi-automated process is next. Digi-
Trucks tal artwork is converted to film to make a
7With one of three materials (wood, plas- photo-etched print plate. The image on the
tic, or clay) a master truck pattern is plate is printed on the wheel with a pad
hand tooled. This is used to make a match printing machine. The silicone pad is on an
plate. With the plate, a sand mold is made inked printing plate and transfers the images
for making the actual truck. A sand mold to the wheels. Wheel printing that incorpo-
uses sand as its primary mold material, usu- rates more than one color goes through one
ally with clay and water. The material is pad for each color. The wheels are then
packed around the plate then removed. packaged for shipment.
8 Aluminum ingots are heated to 1,300°F Assembling the skateboard

8 (706.7°C) in a furnace, reducing them to A After purchasing/manufacturing the
a liquid. This liquid aluminum is poured by three separate components, the con-
hand into the sand mold's pouring basin sumer or manufacturer must put them to-
sprue hole and through runners into the gate gether. Grip tape is needed to provide trac-
(the actual opening of the mold's cavity). tion on the board. Grip tape comes in a large
The sand mold has the truck's axles in place rectangular sheet, bigger than the actual
before the aluminum is poured in. The mold deck. It is smoothed over by hand to get rid
is allowed to cool, then broken by hand and of any air bubbles. Using a file or other flat-
the parts removed. These pieces include the
edged object, the edge of the board under
kingpin knob, pivot cup, baseplate, and riser the grip tape is defined. With a safety knife
pad. Using machines, a worker heat-treats or scissors, the extra parts of the grip tape
each part. The parts are then grinded, pol- are removed.
ished, and drilled.
15 With an awl or an other sharp, pointed
9 Finally, each truck is hand-assembled object, the eight truck holes are ex-
with kingpins, brushings, grommets, posed through the grip tape, and the mount-
washers, and nuts and prepared for ship- ing bolts are placed. The truck is then in-
ment. stalled over the bolts and tightened with the
locknuts.
Wheels
One set of bearings and a spacer are
lO In metering machines, two poly- I6placed on each of the four truck axles.
urethane components are heated and The wheel is put on next, flush with the
mixed together in a certain ratio. High-qual- bearings and spacer. The other set of bear-
ity polyurethane wheels are mixed together ings is put in the wheel. The wheels are se-
at elevated temperatures (lesser quality cured with washers and a lugnut. The skate-
wheels are mixed at room temperature). board is now ready to be ridden.
This step creates a liquid. If the wheels are
to be colored, the pigment is now added and
the resulting mixture is poured into alu- Quality Control
minum molds via a mix chamber (if the ure- When the components are purchased sepa-
thane is high quality it is heated again) and rately, the consumer must follow all instruc-
allowed to harden into a solid. tions for his own safety. All screws must be
363
An example of a skateboard truck.
Axle
tightly secured so that they will continue to polyurethane itself. If a new material comes
hold the trucks in place while stunts are being on the market, this may affect how wheels
preformed. Manufacturers continually check are manufactured.
the finished boards to see that they are secure
and meet safety requirements.
Where to Learn More
In the production of wheels, any poly- Cassorla, Albert. The Skateboarder's Bible:
urethane left over is sent to a landfill. At the Technique, Equipment, Stunts, Terms, Etc.
present time, it is too costly to recycle. Philadelphia: Running Press, 1976.
Periodicals
The Future
Brower, Steven, and John Gall. "Skate-
Decks might be made of more artificial ma- board Art." Print 50, no. 6 (November-De-
terials inside a wood exterior. One deck of cember 1996): 52.
the future has Nomex honeycomb at its
core, with Kelver as one of the structural Stoughton, Stephanie. "A Wheel Challenge
materials. Even with traditional wood decks to Succeed: Manufacturer Finds Momentum
the number of veneer layers may increase or is Critical." Washington Post 5 (May 28,
decrease. The most noticeable difference 1998).
might be the art on the bottom of the skate-
board. Instead of being applied with a
screenprinting process, decks might use a
Other
sublimation printing process. Skateboard.com: Frontside. http://www.
skateboard.com (June 10, 2000).
Wheels may change in their shape, color or
decoration, but not much will improve on -Annette Petruso
3 64
Skyscraper
Background In some ways, super-tall buildings are not The world's tallest
practical. It is cheaper to build two half-
There is no precise definition of how many height buildings than one very tall one. De- occupied structure is the
stories or what height makes a building a velopers must find tenants for huge amounts
skyscraper. "I don't think it is how many Petronas Twin Towers in
of space at one location; for example, the
floors you have. I think it is attitude," archi- Sears Tower encloses 4.5 million square feet Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
tect T. J. Gottesdiener told the Christian Sci- (415,000 square meters). On the other hand,
ence Monitor. Gottesdiener, a partner in the developers in crowded cities must make the which reach a height of
firm of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, de- fullest possible use of limited amounts of
signers of numerous tall buildings including 1,483 ft (452 m),
available land. Nonetheless, the decision to
the Sears Tower in Chicago, Illinois, contin- build a dramatically tall building is usually including spires.
ued, "What is a skyscraper? It is anything based not on economics, but on the desire to
that makes you stop, stand, crane your neck attract attention and gain prestige.
back, and look up."
Some observers apply the word "sky- History
scraper" to buildings of at least 20 stories.
Others reserve the term for structures of at Several technological advances occurred in
least 50 stories. But it is widely accepted the late nineteenth century that combined to
that a skyscraper fits buildings with 100 or make skyscraper design and construction
more stories. At 102 stories, the Empire possible. Among them were the ability to
State Building's in New York occupied mass produce steel, the invention of safe
height reaches 1,224 ft (373 m), and its and efficient elevators, and the development
spire, which is the tapered portion atop a of improved techniques for measuring and
building's roof, rises another 230 ft (70 m). analyzing structural loads and stresses. Dur-
Only 25 buildings around the world stand ing the 1920s and 1930s, skyscraper devel-
taller than 1,000 ft (300 m), counting their opment was further spurred by invention of
spires, but not antennas rising above them. electric arc welding and fluorescent light
bulbs (their bright light allowed people to
The tallest freestanding structure in the work farther from windows and generated
world is the CN Tower in Toronto, Canada, less heat than incandescent bulbs).
which rises to a height of 1,815 ft (553 m);
constructed to support a television antenna, Traditionally, the walls of a building sup-
the tower is not designed for human occupa- ported the structure; the taller the structure,
tion, except for a restaurant and observation the thicker the walls had to be. A 16-story
deck perched at 1,100 ft (335 m). The building constructed in Chicago in 1891 had
world's tallest occupied structure is the walls 6 ft (1.8 m) thick at the base. The need
Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, for very thick walls was eliminated with the
Malaysia, which reach a height of 1,483 ft invention of steel-frame construction, in
(452 m), including spires. The Sears Tower which a rigid steel skeleton supports the
in Chicago boasts the highest occupied building's weight, and the outer walls are
level; the roof of its 110th story stands at merely hung from the frame almost like cur-
1,453 ft (443 m). tains. The first building to use this design
365
was the 10-story Home Insurance Company An additional layer of insulation, such as
Building, which was constructed in Chicago fiberglass batting covered with aluminum
in 1885. foil, may then be wrapped around the
beams.
The 792-ft (242-m) tall Woolworth Build-
ing, erected in New York City in 1913, first To maximize the best qualities of concrete
combined all of the components of a true and steel, they are often used together in
skyscraper. Its steel skeleton rose from a skyscraper construction. For example, a
foundation supported on concrete pillars support column may be formed by pouring
that extended down to bedrock (a layer of concrete around a steel beam.
solid rock strong enough to support the
building), its frame was braced to resist ex- A variety of materials are used to cover the
pected wind forces, and its high-speed ele- skyscraper's frame. Known as "cladding,"
vators provided both local and express ser- the sheets that form the exterior walls may
vice to its 60 floors. consist of glass, metals, such as aluminum
or stainless steel, or masonry materials, such
In 1931, the Empire State Building rose in as granite, marble, or limestone.
New York City like a 1,250-ft (381-m) ex-
clamation point. It would remain the Design
world's tallest office building for 41 years.
By 2000, only six other buildings in the Design engineers translate the architect's vi-
world would surpass its height. sion of the building into a detailed plan that
will be structurally sound and possible to
construct.
Rawv Materials
Designing a low-rise building involves cre-
Reinforced concrete is one important com- ating a structure that will support its own
ponent of skyscrapers. It consists of con- weight (called the dead load) and the weight
crete (a mixture of water, cement powder, of the people and furniture that it will con-
and aggregate consisting of gravel or sand) tain (the live load). For a skyscraper, the
poured around a gridwork of steel rods sideways force of wind affects the structure
(called rebar) that will strengthen the dried more than the weight of the building and its
concrete against bending motion caused by contents. The designer must ensure that the
the wind. Concrete is inherently strong building will not be toppled by a strong
under compressive forces; however, the wind, and also that it will not sway enough
enormous projected weight of the Petronas to cause the occupants physical or emotional
Towers led designers to specify a new type discomfort.
of concrete that was more than twice as
strong as usual. This high-strength material Each skyscraper design is unique. Major
was achieved by adding very fine particles structural elements that may be used alone or
to the usual concrete ingredients; the in- in combination include a steel skeleton hid-
creased surface area of these tiny particles den behind non-load-bearing curtain walls, a
produced a stronger bond. reinforced concrete skeleton that is in-filled
with cladding panels to form the exterior
The other primary raw material for sky- walls, a central concrete core (open column)
scraper construction is steel, which is an large enough to contain elevator shafts and
alloy of iron and carbon. Nearby buildings other mechanical components, and an array
often limit the amount of space available for of support columns around the perimeter of
construction activity and supply storage, so the building that are connected by horizontal
steel beams of specified sizes and shapes are beams to one another and to the core.
delivered to the site just as they are needed
for placement. Before delivery, the beams Because each design is innovative, models
are coated with a mixture of plaster and ver- of proposed super tall buildings are tested in
miculite (mica that has been heat-expanded wind tunnels to determine the effect of high
to form sponge-like particles) to protect wind on them, and also the effect on sur-
them from corrosion and heat. After each rounding buildings of wind patterns caused
beam is welded into place, the fresh joints by the new building. If tests show the build-
are sprayed with the same coating material. ing will sway excessively in strong winds,
366
Skyscraper
TYPICAL FLOOR NEAR

BOTrOM Of BUILDING
floor
SKELETON FRAME
An example of a skyscraper
designers may add mechanical devices that pit is dug. This is done by digging a deep, ground floor design and 6uilding
counteract or restrict motion. narrow trench around the perimeter of the frame.
planned pit; as the trench is dug, it is filled
In addition to the superstructure, designers with slurry (watery clay) to keep its walls
must also plan appropriate mechanical sys- from collapsing. When a section of trench
tems such as elevators that move people reaches the desired depth, a cage of reinforc-
quickly and comfortably, air circulation sys- ing steel is lowered into it. Concrete is then
tems, and plumbing. pumped into the trench, displacing the
lighter slurry. The slurry is recovered and
The Construction Process used again in other sections of the trench.
Each skyscraper is a unique structure de- 2 In some cases, bedrock lies close to the
signed to conform to physical constraints surface. The soil on top of the bedrock is
imposed by factors like geology and cli- removed, and enough of the bedrock surface
mate, meet the needs of the tenants, and sat- is removed to form a smooth, level platform
isfy the aesthetic objectives of the owner on which to construct the building's founda-
and the architect. The construction process tion. Footings (holes into which the build-
for each building is also unique. The following's support columns can be anchored) are
ing steps give a general idea of the most blasted or drilled in the bedrock. Steel or re-
common construction techniques. inforced concrete columns are placed in the
footings.
The substructure If the bedrock lies very deep, piles (verti-
Construction usually begins with digging 3cal beams) are sunk through the soil until
a pit that will hold the foundation. The they are embedded in the bedrock. One tech-
depth of the pit depends on how far down the nique involves driving steel piles into place
bedrock lies and how many basement levels by repeatedly dropping a heavy weight on
the building will have. To prevent movement their tops. Another technique involves
of the surrounding soil and to seal out water drilling shafts through the soil and into the
from around the foundation site, a di- bedrock, inserting steel reinforcing rods, and
aphragm wall may be constructed before the then filling the shafts with concrete.
367
A DIAPHRAGM WALL
I
D SLIP FORM METHOD
A. Diaphragm wall. B. Footing. C.

One type of foundation for a sky- 4 A foundation platform of reinforced con- ture proceeds simultaneously. For example,
scraper uses steel piles to secure crete is poured on top of the support by the time the support columns are several
the foundation to the ground. D. columns. stories high, workers begin building floors
The slip form method of pouring for the lower stories. As the columns reach
concrete. higher, the flooring crews move to higher
The superstructure and core stories, as well, and finishing crews begin
Once construction of a skyscraper is under- working on the lowest levels. Overlapping
way, work on several phases of the struc- these phases not only makes the most effi-
368
Skyscraper
cient use of time, but it also ensures that
the structure remains stable during con-
struction.
5If steel columns and cross-bracing are

used in the building, each beam is lifted
into place by a crane. Initially, the crane sits
on the ground; later it may be positioned on
the highest existing level of the steel skele-
ton itself. Skilled workers either bolt or
weld the end of the beam into place (rivets
have not been used since the 1950s). The
beam is then wrapped with an insulating
jacket to keep it from overheating and being
weakened in the event of a fire. As an alter-
native heat-protection measure in some
buildings, the steel beams consist of hollow
tubes; when the superstructure is completed,
the tubes are filled with water, which is cir-
culated continuously throughout the lifetime
of the building.
6 Concrete is often used for constructing a

building's core, and it may also be used
to construct support columns. A technique
called "slip forming" is commonly used.
Wooden forms of the desired shape are at-
tached to a steel frame, which is connected
to a climbing jack that grips a vertical rod.
Workers prepare a section of reinforcing
steel that is taller than the wooden forms.
Then they begin pouring concrete into the
forms. As the concrete is poured, the climb-
ing jack slowly and continuously raises the
formwork. The composition of the concrete
mixture and the rate of climbing are coordi-
nated so that the concrete at the lower range
of the form has set before the form rises
above it. As the process continues, workers
extend the reinforcing steel grid that extends
above the formwork and add extensions to
the vertical rod that the climbing jack grips.
In this way, the entire concrete column is
built as a continuous vertical element with-
out joints.
7In a steel-skeleton building, floors are

constructed on the layers of horizontal
bracing. In other building designs, floors are
supported by horizontal steel beams at-
tached to the building's core and/or support The exterior
columns. Steel decking (panels of thin, cor-
rugated steel) is laid on the beams and weld- Q In most tall buildings, the weight of the
ed in place. A layer of concrete, about 2-4 in U structure and its contents is bome by the
(5-10 cm) thick, is poured on the decking to support columns and the building's core.
complete the floor. The exterior walls themselves merely en-
369
close the structure. They are constructed by The Future

attaching panels of such materials as glass,
metal, and stone to the building's frame- Plans have been developed for several new
work. A common technique is to bolt them skyscrapers that would break existing height
to angle brackets secured to floor slabs or records. For example, a 108-story building
support columns. at 7 South Dearbom Street in Chicago, ex-
pected to be completed by 2004, will be
1,550 ft (473 m) tall. It will provide 43 acres
Finishing (174,000 square meters) of enclosed space
9When a story of the building has been on a lot only 200 ft (61 m) square.
enclosed by exterior walls, it is ready for
interior finishing. This includes installation In 1956, American architect Frank Lloyd
of such elements as electrical wires, tele- Wright announced plans for a mile-high
phone wires, plumbing pipes, interior walls, (1.6-km tall) skyscraper in which 100,000
ceiling panels, bathroom fixtures, lighting people could work. In 1991, another Ameri-
fixtures, and sprinkler systems for fire con- can architect, Dr. Eugene Tsui, designed a
trol. It also includes installation of mechani- 2-mile (3,220-m) tall building that would
cal components like elevators and systems provide space for living, working, and recre-
for air circulation, cooling, and heating. ation for 1,000,000 people. Although such
buildings may be theoretically con-
1 nWhen the entire superstructure has structable, they are currently impractical.
VJbeen completed, the top of the build- For example, human comfort levels limit el-
ing is finished by installing a roof. This may evator speeds to no more than 3,000 ft/min
be built much like a floor, and then water- (915 m/min). To accommodate the 100,000
proofed with a layer of rubber or plastic be- people working in Wright's proposed struc-
fore being covered with an attractive, ture, the number of elevator shafts would
weather-resistant layer of tiles or metal. have taken up too large a portion of the
building's area.
Quality Control Improvements in elevator technology will be
important for future skyscraper designs.
Various factors are taken into consideration
Self-propelled, cableless elevator cars that
when assuring quality control. Because of move horizontally, as well as vertically, have
the huge scale of skyscrapers, a small posi- been proposed, but are still under develop-
tioning error at the base will be magnified ment. Computerized car dispatching systems
when extended to the roof. In addition to
using fuzzy logic could be refined to carry
normal surveying instruments, unusual de- people more efficiently by grouping passen-
vices like global positioning system (GPS) gers whose destinations are near each other.
sensors and aircraft bombsights may be used
to verify the placement and alignment of
structural members. Where to Learn More
Soil sensors around the building site are Books
used to detect any unexpected earth move- Books Dunn, Andrew. Structures: Skyscrap-
ment caused by the construction activity. ers. New York: Thomson Learning, 1993.
Michael, Duncan. How Skyscrapers Are
Byproducts/Waste Made. New York: Facts on File Publica-
Excavation of the foundation pit and base- tions, 1987.
ment levels require the removal of enormous
amounts of dirt. When the 110-story World Periodicals
Trade Center towers were built in New York Hayashi, Alden M. "The Sky's the Limit."
in the early 1970s, more than I million cubic Scientific American Presents: Extreme En-
yards (765,000 cubic meters) of soil and gineering (Winter 1999): 66 ff.
rock were removed and dumped in the Hud-
son River to create 23.5 acres (95,100 square Richey, Warren. "New Rush of Buildings
meters) of new land, on which another sky- Reaching for the Clouds." The Christian
scraper was later constructed. Science Monitor (July 8, 1998): 1.
370
Skyscraper
Other
Dankwa, E. T. New York Skyscrapers.
http://mx3.xoom.com/iNetwork/NYC
(March 2000).
"Ultima's Tower, Two-Mile High Sky
City." Tsui Design & Research. http://
www.tdrinc.com/ultima.html (March 2000).
-Loretta Hall
37 1
Slime
Non-Newtonian fluids Background While the intermixing of the polymer
strands will give some built-in viscosity, a
have a different viscosity Slime is a unique play material composed of cross-linking agent is also present in slime
a cross-linked polymer. It is classified as a to give it the non-Newtonian fluid behavior.
based on the amount of liquid and is typically made by combining Cross-linking agents are ions that help tem-
force put on them. They polyvinyl alcohol solutions with borate ions porarily connect polymer strands with rela-
in a large mixing container. It often has an tively weak ionic bonds. These bonds are
are called non-Newtonian unpleasant odor, a green color, and is cold strong enough to hold the polymer strands
and slimy to the touch. together but not strong enough to make the
fluids because they do not
mass a solid.
In scientific terms, slime is classified as a
behave as predicted by non-Newtonian fluid. These are thick liq-
Newton's laws. Some uids that have a variable viscosity. Vis- History
cosity is a measurement of the resistance
non-Newtonian fluids to flow when a shearing force is applied. The story of toy slime's development dates
Newtonian fluids have a constant viscosi- back to the beginning of the twentieth centu-
include slime, ketchup, ty depending on their composition. For ry when the science of synthetic polymers
example, water is always a thin liquid was being determined. During the 1920s,
gelatin, glue, and Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger laid the
with a low viscosity. Molasses is thick
quicksand. and has a high viscosity. Non-Newtonian groundwork for our modem understanding of
fluids, like slime, have a different viscosi- polymer science. He suggested a new molec-
ty based on the amount of force put on ular model for polymers; one of long, chain-
them. If a small amount of force is ap- like molecules and not aggregates or cyclic
plied, such as stirring them slowly with compounds as previously thought. In 1928,
your fingers, they feel thin and water-like. his models were confirmed by Meyer and
If a high force is applied, like throwing it Mark. These two scientists studied the di-
against a wall, the resistance is very mensions of natural rubber using x-ray tech-
strong. They are called non-Newtonian niques. By the 1930s, Staudinger's models
fluids because they do not behave as pre- were widely accepted and extensive develop-
dicted by Newton's laws. Other materials ment of synthetic polymers began in earnest.
that also behave like this include ketchup,
gelatin, glue, and quicksand. Manufacturers have sold polymeric play
materials like slime for years. They are
The molecular structure of slime is the fac- known to not only amuse children and
tor responsible for its interesting behavior. adults, but also help in the development of
Toy slime is typically composed of tangled, dexterity and creativity. The earliest of these
long-chain polymer molecules. These poly- toys were moldable materials like modeling
mer molecules can be thought of as spaghet- clay. The need for improved and varied play
ti strands. When put together on a plate, the materials led to the development of silly
strands are mixed together making a tangled putty in the 1950s. Glow-in-the-dark silly
mess. If the strands are rubbed together, putty was subsequently introduced. During
they line up and become smoother. This mo- the 1980s, various slime-type toys were in-
tion gives the mass its slimy, slippery feel. troduced. These products were made from
3 72
Slime
such materials as polyvinyl alcohol, guar attached. In a typical slime formula, about
gums, or even fortified milk. 2% PVA is needed. Another similar poly-
mer is polyvinylacetate (PVAC). This has a
slightly different chemical makeup but it be-
Design haves in the same way as PVA when a
Although a wide variety of slime variants gelling agent is added. Certain "natural"
are sold, they have many common charac- polymers can also be used to produce slime.
teristics. In general, slime is a gooey liquid Common examples include guar gum,
available in small tubs. It can be sold by it- which is derived from the bean of the guar
self or as part of a toy set, such as an acces- plant, methylcellulose, which comes from
sory for an action figure. Slime has a slight- plants, and cornstarch.
ly unpleasant odor and is cold and slimy to
the touch. Colors vary but the most common While the polymeric materials give slime its
are green, blue, and red. Some manufactur- substance, a gelling agent is needed to give
ers add fragrances to improve the odor. it the non-Newtonian liquid behavior. In
classic slime formulations, sodium borate
One of the key aspects of slime formulation (Borax) or sodium tetraborate is used. When
is that the materials must be safe for young dissolved in water, sodium borate dissoci-
children. In general, this means that the raw ates into sodium ions and borate ions. If a
materials used to make slime must be non- polymer is present like PVA, the borate ions
irritating to the skin or eyes and non-toxic in interact with the polymer chains and form
case of ingestion. Additionally, consumers weak ionic bonds that make the solution
demand that slime (and toys like it) will not thicker. These bonds also give the ability to
damage things like clothing, upholstery, stretch when a force is applied. Typically,
fabric, or carpeting. sodium borate makes up about 2% of the
final product. The ratio of the polymer to the
gelling agent is one factor in determining
Raw Materials the consistency of the slime.
Slime formulas are initially produced in lab-
oratories by chemists. These scientists begin A variety of additional ingredients are added
by determining what aesthetic features the to slime products to improve color and odor.
slime will have. For example, they decide In general, the polymeric solutions used in
what the consistency will be, what color it slime manufacturing are colorless. There-
will have and what it will smell like. Con- fore, a variety of dyes are added to give the
sumer testing is often used to help in mak- product color. These are typically govern-
ing these decisions. After the features are ment-certified food colorings, such as
determined, small test batches are made in FD&C Blue and FD&C Yellow. To im-
the laboratory using the primary raw materi- prove the odor of slime, a fragrance is often
als. The most common ingredients used in added. Fragrances are made up of volatile
the production of toy slime are water, poly- oil materials. Since contamination from
meric materials, gelling agents, colorants, mold and bacteria is possible, preservatives
fillers, and preservatives. like formaldehyde or methylparaben are
also added to prevent microbial growth. Ad-
The most abundant material in slime is ditionally, various acids or bases may be in-
water, typically making up over 90% of the cluded to control the pH of the slime.
formula. Generally, specially treated deion-
ized water is used. Water is a diluent that The Manufacturing
gives the slime its liquid consistency. The Process
source of the water can be from under-
ground wells, lakes, and rivers. The production of slime occurs in two steps.
First, a batch of slime is made. Then it is
The polymeric materials are responsible for filled into its final packaging. This process
the important characteristics of slime. The can vary however, as filling may be easier if
most commonly used material is polyvinyl the cross-linking agent is not added until the
alcohol (PVA). PVA is a long chain poly- polymeric solution is in the final package.
mer that has a backbone of carbon mole- The following description outlines a batch
cules with numerous hydroxyl (OH) groups process.
373
Slime is made by combining a 5:1

mixture of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Compounding the batch ical evaluations are performed to ensure that
solution and a Borax solution. the batch meets the minimum specifications
The batches of slime are made in large, outlined in the formula instructions. Tests,
stainless steel tanks fitted with mixers such as pH determination, viscosity checks,
and a temperature control system. Starting and appearance and odor evaluations, may
with water, compounders add the rest of the be conducted. Adjustments can be made at
raw materials according to the formula in- this point if needed. After the batch is ap-
structions at specific times and tempera- proved, it is pumped to a holding tank,
tures. Using computer controls, the mixing where it is stored prior to filling.
speed and temperature are regulated. Slime
is typically heated to get the PVA to mix
into the solution. Colorants, preservatives, Filling and packing
and other additives are added last. 3 The filling stage depends on the type of
vpackaging in which the slime will be
Quality control check sold. For the typical tub of slime, the
process occurs on a filling line. At one end
2After the compounding phase, a batch of the filling line is a hopper containing the
sample is taken to the quality control lab empty tubs. These tubs are physically ma-
for approval. In this area, physical and chem- nipulated by a rotating machine until they
3 74
Slime
are standing upright. They are then moved tests also are performed. These studies mon-
along a conveyor belt to the filling heads, itor the performance of a finished batch
which contain the slime solution. under a variety of environmental conditions.
On the filling lines, line inspectors inspect
4The filling heads are a series of piston the bottles appearance, cap sealing, and fill-
tubes connected together on a circular ing weights.
carousel. As the tubs pass under the filling
heads, product is injected into them.
The Future
5 Once filled, the tubs are moved along to Toys like slime have an intrinsic quality that
a capping machine. This machine sorts makes them both fascinating and fun. While
the lids, places them on the tubs, and tight- current materials enjoy commercial success,
ens them down. there remains a need for improved and var-
ied play material formulations. Already
6If necessary, the tubs pass through a la- some variations on the classic slime product
beling machine. Sometimes this is not re- are available. For example, slime kits are
quired because pre-decorated packaging is sold that allow the user to create their own
used. Further packaging steps might occur slime products. In the future, toy manufac-
at this point, such as shrink wrapping or turers will focus on finding new ways to sell
adding a cardboard backing. The packages current slime and also create new, novel ma-
are then put into boxes and stacked onto pal- terials.
lets. The pallets are hauled to storage and
eventually shipped to local retail outlets.
Where to Learn More
Quality Control Books
Quality control is a continuous process oc- Kirk-Othmer. Encyclopedia of Chemical
curring during the entire production process. Technology. New York: Wiley Interscience,
Prior to batching, the raw materials are in- 1997.
spected and tested to ensure they meet mini-
mum specifications. This inspection process Shibayama, M. "Poly(Vinyl Alcohol)-Ion
typically involves work by quality control Complex Gels." In Polymeric Materials
chemists, who check various physical and Encyclopedia.. Edited by J. Salamone. New
chemical characteristics. They measure York: CRC Press, 1996.
characteristics of the incoming raw materi-
als such as particle size, pH, viscosity, ap- Periodicals
pearance, and odor. If a raw material does Casassa, E. Z., A. M. Sarquis, and C. H.
not meet the predetermined specifications, it Dyke "The Gelation of Polyvinyl Alcohol
is rejected. Batches are similarly tested. with Borax." Journal of Chemical Educa-
tion 63 (1986).
If a batch does not meet all of the specifica-
tions, an adjustment may be made. For ex- Sarquid, A.M. "Dramatization of Polymeric
ample, if the color of the batch is off more Bonding Using Slime." Journal of Chemi-
dye can be added. Preservation tests help cal Education 63 (1986).
ensure that the toys will be safe from micro-
bial growth upon long-term usage. Stability -Perry Romanowski
375
Snowshoe
Apparently when the Background sign, such as the paddle-shaped Huron
snowshoe, and the front-pointed Ojibwa
English began settling the Snowshoes allow people to walk across the model. The tribes that relied most on snow-
top of deep snow. They distribute weight so
Americas, they did not shoes were the Athabascans on the West
that the walker does not sink into soft drifts, coast, who made snowshoes with upturned
take to snowshoes and and enable people to roam through land-
toes, and the Algonquins of the upper Mid-
scapes that are usually impassible with only
west and Canada. Tribes living on the
were defeated by their ordinary footwear. Snowshoes are of ancient plains, such as the Sioux and Blackfoot, also
origin, and until roughly 1950, they were used snowshoes in winter, though later they
more agile foes in the made of wood, with rawhide bindings. After became more dependent on horses for win-
French and Indian War, 1950, manufacturers came up with new mater travel. The snowshoe designs perfected
terials and designs. Snowshoes of the twen- by the Algonquins and other woodland
culminating in a loss in ty-first century are most often made of light- tribes remained in use through most of the
weight metal and other manmade materials. twentieth century. Native American snow-
the so-called Battle on The design too has altered somewhat from shoes were made of a hard wood, such as
Snowshoes near Lake the traditional snowshoe. Modem snow- ash. The wood was soaked or steamed to
shoes, also called Western snowshoes, are make it pliable, then bent into shape. The
George in New York in often an asymmetrical shape. A large shoe frame was laced with rawhide, and the lac-
might be 30 in (76 cm) long by 10 in (25 ing was often beautifully intricate.
1758. cm) wide, and a small shoe, such as the type
used for racing, may be slightly narrower, French trappers and traders who worked and
and only 25 in (64 cm) long. With the devel- lived in the St. Lawrence River valley
opment of lightweight snowshoes that re- adopted snowshoes from the Native Ameri-
quire no maintenance and little specialized can people. Apparently when English peo-
equipment, the sport grew. Snowshoeing be- ple began settling in the same region, they
came very popular in the United States in did not take to snowshoes, and eventually
the 1990s, and in many areas, it rivals cross- this became a serious military disadvantage.
country skiing. English troops were defeated by their more
agile foes in the French and Indian War, cul-
minating in a loss in the so-called Battle on
History Snowshoes near Lake George in New York
in 1758. Only then did snowshoes become
The first snowshoes originated in Central standard winter gear for the British in North
Asia in about 4000 B.C. Probably people America. Later, as European settlers pushed
crossing the Bering Straits land bridge into west across North America, they brought
North America came on snowshoes or snowshoes with them as essential tools of
brought the technology with them. Native winter travel.
North Americans used snowshoes exten-
sively. They made hundreds of different Snowshoeing purely for recreation also has a
shapes and varieties, suitable for many dif- long history. Snowshoe clubs were formed
ferent terrains. Many wood-framed, or tradi- in Quebec in the late eighteenth century.
tional, snowshoes are named for the Native Groups met for hikes or for competitive
American tribe that used that particular de- races. The races were sometimes for long
376
Snowshoe
distances, sometimes for speed over short ally the cheapest source for acceptable qual-
distances, and some even required the partic- ity rawhide. Some manufacturers continued
ipants to jump hurdles. In French Canada to make wood frame snowshoes even after
this grew into a serious sport, and fostered an new materials grew popular, but they
intense rivalry between Native American switched to neoprene for the webbing. Most
and European participants. Some native snowshoes today are framed in aluminum,
snowshoe makers developed lightweight rac- usually in an alloy form that is both ultra-
ing shoes with a small, narrow design, until light and very strong. Some manufacturers
the Montreal snowshoe club set a limit in coat the aluminum with powdered plastic.
1871, requiring that snowshoes had to weigh The deck, or section on which the foot rests,
at least 1.5 lb (0.68 kg). More relaxed snow- is made of various materials, usually neo-
shoe hikes, including women and children, prene, polyurethane, or a composite material
were also a fixed part of the social scene in such as polyurethane coated with nylon.
French Canada and the Eastern United States The material for the binding, which holds
up through the 1920s and 1930s. the snowshoe to the foot, is usually similar
to the decking material. Other materials
Snowshoeing seemed to have fallen out of used may be plastic for some straps, rivets,
popularity across most of North America or eyelets, steel for rivets, and aluminum or
until advances in materials attracted a new other metal for the cleat fitted on the bottom
generation to the sport. In the 1950s, snow- of the snowshoe. Some manufacturers use
shoe designers experimented with a variety graphite for the snowshoe frame. This is the
of materials to make durable, lightweight ultralight material popular in tennis racket
shoes. A Canadian company, Magline, de- manufacturing.
veloped a magnesium snowshoe in the late
1950s that used webbing made from steel
airplane cable coated with nylon. Aluminum The Manufacturing
snowshoes arrived around the same time, as Process
well as snowshoes made of new materials, Traditional snowshoes
such as Lexan, which is the trade name for
polycarbonate, the material used in astro- Traditional wooden snowshoes are still
nauts' helmets. Even manufacturers of tradi- manufactured very much like they were
tional wood-framed snowshoes experiment- thousands of years ago. The wood used is
ed with manmade materials in the lacings, usually ash, which is strong and straight
for example switching from rawhide to wood with an appropriate moisture content.
nylon coated neoprene. The new materials
surpassed the old, because they did not re- Forming the frame
quire extensive care and maintenance. For the very finest snowshoes, the wood
Wood and rawhide shoes had to be revar- is carefully split by hand to get the
nished periodically and the webbing waxed, straightest grain. However, most manufac-
or else they would lose their water resis- turers rely on wood sawn at a sawmill, for
tance. And like all wood products, they were reasons of cost. The manufacturer checks
subject to shrinking and swelling with the wood for poor grain and large knots, and
changes in humidity. New materials, how- discards any wood that is not of the right
ever, eliminated these problems. quality. Then the wood is steamed, to make
it pliable. When the wood is soft enough,
Raw Mcaterials the manufacturer bends the wood into the
shape of the snowshoe frame. The frames
Traditional snowshoes are made of a hard are then dried, usually in a kiln or hot room.
wood, usually ash. The webbing material is This takes two to seven days.
rawhide, which is strips of denuded animal
skin. The animal from which the webbing Preparing the frame
material was retrieved was traditionally
moose, deer, or caribou. But in the twentieth )After the frames have dried sufficiently,
century, most manufacturers switched to Lthe manufacturer sands them and coats
cow hide. At least one United States manu- them with vamish. Holes are drilled for the
facturer imported water buffalo hide for an lacing, and two wooden cross pieces are in-
extra-tough webbing, but cow hide is gener- serted.
377
Claw Toe
Toe 6ar
Toe hole 6~~~~~~~~~~octe
1 b eneath
binding
Pivot rod
Traction deviceP
(fastened to bottom)
Heel strap o-
Frame Webbing Tail Decking

I@
Outside frame
A B0
A. Traditional snowshoe. B. Alu-

minum snowshoe. Lacing lengths of seamless tubing. After inspecting
the tubing for any obvious flaws, workers in-
4Lacing is usually done by highly sert each piece into a machine called a bender.
skilled, specialized workers. Lacing This is a machine that has been designed for
with genuine rawhide is usually done on the specific finished shape and diameter of the
site in the snowshoe factory, since the hide snowshoe frame. It locks around the tubing
can spoil and has to be kept under opti-
tightly, and then a worker depresses a lever,
mum conditions. Neoprene does not spoil,
and force is exerted to make the bend. Some
and many manufacturers hire workers to machines work manually, with the worker
do neoprene lacing in their homes. An ex- providing the muscle power. Other machines
pert lacer can finish up to ten pairs of are hydraulic. When the worker removes the
snowshoes in a day. The laces are woven tubing from the bender, it is shaped exactly as
in an intricate pattern and drawn tightly needed for the snowshoe frame. The frame
through the holes in the rim of the frame. may be ready to for the decking at this point,
A heavier gauge lacing is usually used for or it may next be powder coated.
the center portion of the shoe, directly
under the foot.
Powder coating
Finishing Powder coating is usually done by an
The worker who laces the webbing usu- outside contractor. The aluminum
Jally also affixes the binding, which is frames are electrically charged, and then
the arrangement of straps that holds the sprayed with a fine mist of dry, powdered
foot to the snowshoe. Then, the snowshoes plastic. The powder clings to the charged
are returned to the factory and inspected. metal. Then the frames are heated, and the
They undergo a further period of drying. plastic melts onto them. Then the frames are
Next, they are boxed and shipped to retail- returned to the snowshoe factory for the re-
ers.
maining steps.
Aluminum snowshoes Cutting the deck and binding

For aluminum snowshoes, the metal ar- The deck is the main part of the snow-
rives at the snowshoe factory in precut 3shoe, taking the place of the webbing in
378
Snowshoe
a traditional shoe. The decking material ar- Quality Control
rives at the factory in a wide roll. Workers
unroll the material and feed it into a die A conscientious manufacturer inspects all
stamper. This is a machine mounted with ra- the raw materials for the snowshoes as they
come into the factory. The workers check for
zors in the outline of the deck shape. The
stamper lowers and presses through the ma- problems with each step of the process. Be-
terial, cutting it in one motion. The manu- cause the parts fit very precisely, any fault in
facturer arranges the dies so that the decks the process is usually immediately apparent.
can be cut very close together. As little as a For example, if the decks were not cut cor-
quarter inch of material may be lost. This rectly, they could not be clipped to the
material is not recyclable, and represents the frames. The manufacturing process is also
biggest waste in the manufacturing process. slow. Most makers are small, and produce a
The binding straps are cut with different quality product. Snowshoes are not rushed
dies, but in the same process, and the mater- through a highly automated assembly line,
so visual inspection along the way is usually
ial used is very similar.
adequate quality control. The worker who
tags the finished snowshoes and prepares
them for shipping may act as a final inspec-
Printing tor. For design problems, most manufactur-
4Next, the cut deck is imprinted with the ers have relationships with avid snowshoeers
manufacturer's logo. The deck is passed who can take a new pair through several
under a heated die stamper. The stamper is hundred miles in a few weeks, so the manu-
carved with the logo, and affixed with a piece facturer can get relatively rapid feedback
of plastic that bears heat-sensitive ink. When from users about design flaws or successes.
the heated stamper presses the plastic onto
the deck, it leaves an inked impression of the
logo. The ink dries almost immediately. The Future
Though nonwood snowshoes are described
as modem or new-style, they have neverthe-
Clipping the deck to the frame less been around for about 50 years. In other
words, they are not terribly new. Increased
Now workers rivet the deck to the frame. popularity of the sport in the 1990s led to
5JThis may be done by hand, or in a large more marketing of the equipment and open-
facility, the process may be automated. ing of more resorts and trails to snow-
Small plastic straps fit around the frame and shoeers. But new technology does not seem
hold the deck in a sandwich between the imminent. Snowshoes are appearing in
ends. The rivet is punched through. Rivets gaudier colors and in styles aimed at new
are placed at many points along the frame, segments of the market, such as women and
to hold the deck securely. children. This may ultimately confuse the
consumer, since men, women and children
can essentially wear the same snowshoe.
Top and bottom
6 To finish the snowshoe, a cleat needs to Where to Learn More
6be affixed to the bottom, and the binding
and a plastic pivot strap need to be attached Books
to the top of the deck. The plastic pivot strap Edwards, Sally, and Melissa McKenzie.
is die-cut. The cleat is often supplied by an Snowshoeing. Champaign, Illinois: Human
outside contractor. The binding and strap Kinetics, Inc., 1995.
are fitted to the deck and the cleat fixed un-
derneath. Then, these three parts are riveted Prater, Gene. Showshoeing. Seattle: The
together through the deck, so they are all Mountaineers, 1997.
held in place by the same part. At this point, Wolfram, Gerry. Walk into Winter New
the snowshoes are finished. They do not York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977.
need any drying or curing, but are ready to
be boxed and sent to retailers. -Angela Woodward
379
Sodium Chlorite
Today, sodium chlorite is Background used on cotton, bast fibers, and man-made
fibers like nylon, Perlon, Dralon, and
an important specialty Sodium chlorite is a compound used for water Rhovyl. It has an oxidizing effect on many
disinfection and purification. It is produced in of the natural waxes and pectins found in
chemical with sales over large quantities as flakes or a solution from cellulose fibers. It helps solubilize them and
$18 million annually. chlorine dioxide and sodium hydroxide. Its makes the fiber more even and workable. It
use as a bleach for textiles was first discov- has the added benefit of destroying natural
ered during the 1920s. Today, sodium chlorite color matter without attacking the fibers
is an important specialty chemical with sales themselves. This makes it useful for making
over $18 million annually. permanent white fabrics without compro-
mising tensile strength.
In its dried state, sodium chlorite (NaCIO2)
is a white or light yellow-green solid. The Sodium chlorite is also used for various in-
greenish tint comes from trace amounts of dustrial applications. It controls microbial
CdO2 or iron, which are production residu- contamination in industrial cooling systems
als. Sodium chlorite has a molecular weight and towers. It is used in place of chlorine in
of 90.44 and decomposes at about 392°F industrial ammonia plants because it does
(200°C). It is generally soluble in water, but not react negatively with ammonia. Since it
its solubility increases as the temperature of is an oxidizer, it is often a part of flue gas
the water rises. Sodium chlorite is a power- scrubber systems. Food-processing compa-
ful oxidizer that will not explode on percus- nies use it for washing fruits and vegetables
sion. The anhydrous salt does not absorb because it is a fungicide. Meat and poultry
water and is stable for up to ten years. are also washed with a solution, as is food
Sodium chlorite is used for a variety of ap- processing equipment. Finally, it is an an-
timildew agent in detergent compositions
plications. It is used as a disinfectant and
and has been used in toothpaste and contact
purification chemical for water. It is also lens solutions.
employed as a textile-bleaching and water
anti-fouling agent. Additionally, it is used in
the paper and electronics manufacturing in- History
dustries as a bleaching agent.
The development of sodium chlorite as an
When put in an acid solution, sodium chlo- industrial chemical began in 1921 when E.
rite breaks down into chlorine dioxide. Schmidt found that cellulosic fibers could
When added to a municipal water supply, be purified with chlorine dioxide without
chlorine dioxide helps control unwanted being appreciably damaged. Unfortunately,
tastes and odors. It also aids in the removal chlorine dioxide gas is extremely explosive
of ions like iron and manganese. One added at high concentrations. These discoveries
benefit is that it helps eliminate tri- prompted researchers to look for safe and
halomethanes in drinking water. economical ways to deliver chlorine dioxide
for bleaching purposes. The first company
As a textile-bleaching agent, sodium chlo- to introduce sodium chlorite for this purpose
rite is effective with various fibers. It can be was the Mathieson Chemical Corporation.
380
Sodium Chlorite
In 1960, sodium chlorite became the stan- commercially. It is sold in solution or as a
dard material for continuous bleaching oper- solid. The technical grade is made up of
ations in the United States, replacing hydro- about 80% sodium chlorite and the rest is
gen. In subsequent years, other uses for sodium chloride. Large scale production is
sodium chlorite were discovered. based on a reaction of chlorine dioxide in a
sodium hydroxide solution. Hydrogen per-
oxide is also present as the reducing agent.
Raw MOaterials Sodium chlorite is manufactured in three
The primary raw materials used in the pro- phases, chlorine dioxide production, sodium
duction of sodium chlorite are chlorine diox- chlorite generation, and recovery.
ide, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen perox-
ide. Chlorine dioxide is a gas at room Chlorine dioxide production
temperature. Its color is intensely greenish-
yellow. Chlorine dioxide provides the source While there are five principal methods
of chlorine that is converted to sodium chlo- for generating chlorine dioxide, the most
rite. In production, it is stored as a liquid so- common is the Hooker R-2 process, which
lution in glass-lined steel containers. generates chlorine dioxide from sodium
chlorate. During production, solutions of
Sodium hydroxide is a fused solid with a both sodium chlorate and sodium chloride
crystalline structure. Also known as caustic are pumped into a reaction vessel in approx-
soda, it is corrosive to skin and vegetable imately equal ratios. Concentrated sulfuric
tissue, causing severe bums. It is typically acid is also added to the reaction. Next, air
produced through the electrolysis of sodium is bubbled into the bottom of the container
chloride solutions. Hydrogen peroxide is a to create rapid agitation and dilution of the
colorless liquid that is caustic and bitter to chlorine dioxide that is produced. During
taste. Pure H202 is a thick, syrupy liquid this process, both chlorine dioxide and chlo-
that rapidly decomposes into oxygen and rine gas are created.
water. In nature, it occurs only in trace
amounts in snow or rain. It is naturally gen- 2These gases are separated out from the
erated during lightening storms. It is typical- reaction vessel. The chlorine dioxide is
ly used in dilute solutions during the manu- separated by being absorbed in a conven-
facture of sodium chlorite. tional, water chilled tower. The chlorine gas
is passed through separation towers and is
Other materials are typically added to sodi- picked up as sodium or calcium hypochlo-
um chlorite powders or solutions before rite. This process produces about a 95%
they are sold. Commercial sodium chlorite yield of chlorine dioxide.
bleaching solutions contain special ingredi-
ents including anticorrosive agents, buffer- Sodium chlorite generation
ing agents, chlorine dioxide fume con- 3 The chlorine dioxide gas is pumped into
trollers, and surfactants. Anticorrosive a vessel containing a cooled, circulating
agents are used to prevent the corrosion of solution of sodium hydroxide. These com-
stainless steel bleaching equipment. Buffer pounds react to form sodium chlorite and
salts help liberate the chlorine dioxide that is sodium chlorate in approximately equal
produced during the bleaching process. Sur- amounts. Water and oxygen are also gener-
factants help stabilize solutions and allow ated. To minimize sodium chlorate produc-
for cleaning and penetration effects. Stabi- tion, a reducing agent is added. Typically,
lized sodium chlorite solution can be stored hydrogen peroxide is used, although sodium
for long periods without loss of activity. peroxide and sodium amalgam may also be
When the sodium chlorite is sold as a solid, employed. This step is closely monitored
sodium chloride is often included to make it because sodium chlorate is highly undesir-
safer to handle and store. able in the final product.
The Manufacturing Isolation and purification

Process A Even though steps are taken to minimize
While a variety of chlorites are available, its production, sodium chlorate must still
sodium chlorite is the only one produced be reduced before the sodium chlorite can
38 1
A chemical reaction that creates

sodium chlorite.
2 C103 + 2 NaOH --> NaCI02 + NaCI03 + H20
be isolated. This is accomplished by adding materials and the final product are all sub-
extra hydrogen peroxide. jected to a variety of chemical and physical
tests to determine that they meet the re-
5 The spent reactive solution is then quired specifications. Some of the common-
pumped through a fractional crystalliza- ly tested characteristics include appearance,
tion tower to purify the sodium chlorite. This odor, pH, density, specific gravity, and
method takes advantage of the large solubili- melting point. If the final product is a solu-
ty differences between the chlorite and other tion, its chemical activity is tested to make
related salts that can be formed. After purifi- sure it has the correct concentration. For
cation, the sodium chlorite solution is evapo- solid granules, particle size is determined
rated and tumble dried. If an anhydrous (de- and modified if necessary.
void of water) product is desired, the
evaporated powder is mixed with water at
lOO°F (38°C). The solution is saturated and Byproducts/Waste
cooled to 77°F (25°C). When this happens, Manufacturing sodium chlorite produces
the anhydrous salt spontaneously crystallizes some undesirable byproducts, such as chlo-
out of the solution. A rotary drum, steam rine dioxide, that cannot be released into the
heated dryer is used to isolated the crystals, immediate environment. Concentrated
resulting in flakes or a fine powder. Occa- fumes of chlorine dioxide are toxic, and
sionally, multiple drying steps are required. cause sickness, appetite loss, and nausea in
6 The anhydrous salt can then be convert- line operators. In the production plant, cir-
6ed into powder, granules, or a solution. culation of fresh air is essential. The chlo-
Granules are used more often because they rine dioxide gas is also highly corrosive. For
are safer, with lower toxic risks and fire haz- this reason, sodium chlorite solutions must
ards, and a homogeneous composition can be stored in specially coated containers. Ma-
be created. Using typical methods, the parti- terials such as glass, porcelain, some plas-
cle size of the granules can be tightly con- tics, or earthenware are typically used. Tita-
trolled. Prior to packaging, solid sodium nium is the most resistant metal used today.
chlorite is mixed with sodium chloride to In the textile industry, molybdenum alloy
make it safer to handle. stainless steels are used to store the sodium
chlorite bleach solutions.
7Solutions are prepared by mixing pow-
dered sodium chlorite with various anti- The Future
corrosive agents, buffering agents, and sur-
factants in a mixing vessel. These solutions With increased applications for chlorine
are used for commercial bleaching processes dioxide, improvements in sodium chlorite
and can be fonnulated to be extremely stable. production are currently being studied.
Sodium chlorite research is focused on re-
8 Depending on the final use, sodium chlo- ducing the environmental impact of bleach-
rite solution is packaged in plastic con- ing systems and finding quicker, less expen-
tainers, drums, tote tanks, and tanker trucks. sive production methods. New bleaching
In the United States, powdered or flaked formulations are constantly being developed
sodium chlorite is shipped in lined drums. by formulating chemists.
Bulk transportation of the solid is not al-
lowed because of safety concerns.
Where to Learn More
Quality Control Books
To ensure the quality of the sodium chlorite Kirk-Othmer. "Carbon & Graphite Fibers to
that is produced, the production process is Chlorocarbons & Chlorohydrocarbons." In
monitored at each stage. The starting raw Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology.
382
Sodium Chlorite
Vol. 5, edited by Jacqueline I. Kroschwitz Rittmann, Douglas, and Joel Tenney. "Gen-
and Mary Howe-Grant. New York: John erating chlorine dioxide gas: Chlorate vs.
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993. chlorite." Water Engineering & Manage-
ment (Sept. 1998).
Periodicals
-Perry Romanowski
Busch, Gretchen. "Vulcan to Expand Treat-
ment Business with Chlorite Buy." Chemi-
cal Marketing Reporter (June 15, 1992).
383
Solid State Laser
The world laser system Background to targetthe desired area more accurately,
avoiding damage to surrounding tissue.
market is expected to A laser, which is an acronym for Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of One way to excite the atoms to a higher ener-
increase from $4.7 billion Radiation, is a device that converts elec- gy level is to illuminate the laser material with
trical or optical energy into light. Electri- light of a higher frequency than the laser light.
in 2000 to $8 billion in cal or optical energy is used to excite Otherwise known as optical pumping, these
2005, with the solid state atoms or molecules, which then emit solid state lasers use a rod of solid crystalline
monochromatic (single wavelength) material with its ends polished flat and paral-
laser market reaching light. A laser consists of a cavity, with lel and coated with mirrors to reflect the laser
over $1. 1 billion, plane or spherical mirrors at the ends, light. Ions are suspended in the crystalline
that is filled with lasable material. This matrix and emit electrons when excited.
compared to $4.6 billion material can be excited to a semi-stable
state by light or an electric discharge. The sides of the rod are left clear to admit
for diode lasers. The material can be a crystal, glass, liq- the light from the pumping lamp, which
uid, dye, or gas as long as it can be excit- may be a pulsed gas discharge producing
ed in this way. A solid state laser is one flashing light. The first solid-state laser used
that uses a crystal, whose atoms are a rod of pink ruby and an artificial crystal of
rigidly bonded, unlike a gas. The crystal sapphire. Two common solid state lasers
produces laser light after light is pumped used today are Nd:YAG (neodymium:yttri-
into it by either a lamp or another laser. um aluminum garnet) and Nd:glass. Both
use krypton or xenon flash lamps for optical
The simplest cavity has two mirrors, one pumping. Brilliant flashes of light up to
that totally reflects and one that reflects be- thousands of watts can be obtained and op-
tween 50 and 99%. As the light bounces be-
erating lifetimes are near 10,000 hours.
tween these mirrors, the intensity increases. Since laser light can be focused to a precise
Since the laser light travels in the same di- spot of great intensity, enough heat can be
rection as an intense beam, the laser pro- generated by a small pulsed laser to vaporize
duces very bright light. Laser beams can different materials. Thus, lasers are used in
also be projected over great distances, and various material removal processes, includ-
can be focused on a very small spot. ing machining. For instance, ruby lasers are
used to drill holes in diamonds for wire draw-
The type of mirror determines the type of ing dies and in sapphires for watch bearings.
beam. A very bright, highly monochromatic
and coherent beam is produced when one History
mirror transmits only 1-2% of the light. If
plane mirrors are used, the beam is highly The concept behind lasers was first pro-
collimated (made parallel). The beam comes posed by Albert Einstein, who showed that
out near one end of the cavity when concave light consists of mass-less particles called
mirrors are used. The type of beam in the photons. Each photon has an energy that
first case makes lasers very useful in medi- corresponds to the frequency of the waves.
cine since these properties allow the doctor The higher the frequency, the greater the en-
384
Solid State Laser
ergy carried by the waves. Einstein and an- uses. This type of crystal is the most widely
other scientist named S. N. Bose then devel- used-more than two-thirds of crystals
oped the theory for the phenomenon where grown are this type. Other crystals being
photons tend to travel together. This is the grown include Nd:YVO4 (yttrium ortho-
principle behind the laser. vanadate), Nd:glass, and Er:YAG.
Laser action was first demonstrated in the
microwave region in 1954 by Nobel Prize Raw Mcaterials
winner Charles Townes and co-workers. Optical, mechanical, and electronic compo-
They projected a beam of ammonia mole- nents made of various materials (crystals,
cules through a system of focusing elec- metals, semiconductors, etc.) are usually
trodes. When microwave power of appropri- supplied by other manufacturers. Outsourc-
ate frequency was passed through the ing varies from laser manufacturer to manu-
cavity, amplification occurred and the term facturer. A solid state laser consists of two
microwave amplification by stimulated major components, or "boxes." One compo-
emission of radiation (M.A.S.E.R.) was nent contains the optics (lasing crystal and
born. The term laser was first coined in mirrors), and the other contains the electron-
1957 by physicist Gordon Gould. ics (power supply, internal controls). Some-
times these two components are integrated
A year later, Townes worked with Arthur into one box.
Schawlow and the two proposed the laser,
receiving a patent in 1960. That same year,
Theodore Maiman, a physicist at Hughes Design
Research Laboratories, invented the first The design of the laser cavity is determined
practical laser. This laser was a solid state by the application. Typically, the research
type, using a pink ruby crystal surrounded and development group develops the design.
by a flash tube enclosed within a polished This design determines the operating charac-
aluminum cylindrical cavity cooled by teristics, including power, wavelength, and
forced air. The ruby cylinder was polished other beam properties. The designers also in-
on both ends to be parallel to within a third corporate safety features as required by the
of a wavelength of light. Each end was coat- Food and Drug Administration(FDA).
ed with evaporated silver. This laser operat-
ed in pulsed mode. Two years later, a con-
tinuous ruby laser was made by replacing The Manufacturing
the flash lamp with an arc lamp. Process
1 Usually, all or most of the components
After Maiman's laser was successfully are manufactured elsewhere. For in-
demonstrated, other researchers tried a variety stance, crystal growers provide the lasing
of other substrates and rare earths, including material. To grow an Nd:YAG crystal, a
erbium, neodymium, and even uranium. Yttri- high-purity oxide powder compound of the
um aluminum garnet, glass, and calcium fluo- desired elements is placed in a crucible and
ride substrates were tested. The development melted in a radio frequency furnace at high
of powerful laser diodes (a device that forms a temperatures. A seed crystal is then brought
coherent light output using electrodes or into contact with the liquid surface. When
semiconductors) in the 1980s led to all-solid- the seed crystal is slowly lifted, rotated, and
state lasers in the continuous-wave regime cooled slightly, a single crystal of the de-
that were more efficient, compact and reli- sired composition emerges at the rate of
able. Diode technology improved during the about 0.02 in (0.5 mm) per hour.
1990s, eventually increasing output powers of
solid state lasers to the multikilowattt level. Typical Nd:YAG crystals range from 2.4-3.1
in (60-80 mm) in diameter by 6.9-8.9 in
Nd:YAG and ruby lasers are now used in (175-225 mm) in length. Rods, wafers and
many industrial, scientific and medical ap- slabs in various geometries are extracted
plications, along with other solid state from the grown crystal, then fabricated, pol-
lasers that use different type of crystals. ished, and coated to customer specifications.
Nd:YAG lasers are also being used for Finished products range from rods as small as
monitoring pollution, welding and other 0.02 in (0.5 mm) in diameter by I in (25 mm)
385
A solid state laser consists of a

cavity with plane or spherical mir-
rors at each end that is filled with
a crystal, whose atoms are rigidly
bonded. After light is pumped into
it by either a lamp or another
laser, the crystal produces light
that bounces between the mirrors,
increasing intensity and produc-
ing a very bright light.
long to slab geometries as large as 0.3 x 1.5 Quality Control

in (8 x 37 mm) in cross section by 9.2 in (235
mm) long. The most common Nd:YAG rod Most laser manufacturers follow intemation-
geometry is a right circular cylinder. al quality standards that provide feedback
loops throughout the manufacturing process.
The laser also goes through several major
Assembly testing procedures as previously described.
2 Once the laser is designed and the com-
ponents received, the optics are integrat- All laser devices distributed in the United
ed with the mechanical components. A States must be certified as complying with
technician follows a blueprint, placing the the federal laser product performance stan-
optical components in the desired positions, dard and reported to the Center for Devices
using metal holders or mounting devices. and Radiological Health (CDRH) Office of
This procedure is performed in a clean Compliance prior to distribution to end
room environment to avoid contamination users. This performance standard specifies
of the optical components. the safety features and labeling that all lasers
must have in order to provide adequate safe-
ty to users. Each laser must be certified that
Alignment it complies with the standard before being
3 Next, the lasing cavity is aligned so it oper- introduced to the market. Certification
ates at the desired specifications. This is means that each unit has passed a quality as-
performed on a test table by another technician, surance test that complies with the perfor-
using another laser to help with the alignment. mance standard. Those that certify lasers as-
sume responsibility for reporting and
Final testing notification of any problems with the laser.
A Before shipping the laser to the cus-
tomer, it goes through a step called end Byproducts/Waste
testing, which basically checks the laser for Since suppliers of the various components
proper operation, including output power, usually follow total quality management
beam quality and other characteristics. The procedures, the laser manufacturer does not
laser is operated for a number of hours to test the components for defects and there is
make sure it passes inspection. little waste. If defective components are
386
Solid State Laser
found, they are sometimes sent back to the Where to Learn More
manufacturer.
Books
The Future Ambroseo, John. "Lasers: Understanding
the Basics." In The Photonics Design and
Solid state lasers are being designed that Applications Handbook 2000. Pittsfield,
have higher power, are faster, have shorter MA: Laurin Publishing, 2000.
wavelengths, and better beam quality, which
will expand their applications. For instance, Craig, Bruce, and Mark Keirstead. "Diode-
lasing materials are being developed that Pumped Lasers: Big Choices, Small Pack-
will be able to squeeze many billions of age." In The Photonics Design and Applica-
pulses into one second, resulting in fem- tions Handbook 2000. Pittsfield, MA:
tosecond lasers delivering dozens of pulses Laurin Publishing, 2000.
in each nanosecond. Solid state lasers that
can provide power on the terawatt or The Photonics Dictionary, 4th International
petawatt level are also being tested for pro- Edition. Pittsfield, MA: Laurin Publishing,
ducing nuclear reactions, with the potential 2000.
of being used in nuclear medicine applica-
tions such as CAT scanning. Nd:YAG lasers Teppo, Edward. "Nd:YAG Lasers: Stand-
are expanding into the electronics industry ing the Test of Time." In The Photonics De-
for drilling, soldering and trimming applica- sign and Applications Handbook 2000.
tions. Lasing crystals continue to be made to Pittsfield, MA: Laurin Publishing, 2000.
last longer.
Periodicals
The world laser system market is expected to
increase from $4.7 billion in 2000 to $8 bil- Hand, Aaron. "Lasers Squeeze into Tighter
lion in 2005, with the solid state laser market Board Assemblies." Photonics Spectra
reaching over $1.1 billion, compared to $4.6 (July 1999): 96-101
billion for diode lasers. Solid state lasers are
"Lasers and Light Sources: Making Photons."
replacing dye, ion and HeNe type lasers in
certain markets. Other analysts predict flash-
Photonics Spectra (January 2000): 90-94.
lamp-pumped solid state lasers will grow to Moody, Stephen. "From Earth to Space,
$660 million and diode- pumped solid state Lasers Take on Pollution." Photonics Spec-
lasers to $312 million by 2003. The latter tra (October 1999): 96-103.
type of laser will become more popular for
such industrial applications as general-pur- Smith, James. "Lasers Continue Across Nu-
pose marking and materials processing, as clear Fission Threshold." Photonics Spectra
costs come down and higher powers become (April 2000): 42.
available. These lasers are also being de-
signed with minimal maintenance. Steinmeyer, G., et al. "Ultrafast Lasers."
Photonics Spectra (February 2000): 100-104.
-Laurel M. Sheppard
387
Spam
Americans eat Background successful Minnesota meat-packing house
owner, was an energetic young man with
approximately 3.8 cans Spam is a brand name for a canned meat big plans for his father's company. Hormel
product containing ham, pork, salt, flavor- brought out canned ham in 1926. When his
of Spam per second. ings, and preservatives that are mixed and product was imitated, Hormel added spices
cooked under vacuum pressure. There are to make it distinct. In the early 1930s, many
other brands of similar canned pork meat companies were producing canned pork in
products, but Spam-made by Hormel large containers. Hormel's competition in-
Foods Corporation-is the original and the cluded lips, snouts, even ears in their meats
best-selling of the brands. but Hormel refused to use these refuse parts.
The standard Spam can is brick-shaped and Instead, he used the shoulder of the pig (a
holds 7 oz (198 g) of meat. A 2-oz (57-g) cut of meat rarely used because of its time-
serving contains 170 calories, provides 7 g consuming removal from the bone).
of protein, 140 calories of fat, and has 0.75 g Hormel's meat was superior and more ex-
of sodium. It contains small amounts of cho- pensive than the competition's, but once
lesterol and iron. Americans eat approxi- opened it was indistinguishable. Hormel
mately 3.8 cans per second. Two American sought a way to seperate his product from
plants produce 44,000 cans of Spam every the rest, and he decided to try two things: re-
hour. Hawaii consumes the most Spam in duce the size of the can so it was family-
the world-about four million cans yearly sized and design a distinctive label.
(it is particularly popular in sushi).
Hormel's first experimental 12-oz (340-g)
Spam is an important protein source and eco- cans of this pork luncheon meat turned out to
nomical as well. Unopened cans require no be 8 oz (227 g) of meat and 4 oz (113 g) of
refrigeration and Spam has an indefinite shelf useless juice. As the heat cooked the meat in
life because it is heat-sealed within the tin. It the sealed can, cells broke down and released
can, therefore, be shipped all over the world an excessive amount of juice. Hormel tried
without spoiling. Thus, it is an important many things to reduce the juice. Ultimately
food source in many places where fresh meat he discovering that it was not enough to put it
is difficult to obtain or expensive (such as in a can that was vacuum sealed, but the meat
Hawaii and Guam). Spam has become a must also be mixed in a vacuum in order to
kitschy favorite with Spam t-shirts and cook- minimize the juice released while cooking.
books selling quite well. Spam has also made
it onto the worldwide web with several web- The new luncheon meat was not available
sites dedicated to the product. The term spam for a while, awaiting a marketable name and
has also come to mean unwanted junk e- an iconic label. After much dispute, the
mails received on personal computers. name Spam seemed perfect. Most believe it
to be a combination of the words spiced and
ham, but the original product contained no
History ham. (Hormel later added ham to the mix-
Spam was first released onto the American ture because so many thought it was already
market in 1937. Jay Hormel, the son of a in the product.) Upon release the meat was
388
Spam
not an instant seller, but Spam was touted basket. Ham, however, must be cut away
for its value and convenience. from the bone by hand. The meat-cutters re-
move and sort the meat from the shanks in
By 1941, 40 million cans of Spam had the ham trim lines. The whitest, fattiest
been sold. During World War II, Spam pieces are put into a large gondola marked
was sent overseas to feed American G.I.s. "white," while meatier pieces are hand-sort-
Hormel supplied Allied troops with 15 ed into one marked "red." The gondolas re-
million cans of Spam per week throughout main in a refrigerated area until they are
the war. World leaders-including Eisen- needed.
hower, Margaret Thatcher, and Nikita
Khrushchev-credited Spam for its effec- 2 Next, the gondolas are wheeled from the
tiveness. After the war, Hormel actively cold storage area and onto the main
advertised the product, getting big names floor. The meat is transferred to a crane-like
to sing its praises. Plants overseas also machine and then dumped into a large metal
began producing Spam. By 1959, Hormel trough equipped with a drill bit. There, the
had manufactured its billionth can. By drill bit thoroughly grinds the red and white
1962, the 12-oz (340-g) can was joined by pieces dumped in the trough. The batch is
a 7-oz (198-g) can for single people and weighed (usually about 8,000 lb [3,628 kg]
small families. Other innovations included at this point) and passed under a metal de-
Spam with cheese chunks and smoke-fla- tector (to catch a stray knife or mixing com-
vored product (1972) and Spam-Lite ponent). A small sample of Spam is ana-
(1992). A major re-design of the label oc- lyzed to ensure it has the right combination
curred in 1997, and both the old and new of pork to ham and white to red pieces.
version entered the Smithsonian.
3The ground meat is then distributed by
Raw Mcaterials the gondolas into several vacuum mix-
The primary ingredient in Spam is chopped ers. When these mixers are in the open posi-
pork shoulder meat mixed with ham. About tion, they look like giant gas grills, but they
90% of Spam is pork from a pig's shoulders. are equipped with a refrigerated ammonia
The remaining 10% (or so) comes from the outer core that brings the meat temperature
pig's buttock and thigh, better known as ham. down to below freezing (32°F [0°C]). Then,
This ratio varies according to ham and pork the other ingredients in Spam-salt, sugar,
prices. The U.S. Department of Agriculture water, and sodium nitrite-are added. The
does not permit any nonmeat fillers in lunch- mixer lid is closed, creating an airtight seal,
meat, nor does it allow pig snouts, lips, or and the batch is mixed. The reason the vacu-
ears. The second ingredient is salt, added for um is induced, the meat chilled, and the salt
flavor and for use as a preservative. Also, a added is to reduce the amount of juice re-
small amount of water is used to bind all in- leased by the meat when it is cooked. If too
gredients together. Sugar is also included for much liquid is released during cooking, the
flavor. Finally, sodium nitrate is added to can would contain a large amount of gelatin.
prevent botulism and acts as a preservative as
well. It is the sodium nitrite that gives Spam 4 While the Spam is being mixed, ma-
its bright pink color-without it, Spam would chines elsewhere are pushing empty, up-
discolor and become brown. side-down Spam cans off storage pallets one
layer at a time. The plain silver cans are
pushed onto a conveyor belt and sent toward
The Manufacturing the filler.
Process
Pigs are no longer butchered by the 5 Nearly 1,000 lb (454 kg) of Spam is
IHormel Company, so meat is purchased manually unloaded from the first mixer,
from dealers and brought into the plant. dumped into receivers, and fed through
Pork shoulders and ham are brought into the pipes. The mixture moves through the pipes
plant and cut apart. The pork shoulders are until it reaches the cone-shaped can fillers.
put into a powerful hydraulic press that liter- As the cans travel undeneath the fillers, a
ally squeezes the meat off the bone. The de- device picks each one up and deposits the
boned meat is put into a large gondola or raw, ground Spam into the can (from the
389
Spam is a mixture of ground pork

meats, seasonings, and other in-
gredients that have been cooked
under vacuum pressure.
bottom) in one motion. The can is filled as 9 The cans are now ready for boxing.
the machine lifts it. 9 Twenty-four cans are fed onto flat pieces
of cardboard, and a box is formed around
6 The can is sealed at a closing machine. the cans using the cardboard. The boxes are
6They are then stamped with an identify- moved, and when a palette is filled with
ing code so that the product can be traced boxes, the entire pallet is shrink-wrapped.
back to the manufacturer. The cans are stamped with a date and other
identifying numbers. A huge robot crane,
7Now, the closed cans head to the six- driven by computer, transfers the pallet to a
story-tall hydrostatic cooker. Spam is rack of shelving in the building. When the
cooked in the can by very hot water within pallets get to the loading dock, then they are
the cooker. The cans approach to cooker in a hoisted into the shelves by machines.
line, an arm swings out and pushes 24 cans
onto a shelf. The shelf moves upward, and 1 The Spam cans cannot be shipped out
an arm swings out an pushes another group lO
Vfor 10 days. One of every 1,000 cans
of cans onto a shelf. In two hours, 66,000 produced must undergo extensive testing to
thousand cans will travel up and down 11 make certain the meat was properly cooked.
chambers in this huge cooker as they are If there are no problems, the cans may be
heated, sterilized, washed, and cooled. sold.
8 As the cans leave the hydrostatic cooker,
8they are now cool and ready for labeling. Quality Control
The labels sit at the end of the cooker in long Hormel would likely agree that Spam begins
rolls. An automatic labeler attaches a with quality pork and ham. Hornel no longer
polypropelene film label on each can, and the supplies its own meat for Spam, but the com-
labeler cuts the label to the correct length. pany chooses the meat carefully. Meat-cut-
390
Spam
ters who cut the meat from the ham carefully The Future
perform their tasks and throw the pieces into
the appropriate gondola. Also, the huge hy- Since Spam was first released it has under-
drostatic cooker has an alarm that trips if the gone many transformations. From plain
computer detects there is any problem with Spam to Turkey Spam to Spam-Lite. People
the batch. The workers must fix that problem are coming up with endless recipes that call
within three minutes. If they don't, the entire for Spam, and Hormel is trying to incorpo-
batch's viability is in question. rate every consumer's need into their prod-
uct development. Spam with less sodium is
Portions of each batch are examined to now available. The launch of Hormel's
make sure the batch has the right amount of website dedicated to Spain now provides
pork shoulder to ham. The U.S. Department consumers with a catalog devoted to Spam
of Agriculture does not permit any Spam and Spam labeled products.
cans to leave the processing plant for 10
days. One out of every 1,000 cans be sub- Where to Learn More
jected to a 100°F (38°C) test to see if the can
bulges or shows any other signs of improper Books
cooking. The bacteria content is also tested. Wyman, Carol. Spam: A Biography. San
Finally, taste tests are routine at Hormel Diego: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1999.
Foods Corporation. Every Friday all execu-
tives involved in Spam production meet to
visually inspect (and sometimes taste) sev- Other
eral different batches of Spam produced "Spam: An Authorized Biography." A Man-
during the week. ual for Public Relations. Hormel Foods,
2000.
-Nancy E.V. Bryk
39 1
Springs
During the third century A spring is a device that changes its shape in truncated cone. Open-core cylinders of
response to an external force, returning to its solid, elastic material can also act as springs.
B.C., Greek engineer original shape when the force is removed. Non-coil springs generally function as com-
Ctesibius of Alexandria The energy expended in deforming the pression springs.
spring is stored in it and can be recovered
developed a process for when the spring returns to its original shape.
Generally, the amount of the shape change History
making "springy bronze" is directly related to the amount of force ex- Very simple, non-coil springs have been
by increasing the erted. If too large a force is applied, howev- used throughout history. Even a resilient tree
er, the spring will permanently deform and
branch can be used as a spring. More sophis-
proportion of tin in the never return to its original shape.
ticated spring devices date to the Bronze
copper alloy, casting the Age, when eyebrow tweezers were common
in several cultures. During the third century
part, and hardening it Background B.C., Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria
There are several types of springs. One of developed a process for making "springy
with hammer blows. He the most common consists of wire wound bronze" by increasing the proportion of tin in
attempted to use a into a cylindrical or conical shape. An ex- the copper alloy, casting the part, and hard-
tension spring is a coiled spring whose coils ening it with hammer blows. He attempted to
combination of leaf normally touch each other; as a force is ap- use a combination of leaf springs to operate a
plied to stretch the spring, the coils separate. military catapult, but they were not powerful
springs to operate a In contrast, a compression spring is a coiled enough. During the second century B.C.,
military catapult, but they spring with space between successive coils; Philo of Byzantium, another catapult engi-
when a force is applied to shorten the neer, built a similar device, apparently with
were not powerful spring, the coils are pushed closer together. some success. Padlocks were widely used in
A third type of coiled spring, called a tor- the ancient Roman empire, and at least one
enough. sion spring, is designed so the applied force type used bowed metal leaves to keep the de-
twists the coil into a tighter spiral. Common vices closed until the leaves were com-
examples of torsion springs are found in pressed with keys.
clipboards and butterfly hair clips.
The next significant development in the his-
Still another variation of coiled springs is tory of springs came in the Middle Ages. A
the watch spring, which is coiled into a flat power saw devised by Villard de Hon-
spiral rather than a cylinder or cone. One necourt about 1250 used a water wheel to
end of the spring is at the center of the spi- push the saw blade in one direction, simulta-
ral, and the other is at its outer edge. neously bending a pole; as the pole returned
to its unbent state, it pulled the saw blade in
Some springs are fashioned without coils. the opposite direction.
The most common example is the leaf
spring, which is shaped like a shallow arch; Coiled springs were developed in the early
it is commonly used for automobile suspen- fifteenth century. By replacing the system of
sion systems. Another type is a disc spring, weights that commonly powered clocks
a washer-like device that is shaped like a with a wound spring mechanism, clockmak-
392
Springs
A diagram depicting spring coil-
ing done by a CNC machine.
Torsion
ers were able to fashion reliable, portable perature environments. One-directional

timekeeping devices. This advance made glass fiber composite materials are being
precise celestial navigation possible for tested for possible use in springs.
ocean-going ships.
In the eighteenth century, the Industrial Design
Revolution spurred the development of Various mathematical equations have been
mass-production techniques for making developed to describe the properties of
springs. During the 1780s, British locksmith springs, based on such factors as wire com-
Joseph Bramah used a spring winding ma- position and size, spring coil diameter, the
chine in his factory. Apparently an adapta- number of coils, and the amount of expected
tion of a lathe, the machine carried a reel of external force. These equations have been
wire in place of a cutting head. Wire from incorporated into computer software to sim-
the reel was wrapped around a rod secured plify the design process.
in the lathe. The speed of the lead screw,
which carried the reel parallel to the spin-
ning rod, could be adjusted to vary the spac- The Manufacturing
ing of the spring's coils. Process
The following description focuses on the
Common examples of current spring usage
manufacture of steel-alloy, coiled springs.
range from tiny coils that support keys on
cellular phone touchpads to enormous coils
that support entire buildings and protect Coiling
them from earthquake vibration. Cold winding. Wire up to 0.75 in (18 mm)
in diameter can be coiled at room temper-
ature using one of two basic techniques. One
Ravv Materials
consists of winding the wire around a shaft
Steel alloys are the most commonly used called an arbor or mandrel. This may be
spring materials. The most popular alloys done on a dedicated spring-winding ma-
include high-carbon (such as the music wire chine, a lathe, an electric hand drill with the
used for guitar strings), oil-tempered low- mandrel secured in the chuck, or a winding
carbon, chrome silicon, chrome vanadium, machine operated by hand cranking. A guid-
and stainless steel. ing mechanism, such as the lead screw on a
lathe, must be used to align the wire into the
Other metals that are sometimes used to desired pitch (distance between successive
make springs are beryllium copper alloy, coils) as it wraps around the mandrel.
phosphor bronze, and titanium. Rubber or
urethane may be used for cylindrical, non- Alternatively, the wire may be coiled with-
coil springs. Ceramic material has been de- out a mandrel. This is generally done with a
veloped for coiled springs in very high-tem- central navigation computer (CNC) ma-
3 93
Examples of different types of

springs.
Clock springs
Compression springs
Torsion springs
Clips
chine. The wire is pushed forward over a Hardening

support block toward a grooved head that
deflects the wire, forcing it to bend. The 3 Heat treating. Whether the steel has been
head and support block can be moved rela- coiled hot or cold, the process has creat-
tive to each other in as many as five direc- ed stress within the material. To relieve this
tions to control the diameter and pitch of the stress and allow the steel to maintain its
spring that is being formed. characteristic resilience, the spring must be
tempered by heat treating it. The spring is
heated in an oven, held at the appropriate
For extension or torsion springs, the ends temperature for a predetermined time, and
are bent into the desired loops, hooks, or then allowed to cool slowly. For example, a
straight sections after the coiling operation spring made of music wire is heated to
is completed. 500°F (260°C) for one hour.
2 Hot winding. Thicker wire or bar stock
can be coiled into springs if the metal is
Finishing
heated to make it flexible. Standard industri- 4Grinding. If the design calls for flat ends
al coiling machines can handle steel bar up on the spring, the ends are ground at this
to 3 in (75 mm) in diameter, and custom stage of the manufacturing process. The
springs have reportedly been made from spring is mounted in a jig to ensure the cor-
bars as much as 6 in (150 mm) thick. The rect orientation during grinding, and it is
steel is coiled around a mandrel while red held against a rotating abrasive wheel until
hot. Then it is immediately removed from the desired degree of flatness is obtained.
the coiling machine and plunged into oil to When highly automated equipment is used,
cool it quickly and harden it. At this stage, the spring is held in a sleeve while both ends
the steel is too brittle to function as a spring, are ground simultaneously, first by coarse
and it must subsequently be tempered. wheels and then by finer wheels. An appro-
3 94
Springs
priate fluid (water or an oil-based substance) specifications. The testing devices measure
may be used to cool the spring, lubricate the such properties as the hardness of the metal
grinding wheel, and carry away particles and the amount of the spring's deformation
during the grinding. under a known force. Springs that do not
meet the specifications are discarded. Statis-
Shot peening. This process strengthens tical analysis of the test results can help
5Jthe steel to resist metal fatigue and manufacturers identify production problems
cracking during its lifetime of repeated flex- and improve processes so fewer defective
ings. The entire surface of the spring is ex- springs are produced.
posed to a barrage of tiny steel balls that
hammer it smooth and compress the steel Approximately one-third of defective
that lies just below the surface. springs result from production problems.
The other two-thirds are caused by deficien-
6 Setting. To permanently fix the desired cies in the wire used to form the springs. In
6length and pitch of the spring, it is fully 1998, researchers reported the development
compressed so that all the coils touch each of a wire coilability test (called FRACMAT)
other. Some manufacturers repeat this that could screen out inadequate wire prior
process several times. to manufacturing springs.
7Coating. To prevent corrosion, the entire
surface of the spring is protected by paint- Computer-operated coiling machines im-
ing it, dipping it in liquid rubber, or plating it prove quality in two ways. First, they con-
with another metal such as zinc or chromium. trol the diameter and pitch of the spring
One process, called mechanical plating, in- more precisely than manual operations can.
volves tumbling the spring in a container Second, through the use of piezoelectric ma-
with metallic powder, water, accelerant terials, whose size varies with electrical
chemicals, and tiny glass beads that pound input, CNC coiling heads can precisely ad-
the metallic powder onto the spring surface. just in real time to measurements of spring
characteristics. As a result, these intelligent
Alternatively, in electroplating, the spring is machines produce fewer springs that must
immersed in an electrically conductive liquid be rejected for not meeting specifications.
that will corrode the plating metal but not the
spring. A negative electrical charge is ap- The Future
plied to the spring. Also immersed in the liq-
uid is a supply of the plating metal, and it is Demands of the rapidly growing computer
given a positive electrical charge. As the and cellular phone industries are pushing
plating metal dissolves in the liquid, it re- spring manufacturers to develop reliable,
leases positively charged molecules that are cost-effective techniques for making very
attracted to the negatively charged spring, small springs. Springs that support keys on
where they bond chemically. Electroplating touchpads and keyboards are important, but
makes carbon steel springs brittle, so shortly there are less apparent applications as well.
after plating (less than four hours) they must For instance, a manufacturer of test equip-
be baked at 325-375°F (160-190°C) for four ment used in semiconductor production has
hours to counteract the embrittlement. developed a microspring contact technology.
Thousands of tiny springs, only 40 mils
8Packaging. Desired quantities of springs (0.040 in or 1 mm) high, are bonded to indi-
may simply be bulk packaged in boxes vidual contact points of a semiconductor
or plastic bags. However, other forms of wafer. When this wafer is pressed against a
packaging have been developed to minimize test instrument, the springs compress, estab-
damage or tangling of springs. For example, lishing highly reliable electrical connections.
they may be individually bagged, strung
onto wires or rods, enclosed in tubes, or af- Medical devices also use very small springs.
fixed to sticky paper. A coiled spring has been developed for use
in the insertion end of a catheter or an endo-
scope. Made of wire 0.0012 in (30 microme-
Quality Control ters or 0.030 mm) in diameter, the spring is
Various testing devices are used to check 0.0036 in (0.092 mm) thick-about the
completed springs for compliance with same as a human hair. The Japanese compa-
3 95
ny that developed this spring is attempting Where to Learn More

to make it even smaller.
The ultimate miniaturization accomplished Other
so far was accomplished in 1997 by an Aus- "Coil Spring Making Process-Automotive."
trian chemist named Bernard Krautler. He Industrial Engineers and Spring Makers.
built a molecular spring by stringing 12 car- http://www.ozemail.com (November 2000).
bon atoms together and attaching a vitamin
B12 molecule to each end of the chain by "H & R Spring Overview." http://www.hr
means of a cobalt atom. In the relaxed state springs.com/abouthr.html (November 2000).
the chain has a zigzag shape; when it is wet-
ted with water, however, it kinks tightly to- Silberstein, Dave. "How to Make Springs."
gether. Adding cyclodextrin causes the http://home.earthlink.net/-bazillion/intro.ht
chain to return to its relaxed state. No practi- ml (November 2000).
cal application of this spring has yet been
found, but research continues. -Loretta Hall
396
Steel Wool
Background of steel wool need to be aware of the oil con- Steel wool gets its name
tent as the product can spontaneously com-
Steel wool is the name given to fine metal bust even beyond the factory. Steel wool from the fact that the
wire that are bundled together to form a must be stored away from electrical outlets
cluster of abrasive, sharp-edged metal strips. fuzzy, grey mass of metal
or other sources of electricity or flame.
The metal strips are massed together in a strings resembles wool
sheet, folded, and turned into pads that are
easily held in the hand. These steel wool History before it has been carded
pads are used for a variety of purposes, but
primarily as an abrasive material, sometimes For many years the properties of small and in some ways does
replacing sandpaper. Steel wool may be best pieces or circles of metal were recognized
known to consumers as the pink-colored for their ability to clean and cut through resemble a fiber. It is not,
abrasive pads that have soap added so that grease and grime, particularly those embed- however, truly spun as is
they may be used to scrub pots and pans. ded in metal. The Victorians used peculiar
Steel wool comes in a variety of grades, or pot-scrubbers that had a metal wire handle a fiber.
thicknesses, from coarse to extra fine. The to which was attached many dozens of small
coarser the wire, the more abrasive the steel circles of steel intertwined. Referred to as
wool is against the surface. Fine sanding is wire dish cloths, these scrubbers were tout-
always done with the finest steel wool grade ed as "the most convenient and most popu-
(generally referred to as extra fine). Steel lar utensil extant." The scrubber was sub-
wool is made by a few manufacturers in the merged in soap and water, then pressed
United States, but a fair amount of it is made against cast iron or aluminum pots, cleaning
overseas as well as in Mexico. the surface easily.
Steel wool gets its name from the fact that the However, mechanics who ran metal lathes
fuzzy, grey mass of metal strings resembles noticed that the metal shavings resulting from
wool before it has been carded and in some peeling away metal from a part or tool was an
ways does resemble a fiber. It is not, howev- interesting bit of waste. It is said that well be-
er, truly spun as is a fiber. Instead, steel wool fore 1900, mechanics gathered up this swarf
is produced by pulling metal rods through a and used it to polish metal surfaces.
series of metal dies that slice into the rods
and cut away unnecessary metal-a process Steel wool was mass-produced sometime in
known as drawing.The rod is thus reduced to the early part of the twentieth century. Its use
a fine strand, with the swarf or metal that is infiltrated the American home when steel
peeled away utilized in other products. wool pads soaked with soap became a
kitchen necessity. Throughout the late nine-
The production of steel wool generates heat teenth century and early twentieth century,
as the cutting tool slices into these metal enterprising mechanics gathered up these
rods. Fires are a hazard during the produc- leftover steel turnings and mixed them with
tion process and necessitate careful watch. soft soap. There is some contention as to who
Oil minimizes this fire hazard by reducing decided to manufacture and market these
friction. However, the product does contain soap-soaked steel wool pads first. It is known
some oil, and manufactures and purchasers that by World War I some entrepreneurs real-
3 97
A steel wool cutting machine.

ized that these pads were necessary for clean- be thinly shaved and made into wool. These
ing the newly invented aluminum cookware metals may vary and can include low-grade
that had started to overtake cast iron pots. carbon steel wire, bronze, aluminum, and
One pot salesman had so many complaints stainless steel. The only other raw material
from housewives about the difficulty of used in the process is the oil that is put on
cleaning their new aluminum pots that these the cutting tools to lessen the friction gener-
pads were a gimmick to get the women to try ated between metal rod and cutting tool.
the new pots. They worked wonders in clean-
ing and still do, although some are unhappy
with the fact that these steel wool pads can The Manufacturing
rust if left on the sink wet. A replacement for Process
these pads has been a sponge, resembling 1 The entire cutting of steel wires into finely
steel wool, made of a mass of synthetic fibers shaved steel wool happens on an approxi-
and is rust-proof. But the cutting edges of the mately 50-ft (15.2-m) long machine called a
steel wool cannot be duplicated in these col- steel wool cutting machine. The raw material
orful, synthetic pads. is received at the factory and transported to
the cutting machine with a forklift and read-
ied for loading onto the machine. Skilled
Rcawv Matericals workers then take an end of a metal rod on
Raw materials used in the manufacture of the huge spools and wrap the end around the
steel wool includes the metal rod that is to circular spool visible on one side of the cut-
398
Steel Wool
ting machine. Each spool has 15 grooves on ily unrolled, exposing all sides of the product
the surface. Thus, each spool can accommo- to the surface being scraped or sanded).
date the shaving of 15 spools of wire. The op- These steel wool pads are then hand-pack-
erators who thread this machine work very aged in packaging that reflects the grade of
quickly and it takes them only a few minutes steel that ranges from extra-fine to coarse.
to thread the wire into the machine. Large steel wool manufacturers cut over
2,000 short tons (1,814 t) of steel each year.
2 The wire rod move down one side of the
2machine, going from spool to spool, to
the other side of the machine. As it moves Quality Control
through the spools the wire rod moves Quality of steel wool is measured for fiber
against a metal cutting tool resembling a thickness, oil content, and weight. Perhaps
large sawtooth blade. The attached blades the most important factor in steel wool pro-
move against the wires, shaving the wire to duction is the consistent thickness of the
generate thinner fiber-like wires of steel. metal rods used to make the thin metal
The cutting tool has many consecutive saw- strips. In order for the grades to be consid-
tooth edges that are set very closely. The ered uniform and reliable, the raw materials
closer the teeth are placed together, the less must be of absolutely consistent thickness,
waste there is as the cutting tool runs across ensuring that the product will be shaved at
the surface of these metal rods. These cut- the correct thickness each and every time.
ting tools press against these steel wires, Similarly, the cutting tool must be regularly
producing a very fine wire that is pyramidal checked for sharpness. Approximately every
in shape due to the shape of the cutting tool. three hours, the cutting tool must be sharp-
This results in production of a steel wool ened. If it is not, it may snag or the rods may
strand that is quite sharp on two sides of the not be cut consistently in the pyramidal
pyramid. (That is why it is easy to be cut shape and grade desired. Some manufactur-
with steel wool and gloves should always be ers easily and quickly change out those
worn when using the product.) blades and re-grind them using a blade
3 As one spool runs out of wire, another grinding machine. It is essential that a grade
spool is simply wound onto the spool, and is consistent in its quality. If a woodworker
the shaving process continues. As the cutting requires extra fine steel wool to complete
tool slices into metal, a tremendous amount final finish sanding before staining and
of heat is generated. The tool must be kept coarse steel cuts into the finish, the surface
cool with oil to reduce the chance of fire. Fire is ruined. Too much oil in the pad is also
is a serious hazard in the production of steel detrimental. Excessive oil can prevent the
wool; however, machine operators are fully pad from soaking up the product (stain or
trained to put out the fires. The cutting tool wood stripper) and can mar the surface with
also dulls quickly and has to be re-shaped and oil. In addition, excessive amounts of oil in
sharpened approximately every three hours. steel wool can make the product com-
Thickness of the product is varied by the size bustible.
of the razor-like edges. The thicker the steel
wool, the more slowly the product moves Byproducts/Waste
through the machine.
The left-over wire (the metal that is cut away
4 After the wire has moved up one side and from the metal rod and is not usable steel
down the other, the cutting tools have wool) is collected and sent out the back of
fully formed the steel wool. The usable steel the machine via conveyor belt and moves to
wool product is wound up into big rolls un- the hammermill. Here, the hammermill
derneath the machine that weigh approxi- chops the scrap metal into metal dust that is
mately 40 lb (18.1 kg) each. These large rolls sold to the automotive industry and used in
are run through a machine that cuts the steel the formation of brake pads. The small, left-
wool in length (perhaps 2 ft [61 cm]) and over pieces that remain after the metal rod is
width, then rolls the strip and presses it into cut are rolled onto a spool and cut into small-
steel wool pads (if one examines a steel wool er pieces. This scrap is sold to concrete com-
pad it is essentially a roll of steel wool that panies and is increasingly replacing rebar as
has been rolled to form a pad and can be eas- it is significantly stronger than the reinforc-
399
ing bars currently used in concrete construc- ferent types of grease fighting agents ap-
tion. Lint and steel wool dust, as well as plied to the steel wool pads.
fumes, are generally collected with a cyclone
dust collector, thus keeping these particu-
lates out of the circulation within the plant. Where to Learn More
Other
The Future
New Scientist. http://www.newscientist.com
Since the advent of steel wool, the product (January 2001).
has undergone few changes. Soap has been
added for use with pots and pans, and these SFI Steel Wool Machines. http://sfisteel-
steel wool types come in a handful of sizes wool.com (January 2001).
and colors that are appealing to the con-
sumer. In the future, consumers will see dif- -Nancy E. V. Bryk
400
Storm Shelter
Background ing Shelter from the Storm: Building a Safe During 1999, 13 states
Room Inside Your House.
More than half of the United States lie in a suffered a total of 30 fatal
broad strip between the Appalachian and A third choice is for the family to build a
Rocky Mountains that is commonly called shelter underground, beneath their house or
tornadoes causing 95
Tornado Alley. It has more tornado activity nearby. These can be purchased as prefabri- deaths.
than any other area of the world. The rest of cated units and installed in a few hours or
the country is not immune; tornadoes have they can be custom built on site. Manufac-
occurred in every state. tured shelter costs begin at less than $3,000,
Each year, United States residents spend with installation adding on about $300-
more than 3 billion person-hours under tor- $500. Custom-built shelters can be as exten-
nado watches (official alerts issued in areas sive as desired; one company that builds
experiencing severe weather that might gen- survival shelters for nuclear explosions as
erate tornadoes). According to the Wind En- well as natural disasters suggests adding
gineering Research Center at Texas Tech amenities such as a billiard room, bowling
University, a tornado actually forms during alley, or pistol shooting range. In general,
more than half of these watches. During however, storm shelters are small-often
1999, 13 states suffered a total of 30 fatal around 50 ft2 (4.6 m2) and about 6 ft (1.8 m)
tornadoes causing 95 deaths. Although there high-and intended to accommodate six
have been no studies of the number of lives tolO people for only a few hours.
saved by storm shelters, there is broad
agreement that properly constructed shelters History
are highly effective, not only in tornadoes-
the most violent of wind storms, with winds The history of storm shelters overlaps with
sometimes exceeding 300 mph (485 that of fallout shelters designed for protec-
kmph)-but also in hurricanes and other se- tion from nuclear warfare. Threats to the se-
vere weather events. curity of United States territory during
World War II, the uncertainty of the nuclear
A family that wants to have their own storm weapons era, and the Cold War between
shelter has three basic choices. They can communism and democracy combined to
build a monolithic dome home (a seamless launch the United States' first civil defense
concrete structure) that looks unconvention- programs in 1949. In 1950, Congress autho-
al but is strong enough to withstand tornadic rized both a nationwide system of nuclear
winds and debris impacts. Alternatively, bomb shelters and a relief effort for victims
they can heavily reinforce a room or closet of natural disasters. People were encouraged
in their conventional house, producing a to build underground bomb shelters for their
"safe room" (in-residence shelter). At least families and stock them with survival provi-
one company sells an epoxy-coated steel sions. In tornado-prone areas, these shelters
panel kit for this purpose, and the Federal served a dual purpose.
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
offers free instructions for a do-it-yourself, In 1971, during the presidency of Richard M.
reinforced concrete version in its book Tak- Nixon (1969-1974) and its philosophy of de-
401
Molding
Installation
An underground storm shelter is a

molded concrete structure that is tente (peaceful coexistence with communist presidency (1974-1977), the focus returned
buried in the ground and used as governments), the focus of government-sup- to protection from natural disasters and
a protective shelter against torna- ported programs for civil defense shifted peacetime accidents like that at the Three
does. from military attacks to natural disasters. Mile Island nuclear power plant in 1979.
After a brief reversal during Gerald Ford's Following widespread devastation from Hur-
402
Storm Shelter
ricane Hugo and California's Loma Prieta
earthquake in 1989 and Hurricane Andrew in
1992, FEMA's mission broadened from dis-
aster relief and reconstruction to loss preven-
tion. In accord with this philosophy, the fed-
eral government now offers financial
incentives to homeowners who construct in-
residence or underground storm shelters.
Rawv Materials
Safe rooms are constructed of steel panels or
reinforced concrete. Site-constructed under-
ground storm shelters are usually made of
reinforced concrete. Prefabricated under-
ground shelters are made from various ma-
terials, including corrugated steel culverts,
steel plate (perhaps galvanized or epoxy
coated), reinforced fiberglass, high-density
polyethylene, and concrete reinforced with
rebar (steel rods) or fibermesh (fine,
polypropylene fibers distributed uniformly
through the wet concrete).
Shelter doors or hatches are usually made
from steel, fiberglass, or steel-plated ply-
wood or aluminum. Stairs or ladders in un-
derground shelters may be made of wood,
aluminum, steel, or fiberglass. Stainless
steel and zinc are used for other hardware
items like bolts and anchor chains.
Design
Underground shelters come in various
shapes including spheres, domes, horizontal paired persons, but a few manufacturers
tubes, and rectangular boxes. Most manu- offer some models that are. Canton Enter-
facturers offer their own patented designs, prises' horizontal-entry version, for exam-
some of which are available in several sizes. ple, can be recessed into a hillside, or it can
They usually come with battery-powered be installed at ground level and have dirt
lights, wall-mounted benches, and a ladder banked around its walls.
or stairs. Some manufacturers offer optional
accessories like a chemical toilet, indoor- The Manufacturing
outdoor carpeting, a telephone jack, and a Process
weather-band radio.
The following description is representative
To minimize the risk of occupants being of the manufacturing process for a prefabri-
trapped by debris covering the door, some cated, reinforced concrete storm shelter.
shelters are equipped with a hydraulic or Certain details may vary among manufac-
screw jack for forcing open the door. Other turers.
models feature a second, emergency exit
hatch at the end of the chamber opposite the Shell construction
entrance.
l Steel molds are used to cast the upper and
Safe rooms are readily accessible to the lower sections of the shelter. Walls are 3-
handicapped. Most underground shelters are 4 in (7.5-10 cm) thick, while floors and ceil-
not designed for entrance by mobility-im- ings are 5-6 in (13-15 cm) thick.
403
2 Metal reinforcement is placed in each done by bolting or chaining them to mounts

2mold. For example, one manufacturer embedded in a concrete foundation. Some
uses 0.5-in (1.3 cm) diameter steel rebar manufacturers also recommend pouring
placed at 12-in (30-cm) spacing. concrete around the shelter's walls.
3 Concrete is poured into the mold. The 1 O If concrete is not poured around the
vmold is vibrated to minimize air bubbles. V shelter, soil excavated from the instal-
lation site is generally used to backfill the
4When the concrete has set, the shell is remaining void around the shelter. If the
removed from the mold and inspected shelter is also intended to function as a
for flaws. bomb shelter, backfilling consists of gravel
or crushed rock.
5 The top and bottom halves of the shell are
joined. Their edges are designed to inter- 1 1 Some underground shelters are in-
lock, and a tar sealant or waterproof mastic is stalled with their tops at ground level,
applied prior to mating the two pieces. Steel but most are designed to be covered with 2-
straps are placed across the seams and bolted 3 ft (61-91 cm) of soil. The surface may
in place to reinforce the joint. then be planted with grass or topped with
patio decking.
6 Steps or a ladder are installed. The door
Uis mounted using multiple hinges, a
piano hinge, or a frame that allows the door Quality Control
to slide open and closed. One or two air FEMA bases its acceptability standards for
vents are installed. Each consists of a verti- storm shelters on research conducted at the
cal pipe topped with either a wind turbine or Wind Engineering Research Center. Since
a screen-covered 1800 elbow. 1970, the center has studied the damage
caused by 100 windstorms and tornadoes. It
Installcation found that the greatest threat to people is
The installation procedure is similar for all flying debris that can penetrate windows,
types of in-ground shelters. The following walls, and roofs of buildings, forcibly strik-
description mentions there refinements nec- ing occupants. Shelter designs can be tested
essary for each type. in the center's laboratory to determine their
ability to withstand the impact of a 15-lb
7A backhoe is used to dig a hole for the (6.8-kg) section of 2x4-in (5xlO-cm) lumber
shelter. A worker with a shovel hand-fin- fired by a compressed-air cannon at speeds
ishes the hole, leveling the bottom and of 100 mph (160 kmph) for walls and doors
clearing the corners. The hole should be or 67 mph (120 kmph) for roofs. A FEMA-
about 2 ft (61 cm) larger than the shelter in acceptable shelter must also be able to with-
each dimension. stand winds of 250 mph (400 kmph); very
few tornadoes exceed this wind speed.
8 The backhoe or a crane-equipped tow
8truck is used to lift the shelter and lower In addition to the standard tests, some man-
it into the hole. Some shelters are equipped ufacturers tout their product's ability to
with fittings that the lifting device can withstand somewhat more creative trials.
grasp. Others are lifted by chains attached to For example, one advertises that its shelter
brackets on the outside of the shelter or by a withstood the impact of a minivan, and an-
pair of nylon straps wrapped vertically other reports its unit stopped a 38-caliber
around the shelter. bullet. As part of its inspection of each shel-
ter produced, one manufacturer fills the
9 A prefabricated reinforced concrete shel- completed shell with water to verify that it
9 ter weighs at least 12,000 lb (5,500 kg). is water-tight.
The smallest sizes of steel and fiberglass
shelters weigh about 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) and
1,400 lb (640 kg), respectively. Because The Future
they could float if the ground became satu- Storm shelters are usually made out of con-
rated, steel and fiberglass shelters must be crete or steel, but recent technological de-
anchored during installation. This is usually velopments have shown that fiberglass is
404
Storm Shelter
becoming very popular. Older shelters tend Wind Engineering Research Center. http:H/
to rust or corrode after many decades of www.wise.ttu.edu/inshelter/inshelte.htm
being exposed to the worst of the elements. (April 12, 2000).
Mildew is also a large factor in underground
shelters. Fiberglass is mildew resistant and Jarrell Storm Shelters. http://wwwjarrell
usually guaranteed not to rust or corrode. stormshelters.com (April 13, 2000).
Advances have also been made with new
steel and concrete models. Many companies Storm Shelters USA. http://www.shelter-
sell warranties with their shelters promising susa.com (April 14, 2000).
that they will not leak, rust, or float.
"Taking Shelter from the Storm: Building a
Safe Room Inside Your House." Federal
Where to Learn More Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
Other http://www.fema.gov/mit/tsfsOl.htm (April
11, 2000).
E-Z Kit Safe Room. http://www.twisterpit.
com/ez_kit.htm (April 15, 2000). -Loretta Hall
"Inresidence Shelters for Protection from

Extreme Winds." Texas Tech University
405
Teeth Whitener
In the late 1 990s, sales Background ucts are not effective in removing deeper
stains such as those caused by tetracycline,
for teeth whiteners soared Teeth whiteners are products designed to fluorosis, jaundice, or internal bleeding. In
enhance the appearance of teeth by remov- the late 1 990s, sales for teeth whiteners
to $33.7 million. By ing stains and improving brightness. These soared to $33.7 million. By comparison,
whiteners typically contain bleaching
comparison, consumers agents, such as hydrogen peroxide or other
consumers spent $2.43 billion on the entire
oral hygiene category which include tooth-
spent $2.43 billion on the peroxygen-type chemicals, that remove or- pastes and mouthwashes.
ganic residue and oxidize stains so they are
entire oral hygiene less visible. While teeth whiteners have While the products currently on the market
category which include been used by dentists for many years, they are generally recognized to be less effective
have only been commercially available than professional treatments, there is still
toothpastes and since the mid-1990s. These products are concern that they may damage oral tissue.
available in two primary forms: as tooth- Therefore teeth whiteners are the source of
mouthwashes. pastes that whiten teeth as they clean and as some controversy. The U.S. Food and Drug
specialty liquids applied to teeth separate Administration (FDA) has expressed con-
from the brushing process. cerns that these products should be consid-
ered drugs rather than cosmetics and the
History American Dental Association (ADA) says
that overuse of these products may damage
Teeth-whitening formulations were first de- tissue, cause cell changes, or harm dentin
veloped for use in denture cleaning com-
and enamel. Although the products remain
pounds. From there, they gained popularity on the market, their future is not yet clear,
among dentists for general teeth whitening.
and an extreme shift could occur if the FDA
The first clinical treatments administered by eventually rules that whiteners can no
dentists required several lengthy appoint- longer be sold as cosmetics.
ments that involved etching the teeth with
an abrasive or an acid and then bleaching
them with a 30-33% solution of hydrogen Rawv Mcsterials
peroxide and applying heat. Finally, the
teeth were polished to restore a lustrous sur- Water constitutes the largest portion of the
face. Dentists typically charged $50-150 for formula and is used as diluent for the other
each of these clinical procedures. ingredients. Dionized or demineralized
water is used because the metal ions found
In the 1990s, commercial tooth whiteners in hard water can interfere with the action of
began appearing on the market for the gen- the other raw materials.
eral public. These products contained some
of the same active ingredients as the profes- Stain removal can be achieved chemically
sional products but at lower concentrations. with bleaching agents such as hydrogen per-
To achieve significant whitening, they must oxide and physically with abrasives such as
be used for several minutes each day for carbonates. Chemical bleaching agents in-
four to six weeks. While they can improve clude hydrogen peroxide, sodium percar-
the general appearance of teeth, these prod- bonate, and sodium perborate. Abrasive ma-
406
Teeth Whitener
terials used in whiteners include calcium or An example of teeth whitener.
magnesium carbonate, calcium phosphates,
insoluble sodium metaphosphate, silica xe-
rogels or aerogels, and hydrated aluminas.
Detergents are used in teeth whiteners to pro-
vide foam and help cleanse. These chemicals
are surfactants such as sodium lauryl sulfate,
sodium lauryl sarcosinate, sodium lauryl sul-
foacetate, or dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate.
Binders and thickeners increase the viscosity
of the product. Some that are typically used
are carboxymethylcellulose, carrageenan,
gum tragacanth, gum karaya, Irish moss,
sodium alginate, Carbopol resins, magnesium method, both portions of the product were
aluminum silicates, and block copolymers. co-extruded onto the toothbrush at the time
of use. Eventually, stable formulations were
Therapeutic agents may also be added to the designed which replaced hydrogen peroxide
product. They include sodium citrate, which with a solid peroxygen bleaching agent (ei-
interferes with the metabolic activity of ther sodium percarbonate or calcium perox-
pathogenic bacteria and helps reduce gin- ide) in an anhydrous formulation. This ap-
givitis; and pyrophosphate, which is an ef- proach also allows the incorporation of
fective tartar-control agent. other active ingredients such as baking soda
and tartar-control agents. If care is taken to
Humectants such as sorbitol, glycerin, and select compatible thickeners, and if contam-
propylene glycol are used in the formulas to ination from other sources is controlled,
reduce moisture loss from the product; this these formulations can maintain shelf stabil-
prevents "crusting" if the cap is left off of ity for the life of the product.
the package for an extended time. Flavors
are included to improve consumer appeal. Aesthetic considerations also impact formula
Common flavors are peppermint, spearmint, design. For example, taste, appearance, and
wintergreen, sassafras, and anise. Addition- consistency must be designed to the con-
ally, sweeteners, such as saccharin, are sumer's liking before these products can be
added to further improve the taste of the commercially acceptable. Proper packaging
product. Preservatives such as methyl and must also be considered during the design
propyl paraben and sodium benzoate are phase of product development. Teeth whiten-
used to prevent bacterial growth in the prod- ers may be designed as pastes that can be ap-
uct. Finally, titanium dioxide, which con- plied using a simple toothbrush or as liquids
tributes to teeth whitening; sodium bicar- used in conjunction with plastic or rubber
bonate, which controls pH; and certified dental dams that hold the solution close to the
colors are other common ingredients. tooth surface. This application process helps
the product perform better. In addition, some
teeth whiteners are designed with a pre-rinse
Design treatment that eliminates some of the residue
found on the tooth surface.
Teeth whiteners for home use are carefully
formulated to be efficacious and safe. The A number of manufacturers have marketed
most significant challenge when designing successful teeth whitening products. For ex-
these products is to eliminate potential in- ample, Proctor and Gamble's Crest intro-
compatibility between the peroxygen duced its MultiCare Plus Extra Whitening
bleaching agents (e.g., hydrogen peroxide) toothpaste in the late 1990s. Other popular
and the other ingredients in the formulation. brands include Aquafresh Whitening Ad-
Initially, this challenge was overcome by vanced Freshness by Smith Beacham; Rem-
the development of a dual-delivery system brandt Daily Whitening Gel with Safe Per-
where gelled hydrogen peroxide was kept oxide by the Den-mat Corporation; and
separate from the rest of the formulation Mentadent Advanced Whitening by Chese-
with a dual chambered package. With this borough Ponds to name just a few.
407
The Manufacturing it passes under the filling head the nozzle

Process dispenses a pre-set amount of product into
the open end of the tube. The tube then
Raw material staging moves down the conveyor to a sealing ma-
l Raw materials are first analyzed to make chine that clamps the tube shut and seals the
sure they comply with all relevant specifi- plastic with heat or ultrasonic vibrations.
cations. Once they have been approved they Each tube imprinted with a batch code to
are pre-weighed and staged in the manufac- allow the tracking of each lot. The sealed
turing area in preparation for production. tubes are then transferred to cartons for
shipping.
Charging the batch tank
2 Toothpaste-like teeth whiteners are typi- Quality Control
cally made in stainless steel batching As with other personal care products, the
tanks equipped with planetary-style mixers quality of teeth whiteners are carefully mon-
that stir the batch without whipping in ex- itored during production. Before manufac-
cessive amounts of air. These tanks are ture begins, all raw materials are assessed to
sealed and equipped with an apparatus that ensure they meet the established specifica-
uses a vacuum to pull out trapped air. This tions. After the batch is complete, the fin-
prevents the formation of bubbles in the finished product is checked for quality includ-
ished product. Batching tanks range in size ing basic chemical parameters such as pH
from 25-625 gal (100-2,500 L) and viscosity. Both these factors can affect
the stability of the product as well as its aes-
Mixing thetic appeal. For example, if the pH is too
low, the solubility and efficacy of the
3The humectants (glycerine and sorbitol) whitening agents may be affected. The
are added first and the powdered thick- batch is also checked to ensure it is free of
ening agents are dispersed in the liquid. By microbial contamination.
dispersing the powders in the non-aqueous
solvents they will not clump when they The quality these products may be impacted
come in contact with water. by actions of the FDA. In February 1994, the
FDA issued a Notice of Proposed Rule Mak-
4 After the powders are dispersed, the ing (NPRM) in the form of a tentative final
x water is added to dilute the batch. The monograph for oral antiseptic drug products.
batch is mixed for about 20 minutes, allow- This monograph lists active ingredients and
ing the water soluble ingredients to fully hy- establishes testing and efficacy requirements
drate. for teeth whiteners. Active ingredients are
5Then, a vacuum is applied to draw ex- classified Category II (not generally recog-
cess air from the batch. The sweeteners,
nized as safe or effective) or Category III
surfactants, and other ingredients are mixed (more data needed to establish safety and ef-
in and the batched is mixed for another 15 fectiveness). As of the end of 2000, the FDA
minutes. has not established when it will issue the
final monograph on this category and it con-
6Finally, the flavor chemicals are added tinues to regulate these products as cosmet-
and the batch is stirred for an additional ics, not as drugs. The National Tooth
10 minutes until it reaches a smooth, bub- Whitener Coalition, a trade organization
ble-free consistency. composed of teeth whitener manufacturers,
is fighting to ensure that the FDA does not
Filling and packaging over regulate this product category.
7The finished product is transferred to a The Future

7filling machine via high pressure pumps.
The filling machine consists of nozzles con- The primary factor affecting the future teeth
nected to a metered dispensing system. The whitener products is the regulatory environ-
packaging, usually plastic tubes, is fed ment. Depending on future actions by the
under the filling nozzles via a conveyor belt. FDA, these products may continue to be
Each tube moves down the conveyor and as sold as cosmetics or they may be regulated
408
Teeth Whitener
as drugs. The fact that most of these prod- Council on Dental Therapeutics." Journal
ucts contain hydrogen peroxide continues to of the American Dental Association 125
be of concern. In addition, chemists are con- (August 1994):1141-1142.
tinually developing improved formulations.
While changes in the regulatory environ- Rosendahl, Iris. "Tooth Whiteners Wite
ment will impact the future of teeth whiten- Hot Despite Heat from FDA." Drug Topics
ing products, it is likely that advances in 136, no. 6 (March 23, 1992): 96(2).
chemistry will result in products with im-
proved performance, taste, and stability. "Striped Gel Toothpaste." Soap Cosmetics
Chemical Specialties 72, no. 12 (December
1996): 42(4).
Where to Learn More
Thorsen, Eric. "Oral Care Cosmetics Bright-
Periodicals en Category Sales." Discount Store News
37, no. 16 (August 24, 1998): 44(1).
"Guidelines for the Acceptance of Perox-
ide-Containing Oral Hygiene Products, -Randy Schueller
409
Thompson Submachine Gun
Tommy guys were used in Background Automatic Rifle of 1892, and an improved
version of the Browning developed by an
Chicago's notorious St. A machine gun is a weapon that fires a con- American army colonel Isaac Newton Lewis
tinuous stream of bullets as long as the trig- in 1911. By the Boer War of 1899-1902, the
Valentine's Day Massacre ger is held down. Many inventors worked to
effectiveness of the machine gun was well
come up with such a gun, and early models
in 1929 and carried by are the well-known Gatling gun, used promi-
demonstrated, and European countries adopt-
ed various weapons of Maxim, Hotchkiss,
renegade killers Bonnie nently in the American Civil War, and and Lewis in the years leading up to World
Hiram Maxim's fully automatic weapon, War I. These machine guns were heavy,
and Clyde in the 1930s. patented in 1883. Machine guns of various needed to be supported by a block or tripod,
makes were instrumental in the trench battles and they tended to overheat quickly, requir-
of World War I. After World War II, the ma- ing some sort of cooling system.
chine gun was for the most part replaced by
different types of more powerful automatic
assault rifles. The lightweight machine gun The inventor of the Thompson submachine
known as the "Tommy gun," or Thompson gun was Kentucky-born Army officer John
submachine gun, was developed for use in Taliafeffo Thompson. He was born into a
World War I, and then marketed to law en- military family, and spent his youth on mili-
forcement personnel. It became notorious as tary bases across the United States. He grad-
the gun of choice of gangsters in the 1920s uated from the military academy West Point
and 1930s. It is still manufactured, finding a in 1882 and then entered the army. By 1890
market primarily with gun collectors. Thompson was working in the Ordnance
Department, where he remained for the rest
of his career. Thompson became a specialist
in small arms, and by 1903 he was working
History on modernizing many of the Army's
The gun invented by Richard Jordan Gatling weapons designs. He developed a new
in 1862 was the first widely used weapon of model rifle based on the German Mauser in
the machine gun type. The Gatling gun was 1903, and in 1907 he was put in charge of
not strictly a machine gun, as it was not com- small arms design, development, and pro-
pletely automatic. Its rotating barrel had to be duction in the Ordnance Department in
cranked by hand. Ammunition was fed into Washington. Thompson's dream was to
the Gatling through a top-mounted hopper. It convince the United States Army to adopt or
could fire a thousand rounds a minute. Amer- develop an automatic rifle, but his ideas
ican arms inventor Benjamin Berkeley were considered radical. The machine gun's
Hotchkiss came up with an improved several inventors had all gone to Europe to
Gatling-type gun in 1872. Both the Hotchkiss market their weapons, and the U.S. Army
and the Gatling were made obsolete by the remained uninterested. Thompson eventual-
invention of the Maxim machine gun in ly retired from the army in 1914, and went
1883. The Maxim was fully automatic, firing to work for the Remington Arms Corpora-
continuous rounds powered by the recoil en- tion, one of the leading American weapons
ergy of the exploding shell. Other early ma- manufacturers. At Remington he pursued
chine guns were John Browning's Browning plans to design his own automatic rifle.
4 1 0
Through personal contacts, Thompson met chine guns were apparently easily and legal-
business magnate Thomas Fortune Ryan, ly available at sporting goods stores. Notori-
and the financier agreed to provide the in- ous gangster Al Capone supposedly stopped
ventor with capital. In 1916, Thompson at a Chicago sporting goods store to get a
launched a new company, the Auto-Ord- gun, and Capone's first known Tommy-gun
nance Corporation, to develop, manufacture, killing followed on April 27, 1926. The
and market a new automatic rifle. This firm, guns spread through the underworld, first in
based in New York, contracted with a other parts of the Midwest, and then to New
Cleveland machine-tool firm, Warner & York. They were used in Chicago's notori-
Swasey, to build and test its prototypes. ous St. Valentine's Day Massacre in 1929
Auto-Ordnance's first attempts at an auto- and carried by renegade killers Bonnie and
matic rifle failed. In 1917, with the Euro- Clyde in the 1930s.
pean countries engaged in trench warfare in
World War I, John Thompson decided to During the 1930s, the Tommy gun contin-
opt for a new design entirely. This was to be ued to be identified with desperados, gang-
a small, hand-held machine gun. The Max- sters, and bank robbers. In 1932, Auto-Ord-
ims and other machine guns in use in World nance at last convinced the United States
War I were large, relatively immobile Army to buy its guns, but the Army bought
weapons that were used primarily defen- only small quantities. However, on the eve
sively. Thompson envisioned a gun of simi- of World War II, the company suddenly re-
lar swift firepower, that soldiers could run ceived an order from France for 3,000
with, and so use in offensive assaults. Tommy guns. The French order was soon
followed by a British one, and the U.S.
Auto-Ordnance began working feverishly Army too ordered over 20,000 Thompsons
on this "miniature" machine gun. The first in 1940. Colt refused to manufacture more
workable designs were done in 1918, and of the submachine guns because of the bad
the company made several prototypes and press the weapon had received, and the
got them ready to ship to American troops Thompson was redesigned and somewhat
overseas. The prototypes reached the dock simplified to fill the World War II orders.
in New York the day the Armistice was The Thompsons of the 1940s were manufac-
signed, and Auto-Ordnance thus lost out on tured by a company in Bridgeport, Con-
its intended market. The company went necticut, where they were the only light ma-
back to work, trying to modify the gun for chine guns being mass-produced by any of
use other than in trench warfare. In 1919 the the Allied countries. But even the new, im-
company unveiled its Thompson subma- proved design was soon obsolete. By the
chine gun, the "sub" indicating that it was end of the war, the Thompson had been sur-
much smaller than the massive machine passed by the cheaper, lighter British STEN
guns used in Europe. The premier United gun and its United States counterpart, the
States gunmaker Colt agreed to manufacture M3. The M3 was known as the "grease
the Thompson, and the first guns were ready gun," an inelegant thing that was made of
in March, 1921. Though Auto-Ordnance stamped metal, welded together. Ugly as it
hoped to get a large order from the U.S. was, it could be mass-produced for a frac-
Army, it instead found eager takers in coun- tion of the cost of the Thompson.
tries like Honduras and Panama, where the
guns were used to solve labor disputes. After the war, demand for the Thompson
Within months of the gun's introduction, the was practically gone. Auto-Ordnance Co.
Thompson found its way to underground changed hands several times, always on the
fighters of the Irish Republican Army verge of bankruptcy. In the 1970s, the com-
(IRA). Auto-Ordnance marketed the gun pany was acquired by a former employee,
heavily to police departments, touting the Ira Trast, who redesigned the classic
"pocket machine gun" as a great way to stop Thompson as a semi-automatic weapon. The
bank robbers and other motorized bandits. intended market was mostly gun enthusiasts
Unfortunately, it was these criminals who who wanted a working gun that looked like
seized on the merits of the Tommy gun. In the infamous gangster weapon. In 1999 the
1925 gangsters in Chicago used Thompsons company changed hands again. It was
in vendettas, finding them ideal for quick bought by Kahr Arms in Blauvelt, New
killing from a safe distance. The subma- York. In order to produce a historically ac-
411
guns are now an interesting blend of old and

new technology. Parts are machined by pre-
cision instruments controlled by computers,
and then the guns are carefully assembled
by hand by trained artisans.
Raw Materials
The raw materials for Thompson subma-
chine guns are mostly steel, with lighter al-
loys for small and flexible parts such as
springs. The stocks are made of walnut, a
traditional hardwood for gun manufacturing.
Design
The original design process for the Thomp-
son was quite lengthy, and involved numer-
ous drawings and prototypes. The gun was
redesigned for use in World War II to make
a simpler model that was easier to mass-pro-
duce. The Thompsons produced after World
War II were assembled out of surplus parts
by a company that had bought Auto-Ord-
nance's inventory. When the parts inventory
began to run low, Auto-Ordnance was sold
to Kahr Arms, a manufacturer of guns, other
weapons, and parts, as well as many other
metal products. At this point, Kahr wished
to make complete Thompson guns out of
new parts. Kahr's engineers consulted the
scores of original drawings for historical ac-
curacy, and also went through a process
known as reverse engineering.
In reverse engineering, engineers take apart a
finished product and figure out how it was
, made. Drawings are made from already avail-
able parts, instead of new parts being made
from engineers' drawings. To make the
Thompson according to modem methods, a
drawing for each part was produced using
computer software known as computer aided
design, or CAD. Next, a separate set of draw-
ings were made, called machine or shop draw-
ings. These are blueprints that show exactly
how each part needs to be cut. These drawings
are converted to computer codes that can be
read by the actual cutting machines.
curate gun, Kahr researched the original en-
gineering drawings for the Thompson, dig- The Manufacturing
ging through records going back to 1919. Process
Kahr then used modem computer design
and drafting techniques to produce com- Cutting the steel
pletely new engineering drawings based on 1 The manufacturer first receives its raw
the old designs. Thompson submachine I material at the factory as steel bars. These
4 12
A B
A. A magazine feed system. B.

are cut by a number of specialized ma- Subassembly Using a recoil, the barrel and
chines. The machines read the computer- breechblock lock together before
generated blueprints and cut exactly to spec- A4 The Thompson gun has a total of between firing, move backwards after fir-
ification. The component parts of the gun 60 and 70 parts total. Rather than workers ing, and propel the bullet forward
assembling the whole gun at once, the process to be discharged.
have been designed so that they can be pro-
is broken down into five main subassemblies.
duced in only one or two operations, thus
cutting down the possibility of deviation Workers at the factory are divided into differ-
ent subassembly stations. Parts belonging to a
from the desired specifications. Some of the
main parts of the Thompson that are cut
particular subassembly are set out, and work-
ers fit parts together by mating surfaces
from solid steel are the barrel, the receiver,
the bolt, and the frame. and/or securing parts with screws. Workers
are selected for jobs because they have a
background in firearms, and they go through a
Other metal parts three-month internship before they are fully
qualified. Workers are paid by the piece, and
2Not every part needs to be cut from solid so they strive to be fast as well as accurate.
2steel. Some smaller parts are stamped.
These are done by a sub-contractor who spe- Final assembly
cializes in stamping. Large stamping ma-
chines press down on sheets of metal, work- Other workers put the entire gun togeth-
ing something like a cookie cutter. Springs 5er from the finished subassemblies. Be-
are also purchased from a sub-contractor cause of the high precision of the machin-
who specializes in spring manufacturing. ing, parts fit neatly into each other. They are
snapped into place and secured with screws.
The wooden stock is screwed on last, and
The stock the gun is cleaned and polished. Then the
finished Thompson moves to a quality con-
3The stock is made of walnut. This is trol area for a final check.
3made by a sub-contractor according to
the gun manufacturer's design specifica-
tions. Workers use wood-cutting tools to cut Quality Control
and shape the stock from walnut boards, and The maker of Thompson submachine guns
ship them to the machine gun maker. works under international standards for
4 1 3
manufacturing quality. These are standards and other uses. But they have historical
that apply to the metal machining tech- significance, and may be collected by gun
niques used, whether the end product is a enthusiasts for that reason. Although the
gun or an exercise machine. To list itself as design and inner workings of the Thomp-
a factory following these standards, the son has changed for modem manufactur-
manufacturer submits to random audits of ing, it is the distinctive outward appearance
its facilities several times a year. So the en- of the gun that will surely remain un-
tire facility follows strict guidelines for changed in the future. Manufacture of the
quality control. As far as specific quality Thompson will likely continue as long as
control tests for the Thompson, the guns un- our fascination with history and the under-
dergo tests for function and for cosmetics. world is alive.
Each finished gun is carefully inspected for
obvious outward flaws such as scratches or
blemishes on the stock. And each gun is Where to Learn More
test-fired. Quality control workers at a test Books
firing range shoot off six or seven rounds
from each gun. Then the guns are wrapped, Helmer, William J. The Gun that Made the
boxed, and distributed to wholesalers. Twenties Roar. London: Macmillan, 1969.
Hosley, William. Colt: The Making of an
The Future American Legend. Amherst, MA: Universi-
ty of Massachusetts Press, 1996.
Modem guns have taken the place of
Thompson submachine guns for warfare -Angela Woodward
4 14
Toilet Paper
Background used an L-shaped stick (like a hockey stick) The average American
made of wood or precious metal; at public
Most of us can't imagine living without toi- toilets people used sponges on sticks that uses over 100 single rolls
let paper. The average American uses over were kept in saltwater between uses. In arid
100 single rolls-about 21,000 sheets- of toilet paper-about
climates, sand, powdered brick, or earth was
each year. It's used not only for bathroom used. Until the late nineteenth century, Mus- 21,000 sheets- each
hygiene, but for nose care, wiping up spills, lims were advised to use three stones to
removing makeup, and small bathroom clean up. One favorite tool was a mussel year.
cleaning chores. Manufacturers estimate shell, used for centuries. Until the early
that an average single roll lasts five days. twentieth century, corn cobs were used.
Toilet paper, paper towels, napkins, and fa- In the late fifteenth century, when paper
cial tissues are sanitary papers, personal became widely available, it began to re-
products that need to be clean and hygenic. place other traditional materials. Some-
They're made from various proportions of times old correspondence was pressed into
bleached kraft pulps with relatively little re- service, as were pages from old books,
fining of the stock, rendering them soft, magazines, newspapers, and catalogs. Peo-
bulky, and absorbent. Sanitary papers are ple also used old paper bags, envelopes,
further distinguished from other papers in and other bits of scrap paper,which were
that they are creped, a process in which the cut into pieces and threaded onto a string
paper is dried on a cylinder then scraped off that was kept in the privy.
with a metal blade, slightly crimping it. This
softens the paper but makes it fairly weak, Toilet paper is a fairly modem invention,
allowing it to disintegrate in water. making its debut around 1880 when it was
developed by the British Perforated Paper
Toilet paper can be one- or two-ply, meaning Company. Made of a coarser paper than its
that it's either a single sheet or two sheets modem incarnation, it was sold in boxes of
placed back-to-back to make it builder and individual squares. In America, the Scott
more absorbent. Color, scents, and embossing Paper Company made its Waldorf brand toi-
may also be added, but fragrances sometimes let paper in rolls as early as 1890. The first
cause problems for consumers who are aller- rolls were not perforated, and lavatory dis-
gic to perfumes. The biggest difference be- pensers had serrated teeth to cut the paper as
tween toilet papers is the distinction between needed. It was a nearly "unmentionable"
virgin paper products, which are formed di- product for years, and consumers were often
rectly from chipped wood, and those made embarrassed to ask for it by name or even be
from recycled paper. Most toilet paper, how- seen buying it. Timid shoppers simply asked
ever, whether virgin or recycled, is wrapped for "Two, please," and the clerk presumably
around recycled cardboard cylinders. knew what they wanted. To keep things dis-
creet, toilet paper was packaged and sold in
History brown paper wrappers.
Before paper was widely available, a variety During the 120 years since its introduction,
of materials were employed. The Romans toilet paper has changed little, although it's
415
4 1 6
Toilet Paper
now perforated, and may be scented, em- 15 tons of usable fiber, called pulp, result
bossed, or colored. Recently, toilet paper from each cooked batch.
manufacturers increased the number of
sheets on a roll, allowing consumers to re- 5 The pulp goes through a multistage
place the roll less frequently. 5washer system that removes most of the
lignin and the cooking chemicals. This fluid,
called black liquor, is separated from the
Rawv Materials pulp, which goes on to the next stage of pro-
duction.
Toilet paper is generally made from new or
"virgin" paper, using a combination of soft- The washed pulp is sent to the bleach
wood and hardwood trees. Softwood trees
such as Southern pines and Douglas firs
6plant where a multistage chemical
process removes color from the fiber. Resid-
have long fibers that wrap around each ual lignin, the adhesive that binds fibers to-
other; this gives paper strength. Hardwood gether, will yellow paper over time and
trees like gum, maple and oak have shorter must be bleached to make paper white.
fibers that make a softer paper. Toilet paper
is generally a combination of approximately 7The pulp is mixed with water again to
70% hardwood and 30% softwood. 7produce paper stock, a mixture that is
99.5% water and 0.5% fiber. The paper
Other materials used in manufacture include stock is sprayed between moving mesh
water, chemicals for breaking down the screens, which allow much of the water to
trees into usable fiber, and bleaches. Com- drain. This produces an 18-ft (5.5-m) wide
panies that make paper from recycled prod- sheet of matted fiber at a rate of up to 6,500
ucts use oxygen, ozone, sodium hydroxide, ft (1981 m) per minute.
or peroxide to whiten the paper. Virgin-
paper manufacturers, however, often use Q The mat is then transferred to a huge
chlorine-based bleaches (chlorine dioxide), Uheated cylinder called a Yankee Dryer
which have been identified as a threat to the that presses and dries the paper to a final
environment. moisture content of about 5%.
9Next, the paper is creped, a process that
The Manufacturing makes it very soft and gives it a slightly
Process wrinkled look. During creping, the paper is
scraped off the Yankee Dryer with a metal
Trees arive at the mill and are debarked, blade. This makes the sheets somewhat flex-
a process that removes the tree's outer
ible but lowers their strength and thickness
layer while leaving as much wood on the so that they virtually disintegrate when wet.
tree as possible. The paper, which is produced at speeds over
a mile a minute, is then wound on jumbo
2The debarked logs are chipped into a reels that can weigh as much as five tons.
uniform size approximately 1 in x 1/4 in.
These small pieces make it easier to pulp the lO The paper is then loaded onto con-
wood. V verting machines that unwind, slit,
and rewind it onto long thin cardboard tub-
3 The batch of wood chips-about 50 ing, making a paper log. The paper logs are
3tons-is then mixed with 10,000 gallons then cut into rolls and wrapped packages.
of cooking chemicals; the resultant slurry is
sent to a 60-ft (18.3-m) -tall pressure cooker
called a digester.
Recycled toilet paper
Toilet tissue made from recycled paper is
4During the cooking, which can last up to made from both colored and white stock,
three hours, much of the moisture in the with staples and pins removed. The paper
wood is evaporated (wood chips contain goes into a huge vat called a pulper that
about 50% moisture). The mixture is re- combines it with hot water and detergents to
duced to about 25 tons of cellulose fibers, turn it into a liquid slurry. The recycled pulp Opposite page:
lignin (which binds the wood fibers togeth- then goes through a series of screens and A diagram of toilet paper manu-
er) and other substances. Out of this, about rinses to remove paper coatings and inks. facturing process.
4 17
The pulp is whitened somewhat and sani- tured only from recycled products and sug-
tized with oxygen-based products like per- gest that consumers boycott toilet paper
oxide. It then goes through steps 7 through made of new materials.
10 like virgin paper products, producing a
cheaper, less-white paper. These activists object to new paper process-
ing because it often uses chlorine bleaching,
which produces dioxins, a family of chemi-
Qucslity Control cals considered environmental hazards, as a
Paper companies often maintain their own byproduct. Paper and pulp mills are the pri-
tree stands in order to ensure the quality of mary producers of dioxins, and manufactur-
the paper they manufacture. The chemicals ers must carefully assess their effluvia to
used in the pulping process are also careful- counteract the emission of dioxins. Increas-
ly tested and monitored. Temperatures at ingly, virgin paper makers use alternative
which a slurry is cooked is ensured, too, by bleaching methods that substitute oxygen,
checking gauges, machinery, and processes. peroxide, and sodium hydroxide for chlorine.
Completed paper may be tested for a variety Some simply reduce the amount of chlorine
of qualities, including stretch, opacity, mois- used in the process. Others experiment with
ture content, smoothness, and color. cooking the wood chips longer, removing
more lignin earlier in the process, which re-
quires less bleach. Better pulp washing also
Byproducts/Waste removes more lignin, and reduces the amount
of bleach needed for whitening.
The first waste product produced in the pa-
permaking process, the bark removed from
tree trunks, bums easily and is used to help Where to Learn More
power the paper mills. In addition, black
liquor, the fluid removed from the pulp after
cooking, is further evaporated to a thick
Books
combustible liquid that is also used to power lerley, Merritt. The Comforts of Home. New
the mill. This reduction process, in turn, York: Clarkson Potter, 1999.
yields a byproduct called tall oil that is
widely used many household products. Muir, Frank. An Irreverant and Almost
About 95% of the cooking chemicals are re- Complete Social History of the Bathroom.
covered and reused. New York: Stein and Day Publishers, 1983.
But other problems associated with the in-

dustry are less easily solved. The production Other
of virgin toilet paper has spawned two cur- Charmin Bathroom Tissue. http://www.
rent controversies: the destruction of trees, charmin.com (January 2001).
and the use of chlorine dioxide to bleach the
paper. While virgin paper processing does Georgia Pacific. Student Resources. http://
necessitate the destruction of trees, they are www.gp.com/resourcecenter/process.html
a readily renewable resource and paper (January 2001).
companies maintain large forests to feed
their supply. Despite this, some activists Marcal Paper Products. http://www.marcal
have proposed that toilet paper be manufac- paper.com (January 2001).
4 1 8
Toy Model Kit
Background History In 1951, Revell introduced
Scale models or model kits are produced by Model-making is as old as civilization. its first all-plastic model kit
the millions and give hours of pleasure to Scale models of buildings, boats, and furni-
hobbyists. They're sold in specialized hobby ture were buried in tombs of ancient Egyp- of an early automobile: a
and craft stores as well as toy, department, tians to represent possessions the dead took classic 1910 Maxwell, in
and drug stores-even supermarkets may into the next world. Many ancient models
carry them. "Scale" indicates that the model survived in the tombs while the original ob- which the driver was a
is a miniaturized version of an actual object, jects did not; these have given historians an
like an automobile, made to a specific frac- understanding of what life in ancient civi- scaled-down version of
tion of the real thing. Scales typically range lizations was like. During the Napoleonic radio comedian Jack
from 1:24 to 1:100; a 1:24-scale model is Wars (1799-1815), French prisoners of war
1/24th of the size of the real object. Com- carved beautiful model warships from wood Benny.
mon scales are 1/24, 1/48, 1/72, and 1/100. scraps; these models are so detailed that
Many of the same engineering skills go into they have become documents of warfare and
producing scale models as into the real ma- ships lost at sea. They are also highly prized
chines represented. today among antique collectors.
Model kits are made in approximately five During the Industrial Revolution of the eigh-
skill levels. Snap-together models provide teenth and nineteenth centuries, inventors of
all the pieces with tiny tabs that fit in spe- new tools, machines, artworks, and other ob-
cially shaped holes. The plastic pieces are jects began by building models of their ideas.
made in the same colors as the original; Industrial technology was found to have its
and virtually no tools, adhesives, paint, or own beauty, and large machines like locomo-
other equipment are needed to build them. tives were admired and copied in miniature.
The plastic parts simply snap together in a Early in the twentieth century model ships
sequence depicted on an instruction sheet; and airplanes were sold in kits. Balsa wood
these models are an excellent introduction pieces were machine-cut to fit together easily
to the kinds of pieces in a model kit and and could be painted and rigged like the orig-
prepare a novice builder for the next step. inals, although they were fragile. In the
The next three levels are beginner, interme- 1920s, some firms produced scale models of
diate, and advanced. The level is described their products out of metal and wood as pro-
on the box containing the kit, and, as the motional models. Citroen, the French car
names suggest, the kits become increasing- manufacturer, produced delightful models
ly complicated with more steps in assem- that are now valued collectibles.
bling and detailing the models. The most
advanced kits are called customized kits World War II moved modeling into a full-
and provide the model builder with a vari- scale industry and hobby for two reasons.
ety of styles of engines, bumpers, hubcaps, First, plastics were invented and perfected
and other details of an automobile (for ex- during the years before and during the war.
ample), as well as options for making a Their versatility made them ideal for mass-
truly unique model suiting the builder's produced model kits. Second, the machines
imagination. of the war stimulated the public's interest in
419
modeling. Slim fighters and heavy bombers pellets are purchased in common colors, but
intrigued many hobbyists who saw the real additional pigments can be added to the plas-
aircraft flying overhead on the way to war. tic while it is being melted. Printed items, in-
The exploits of navy ships, both small and cluding decals, the instruction sheet, and the
large, in the Pacific also fired imaginations. box are also important parts of model kit.
When soldiers and sailors returned home, The box front usually bears a full-color
they had more time and money for recreation, photo or an artist's detailed depiction of the
including building models of the machines completed model, or a photo of the original
they knew so well. Monogram Models intro- object (like an automobile). Designs, lay-
duced its first kits of warships in 1945. outs, photos, and artwork are prepared by
artists in the model-maker's design studio;
The returning war veterans were also able to they are printed by specialized printers.
afford the automobiles that rolled off Detroit
assembly lines; they also built models of the Paints and glue for assembling and detailing
cars they owned-and the ones the dreamed the model are not part of the kits. These are
of. In 1951, Revell introduced its first all- manufactured and sold separately because
plastic model kit of an early automobile: a they have shorter shelf-lives, might leak in-
classic 1910 Maxwell, in which the driver side the box, and could damage model parts
was a scaled-down version of radio comedi- as they move. Major model manufacturers
an Jack Benny. By the mid-1950s, more de- produce or market their own brands of paint,
tailed kits and models that could be cus- glue, and assembly tools.
tomized appeared. By the 1960s scale
modeling was a full-fledged hobby with Other raw materials for models include
thousands of models covering hundreds of balsa wood. Before the development of
subjects. By 2000, the scale-model industry plastics, this was the prime material for
had produced more automobiles than all the model building, and it was sold in lengths
automotive giants of Detroit combined. and widths like small boards. Sometimes the
balsa wood had outlines stamped on it that
In the 1960s, the scale-model industry ex- the builder could follow when cutting out
panded into ancient history and science fic- pieces; other times an appropriate assort-
tion. Models of dinosaurs that once roamed ment of wood was packaged together with a
the earth, monsters like Godzilla, super- set of patterns and instructions printed on
heroes like Superman, television characters paper for the model builder to follow. More
like the Lone Ranger, and celebrities like often, the model builder used imagination
Elvis Presley were mass-produced in scale and skill to scale, cut, assemble, and detail
fonn. The scale-model manufacturers also wood models. Balsa wood is still sold for
provided outlets for the public's interest in model building, but it is far outclassed in
the Space Race during the 1960s, and mod- volume by the plastic model industry.
els of the newest spacecraft were often on
the hobby store shelves before the real-life
vessel had taken flight. Fantasy followed Design
here, too, with models of starships and inter- From inception to production, creating a
galactic craft that have flown on television new scale model kit can take a full year and
and in the movies. As techniques for preci- cost the manufacturer an investment of up to
sion casting of true-color parts continued to $250,000. For the scale model of a classic
improve, scale models became important automobile, for example, the design process
teaching tools. Detailed anatomical figures begins with pure research: taking hundreds
that can be snapped apart and reassembled of photographs of a working example of the
are members of many classrooms, as just car. The car is photographed inside and out;
one example. pictures are taken of every detail and from
many angles, and measurements are pho-
Rawv Materials tographed along with the object for the de-
signer to use in the studio to reproduce the
Plastic is the essential raw material for the car exactly.
majority of scale models made today. The
plastic used to mold the parts is purchased in For a new car design, car manufacturers
bulk quantities by the manufacturer. These give model makers computerized informa-
420
Toy Model Kit
tion on part specifications-sometimes even cise angles so that, when the plastic is in-
before the first actual automobile has been jected in the tool, it fills all the cavities. The
assembled-in a highly confidential trees are also designed to release quickly
process. The model designer uses computer- from the mold.
aided drafting and design (CADD) software
to sort this information and create the mea- The resin molds are used to make the indi-
surements and configuration that will be vidual tools for each of the model parts,
used to make a scale design. The designer using a pantograph to copy the exact shape
transfers this information to a set of draw- of each piece and draw it at the smaller scale
ings that will be used to make the molds for of the actual model. The pantograph has two
the model. This process can consume sever- needle-like parts: one is run over the surface
al hundred hours of engineering time. of the resin mold while the second, a cutting
blade, carves the steel to the same shape at
From photographs, computer data, and the correct scale. When the tool maker has
paper drawings, the design moves to pat- completed the scaled tool, he polishes it to a
tem-making phase. Skilled artists follow the high sheen and adds more details by hand.
designer's drawings and carve out a pattern Some of these details are too fine to be seen
model from balsa or other soft wood. The by the naked eye.
pattern model is made at two to three times
larger than the scale of the model kit, allow- Another set of designers works on the paper
ing additional details to be added to the pat- portions of the kit. To develop the instruc-
tern. This also proves the accuracy of design tions, the designers take the pattern model
and provides a basis for all of the molds that (and sometimes samples of the first produc-
will be made of the car parts. As they carve tion run of the plastic model) apart and re-
the pieces, the pattern makers fit them to- assemble it. They describe the steps as they
gether. Accuracy in pattern-making is with- go, writing and drawing them as instruc-
in several ten-thousandths of an inch (frac- tions. Other artists look at the photographs
tions of a millimeter). of the real automobile and design decals for
the model. These may be copies of real de-
When the wooden pattern model is com- cals on the car, or they may be other design
plete, each part is coated with an epoxy features like racing stripes. Sometimes,
resin, a plastic material that hardens as it more research is needed to capture these de-
cures. The wooden piece is removed from tails. The illustrations on the box lid are also
the resin, and the resin has trapped the shape created. These serve the model builder as a
of the piece in a cavity mold. A core mold of color reference guide, so they must be true
resin is made from the cavity mold; the two to both the original automobile and the de-
fit closely together, but there is a small cals made for the model. The illustrations on
space between them. The plastic model part the lid may be photographs of the real car or
will be formed in this space. Preparation of artists' impressions. The box lid for a model
the wooden pattern and the resin molds of a Fokker triplane, for example, may show
takes over 1,000 hours. the Red Baron's famous airplane in a dog-
fight. Elsewhere on the lid, the artists de-
Meanwhile, other design engineers use the scribe the kit, its level of difficulty, the parts
design drawings to lay out the "tool," the enclosed, and the manufacturer's details.
metal cast of a number of parts that will be
molded on a single form of plastic called a
tree. The tree is usually roughly rectangular The Manufacturing
along its outer edge so it will fit in a box. Process
Several standard box sizes are used. From
the central "trunk" of the tree, a number of 1 With the many design steps now com-
plastic "branches" or arms protrude. The plete, the individual steel tools for the
end of each branch narrows to a node where separate parts of the model are taken into the
it joins a piece of the model. The model factory where they are placed in a larger
piece can be snapped off for assembly. The frame called the die, which can weigh more
tool designers also use CAD to map out the than 1/2 tons (1.4 metric tons). With the two
tool layout. They must design the orienta- halves fitted together, the die looks like a
tion of each model piece on the tree to pre- large steel box from the outside. It is lifted
42 1
An example of a toy model kit.
with a hoist into the cavity of the injection plastic is injected for the next tree of parts.
molding machine. The trees are injection-molded at a rate of
about two trees per minute.
2 In a separate part of the injection-mold- Any gaps around the edges of each tree will
ing machine, the fine, confetti-like pel- also fill with plastic. These appear on the
lets of plastic are poured into a storage hop- trees as paper-thin excess and are called
per above the machine. When molding is flash. When the model builder begins mak-
about to begin, the pellets are fed into a ing a model, the flash must be trimmed off.
heating chamber where they are melted at a
temperature of 5000 F (2600 C). The liquid 3 At another machine, the clear plastic
plastic is pumped into the cavity of the in- 3parts like the automobile windshields,
jection molding machine where the tool is are molded. Rubber tires are produced by a
contained. The pressurized liquid plastic is third machine, and other specially colored
injected into the tool at a pressure of 1,000 parts may be produced by yet another ma-
lbs per square in (58 kg per square cm). chine in the plant. Chrome parts, like the ra-
Aided by the careful layout within the tool, diator grille, are first injection-molded then
the combination of high pressure and high placed on the conveyor where they move to
heat forces the liquid plastic into every a dipping machine that picks individual
crevice of the tool. In several seconds, the trees off the conveyor and dips them in a
tree forms, the plastic cools, and the tool metallic coating. The dip dries quickly, the
opens slightly allowing the plastic tree to machine redeposits the chrome-colored
fall out onto a conveyor belt. The injection trees on the conveyor, and they move to-
machine closes the tool again, and more ward the package assembly area.
422
Toy Model Kit
4 At the package assembly area, assembly- jection-molding machines wear heavy
1 line workers sit along one side of a con- gloves to protect them from the heat gener-
veyor belt that feeds box bottoms to them. ated by the machines. The machines them-
They select one of each of the trees of selves are fully automated and require ob-
model parts from a series of bins behind servation only.
them, slip the trees into plastic bags, add
sheets of decals and folded instructions, The Future
close the bag, and put it in the bottom of the
box. The bottoms travel along the conveyor The health of the toy model kit industry has a
to a machine that caps them with lids and number of positive indicators. In the 1990s,
seals the box ends or covers the boxes with modeling giants Revell and Monogram
shrink wrap. Boxes are multipacked in car- merged, and, as of 2000, made 10 million kits
tons and taken to the shipping department. a year. Model-making clubs like the Interna-
tional Plastic Modelers' Association have
branches in many cities, in large businesses,
Quality Control and on the Internet. Fairs and other displays
Making scale models is design intensive, often have model-building contests as well as
with much of the process taking place in the exhibitions of models and dioramas; these in-
design studio rather than the factory. De- clude not only "scratch-built" models (the
signers are extremely knowledgeable about highest level in which the hobbyist makes all
their subjects, whether warships or cartoon the parts and details by hand to complete a
heroes, and are highly attentive to the details model) but manufactured kits from snap-to-
in their designs. Designers can reject work gether through customized models.
at any point in the process. A review board
The fascination of the toy model kit has sev-
approves the initial design concept, the de-
eral elements. It is a construction hobby that
sign drawings, pattem and tool making, and requires handwork and skill to shape a col-
samples from the first production run of the lection of small pieces into a completed
plastic model. In the factory, quality-control work of art. The investment required can
personnel observe the injection molding and begin with only pocket money for a few
dipping processes. Quality-control person-
tools, finishes, and a kit. Toy model kits are
nel observe the assembly line, and when kits
outstanding teaching tools. Research has
have been assembled, sample boxes are
gone into their design, and students can
pulled from the line and checked to confirm
that all parts are present.
learn from personal research about the actu-
al object such as when the automobile was
manufactured, which airlines fly particular
Byproducts/Waste plane designs, and how a comic strip artist
created his character. With tie physical
Toy model manufacturers are able to recycle parts provided in the model kit, the model
much of the waste associated with manufac- builder can use patience, thought, hand-
turing plastic models. Plastic waste can be work, and imagination to transform history,
melted and remixed in future batches. Steel science, and popular culture into three-di-
from tool making is collected and sent to a mensional models of objects that were or
metal recycler. Paper products are made that may be in the future.
from recycled paper.
Where to Learn More
Safety Concerns Books
Safety for factory workers is particularly
important for the pattern and tool makers Bowen, John, ed. Scale Model Sailing Ships.
and personnel that control the injection- New York: Mayflower Books, Inc., 1978.
molding process. Pattern and tool makers Ellis, Chris. How to Make Model Aircraft.
wear gloves and safety glasses as they carve New York: Arco Publishing Company, Inc.,
out patterns, make resin molds, and etch 1974.
steel tools with the pantograph. The area
where resin molds are made is equipped Ellis, Chris. The Scale Modeler's Handbook.
with ventilation hoods. Operators of the in- Secaucus, NJ: Chartwell Books, Inc., 1979.
423
Gordon, Theron L. How to Build, Cus- Price, Brick. The Model Shipbuilding
tomize & Design Plastic Models. Blue Handbook. Radnor, PA: Chilton Book
Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, Inc., 1982. Company, 1983.
Harris, Jack C. Plastic Model Kits. New Other
York: Crestwood House, Macmillan Pub-
lishing Company, 1993. Revell-Monogram. http://www.revell-mono
gram.com (January 2001).
Marmo, Richard. Building Plastic Model
Aircraft. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Testor Corporation. http://www.testors.com
Books, Inc., 1990. (January 2001).
-Gillian S. Holmes
424
Trophy
Background History In ancient Greece,
Trophies are a category of awards given Since ancient times trophies have marked trophies reflected victory
primarily for academic, work, and sport victories. In fact, the word "trophy" is de-
contests or events. They are physical evi- rived from the Greek tropaion, which in war, and were created
dence that one person or group has bested comes from the verb trope, meaning "to on the battlefield at the
another in some contest. Imposing and rout." In ancient Greece, trophies reflected
sculptural, trophies often include a figure, victory in war, and were created on the bat- place where the enemy
sports equipment, or animal (for agricultur- tlefield at the place where the enemy had
al fairs) associated with the contest in been defeated. These trophies included cap- had been defeated.
which the winner has excelled. They are tured arms and standards, and were hung
tangible evidence of prowess and have ex- upon a tree or a large stake made to resem-
traordinary meaning for their recipients. ble the figure of a warrior. They were in-
They're proudly displayed in homes and scribed with details of the battle and were
schools. dedicated to a god or gods. Naval trophies
consisted of entire ships (or what remained
Trophies range from inexpensive to almost of them) laid out on the nearest beach to
priceless. They can be unique, like the one- represent the conquest. The deliberate de-
of-a-kind Stanley Cup awarded to each struction of a trophy was considered a sacri-
year's National Hockey League's champi- lege since it was given in thanks and tribute
on, or mass-produced, molded plastic fig- to a god.
ures costing less than a dollar. Each is con-
sidered a treasure regardless of its monetary The ancient Romans wanted to keep their
value. trophies closer to home. Instead,.of a tribute
to the victors and the gods on the spot of the
Once of metal atop a wooden or metal victory, the Romans had special trophies
base, many trophies are now made of constructed in Rome. These magnificent tro-
molded plastic colored to resemble gold, phies often included columns and arches
silver, or brass. Trophy parts are manufac- atop a foundation. There remain, still, out-
tured within a factory but assembled by side of Rome, huge stone memorials that
award dealers (retailers) who sell to the were originally crowned with sculpted stone
public. As a result, there is an astonishing trophies, now gone.
array of parts that may be purchased, al-
lowing the retailer to build an award to Little is known about awards or trophies
meet every customer's needs. For example, given during the Middle Ages. Chalices, or
trophies may be purchased with silvertone, two-handled cups, were given to winners of
goldtone, or clear plastic figurines; and sporting events as early as at least the very
with marble-like or wood-like bases. The late 1600s in the New World. An exquisite,
figures atop trophies are currently available small two-handled sterling cup in the Henry
in hundreds of forms, including suit-attired Ford Museum in Dearbom, Michigan, was
saleswomen, Irish step dancers, bait cast- given to the winner of a short horse race be-
ers, pistol marksmen, and women's tween two towns in New England about
lacrosse, to name just a few. 1699 and is called the Kyp Cup (made by sil-
425
versmith Jesse Kyp). Chalices, particularly, cate the recipient's position: first, second or
are associated with sport events, and were third. Some trophies have another tier atop
typically made in silver and given in horse the columns upon. Finally, on top of every-
racing, and later, boating and early automo- thing, comes the figurine.
bile racing (which became popular over a
century with the birth of the automobile). One large trophy manufacturer describes
Sporting awards often take the form of a their design process as four-part: talking to
cup, including the Davis Cup, a major tennis customers, brainstorming new ideas, pro-
trophy first awarded in 1900, the Stanley ducing the idea visually or physically, and
Cup, given to National Hockey League then executing some models for testing.
champs (1894), and the World Cup, given First, the new products division talks to con-
since 1967 to top male and female alpine sumers. They gather ideas on what compo-
skiers, to name a few. nents are popular, changes that might be
made, figurine needs not reflected in the
Trophies are less expensive and awarded current catalog, etc. Customer opinion is
more frequently, thanks to manufactured gathered through market research and focus
plastic trophies. In addition to having a vari- groups. Then, new product developers artic-
ety of figures from which to choose, tro- ulate these needs and also brainstorm possi-
phies are of three primary forms: the clear bilities for redesigned components. The
plastic action figure crowning the base, the most promising ideas are discussed with a
gold-colored or silver-colored action figure team of developers who can help make the
atop the base, or a rectangular plinth of plas- idea real. This group includes sculptors,
tic that is holographically decorated by com- graphic artists, conceptual designers, and
puter with words or graphic of the event, design engineers. These artists and engi-
equipment, or sport scene and placed on the neers produce either a drawing or a basic
plastic base. sculpture of a riser or figurine that gives the
idea visual or three-dimensional form.
Ravv Materials Once the concept is approved by a commit-
Trophies are produced almost exclusively tee, the steel tool-and-die department creates
from plastic; one trophy may include several the die for the new plastic part. If the part is
different types. Hot-stamp metallic foils are a not tooled, like a Mylar plinth or plaque,
pressed into the columnar shafts to impart to then a flat die is used. The appropriate mate-
give the figurine metallic color (unless it's rial is chosen for the component based upon
clear plastic). Gypsum is inserted into the durability and its intended function (e.g.,
base and metal studs are molded into the tro- support or decoration) on the trophy. The
phies to give them strength. new design is then carefully assessed by a
committee that scrutinizes it for design aes-
thetic, manufacturing difficulty, tooling
Design needs, durability, and decoration. If there is
A trophy is not designed as an entire piece; a problem in any of these areas, the part is
instead, it is broken into several components returned for reassessment. Of particular con-
that are designed and redesigned; an assem- cern is ease of manufacturing. Reassessment
bler then chooses individual components to and adjustments may take up to four weeks
make a trophy. First there is the base upon alone. Once final approval is received, the
which the entire trophy sits. This is often new part is ready for mass-production.
plastic made to look like marble or wood.
Bases are generally categorized as crescent,
sculpted, tiered, or a specialty form. Next
The Manfacturing Process
comes the column or columns. These are Different parts of the trophy are produced
the vertical piece or pieces on which the fig- in different ways. The components are ei-
urine may rest, or they may hold yet another ther molded using steel dies, or extruded
tier upon which the figurine sits. These are through a die using pressure and some heat.
often plain metal, imitation marble, or holo- Most of the parts, including the risers, base,
graphs. Next comes the riser, a small, deco- and figurine, are injection molded. To mold
rative element that sits upon the base and a plastic part, an automatic feeder system is
between the columns. The riser may indi- fed a continuous stream of plastic pellets.
426
Trophy
The trophy bases, risers, and fig-
ures are molded using extraordi-
nary pressure against a die in a
process known as extrusion.
The machines are loaded with many mil- pressed onto them. Those parts that are to be
lions of pounds of plastic pellets each year colored as well as metallized are decorated
to make various parts of the trophy. in a similar fashion. The figures are now
moved away from the machine, ready to be
2 The molding machine is fitted with very boxed and shipped to assemblers.
expensive specially designed steel dies.
The machines melt the pellets into a liquid 5The columns are form from plastic pel-
and, using extraordinary pressure against the lets that go into a machine, melted, then
dies, form the trophy bases, risers, and fig- forced (extruded) through a formed die. As
ures. The dies form between up to 12 com- they go through the die they're cut to the re-
ponents of a single design per cycle (the quired length. These, too, then move away
number varies on the size of the component). from the machine ready for boxing. made of
The machines are operated by a worker who extruded plastic
oversees the production. A metal stud is in-
serted into the body of each of these figures 6 The components are automatically
to ensure the strength of this component as 6bagged and boxed by a machine and
parts of the figure (ankle, wrist, neck) may ready for shipment to the assemblers.
be of thin plastic and subject to breakage.
One of the largest manufactories of trophy Quality Control
parts runs 40 such molding machines six
days a week, three shifts a day. Precision machinery, including the steel
dies, are inspected, maintained, and cleaned
3 Bases must then be filled with gypsum to regularly to insure the production of accu-
3give the base a proper weight without rate, high-quality parts. All materials, from
using too much brittle plastic. Figurines that the rolls of metal foils to the various plastics
are not to be given a silver- or gold-tone fin- used in production, are approved upon ar-
ish are essentially done and are pushed rival at the factory. Once the trophies have
through the machine and out, ready to be as- been assembled, a series of inspectors check
sembled at the retailers. them as they come off the line, looking for
unacceptable variations in the molded parts
4Figures that are to receive a metallized or improper color or foil application.
finish are put operator onto the hot stamp
foil machine. The plastic figures are washed Byproducts/Waste
with a top coat, then metal foil (which
comes in 54-in (1.4-m) wide rolls and Parts that do not pass quality inspection are
comes off in linear feet) is heated and sorted by plastic type and applied color,
427
then reground for use at a later time in an- Where to Learn More
other product or component. Important parts
like the figures and clear vinyl or acrylic Other
plinths for specialty trophies, however, are PDU (Plastic Dress Up) Millenium Edition,
made of new materials only. c.2000 Trophy Parts Catalog.
Plastic molding and extruding machines do Rousseau's Sporting Goods and Awards.
kick up a certain amount of ambient plastic http://www.r-sports.com (January 2001).
materials. Air scrubbers are used inside such
factories. Water ejected from such plants STAMPFOIL. http://www.stampfoil.it/
may contain effluvia and plastic molding english.htm (January 2001).
companies reclaim and clean the water from
the plant. -Nancy E.V. Bryk
428
Tunnel
Background m) long canal tunnel in France in 1681. The
next two major advances came about 1850.
A tunnel is an underground or underwater Nitroglycerine (stabilized in the form of dy-
passage that is primarily horizontal. Rela- namite) replaced the less powerful black
tively small-diameter ones carry utility lines powder in tunnel blasting. Steam and com-
or function as pipelines. Tunnels that trans- pressed air were used to power drills to cre-
port people by rail or by automobile often ate holes for the explosive charges. This
comprise two or three large, parallel pas- mechanization eventually replaced the man-
sages for opposite-direction traffic, service ual process made famous by John Henry,
vehicles, and emergency exit routes. the "steel-driving man," who swung a 10-lb
The world's longest tunnel carries water 105 (4.4-kg) sledge hammer with each hand for
mi (170 km) to New York City from the 12 hours a day, pounding steel chisels as
Delaware River. The lengthiest person-car- deep as 14 ft (4.2 m) into solid rock.
rying tunnel is the Seikan Railroad Tunnel. Between 1820 and 1865, British engineers
It is a 33-mi (53-km) long, 32-ft (9.7-m) di- Marc Brunel and James Greathead devel-
ameter railroad connection between Japan's oped several models of a tunneling shield
two largest islands, Honshu and Hokkaido. that enabled them to construct two tunnels
One of the most anticipated tunnels was the under the Thames River. A rectangular or
Channel Tunnel. Completed in 1994, this circular enclosure (the shield) was divided
tunnel connects Great Britain to Europe horizontally and vertically into several com-
through three, 31-mi (50-km) long tunnels partments. A man working in each compart-
(two one-way and one service tunnel). ment could remove one plank at a time from
Twenty-three miles (37 km) of this tunnel the face of the shield, dig ahead a few inch-
are underwater. es, and replace the plank. When space had
been dug away from the entire front surface,
History the shield was pushed forward, and the dig-
ging process was repeated. Workers at the
Tunnels were hand-dug by several ancient rear of the shield lined the tunnel with bricks
civilizations in the Indian and Mediter- or cast iron rings.
ranean regions. In addition to digging tools
and copper rock saws, fire was sometimes In 1873, American tunneler Clinton Haskins
used to heat a rock obstruction before dous- kept water from seeping into a railroad tun-
ing it with water to crack it apart. The cut- nel under construction below the Hudson
and-cover method-digging a deep trench, River by filling it with compressed air. The
constructing a roof at an appropriate height technique is still used today, although it pre-
within the trench, and covering the trench sents several dangers. Workers must spend
above the roof (a tunneling technique still time in decompression chambers at the end
employed today)-was used in Babylon of their shift-a requirement that limits
4,000 years ago. emergency exits from the tunnel. The pres-
sure within the tunnel must be carefully bal-
The first advance beyond hand-digging was anced with the surrounding earth and water
the use of gunpowder to blast a 515-ft (160- pressure; an imbalance causes the tunnel ei-
429
ther to collapse or burst (which subsequent- a low-freezing gelatine explosive. Water-

ly allows flooding). and-salt brine or liquid nitrogen are com-
mon refrigerants for stabilizing soft ground
Soft soil is prone to collapse and it can clog by freezing. The most common modem lin-
digging equipment. One way to stabilize the ing material, concrete reinforced by either
soil is to freeze it by circulating coolant steel or fiber, may be sprayed on, cast in
through pipes embedded at intervals place, or prefabricated in panels.
throughout the area. This technique has
been used in the United States since the Choice of method
early 1900s. Another stabilization and wa-
terproofing technique-widely used since A tunnel's construction method is deter-
the 1970s-is to inject grout (liquid bonding mined by several factors, including geology,
agent) into soil or fractured rock surround- cost, and potential disruption of other activi-
ing the tunnel route. ties. Different methods may be used on indi-
vidual tunnels that are part of the same larg-
Shotcrete is a liquid concrete that is sprayed er project; for example, four separate
on surfaces. Invented in 1907, it has been methods are being used on portions of
used as both a preliminary and a final lining Boston's Central Artery/Tunnel project.
for tunnels since the 1920s.
In 1931, the first drilling jumbos were de- The Manufacturing
vised to dig tunnels that would divert the Col- Process
orado River around the construction site for Preparing
Hoover Dam. These jumbos consisted of 24-
30 pneumatic drills mounted on a frame Site geology is evaluated by examining
welded to the bed of a truck. Modem jumbos surface features and subsurface core sam-
allow a single operator to control several ples. A pilot tunnel about one-third the di-
drills mounted on hydraulically controlled ameter of the planned main tunnel may be
arms. In 1954, while building diversion tun- constructed along the entire route to further
nels for construction of a dam in South Dako- evaluate the geology and to test the selected
ta, James Robbins invented the tunnel boring construction method. The pilot tunnel may
machine (TBM), a cylindrical device with run alongside the main tunnel's path and
digging or cutting heads mounted on a rotat- eventually be connected to it at intervals to
ing front face that grinds away rock and soil provide ventilation, service access, and an
as the machine creeps forward. Modem escape route. Or the pilot tunnel may be en-
TBMs are customized for each project by larged to produce the main tunnel.
matching the types and arrangement of the 2 If soil stabilization is required, it may be
cutting heads to the site geology; also, the di- 2done by injecting grout through small
ameter of TBM must be equal to the diameter pipes placed in the ground at intervals. Al-
of the designed tunnel (including its lining). tematively, a refrigerant may be circulated
through pipes embedded in the ground to
Raw Materials freeze the soil.
Materials used in tunnels vary with the de- Mining
sign and construction methods chosen for
each project. Grout used to stabilize soil or 3 There are seven different methods used
fill voids behind the tunnel lining may con- 3to remove material from the tunnel path.
tain various materials, including sodium sili- The first is the immersed tube method.
cate, lime, silica fume, cement, and ben- Workers prepare an underwater tunnel site
tonite (a highly absorbent volcanic clay). by digging a trench at the bottom of the wa-
Bentonite-and-water slurry is also used as a terway. Steel or reinforced concrete sections
suspension and transportation medium for of tunnel shell are constructed on dry land.
muck (debris excavated from the tunnel) Each section may be several hundred feet
and as a lubricant for objects being pushed (100 m or more) long. The ends of the sec-
through the tunnel (e.g., TBMs, shields). tion are sealed, and the section is floated to
Water is used to control dust during drilling the tunnel site. The section is tied to anchors
and after blasting, which is often done with adjacent to the trench, and ballast tanks built
430
Tunnel
into the section are flooded. As the section
sinks, it is guided into place in the trench.
The section is connected to the adjoining,
previously placed section, and the plates
sealing that end of each section are re-
moved. A rubber seal between the two sec-
tions ensures a watertight connection.
In the cut-and-cover method workers dig a
trench large enough to contain the tunnel
and its shell. A box-shaped tube is con-
structed, often by in-place casting of rein-
forced concrete. In certain types of soil or in
close proximity to other structures, tunnel
walls may be built before digging begins in
order to keep the trench from collapsing
during excavation. This may be done by dri-
ving steel sheets into the ground or building
a slurry wall (a deep trench that is filled
with watery clay as dirt is removed). When
the desired size is attained for a section of
wall, a cage of steel reinforcing rods is low-
ered into it and concrete is pumped in to dis-
place the wet-clay slurry. As digging pro-
gresses enough for the excavation
machinery to be below grade, temporary
surface panels may be laid across the trench
to allow traffic to move across it. When the
tunnel shell has been completed, it is cov-
ered by replacing excavated soil.
The third method is the top-down method. A
parallel pair of walls are embedded into the
ground along the tunnel's route by driving
steel sheet piles or constructing slurry walls.
A trench is dug between the walls to a depth
equal to the planned distance from the sur-
face to the inside of the tunnel roof. The tun-
nel roof is formed between the walls by
framing and pouring reinforced concrete on break away material from the tunnel's path
the bottom of the shallow trench. After the without undul damaging the surrounding
tunnel roof has cured, it is covered with a rock. Air is circulated through the blast area
waterproofing membrane and excavated soil to remove explosion gases and dust. Rubble
is replaced above it. Conventional excavat- dislodged by the blast is hauled away. Pneu-
ing machinery, such as a front-end loader, is matic drills and hand tools are used to
used to dig out the soil between the di- smooth the surface of the blasted section
aphragm walls and under the tunnel roof. and remove loose pieces of rock.
When sufficient depth has been reached, a
reinforced concrete floor is poured to com- It is usually necessary to stabilize and rein-
plete the tunnel shell. force the surface of the newly blasted section
with a preliminary lining. One technique in-
With the drill-and-blast method a drilling volves inserting a series of steel ribs connect-
jumbo is used to drill a predetermined pated by wood or steel braces. Another tech-
tern of holes in the rock along the tunnel's nique, called the new Austrian tunneling
path. Carefully planned charges of dynamite method (NATM), involves spraying the sur-
are inserted in the drilled holes. The charges face with a few inches (several centimeters)
are detonated in a sequence designed to of concrete. In appropriate geologic condi-
43 1
Shield tunneling.
tions, this "shotcrete" lining may be supple- are too small for human miners to work in-
mented by inserting long steel rods (rock side of) such as augers or small versions of
bolts) into the rock and tightening nuts against TMBs. These drifts are filled; for example,
steel plates surrounding the head of each bolt. steel pipes may be driven into them and then
the pipes packed with grout. The filled drifts
A fifth method to remove material from the form a protective arch around the tunnel
tunnel is the shield driving or tunnel jacking path. Excavation machinery is used to re-
method. Some tunnels are still dug using a move the soil from inside the arch.
Greathead-style shield. The top of the shield
extends beyond the sides and bottom, pro- The final method is the tunnel boring ma-
viding a protective roof for workers digging chine method. The types and arrangement of
in advance of the shield. The leading edge cutting devices on the face of the TBM are
of the shield top is sharp so it can cut determined by the geology at the tunnel site.
through the soil. Excavation may be done by The face slowly rotates and grinds away the
hand or with power tools. Excess material is rock and soil in front of it (e.g., the TBMs
passed back through the shield on a convey- used to build the Channel Tunnel could ro-
or belt, loaded into carts, and hauled out of tate up to 12 revolutions per minute in opti-
the tunnel. When workers have dug out ma- mal soil). The TBM is constantly pushed
terial in front of the shield as far as the top forward to keep the face in contact with its
extends, jacks at the rear of4the shield are target. Forward pressure may be exerted by
braced against the most recently installed jacks at the rear of the TBM pushing against
section of tunnel lining. Activating the jacks the most recently installed section of tunnel
pushes the shield forward so workers can lining. Alternatively, gripper arms may ex-
begin digging another section. After the tend outward from the sides of the TBM and
shield has moved forward, the jacks are re- push against rocky tunnel walls to hold the
tracted, and steel or reinforced concrete ring machine in place while the face is pushed
segments are bolted into place to form a sec- forward. Muck is passed through holes in
tion of permanent lining for the tunnel. the face and carried by conveyor belt to the
rear of the TBM, where it drops into carts
Tunnel jacking is a similar technique, but the that transport it out of the tunnel. Bentonite
shield being driven through the ground is ac- may be pumped through the TBM face to
tually a prefabricated section of tunnel lining. make the soil surface more workable and to
carry away the muck. Some TBMs are
In the parallel drift method a series of paral- equipped at the rear with robotic arms that
lel, horizontal holes (drifts) are bored using position and attach segments of tunnel lin-
microtunneling machinery (microtunnels ing as soon as the machine has moved for-
432
Tunnel
Roof bolts made of steel are se-
cured to rock in order to support
the top of the tunnel.
~~o:;- ~~Roo bolting711.91
RRof bolt
ward a sufficient distance. In other cases, A third option is to spray a layer of shotcrete
the NATM is used to create a preliminary several inches (70 mm or more) thick onto
lining as the TBM progresses. the tunnel walls. One or two layers of wire
mesh might be placed first to reinforce the
Especially in cases where two TBMs dig to- shotcrete, or reinforcing fibers might be
ward each other from opposite ends of a tun- added to the concrete mixture to increase its
nel, it may be too difficult or expensive to strength.
remove them when the digging is complet-
ed. As it nears the end of its mission, the
TBM may be steered away from the tunnel's Byproducts/Waste
path to dig a short spur in which it is perma- Sometimes the earth removed from a tunnel
nently sealed. is simply discarded into a landfill. In other
cases, however, it becomes raw material for
Final lining other projects. For example, it may be used
In some cases, the final lining is placed to form the base course for an approach
4during the excavation process. Two ex- roadway or to create roadway embankments
amples are TBMs that install lining segments for wider shoulders or erosion control.
and prefabricated tunnels that are jacked into
place. In other cases, a final lining must be Quality Control
constructed after the entire tunnel is excavat-
ed. One option is to pour a reinforced con- Besides maintaining ground stability around
crete lining in place. Slipforming is an effi- the tunnel and ensuring structural integrity
cient technique in which a section of form is of the tunnel lining, proper alignment of the
slowly moved forward as the concrete is excavation path must be achieved. Two
poured between it and the tunnel wall; the valuable tools are global positioning system
concrete hardens quickly enough to support (GPS) sensors that receive precise locational
itself by the time the form moves on. data via satellite signals and guidance sys-
tems that project and detect a laser beam
A second option is to install segments of within the tunnel.
preformed concrete or steel lining, much as
some TBMs do. Lining segments are con-
structed so that several of them can be
The Future
joined to form a complete ring a few feet (a Exploration methods, materials, and ma-
meter or two) wide. Once a ring has been chinery are possible areas of improvement.
bolted into place, grout is injected between Sound waves transmitted through the earth
it and the tunnel wall. can now generate a virtual CAT scan of the
433
tunnel path, reducing the need to drill core Campo, David W., and Donald P. Richards.
samples and pilot tunnels. Some examples "Tunneling Beneath Cairo." Civil Engi-
of materials research involve cutting tools neering (January 2000): 36.
that are more effective and durable, concrete
with more precisely controlled hardening Iseley, Tom. "Microtunneling MARTA."
rates, and better processes for modifying Engineering (December 1991): 50.
soil to make it easier to cut, dig, or remove. O'Connor, Leo. "Tunneling Under the Chan-
Recent developments in machine technolo- nel." Mechanical Engineering (December
gy include multiple-headed TBMs that can 1993): 60.
bore two or three parallel tunnels simultane-
ously and a TBM that can turn a corner up Other
to 900 while cutting. Better remote control
capabilities for digging machinery would The Cumberland Gap Tunnel. http://www.
improve safety by reducing the amount of efl.fha.dot.gov/cumgap/tunnel.htm (January
time people have to be underground during 2000).
the digging process. "A Short History of Tunnelling." http://
pisces.sbu.ac.uk/BE/CECM/Civ-eng/tunhist.
Where to Learn More html (January 2000).
Periodicals "Tunnel Jacking." Central Artery/Tunnel
Project. http://www.bigdig.com (January
Burroughs, Dan, et al. "Depressing Traffic 2001).
Top-Down." Civil Engineering (January
1994): 62. -Loretta Hall
434
Ukulele
Background the way the islanders thought the fingers In 1950 Mario
jumped around the fretboard when it was
The ukulele is a string instrument that origi- played. Within 10 years of its introduction, Maccaferri produced the
nated in Portugal in the second century B.C. the ukulele became the most popular instru-
With a small, guitar-shaped body that is fit- plastic ukulele and sold
ment in Hawaii.
ted with four strings, it is considered a mem- over nine million units
ber of the chordophone family. Sound is pro- The first ukuleles were made by hand, a
duced through these instruments by plucking process that was both painstaking and time between the time it was
and strumming the strings. The strings in consuming. Subsequently, the number of
turn vibrate and are amplified by the resonat- ukuleles in existence was quite low prior to introduced and 1958.
ing body. The ukulele is manufactured in a 1910. Eventually, special wood cutting and
similar way as a full size guitar. shaping machines were created to produce
ukuleles. The instrument was steadily mod-
History ified making it look and sound more like
the modern day ukulele. Manuel Nunes was
String instruments date back many centuries one of the most important innovators. He
and have been developed independently by modified the instrument by replacing steel
most ancient cultures. The earliest instru- strings with gut strings. He also suggested a
ments were single strings tied to bows. Evi- different tuning pattern to make chord for-
dence of these primitive instruments has mation easier. He also began using wood
been found in Asia and Africa dating back from the koa tree to produce a lighter, more
over 3,000 years. Over time, instrument resonant ukulele.
makers added more strings.
The ukulele was introduced to the United
Ukuleles first had their start in Portugal in States mainland during the Panama-Pacific
139 B.C. in the Lusitani tribe. The develop- Exposition in San Francisco during 1915.
ment of the ukulele has been influenced by Record sales of Hawaiian music grew rapid-
instruments from Spain, South America, and ly and United States guitar manufacturers
Africa. By the thirteenth, century four-string began selling their own version of the
instruments were being used in Spain. When ukulele. By the 1920s and 1930s, the popu-
six string instruments were introduced in the larity of the ukulele spread throughout
1700s the popularity of chordophonesex- North America, and its sound became close-
ploded. Although ukuleles are most com- ly associated with vaudeville music shows.
monlu associated with Hawaii, it wasn't Since then, the ukulele has often been
until 1879 that the first ukelele was brought played as a jazz and solo instrument.
over from Portugal. One of the Portuguese
immigrants on the ship Ravenscrag, Joao The plastic ukulele, called the "TV Pal" was
Fernandez, started playing his four-string developed by Mario Maccaferri in 1950. He
Portuguese instrument known as a was a well-known guitar maker who became
braghuina. Local residents were intrigued intrigued with plastics. He used his instru-
with the instrument, adopted it as their own, ment-making skill to produce the plastic
and renamed it ukulele which in Hawaiian ukulele which sold over nine million units
means "jumping flea." This name reflected between the time it was introduced and
435
1958. Its popularity was mainly due to the The Manufacturing

fact that it was inexpensive, had a good Process
sound, and was tied in with the popular tele-
vision show "Arthur Godfrey and his The various parts of the ukelele are made in
Ukulele." separate processes and then put together in a
finishing step. The process begins with
wood selection which is the most important
factor because it will will affect sound quali-
Rawv Materials ty and instrument appearance.
The body of the ukulele is primarily made
from wood, although plastic instruments have Bookmatching
also been sold. Woods from all over the world 1 The front piece of the ukelele is produced
are used including Hawaiian koa, maple, wal- by a process called bookmatching. In this
nut, rosewood, myrtle, brazilian canary, co- method a piece of wood is cut into two equal
cobolo, madrone, elm, lacewood, and black sheets. This gives a distinct symmetrical
limba. The type of wood has a significant im- grain pattern. At this point, the wood pieces
pact on the sound, tone, and quality. are kiln dried before any more work is done.
The wood pieces are then glued together and
For example, mahogany is a "soft" hard- sanded to the desired thickness. The bottom
wood and it creates a warm, mellow tone. It piece of the ukelele is made in the same way.
is thought by many manufacturers to be the
finest wood for making ukuleles. It also has 2 The wood pieces are then sent to a shap-
excellent aging properties, sounding better as 2ing machine, which cuts the wood into
it gets older. Koa wood is the most revered the ukelele shape. For the front piece, the
of Hawaiian woods for ukulele manufactur- soundhole is also cut out at this point.
ing. These trees have unique grain patterns
and colors making every ukulele made from Strutting
them distinct. Typically, the same type of
wood is used for the entire instrument. 3 The next step is to glue wood braces on
vthe underside of the front section. This
process is called strutting. It serves to rein-
Beyond the wood, other materials used in a force the wood against the pressure created
ukulele's manufacture are nylon, steel, plas- when the strings are plucked. It also helps
tic, coatings, and glues. The strings are typi- control the way the instrument vibrates. The
cally made from nylon although some ukule- bottom piece may also have some strips of
les are produced with steel strings. The wood wood glued to it to provide more strength to
is treated with different lacquers for both the instrument.
protection and decoration. Various types of
glue can be used such as superglue, aliphatic
or yellow glue, hide glue, and epoxy. For in- Making the sides
struments made in the tropics, synthetic ad- 4The sides of the ukulele are produced by
hesives are superior because they are less cutting and sanding an appropriate length
prone to degradation by fungus. of wood. The wood is then softened in water
and placed in a mold. This mold is designed
to cause the wood to take on the curved
Design shape of the ukulele. It is clamped down and
held in place for the required amount of
The ukulele is a portable instrument with a time. The two ends of the piece of wood are
small guitar-like body. It consists of a short joined together with glue at the place where
neck, a main body, four strings and tuning the neck of the instrument will go. A small
keys, a bridge, a fretboard, and a sound piece of wood, called an endblock, is fas-
hole. There are a variety of different types tened here and near the bottom of the ukulele
of ukuleles including the soprano, concert, so the front, back, and neck can be attached.
tenor, and baritone. The most common type
is the soprano ukulele which is about 21 in 5After the sides are joined and the end-
(53 cm) long. The strings are tuned to the blocks are attached, the front and back of
notes G-C-E-A. the instrument are glued on. The excess
436
Ukulele
A ukelele.
wood is shaved off and the joints are sanded which rotates the pegs and tighten the
to make them smooth. strings when turned.
Neck production Attaching the strings

The ukulele's neck is carved from a sin- Strings are then put on the ukulele.
Ogle piece of wood. This may be made I They are first tied to the bottom sad-
using a harder wood than the main body be- dle section and strung up to the tuning pegs.
cause it holds the strings tight and is conse- Each peg has a hole in it where the string is
quently under greater stress. The whole part inserted and tied. The tuning keys are turned
is then sanded and a wooden piece is at- to make the strings tight. The instrument is
tached to make the fmgerboard. On the fin- then inspected for flaws and put into the
gerboard, small grooves are cut across the final packaging. Depending on the manufac-
width of the neck. Thin metal or wood strips turer, the whole process of making a ukulele
are placed in these grooves and glued. These can take weeks.
strips are the frets that allow the musician to
change the sound of the instrument.
Quality Control
7The neck is then attached to the main As of the year 2000, there are only three
7body of the instrument. When the glue major ukulele manufacturers in the world.
dries, the entire instrument is stained or These are small companies and many of the
painted for decorative purposes. instruments are handmade. This enables
workers to inspect the instrument during
Attaching the bridge every step of the manufacturing process to
8 Next, the bridge and saddle are attached ensure a high quality product. It begins with
8to ukulele just below the sound hole. inspection of the incoming raw materials
These pieces are held on to the body of the and parts. The physical appearance and con-
instrument by tiny screws and wood glue. dition of the wood evaluated and rejected if
Another bridge is placed at the top of the in- it does not meet specifications. Final inspec-
strument's neck. The saddle is the section tions are done on the finished product and in
where one end of the strings are attached. this way, most flaws are detected.
The strings pass over both bridges and this
area creates the distinct length where the The Future
strings vibrate.
Improvements in the future of ukulele man-
9At the top of the ukulele, four holes are ufacture will focus on better quality, grow-
drilled and pegs, which hold the strings, ing sales, and increasing output. The quality
are inserted. Tuning keys are attached to of a ukulele is primarily dependent on the
these pegs and fastened to the neck with type of wood used. Manufacturers are con-
screws. These keys have a gear mechanism stantly looking for new wood sources and
437
blends that can give a cleaner, more consis- Brosnac, Donald, ed. Guitar History. New
tent sound quality. Sales growth will be dri- York: Bold Strummer Ltd., 1995.
ven largely by promotional efforts. In manu-
facturing, improvements in string quality, Other
wood consistency and instrument durability
can still be realized. Other improvements Ukuleles by Kawika. 1626 Kino'ole Street,
will focus on automating the production Hilo, HI 96720- 5021. (808) 969-7751.
process and increasing production speeds. kawika@ilhawaii.net. http://www.ukuleles.
com (January 2001).
Where to Learn More Ukulele Hall of Fame Museum. 15 Concord
Books Ave., Cranston, RI 02910. (401) 461-1668.
ukeinfo@ukulele.org. http://www.ukulele.
Beloff, Jim. Jumpin Jim's Ukulele Tips 'N' org (January 2001).
Tunes. Hal Leonnard Publishing Corpora-
tion, 1994. -Perry Romanowski
Beloff, Jim. The Ukulele: A Visual History.
Miller Freeman, 1997.
438
Vacuum Cleaner
Background homes and were filthy. Joseph Whitworth, The first Model 0 Hoover
an enterprising English gentleman of the
The vacuum cleaner is the appliance that 1 840s, mounted large coarse-bristled brush- vacuum was made in
frightens the cat, is chased by the dog, and, es onto a rotating drum inside a horse-drawn
perhaps, gives a home the most immediate 1908 with a grey
van. The turning brushes picked up street
appearance of being clean. Imagining a dirt and deposited it in the van. The home cheesecloth bag, cleaning
home without a vacuum cleaner is next to carpet sweeper was invented in 1858 by H.
impossible; yet, like many time- and effort- H. Herrick, but its complexity and ineffi- tools, and a weight of
saving devices, its widespread use is less ciency limited its success.
than a century old. only 40 lb (18 kg).
Carpet sweepers
History Finally, in 1876, Melville Reuben Bissell,
There were no mechanical devices for owner of a china shop in Grand Rapids,
cleaning rugs or carpeting until the 1840s. Michigan, made the first popular and suc-
Before then, carpet cleaning was the duty of cessful carpet sweeper by putting rotary
housemaids for the well-to-do and the brushes in a small canister with a push han-
women of the family for everyone else. dle. Bissell's invention was spurred by his
Most rugs were made of rags that were own need: bits of packing-crate straw be-
woven together or braided in long ropes that came imbedded in his carpet. The Bissell
were then stitched together as floor cover- carpet sweeper picked up both straw and
ings. Carpets were woven of finer materials. dust and contained them in the canister for
Rugs and small carpets were taken outside later disposal. Bissell named his first model
several times a year, hung on heavy clothes- the "Grand Rapids" after his home town. It
lines, and beaten with fan-shaped beaters to revolutionized home care by making the
drive out the dust. Larger carpets were left need for beating carpets less frequent.
in place and brushed; curtains were also
cleaned by beating and brushing. On the other side of the Atlantic a British
company called Ewbank dominated the mar-
When carpets and rugs were cleaned, the ket. By 1880, Ewbank sweepers were found
furniture and many ornaments that charac- in many homes including the palaces of
terized the fussy Victorian style had to be Britain's royal family. Models came in sever-
moved: a time-consuming and inefficient al sizes; with Miniatures for ladies to operate,
process. Even worse, the beaten- or followed by the larger Standard and the Par-
brushed-out dust quickly resettled on the lour Queen, which boasted "a very powerful
floors and furniture. This, of course, did pattern for the thickest piles." The carpet
nothing to sanitize the house. sweeper was dominant through the 1930s; its
internal parts were cast of aluminum, making
Relief from this arduous task was still a long these machines light and easy to use.
time coming. The vacuum cleaner had three
significant ancestors, the first of which was Unfortunately, carpet sweepers lacked vacu-
the street-sweeping machine. Public streets um suction. They were effective to a certain
collected much of the waste from private point, but could not pull dust and dirt from
439
deep within carpet pile. Inventor Hubert rented his machines rather than sell them,
Cecil Booth saw a demonstration at the Em- but in the United States, David T. Kenney
pire Music Hall in London of an American built similar equipment and sold it, mostly
machine that blew compressed air through to office buildings like the Flick Building in
carpeting; this produced a cloud of dust New York.
(proving how much was trapped inside the
carpet), but the same dust only settled back Efforts to make smaller vacuum cleaners
into the carpet. The Americans had also ex- were slow to develop. Booth made a
perimented with suction devices since about smaller version call the Trolley Vac in
1859, but only a few factory cleaners reached 1906, but it was very expensive and still
the marketplace. Booth saw the future in suc- weighed 100 lb (45 kg). Other cleaners in-
tion. He proved this to friends in two startling cluded the Griffith (also debuting in 1906)
demonstrations. In one, he placed a handker- and the Davies device, patented in 1909,
chief on the carpet and sucked on the hand- which required a two-man operating
kerchief with his mouth. The underside of the crew-fine for wealthy households but not
kerchief was filled with dirt. Even more star- the average home.
tling, Booth was so eager to prove his think-
ing to friends that he knelt in front of a chair In their drive to produce a single-operator
in a restaurant and sucked on the chair cover- vacuum cleaner, inventors experimented
ing. Coughing and spluttering, he spat the ex- with many types of mechanical suction.
tracted dirt into a hankie. Davies's machine had a rotating wheel that
used four bellows to create suction. Other
Vacuum cleaners early vacuum cleaners used a wide range of
suction devices, including rocking chairs to
Booth gave the vacuum cleaner its start. His work the bellows, assorted hand pumps con-
first vacuum cleaner, called "puffin Billy," nected to nozzles, and reverse-action bicycle
was made of a piston pump. It did not con- pumps. Davies produced a smaller machine
tain any brushes; all the cleaning was done in 1912 called the Wizard, and Kirby's
by suction through long tubes with nozzles patent of 1912 was a pushed machine that
on the ends. It was a large machine, mount- moved forward like a caterpillar to open a
ed in a horse-drawn van that was pulled long suctioning container. K. von Meyen-
through the streets. The vans of the British burg's invention consisted of a long hose
Vacuum Cleaning Company (BVCC) were and nozzle that was attached to a bellow de-
bright red; uniformed operators would haul vice wom like a back pack.
hose off the van and route it through the
windows of a building to reach all the rooms James Murray Spangler, who, like Bissell,
inside. Booth was harassed by complaints suffered from dust allergy and asthma, con-
about the noise of his vacuum machines and structed an electric-powered vacuum cleaner
was even fined for frightening horses. The in Canton, Ohio, in 1907. Spangler made a
BVCC's most prestigious engagement was box of wood and tin with a broom handle to
cleaning the carpets in Westminster Abbey push it and a pillow case to hold the collect-
in London before the 1901 coronation of ed dust. Spangler's innovation was to con-
King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra. nect the motor to a fan disc and a rotating
brush, combining the best of Bissell's brush
The coronation cleaning led to a demonstra- sweeper with the suction of a powered vacu-
tion at Buckingham Palace, which had a um cleaner to pull more dust out of carpets.
system installed after the royal family saw
the dirt Booth was able to suction out of the Spangler himself did not have the money to
palace. Booth's vacuum system, however, promote the cleaner, but his relative,
was not suitable for individual homeowners. William H. "Boss" Hoover, a maker of
Some large buildings had Booth's machine leather goods, quickly saw the advantages
installed in the basement with a network of of Spangler's machine. The first Model 0
tubes fitted into the walls of the rooms with Hoover vacuum was made in 1908 with a
sockets in the walls. Short lengths of tubing grey cheesecloth bag, cleaning tools, and a
with nozzles were connected to the sockets, weight of only 40 lb (18 kg). Hoover found
and this central cleaning system sucked the that the machines sold very well door-to-
dust into a container in the basement. Booth door because housekeepers could see the ac-
440
Vacuum Cleaner
tion on their own carpeting. Hoover quickly cleaning actions to meet a broad range of
built a large retailing operation that spread customer requirements. The canister type
to Britain by 1913; to this day, vacuum has a cylindrical body containing the motor,
cleaning in England is called "hoovering," a fan, and other operating parts, and a remov-
measure of the impact the Spangler/Hoover able, disposable paper dust bag. The canis-
machine had on everyday life. ter is pulled over the floor on a set of
wheels. The upright model is a push-pull
Other machines by Eureka and Electrolux device also mounted on wheels; the motor
soon followed and even copied Hoover's is mounted in a housing over the fan, beater
door-to-door sales methods. Hoover added a bar and brushes, and drive belt. An upright
beater rod to the cylinder in 1926, so the handle, extending vertically from the back
cleaner brushed, beat, and suctioned the car- of the machine, carries both the electrical
pet. In the 1930s, the Great Depression pre- power cord and brackets to hold the dust
vented many from buying such luxury goods; bag or plastic dust canister. A simple lock-
to make the vacuum a necessity, Hoover ing device on the rear of the motor unit al-
hired renowned industrial designer Henry lows the handle to be lowered so the opera-
Dreyfuss to reconfigure the vacuum cleaner. tor can maneuver it under tables and around
With a body made of Bakelite instead of tin, other fumiture.
a lighter total weight, more efficient opera-
tion, a signal showing when the bag was full, Vacuum cleaner design used to focus ex-
and other innovations, the streamlined vacu- clusively on cleaning effectiveness, ease of
um cleaner resembled a high-speed locomo- operation, and low noise level. Since about
tive. A canister cleaner followed during 1990, however, almost all major manufac-
World War II. Today, the vacuum cleaner is turers have also produced lines to reduce
firmly established as a household essential. dust and allergens during vacuuming.
These units usually have removable plastic
Raw Materials canisters to contain the dust and are less to
let fine particles escape through the bags
Most upright vacuum cleaner parts are man- and back into the air. Many are also
ufactured as individual parts or subassem- equipped with replaceable filters for very
blies (groups of parts that fit together) by fine particles. The partial vacuum produced
subcontractors using specifications estab- by the fan has been improved, with more
lished by the manufacturer. These are sent powerful motors and fans that still operate
to the factory where they're inspected, then quietly. Panasonic's models feature a by-
stored in bins that can be moved to the as- pass motor that pulls dirt directly into the
sembly line as needed. Companies usually bag preventing wobble of the fan and pos-
do their own injection molding of large plas- sible motor burnout. These models also
tic parts, including the exterior housing, the have onboard attachments; the suction can
connections that support the bag, handle be transferred directly to the attachments.
parts, wheels, and the attachments provided Lighter materials and a lighter total weight
with the vacuum cleaner. Some models that for these units compensate for the weight
have removable plastic canisters to collect of the attachments.
the dust that can be snapped off and emp-
tied; these plastic cylinders are also injec-
tion molded in the factory using clear plastic The Manufacturing
pellets. Rubberized parts, like the hose that Process
channels dust from the fan to the bag and
the bumper around the edge of the housing, Plastic parts
are also made in the factory. The dust bag is Many of a vacuum cleaner's plastic parts
made of fabric and is sometimes lined; this begin with computerized drafting and de-
help keep fine particles that escape from the sign systems (CADD). The parts are shaped
replaceable paper bag from seeping out. in a two-part steel mold, called a die that is
lowered into the chamber of an injection-
Design molding machine.
Portable vacuum cleaners are made in many Tiny plastic pellets stored in a large hop-
general configurations, providing a range of 2per next to the machine are poured into a
441
An example of a canister-type The assembly line

vacuum cleaner.
5 Vacuum cleaners are manufactured in an
5assembly-line process, with workers at
assembly stations attaching subassemblies
or individual parts to the vacuum as it
moves along the line. Assembling an up-
right vacuum starts with the base, which is
made of metal or molded plastic. The steel
beater bar with brushes fitted into (a sub-
assembly) is then pulled from a bin and in-
serted into fitted notches at the front of the
base. The beater bar has a locknut on one
end and a cap on the other so the owner can
open it and replace the brushes when neces-
sary. A rubber drive belt is placed in a guide
channel around the beater bar and pulled
over a belt guide and motor pulley on the
underside of the base.
6 A steel base plate is fitted into notches in
Vthe front of the base and latched into
place with a cam lock (a turning lever) over
the underside of the belt and pulley. The
steel base plate is a subassembly that has
small rollers on it and openings near its front
where the beater bar and brushes will agitate
the carpet (to release dirt) during operation.
7At the rear of the base, an axle is inserted
through a tunnel-like opening that passes
from one side of the base to the other. A re-
lease handle is fitted onto one end of the
axle; it is a simple locking lever that allows
heating vat and melted. The pellets are ei- the vacuum's operator to lower the handle
ther purchased in the color desired or col- during operation or raise and lock it into
ored with pigments as they are melted. place for storage. Wheels are added to both
ends of the axle and are locked into place.
3 The melted plastic, injected under high 8 The fan is bolted onto the base, and the
3heat and pressure into the chamber of the Omotor assembly is attached to the top
injection molding machine, penetrates every side of the base. The electrical connections
part of the mold. The two halves of the mold from the motor to the fan and light, and
open enough to let the plastic part fall into a from the motor to the electrical cord connec-
bin. Although the pieces are still hot to the tion are made. A lightbulb is installed in a
touch, the plastic hardens on contact with socket in the front of the base. A plastic
the air as the tool opens. The plastic pieces housing that forms the top of the vacuum
are stored in bins that can be rolled to the as- cleaner and fully encloses the motor and fan
sembly line as needed. is snapped into place. It has already had a
rubberized bumper wrapped around its sides
and front. It also carries a clear plastic panel
4 Many identical plastic parts of the same allowing the light bulb inside to shine
1I type are made during the injection through as a "headlight."
process. When the desired number have
been made, the tool is removed from the in- 9Plastic fittings that support the bag and
jection molding machine, another one is in- handle are attached to the rear of the
serted, and the process repeats as supplies of base. An opening at the back of the base
another part are formed. holds a rubberized length of flexible hose
442
Vacuum Cleaner
that transfers dust from the fan to the bag; assembly along the line and can reject parts
this hose is fastened to the base opening and and partial assemblies. They may periodi-
to the plastic fitting leading into the bag sup- cally remove machines for inspection during
port. At the top end of the handle, a plastic the line manufacture. The motors are bench-
unit that holds the top end of the bag is bolt- tested before installation. At the end of the
ed through the handle. Next, electrical con- assembly process, each machine is inspected
nections inside the handle are completed, for quality before it is sent to the packing
and the electrical cord that has been attached department. Selected machines are also test-
to the back of the base is tied to the connec- ed for operation before they are packed.
tions within the handle, allowing the ma-
chine's operation to be controlled by a The Future
switch near the top of the handle. The length
of electrical cord leading from the machine The vacuum cleaner is an essential part of
to a power outlet is connected. For packing every home no matter how small. It's typically
and shipping, this cord is looped and tied one of the first small appliances purchased.
with a twist tie; the owner will wrap it Many families have several vacuum cleaners
around storage supports on the handle. for dedicated uses. These specialized uses
have helped broaden the lines of vacuums
6 The final touches are added, including made. Designs have also changed as the im-
6attaching the bag, the inner disposable portance of minimizing allergens like dust,
bag, and outer markings (preprinted on de- dust mites, and pet hair has increased. Today's
cals that list the manufacturer, operating in- vacuum cleaners are more powerful, versatile,
structions, and information such as the serial and convenient than their predecessors.
number and the power of the motor).
Where to Learn More
The completed machine is taken to
Vthe packing department where it is Books
wrapped in a plastic bag and put in a carton. Cohen, Daniel. The Last Hundred Years:
A box of plastic attachments, including noz- Household Technology. New York: M.
zles and a hose for upholstery cleaning, is Evans and Company, Inc., 1982.
also put in the carton with an information
booklet, assembly instructions, and a war- Langone, John. National Geographic's How
ranty card. The cartons, which have been Things Work: Everyday Technology Ex-
preprinted with marketing information, are plained. Washington, D.C., National Geo-
then closed, sealed, and stored for shipping graphic Society, 1999.
and distribution. Rubin, Susan Goldman. Toilets, Toasters &
Telephones: The How and Why ofEveryday
Byproducts/Waste Objects. San Diego, CA: Browndeer Press,
Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998.
The major manufacturers make different
styles of vacuum cleaners, but they don't Weaver, Rebecca, and Rodney Dale. Ma-
produce true byproducts. They produce or chines in the Home. New York: Oxford
stock replacement parts and supplies (like University Press, Inc., 1992.
disposable paper bags) for sale to both cus-
tomers and retailers. Other
Bissell. http://www.bissell.com (January
Imperfect injection-molded parts are remelted 2001).
and mixed (in controlled quantities) into new
batches of plastic. Paper items, such as the Dyson Appliances. http://www.dyson.com/
bags and shipping materials, are also made by homepage.Asp (January 2001).
outside suppliers and can be recycled.
Eureka. http://www.eureka.com (January
2001).
Quality Control
Hoover. http://www.hoovercompany.com
Assembly-line workers can reject any im- (January 2001).
perfect parts or partially assembled ma-
chines they find. Supervisors also monitor --Gillian S. Holmes
443
Vermiculite
The largest vermiculite Background sometimes spelled Palabora) district of the
Republic of South Africa. Other countries
mining operation in the The term vermiculite applies to a group of producing significant amounts of vermi-
minerals characterized by their ability to ex- culite include the United States, China, Rus-
world is located in the pand into long, worm-like strands when heat- sia, Brazil, Japan, Zimbabwe, and Australia.
Phalabowra (also ed. This expansion process is called exfolia-
tion. The name vermiculite is derived from a In 1999, there were three active vermiculite
sometimes spelled combination of the Latin word vermiculare mining operations in the United States, two
meaning "to breed worms," and the English in South Carolina and one in Virginia,
Palabora) district of the suffix -ite, meaning mineral or rock. In its ex- which shipped concentrated vermiculite ore
Republic of South Africa. panded form, vermiculite has a very low den- to exfoliation plants located throughout the
sity and thermal conductivity, which makes it country. In addition to using concentrated
attractive for use as a soil amendment, light- vermiculite from domestic mining opera-
weight construction aggregate, and thermal in- tions, these plants also imported about
sulation filler. Expanded vermiculite also has a 77,000 tons (70,000 metric tons) of concen-
very large chemically active surface area,
trated vermiculite from foreign sources-
which makes it useful as an absorbent in some mostly South Africa.
chemical processes. When vermiculite is
ground into a fine powder, it is used as a filler
in inks, paints, plastics, and other materials. Raw Materials
Technically, vermiculite encompasses a
History large group of hydrated laminar magne-
Vermiculite and its unique properties were sium-aluminum-iron silicates, which resem-
known as early as 1824, when Thomas H. ble mica. There are two keys to the unique
Webb experimented with it in Worcester, properties of vermiculite. The first is its
Massachusetts. It was Webb who gave the laminar (or layered) crystalline structure,
mineral its fanciful name because he which provides the hinged plates that make
thought the long strands looked like a mass the material expand or unfold in a linear
of small worms. Vermiculite was regarded manner, like an accordion. The second is the
as not much more than a scientific curiosity fact that it contains trapped water, which
until the early 1900s when more practical flashes into steam when heated to force the
uses were sought. The first commercial min- layers open. There are a great many natural-
ing effort occurred in 1915 in Colorado. The ly occurring vermiculite minerals and soils,
material was sold as tung ash, but did not and their identification often requires so-
find sufficient buyers, and the venture phisticated scientific analysis.
failed. The first successful vermiculite mine
was started by the Zonolite Company in One of the most common forms of vermi-
Libby, Montana, in 1923. The mine contin- culite is generally known as commercial
ued to operate until 1990. vermiculite. This is the form that is mined
and processed for various end uses. It is de-
The largest vermiculite mining operation in rived from rocks containing large crystals of
the world is located in the Phalabowra (also the minerals biotite and iron-bearing phlo-
444
Vermiculite
gopite. As these rocks are exposed to the 2The resulting heap of loose rocks are
weather, they start to decompose, allowing scooped up with power shovels and
water to enter and react with the various dumped into trucks or train cars, which
chemicals present. As the decomposition carry the rocks to a nearby processing plant.
and chemical reactions proceed, vermiculite
is formed. Concentrating
A typical chemical analysis of commercial 3The rocks are fed through a series of
vermiculite shows it contains 38-46% sili- crushers and screens to reduce their size.
con oxide (SiO2), 16-35% magnesium oxide The vermiculite is separated from the sur-
(MgO), 10-16% aluminum oxide (A1203), rounding rocks and dirt using various wet or
8-16% water, plus lesser amounts of several dry techniques depending on the particular
other chemicals. mining operation and local environmental
regulations. These techniques may include
When commercial vermiculite flakes are froth flotation, gravity separations, winnow-
heated and expanded, they undergo a color ing, or electrostatic separation. In each of
change that depends on the chemicals pre- these techniques, either the vermiculite itself
sent and the temperature of the furnace. The or the other materials are trapped and sepa-
resulting expanded vermiculite granules are rated from each other until the resulting ver-
usually a gold-brown color with a bulk den- miculite flakes are about 90% pure by
sity of about 4-10 lb/cu ft (64-160 kg/cu m), weight.
depending on the size of the granules.
4 The vermiculite flakes extracted from
The Manufacturing
4 various sections of the mine may be
blended together before further processing
Process to ensure uniformity of the product.
The manufacturing process used to produce
commercial expanded vermiculite consists Grading
of two separate operations. The mining and
concentrating operations that produce raw 5 The separated vermiculite flakes are
vermiculite flakes are conducted at one lo- sorted by size. This may be done with a
cation. The exfoliation and classifying oper- series of screens or it may be done in a long
ations that produce various sizes of light- enclosed wind tunnel. In the wind tunnel,
weight, expanded vermiculite granules for the flakes are fed into the upstream end of
use in other products are conducted in an- the tunnel and are carried along the length of
other location. Sometimes these two loca- the tunnel by the flow of air. The larger
tions can be half a world apart. flakes, being heavier, fall out of the air
stream first and are caught in a hopper at the
There are many different methods used in bottom of the tunnel. This separation by
both of these operations. The exact methods weight continues down the length of the tun-
vary from mine to mine and plant to plant. nel until all the flakes are caught in hoppers.
Here is a typical manufacturing process By controlling the length of each hopper
used to produce commercial expanded ver- opening and the velocity of the air, the
miculite. flakes can be sorted into various sizes, or
grades, ranging from about 0.63 in (16 mm)
Mining down to about 0.02 in (0.8 mm) in diameter.
If the particular vermiculite being mined
lRocks containing vermiculite are dug tends to form a high percentage of large
from a huge open pit in the ground. The flakes, the flakes may be slightly crushed to
soil on top of the rocks, called the overbur- delaminate them and reduce their size. This
den, is removed with power shovels or earth process is called debooking and allows the
scrapers. The exposed rock layers are then flakes to be quickly heated during the exfo-
drilled with large pneumatic or hydraulic liation process.
drills, and the holes are filled with explosive
charges. When all personnel and equipment A( The graded vermiculite flakes are
have been moved out of the area, the explo- Jdumped into large plastic bags or other
sive charges are detonated. containers for shipping to various exfolia-
445
Exhaust air
Crusher{\
Screen -.
I
Separator
E r~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~L ~ ~ ~ ~
Wind tunnel
\l Overburden Graded flakes

// A _ .I. /,
I Verm iculite ore CONCENTRATING GRADING
/ / II
Underlying rock
Exhaust air
Stones, Fine Medium Coarse euipment

etc. particles particles particles
EXFOLIATION CLASSIFYING
A diagram depicting the process-

ing of vermiculite. tion plants. If the flakes are to be shipped to nace reaches approximately 1,000-1,500°F
plants overseas, they are loaded in bulk into (540-810°C), which is sufficient to make
the holds of ships for transport. the trapped water in the flakes flash to
steam and cause the flakes to expand into
Exfoliating worm-like particles. At the bottom of the
furnace, the particles slide down an in-
7The vermiculite flakes are transported by clined plane. This delays the exit of the
7truck or train from the port or mine to the particles from the furnace and allows the
exfoliation plant, where they are offloaded vermiculite to be heated further in order to
and stored in a covered area to protect them reach full expansion. Other exfoliation
from contaminants and the weather. It is im- plants may use different furnace configu-
portant to prevent the flakes from absorbing rations, but the general sequence of opera-
moisture. Otherwise, it will take too much tions is similar.
energy to heat the flakes to the required tem-
perature to make them expand. Classifying
8 The flakes are loaded onto a conveyor 9The hot, expanded vermiculite particles
Ubelt and lifted to the top of a 20-25 ft 9 are then drawn up a vertical tube by a
(6.1-7.6 m) high vertical furnace lined vacuum. Any small stones or other solid
with ceramic bricks. As the flakes fall contaminants are too heavy to be carried up-
down the length of the furnace, they pass ward by the gentle flow of air and fall out
through one or more burners fired by nat- the bottom of the tube. The air flow also acts
ural gas. The temperature inside the fur- to cool the hot vermiculite.
446
Vermiculite
If a customer or application requires (EPA) issued a report regarding vermiculite

I Ofne particles, the vermiculite may be sold as a soil amendment. In the report, they
ground and screened to produce a specific concluded there was little or no risk to con-
size or range of sizes before it is packaged for sumers from asbestos.
shipping. In some exfoliation plants, the larg-
er particles may also be screened or sorted The Future
into various sizes, depending on the final use.
Although there are several other materials
1 1 The sorted, or classified, vermiculite that may be used as a substitute for vermi-
particles are then deposited into stor- culite, vermiculite's extremely low density
age hoppers, where they are dispensed into and thermal conductivity continue to make
individual 4-6 cu ft (0.10-0.15 cu m) paper it attractive for many applications. In 1999,
or plastic bags for retail sales or placed into it was estimated there were approximately
larger 50 cu ft (1.3 cu m) bags for use in var- 55 million tons (50 million metric tons) of
ious commercial applications. The bags are vermiculite reserves in the world.
sealed, labeled, and moved to a warehouse
for shipping. Where to Learn More
Books
Heolth Aspects
Hombostel, Caleb. "Vermiculite." In Con-
Vermiculite ore deposits may also contain a struction Materials: Types, Uses, and Ap-
variety of other materials such as mica, plications. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
quartz, and feldspar. These deposits vary Inc., 1991.
from one mining location to another. Dur-
ing the manufacturing process, some of Other
these materials may pose potential health
hazards to workers. In the United States and Grace Construction Products "Grace Spe-
many other countries, these hazards are de- cialty Vermiculite History." (2000). http://
fined in Material Safety Data Sheets www.graceconstruction.com/vermiculite/
(MSDS), which identify the hazard and pro- verm_prodhist.html (January 2001).
vide information on the safe handling and Hindman, James R. "Vermiculite as an In-
disposal of the material. dustrial Mineral" (1997). http://www.mcn.
One of the most common health hazards in net/-vermiculite/overview.htm (March 22,
processing vermiculite comes from quartz,
2000).
which is crystalline silica. It is usually only Hindman, James R. "Vermiculite Products
present as larger particles, but when it is and Applications." (1997). http://www.
ground into finer particles, the dust can be mcn.net/-vermiculite/uses.htm (March 22,
inhaled and cause a lung disease called sili- 2000).
cosis. As a result, strict dust control and per-
sonal protection measures are incorporated Potter, Michael J. "Vermiculite." U.S. Geo-
into those areas of the vermiculite-process- logical Survey, Mineral Commodity Sum-
ing operation where the materials are maries, February 2000. http://minerals.
ground, sifted, and bagged. At the consumer usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/comodity/vermi-
level, exposure to silica dust is negligible culite/index.html (May 18, 2000).
and does not pose a health hazard. The Schundler Company. "Basic Vermi-
In some vermiculite ore deposits, there may culite Information and Data." http://www.
also be certain amounts of various forms of schundler.com/techverm.htm (May 18,
asbestos. None of the ore bodies currently 2000).
used by major vermiculite producers pose The Vermiculite Association. "About Ver-
an asbestos health risk to workers when the miculite." http://www.vermiculite.org (May
material is processed in accordance with the 18, 2000).
applicable MSDS. In August 2000, the Unit-
ed States Environmental Protection Agency -Chris Cavette
447
Water Gun
Within two years of its Background tings for his water gun himself, and took out
several patents to protect his rights. Manu-
introduction in 1990, Pump-action water guns are a relatively re- facturing the water gun with his own re-
cent addition to the water gun arsenal. Plastic sources proved to be too expensive, so John-
Larami had sold over 10 squirt guns have long been a staple summer- son marketed his idea to toy companies. It
million Super Soakers. time toy of American children. These tradi- wasn't until 1989 that the inventor met with
tional toys eject a relatively weak stream of representatives of the Larami Corporation at
water, requiring frequent breaks for refilling. that year's American International Toy Fair.
The pump-action gun operates on a different Larami had previously marketed a battery-
principal from its predecessors. The user operated squirt gun that was patterned on
pumps a handle on the gun, which pressur-
the Israeli Uzi submachine gun. The battery-
izes air in a reservoir. When the user then op- operated gun, invented by Alan Amron,
erates a piston-like trigger, the pressurized air went on the market in 1985 and was a big
ejects water from a separate water tank, re- hit in 1986. This gun was powered by an in-
sulting in a strong stream of water that can terior motor which pumped out 250 squirts
reach as far as 50 ft (15 m). The original per minute. Due to Larami's water gun ex-
pump-action water gun was invented by an perience, it seemed a good candidate to
American engineer, Lonnie Johnson, and the make Johnson's toy. Johnson was wary of
toys are manufactured under the brand-name letting out the secret of his water gun's de-
Super Soaker by the Larami Corporation of sign, and at the toy conference he described
Mount Laurel, New Jersey. Despite the suc- his model in vague terms. He disclosed
cess of the Super Soaker, other companies
enough to get Larami's executives curious,
have taken and expanded on the design. and soon after, Johnson brought his proto-
type to the company's headquarters. His
hand-built model was made of polyvinyl
History chloride (PVC) tubing, Plexiglas, and plas-
Inventor Lonnie Johnson had a Master's de- tic soda bottles. To show the executives
gree in nuclear engineering and was work- what the water gun could do, Johnson filled
ing for the Air Force in 1982 when he came it and shot an immense stream of water all
up with the idea of a pressurized squirt gun. the way across the board room. Larami's
He was actually working on a heat pump president was immediately impressed, and
project that involved the use of water in- Johnson and the company signed an agree-
stead of Freon as a refrigeration fluid. While ment. The toy was almost instantly popular.
experimenting with some tubing in his bath- Within two years of its introduction in 1990,
room, Johnson shot water through a high- Larami had sold over 10 million Super
pressure nozzle. He put the refrigeration Soakers. With the larger models cost up to
work aside to make a prototype water gun, $40 dollars, it was a significant money-
which he gave to his six-year-old daughter. maker.
The high-powered squirt gun quickly be-
came the hit of the neighborhood, and the Controversy erupted over the high-powered
inventor began working on a marketable water guns in the summer of 1992. In
model. Johnson made all the valves and fit- Boston, a water fight escalated into a real
448
Water Gun
gunfight, and one teenager was shot to has requested, but the nozzle and pump are
death, causing Boston's mayor to ask local fitted into a box looking little like the fin-
stores to stop stocking Super Soakers. ished product. The features are evaluated for
Shortly after, in New York, teenagers their performance only at this point; how the
drenched a passerby with a Super Soaker, gun looks is another question entirely. The
and the offended victim answered with gun- bread box may undergo alterations several
fire, wounding two youths. Politicians and times. Once it is approved by the company
law enforcement personnel faulted the personnel working on the project, the engi-
Super Soaker in the wake of these tragedies, neers make drawings of the intemal layout of
though others argued that it was real guns the required parts.
and not water guns that were the problem.
Nevertheless, pump-action water guns grew Next, designers begin their work, making
in popularity. By 1998, Larami's Super drawings of how they think the water gun
Soaker was the top-selling summer toy in should appear. The designers may make half
the world. Retail sales stood at over $200 a dozen to a dozen drawings. The company
million. The company had sold more than team reviews the drawings, and may mix
300 million Super Soakers over eight years, and match aspects of different designs. For
and produced close to 10 models of varying example they may prefer the handle on one
size and price. design, and the nozzle on another. Designers
make a final drawing based on the company
team's preferences.
Ravw M0aterials
The designers' drawings are then sent to the
The prime raw material for water guns is
engineers, who come up with the parts
simply plastic. The plastic is mixed with
drawings. In most cases, the engineers need
various pigments for colorful effects. Other
to alter aspects of the design. So the draw-
materials needed are glue and light screws.
The dies for the plastic molds are made of
ings go back to the designers for review, al-
terations are made, and the engineers make
steel. Water is used in the manufacturing more drawings. Eventually a design is final-
process, to test parts, as is pressurized air.
ized and sent to a model maker.
Design The model maker makes several models.

The first one is not a working model but
The manufacturing process for pump-action solid plastic. This allows the company team
water guns is fairly simple, but the design to see what the gun looks like in three di-
process is lengthy and involved. The selling mensions. Then the team can judge the aes-
period for water guns is limited to summer. thetics of the new gun better. Next, the
The design process usually begins in July or model maker produces a working model.
August, to create new models for next year's Meanwhile, the art department at the com-
selling season. At that point, marketers usu- pany comes up with package designs and
ally have a clear idea of what models are colors for the gun. The working model is
selling well for the current year, and they can made of a gray plastic. The model maker
incorporate sales data and retailers' feedback produces six of these, and the art department
into their plans for the next summer. Person- artists paint them to make them look like the
nel at the water gun company begin their de- toy that the company proposes to sell the
signs with a wish list, noting what features next summer. These mock-ups are then dis-
they would like to see improved or changed, tributed to top retail buyers. The buyers give
and coming up with creative notions for the their opinions on what they like or don't like
product. The company might also employ about the product. They also begin to give
consultants or designers outside the corpora- the company estimates of how many their
tion, to make sure it has access to fresh stores might want to stock.
points of view. When the ideas have been
hashed out for about six months, the water After the water gun company has received
gun company enlists engineers to make a feedback from the retailers, it begins work-
preliminary model. This first model is ing with its manufacturing contractor to get
known as a "bread box." The bread box has the new product ready for mass production.
the working features the water gun company Yet another model is created, this time
44 9
An typical pump-action water gun.

called a tooling model. This lets the experts are addressed at this point. The next test run
in the factory see the parts they will need to is the color check. The raw plastic used in
mold, and they can point out any problems. the molds is naturally light brown, off-
At this stage, further work is done at the white, or gray. Pigments are added to the
manufacturing plant. plastic, and the molds are filled. The colors
are checked to make sure they are what the
design specified. Finally, workers make a
The Manufacturing test run of 40-50 pieces, to be set aside for
Process quality control. These are sent to several dif-
Making the moids ferent labs and tested for both safety and re-
liability. If everything tests well, then mass
Designs for the individual parts of the production can begin.
water gun are drawn on computer. The
drawings are then fed to the computer at the
manufacturing facility. This computer con- Full production
trols the cutting of the molds. The molds are
cut out of steel, following the computerized 3 Individual pieces of the water guns are
design. 3made through injection molding or blow
molding. Heated plastic is injected or blown
into the steel molds under pressure. Workers
Testing the molds unmold the parts and take them to an assem-
2 Before mass production begins, workers bly area. The assembly work is done by
at the manufacturing facility make sever- hand. Some parts simply snap together, oth-
al test runs. In the first test run, enough un- ers need to be glued or put together with
colored plastic is fed into the machines to screws. One aspect that makes water gun
make just two or three copies of each part. manufacturing different from the manufac-
Engineers study these pieces, called test turing of other molded plastic items is that
shots, to make sure there are no problems. the parts need to be tested for water-tight-
Then workers run a slightly larger test. This ness. Every pump and every nozzle that
is called the engineering pilot. Again using comes out of the molds is tested, as are
uncolored plastic, the molds are filled and a some other vital parts. If possible, air is
few dozen pieces of each part is made. blown into the part instead of water. If a part
These parts are then fully assembled, to is air-tight, then it will certainly hold water.
make two or three dozen model guns. This Some parts must be tested with water, how-
allows the factory personnel to test the ever. This means that afterwards they must
whole production process. They can see be dried, or else the guns would leave the
how well the pieces are formed and how assembly room wet. So air is blown through
they fit together. Any problems in assembly them to dry them. In some cases, because of
450
Water Gun
the shape of the part, it is not possible to get to last through 2,000 squirts, then the testing
all the water out. In these instances, the facility puts it through 2,000 squirts. Other
water used is treated with an anti-fungal pieces are tested to make sure no dangerous
agent, and the packaging also indicates that materials have been used in the making of
some moisture in the gun is to be expected. the product, such as lead or heavy metals,
When running at peak production, the water and other safety factors are minutely exam-
gun manufacturing plant employs thousands ined. A large amount of quality control is
of people and over several months makes also built into the manufacturing process.
millions of guns. Key parts are tested individually before as-
sembly, either with pressurized air or water.
Packaging Random samples of fully assembled water
guns are also taken. These are tested for
4 When the water guns are fully assem- function, meaning that they are filled with
1
bled, they are ready for packaging. As water and shot.
the gun itself had a long design process,
packaging also has many aspects to be con-
sidered for an ideal product. Pump-action The Future
water guns are mostly made overseas and Pump-action water guns are being continu-
shipped long distances. The weight of the ously redesigned to cater to the public's de-
packaging is extremely important, since it mand for bigger, larger water toys. There
determines shipping costs. The packaging are many new designs that promise to meet
must also be durable enough to withstand this request. One new water gun will hold 1
rough handling and attractive enough to gal (3.8 L) of water, have six settings for the
grab consumer's attention at the retailer. nozzle, and three different spray pattems.
The overall size of the package is also im- Another will have 11 nozzle settings and
portant. The box may be designed so that hold 1.3 gal (4.8 L). The amount of soakage
several fit together, saving space in the ship- per second and length of spray are also a
ping carton. Since the product is packed by large factors in future design.
hand, the package also needs to be easy to
fill, so workers package them quickly.
Where to Learn More
Quality Control Periodicals
Quality control starts at the beginning of the "Alan Amron's Battery-Powered Big-
design process. As with all toys and prod- Squirt Water Guns Have Left the Competi-
ucts marketed to children in the United tion All Washed Up." People(September 8,
States, pump-action water guns must meet 1986): 89.
safety standards. These standards are set by
the American Society for Testing and Mate- Brown, Caryne. "Making Money Making
rials (ASTM) and concem small parts, sharp Toys." Black Enterprise (November 1993):
points, safety of materials, and other as- 68.
pects. Manufacturers are also concemed
with the reliability of their product. An ex- Fitzgerald, Kate. "Toy Makers Set to Soak
pensive, top-of-the-line water gun may be the Market with Water Guns." Advertising
designed to last for 10 years, while a less ex- Age (March 22, 1993): 4.
pensive product is generally expected to last "Hold Your Water." People (June 29,
a year or two. This reliability is designed
into the product, with a testing schedule laid 1992): 89.
out specifying the number of times the gun Mathews, Jay, with Debra Rosenberg and
is expected to shoot. Just before the main Nichole Christian. "The Soaking of Ameri-
production run, the manufacturer does a test ca." Newsweek (June 22, 1992): 58.
run of 40-50 pieces for quality control pur-
poses. These test pieces are subjected to a Swartz, Mimi. "Child's Play." New Yorker
variety of trials such as drop tests, to see (July 13, 1998): 27.
how well they hold up to both normal use
and excessive abuse. If a model is supposed -Angela Woodward
45 1
Wood Stain
Iron nails soaked in Background ing that once it is dry some kind of surface
finish is applied to protect the wood surface
vinegar render a dark Wood pieces are often decorated to add and stain from moisture, scratches, unwant-
color and appeal. Wood products are often ed stains, dirt, and chemicals. Wood stains
gray or ebony stain and a imparted with a wood-tone stain to enhance are compatible with natural finishes such as
the natural grain or add depth or tone to the
brown stain may be wood. Stain may alter the color and appear-
varnish or shellac, and synthetic finishes
such as polyurethane or acrylic.
devised by soaking ance of the wood or hide unattractive grain.
Stains are available in a variety of wood
tobacco in ammonia and tones, including very light, semi-transparent History
water. stains to dark, nearly opaque stains.
Woodworkers have stained wood for cen-
Stain is a combination of dyes and pigments turies using natural pigments and dyes from
suspended in a solvent. Soluble dyes dis- plants and minerals. Iron nails soaked in
solve in compatible solvents and provide vinegar render a dark gray or ebony stain,
greater grain clarity, meaning the grain brown stain may be devised by soaking to-
shows through the stain. Insoluble pigments bacco in ammonia and water, and so forth.
are finely ground coloring materials that dis- Many of the earliest stains were essentially
perse but do not dissolve in the solvent. thinned paints that rendered opaque color
These insoluble pigments tend to cloud the and tone. It is estimated that over 100 years
grain. Stains need to be mixed frequently so ago stains were first mass-produced, and
that the pigments remain evenly dispersed around 1920 American companies such as
and neither completely reveal or obscure the Pratt & Lambert not only made a wide vari-
grain. Stains are generally characterized by ety of oil stains, but were actively advertis-
the type of solvent that is used in their pro- ing and marketing their products.
duction. Thus, the most frequently used
stains include alcohol (sometimes called More recent developments in stains include a
non-grain raising stain), water, and oil wider variety of those with solvent-bases.
stains. Each solvent affects the way the stain Water and alcohol stains are considered less
looks and handles. Today, oil stain is manu- environmentally unfriendly. (Mineral spirits
factured in the greatest quantity and the essential to oil stains have restricted disposal
most familiar to the amateur woodworker. policies as it may contaminate water sup-
There are two types of oil stains. These in- plies.) An interesting array of semi-transpar-
clude penetrating oil stain, which sometimes ent colors has recently been developed by
bleeds and fades, and wiping oil stain stain manufacturers to render colorful, non-
(sometimes called pigmented stain), which natural colors sought by some woodworkers.
is more consistent and does not streak. Synthetic pigments have been developed as
well, resulting in more consistent coloration
Regardless of solvent, stains generally pene- than some of the pigments found in the nat-
trate only the top layers of the wood. Thus, ural world. Gel stains are pigmented stains in
the stain can be stripped and sanded away, a thickened form resembling jelly. Pigments
revealing the original color of the wood. stay mixed evenly and the stain does not drip
Stain must be topcoated or finished, mean- or splatter as much as a liquid stain.
452
Wood Stain
Ravv Materials thicken the mixture. Finally, a dedicated
thickening agent (varied, and in some cases,
The raw materials essential to the produc- a proprietary ingredient)is pumped into the
tion of wood stain vary by type. Water tank.
stains use water as the solvent and include
water-soluble aniline (chemically derived) 2 The ingredients must be thoroughly
dyes to impart color. Non-grain-raising mixed in a process referred to as "the
stains, sometimes referred to as alcohol grind." A high-speed dispenser, essentially a
stains, are manufactured using alcohol or saw-tooth blade that rotates at very high
glycol as the solvent with alcohol-soluble speeds, is lowered into the large vat of
aniline dyes used in their production. Be- chemicals and pigment. This blade agitates
cause alcohol dries almost instantly, this dye the slurry for approximately 20 minutes, en-
is not able to be manipulated much and es- suring that the powdered pigment is evenly
sentially the stain is set as it is applied. distributed throughout the liquids. As this
high-speed dispenser rotates within the
Oil stains utilize mineral spirits for the sol- chemicals for several minutes, the tempera-
vent. Mineral spirits help the product's vis- ture of the mixture rises.
cosity and ease of application and are the
volatile ingredient in stains (rags soaked 3 The batch must be cooled down. In order
with stains have been known to instanta-
neously combust and must be carefully dis-
3to cool down this thick concoction, the
rest of the linseed oil is pumped in along
posed). Oil stains also generally use linseed with additional solvents (more mineral spir-
oil as the resin or binder that has been treat- its) and various metallic salts. The nascent
ed with special acids so that it will not pene- stain is quickly cooled and thinned to nearly
trate too deeply into the surface of the wood. the viscosity required for a high-quality
Pigments come in 50-lb (23-kg) bags and wiping stain. This single batch of stain is ap-
are generally iron oxide pigments (although proximately 250 gal (946 L) in volume.
this may vary). Metallic salts are important
ingredients as they help the product oxidize 4Presuming that the batch of stain under
and permit the oil stain to dry. Finally, a production requires no further adjust-
thickening agent that also helps control pen- ments for quality standards, it is hooked up
etration into the wood is needed. These to a filtration system that essentially re-
thickeners are often proprietary and may not moves all sediment from the oil stain so that
be discussed by the manufacturer. the liquid is without grain or lumps. Some
companies put their stain batches through
The Manufacturing two filtration systems to ensure the undesir-
Process able solids are eliminated. From the point at
which the tank was initially filled with in-
There are many different solvent-based gredients to the completed decanting may
stains. Oil stain is one of the most produced take as long as 2.5 hours.
and sold in greatest quantity.
The decanted stain, currently held in a
First, components must be mixed togeth- Jlarge vat or tank on the second floor of a
er in order to begin the process. The main factory, is now dropped into a filling ma-
component-linseed oil used as a binder chine on a lower level of the factory. Here,
within the stain-is pumped into a tank. the liquid is ready to be individually dis-
Only about half of linseed oil that is needed persed into cans and packaged. This filling
to make stain is added to the tank in this machine automatically fills each can by
stage. Next, the solvent, generally mineral shining a beam of light into the can with a
spirits, is pumped in. Finally, the pigments label already affixed. If the beam remains
are added. The pigments are mixed in pow- unbroken, it indicates that the can needs to
dered form, pre-measured carefully else- be filled, and fills it in a quick stream. When
where and dropped in by hand. This amount the can is filled to the desired level, the
is carefully monitored in order to acquire the beam is broken and the filling stops. Anoth-
depth and tone of stain the consumer is exer can moves into its spot, a beam of light is
pecting. These powdered pigments also shone in, and the filling of another can com-
have some oil absorption qualities and help mences until all 250 gal (946 L) are gone
453
Once mixed thoroughly for 20

minutes, the solution is cooled and
more ingredients are added.
Quality control tests are conducted
before the mixture is filtered and
packaged for sale as wood stain.
from the machine. The cans are moved ing a quality product. Machinery must be
away from the filling machine and they are working properly in dispersing the pigments
packed in cartons and readied for shipment. and filtering out undesirable particles. Fin-
ished batches are checked for proper viscos-
Quality Control ity, weight, and color.
The creation of oil wood stain is a carefully
controlled cooking process. The ingredients Byproducts/Waste
are very carefully measured as they are Oil stains generally utilize mineral spirits, a
pumped into the mixing tank, and pigments combustible material with a high flash
are hand weighed according to proscribed point. Most unused solvents are easily re-
recipes that render the tone desired. The used and re-mixed into the stain manufac-
quality of the raw materials-particularly turing process so that the solvent is general-
the proprietary thickener, the linseed oil, ly not a hazard. If for some reason the
and the pigments-are essential to produc- solvent is contaminated and may not be
454
Wood Stain
reused in the product, then the mineral spir- tion as the disposition of the used and conta-
its are considered hazardous waste and must minated products are becoming an issue.
be disposed according to federal regulations
that pertain to such wastes. These contami- Where to Learn More
nated solvents are shipped to a hazardous
waste facility. Books
Umstattd, William. Modern Cabinetmak-
The Future ing. South Holland, IL: The Goodheart-
Wilcox Company, Inc., 1990.
Because oil stains are made with solvents
considered hazardous, many woodworkers Other
are turning to the water stains because they
are environmentally friendly. Water stains American Furniture Design Company.
move deeper into the wood than oil. But they http://www.americanfurnituredsgn.com
don't always have the depth of tone or color (January 2001).
that oil stain imparts on the first coat. It may
require a few coats to get the desired color. Antiques Resources.Com. http://www.anti-
Also, water stains tend to raise the grain, con- queresources.com (January 2001).
sidered undesirable if one wants a smooth, Lowe's Home Improvement Warehouse.
even surface when the piece is topcoated. http://www.lowes.com (January 2001).
The future of all paints and oil stains made
with linseed oil and mineral spirits is in ques- -Nancy E.V. Bryk
455
Wrapping Paper
Victorian Christmas Background are the best known of these; but Italy has the
Befana, Russia has both the white-robed girl
papers were intricately There are many kinds of wrapping papers Kolyada and the ancient Babushka (grand-
manufactured specifically for the types of mother), and Scandinavia calls on goats and
printed and ornamented products they are intended to wrap. For ex- dwarfs. In England, Boxing Day also arose
with lace and ribbon. ample, wrapping paper is made for bread as a gift-giving day; this day after Christmas
for sanitary and aesthetic purposes. Origi- was both a church holiday in which alms
nally, waxed paper and cellophane were were given to the poor and a day when fami-
used, but now polyethylene, polypropylene, lies gave boxed presents to their servants
and laminates that are a combination of and to tradesmen.
these are preferred. Foil overwraps are also
common. The Victorians made an art form out of
many holiday customs. Elaborate gift giv-
History ing was a privilege of the rich, but the Vic-
torians developed the Christmas card as a
Gift giving is associated with many holi- small gift that friends could give each
days around the world and occasions such other to express sentiments without spend-
as birthdays. Like many other Christmas ing a lot of money. The first Christmas
customs, exchanging gifts originated in card was designed by John Calcott Horsley
ancient, pagan celebrations. The Roman in 1843 on commission from Sir Henry
festivals of Satumalia and Kalends were Cole, a businessman who had fallen be-
celebrations of the harvest and winter sol- hind in writing personal Christmas letters
stice included gifts of small figurines, and wanted to send holiday greetings to
food, jewelry, and candles. The Roman those awaiting his letters. Before this
New Year featured gifts of candies, cakes, printed card, people had decorated their
honey, and fruit because sweet gifts fore- calling cards with scraps of colored paper
told a sweet year. and this practice continued until about
1860 when the Christmas card began to
The tradition of giving gifts at Christmas grow into an industry. Developments in
time is associated with the gifts of gold, the printing industry and the creation of
frankincense, and myrrh delivered to the postage stamps helped to fire interest in
Christ child by the Three Wise Men. De- mass mailing of cards.
spite this link, gift-giving was shunned by
the early Christians who associated it with The art of designing Victorian Christmas
the pagan traditions they wanted to leave be- cards led to development of artistic gift
hind. It was not until the Middle Ages that wraps. Victorian Christmas papers were
gift-giving became a popular custom associ- intricately printed and ornamented with
ated with Christmas and the church's abhor- lace and ribbon. Decorated boxes, loose
rence of gift giving was essentially over- bags, and coronets bore cutout illustrations
whelmed by popular practice. A whole of Father Christmas, robins, angels, holly
phalanx of gift givers followed the Three boughs and other seasonal decorations.
Kings in entering popular culture. Saint Often, the gift-wrapping papers matched
Nicholas and Santa Claus (in many forms) cards in design, and the association of the
456
Wrapping Paper
two has carried through to today. Develop- Design

ments in printing presses allowed endless
sheets of wrapping paper to be printed Design is the key to eye-catching gift wrap
with consistent quality. The flexography that will sell well. The design department
process patented in England in 1890 com- of a major gift wrap manufacturer includes
bined very fluid inks with rubber plates teams of designers divided into line design-
wrapped around the print cylinder to make ers, graphic designers, and artists. Line de-
a printing process ideally suited to coarse signers create the initial ideas for particular
or stiff papers that were durable enough lines of gift wrap and all the related spe-
for wrapping. The rotary system prints ex- cialty items. The specialties include every-
ceptional lengths of printed paper that are thing except greeting cards, although line
rolled on cardboard rolls or cut into small- designers often work with greeting card de-
er sheets. signers to producing matching or comple-
mentary products. Line designers include
In the United States, card-making compa- tissues, bows, ribbon, gift enclosures,
nies expanded their product lines during wrapping papers, stickers or seals, and gift
the period from 1910 to 1925 by making bags in their concepts.
printed or decorated gift wrap. Tissue
paper had previously been available in Graphic designers also participate in design
green, white, and red; but sturdier paper planning, but their primary task is to create
was plain brown wrapping paper. Soon, artwork that will be used to make a template
gift wrap was accompanied by gift enclo- for the printer or paper mill to repeat over the
sure cards, and, in the 1980s, gift bags in a surface of the gift wrap. Graphic designers
wide variety of sizes and shapes became may direct an idea to an artist in the gift-
the trend in disguising gifts, even though wrap finn's own design studio or an outside
bags had originally been popular wrappers studio. If the wrap maker acquires the rights
in Victorian times. Occasion appropriate to use a familiar image like a cartoon charac-
papers and all the accessories to match are ter, the designer works with the artist or firm
widely available for every gift-giving op- providing the image to develop a series of
portunity. designs using that image in keeping with
copyright laws. The artists may use any
medium to create a gift-wrap design; many
Rawv Materials are hand-drawn or painted and lettered. The
Wrapping paper begins with paper that is graphic and line designers work with the
produced in special mills from wood pulp. artist to select the colors, layout of the tem-
The pulp is usually made from trees classi- plate, paper weight and style, and paper fin-
fied as softwoods; for gift wrap, the pulp is ish to best enhance the design. Completed
bleached, but other papers like the material designs are reviewed and approved then
called kraft wrapping (familiar as grocery scanned onto computer records that can be
store bags) is made of unbleached pulp. Ink distributed to the paper mill, printer, and oth-
is made from natural and synthetic dyes. ers responsible for manufacture so that iden-
The emphasis on protecting the environment tical, error-free designs can be reproduced.
by using recyclable papers has been felt by
both the paper-making and ink-making in- Meanwhile, the line designers direct com-
dustries, which choose bleach and pigments pletion of designs for other parts of the line.
that are easily recycled. Gift tags are based heavily on gift wrap de-
signs to so they will coordinate. The tags are
The strength of gift-wrap manufacturers complex items to design, however, because
may be in design over actual paper and ink the tiny space restricts design possibilities
production. The gift-wrap companies buy and many special finishes or die-cut shapes
paper and ink from vendors that specialize are expensive to produce. Gift bags are also
in high-quality production of two weights of a large part of the gift wrap market with
wrapping paper (called "giftcote" in the in- unique requirements. Again, designs may be
dustry), heavier kraft paper, and tissue based on gift paper plans or lines of cards,
paper. The finished surfaces of certain but individual lines of gift bags are also con-
wrapping papers, like foils, are impressed ceived. The bag itself is three-dimensional,
on the paper during the printing process. so the designer must create designs for the
457
The process of making paper.

front, back, sides, bottom, and even the in- The Manufacturing
side. Sometimes different art work is needed Process
for each of these sections, even though they
may have coordinated design elements. Fin-
Manufacturing steps for gift wrap are rela-
ishes on the bags and the design of the han- tively straightforward after the development
dle are important details; the handle can be a and approval of a design is completed.
solid color, several colors twisted together, Paper, ink, special finishes, and other
and a variety of materials. items in the design line are purchased
from paper and ink vendors. These materials
Line and graphics designers usually have are received and inventoried in the manufac-
private work spaces in the office, but they turer's printing plant. A computer file with
share larger planning rooms where designs, the digitized artwork from the design team
sample papers, references, and other materi- is read by a machine that engraves the image
als for creating the current line can be onto a printing cylinder.
spread out and shared. Design ideas must
also be developed and discussed. Sources 2 The printing cylinder is carefully in-
may include magazines, movies, traditional spected and fitted on a printing press.
images, fashion and home fashion trends, as The presses use rotogravure or flexography
well as popular topics of conversation. Line processes. Rotogravure requires etched
designers may work on two to ten products cylinders, while flexography uses rubber
within a single line at any time. plates fitted to a rotating cylinder. The
458
Wrapping Paper
Gravure printing is used to deco-
rate wrapping paper.
processes require inks unique to each accessories customers may need for the par-
process. Gift-wrap makers have state-of-the- ticular occasion, and lines must be designed
art printing equipment that can apply up to to appeal to a wide range of tastes.
six different colors simultaneously and add
special finishes like foil, iridescent, pearles- Paper is the largest single waste item, and all
cent, and flocked finishes. As the paper waste paper is sold to recyclers who grind it
emerges from the press, it is rolled onto up, remix it with appropriate types of pulp,
large rolls and transferred to another part of and remanufacture paper from it. Ink waste
the factory. Machines cut and wrap the results from leftover ink that is not fully used
paper in much smaller rolls for sale or for- by printing of a particular line. The inks are
mat it for folding and sale in flat packages. chemically reformulated into new colors and
reused. Some manufacturers such as Ameri-
3 Rolls of gift wrap are shrink-wrapped im- can Greetings produce all of their own inks
mediately with preprinted clear wrap to make the most of this reformulation
bearing the manufacturer's information and process as well as to produce unique quali-
price. Flat packages are also wrapped and ties and colors of inks. Other makers who
sealed. Both types of gift wrap are bulk- purchase ink from subcontractors recycle
packed in cartons for shipment to card shops, leftover inks through those manufacturers.
department stores, and other retail outlets.
Quality Control Where to Learn More

Because the manufacture of gift wrap is so de- Books
sign-intensive, much of the product's quality Chalmers, Irena. The Great American
is factored in before it ever reaches the manu- Christmas Almanac. New York: Viking
facturing plant. All workers are responsible Studio Books, 1988.
for product quality while the product is being
processed in their area. In addition, quality Clements, Linda. The Spirit of Christmas
control experts are part of the review and ap- Past: Evocative Memories of Years Gone
proval process during design and are on the By. New York: Smithmark Publishers, 1996.
floor of the plant throughout production.
Coffin, Tristram Potter. The Book of Christ-
Byproducts/Waste mas Folklore. New York: Seabury Press,
1973.
Gift-wrap manufacturers generate lines of
products for birthdays, weddings, Christ- Del Re, Gerard, and Patricia Del Re. The
mas, and many other holidays and occa- Christmas Almanack. Garden City, NY:
sions. Each line includes all the appropriate Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1979.
459
Rogers, Barbara Radcliffe. The Whole Other

Christmas Catalogue. Los Angeles: Price
Stem Sloan, 1988. American Greetings. http://www.american-
greetings.com (July 18, 2000).
Sansom, William.A Book of Christmas.New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968. CPS Corporation. http://www.cpscorp.com
(July 18, 2000).
Periodicals Gibson Greetings. http://www.gibsongreet-
"The Cover of Money." Time 136, no. 25 ings.com. (July 18, 2000).
(December 10, 1990):73.
Hallmark. http://www.hallmark.com (July
18, 2000).
-Gillian S. Holmes
460
Xylophone
Background lower register by taking one step to the left Wooden bars were
and the upper register by making one step to
The xylophone is a component of the per- the right. The player always returns to cen- originally seated on a
cussion section of an orchestra and many inter. Notes are struck in the centers of the bars
strumental groups. Its unique sound, relative series of hollow gourds,
or keys. Flats and sharps are struck along the
rarity, and appearance make it fascinating to edges of the bars but not the part of the bar and the gourds generated
the listener. The xylophone has a close that rests directly on the frame. The lowest
cousin called the marimba. Both instruments end of the xylophone is the widest, and the the resonating notes that
consist of wooden keys mounted on a wood- highest notes are at the narrow end.
en frame over a series of metal tubes called are produced on modern
resonators. Hammering on the wooden keys The mallets are also important to the sound instruments by metal tubes.
causes the impact to resonate through the produced. The instrumentalist must choose the
tubes. The xylophone has a brittle, metallic right mallets to either blend in or project above
sound, while the marimba is somewhat the other instruments, depending on the vol-
more mellow or wooden to the listener. ume needed and the character of the music.
Xylophone players typically use rubber mal-
The xylophone and marimba differ in range. lets made either of medium, hard, or extra hard
Depending on the model, a xylophone en- rubber. Marimba players use mallets of soft
compasses two to four octaves. Its highest rubber or medium soft woven yam.
note is the same as C-88 on the piano. The
marimba covers two-and-a-half to four-and-a- Mallet grip is critical to the proper technique
half octaves with C-76 the highest note. This for playing any of the mallet instruments. The
means that the marimba is one octave lower player must stay relaxed but completely con-
than the xylophone in range. Music is written trolled; ease of movement or flow is very im-
for the xylophone as an effects instrument. It portant to the sound produced. Both hands
rarely is used to play solos with an orchestra hold the mallets the same way, which is called
or ensemble. The marimba's large resonators a "matched grip." The point where each mal-
make it sound more like an organ. Composers let is held between the thumb and the first
write more music for the marimba as a solo joint of the first finger is called the pivot
instrument, and its sound range is so wide that point. The other fingers curve around the stick
it can make music like a full orchestra. portion of the mallet in a relaxed curl. Any
pinching will constrict the sound and tire the
The sound produced from the xylophone de- player. The pivot point allows the mallet to re-
pends heavily on the skill of the player. The bound naturally, and force is provided by the
player stands to play the xylophone and combined movement of the finger, wrist, and
faces the center of the instrument. He or she forearm. The player will leam to place the
must stand erect, hold the mallets (hammers pivot point at the point of balance between the
or beaters) between the thumb and first joint ball of the mallet and the end of the stick or
of the first finger with one mallet per hand. handle. The grip is almost the same as the
The wrists are used to move the mallets right hand grip for playing the snare drum.
smoothly up and down; the palms face out.
The arms are held down near the keyboard The bars on the keyboard of the xylophone
and do not move. The xylophonist plays the look much like the black and white keys of a
46 1
piano. The best sound comes from striking strument's migration also developed an ef-
the middle of each bar, although very fast fective method of tuning it. They carved a
passages are played at the ends of the bars. gentle arch on the underside of each bar and
The place where the bar passes over the simply continued carving until the bar was
chord or frame of the xylophone produces a tuned accurately. This arch is called an "ar-
dead sound, so this is avoided. The xylo- cuate notch" and is the key to the tuneful-
phone is not pounded with the mallets; in- ness of the xylophone, marimba, and all
stead, the correct rebound of the mallets other members of the xylophone family.
pulls more rounded tones out of the bars.
Beginning players learn to strike the centers Another type of xylophone, the trough xylo-
of the bars to develop their feel for the reach phone, is characteristic of the ancient instru-
from bar to bar. With increasing skill in get- ment invented in Indonesia and Southeast
ting the right tones from the bars, students Asia, and is still played today, especially in
can expand the parts of the bars they use to Java. The trough xylophone has its bars set
vary the sound and volume. across a wooden box with an open top and a
bottom that slopes downward toward the
bass end. Different ranges of bars from alto
History to bass can be removed and inserted in the
The xylophone is an ancient instrument that box, so its range can be changed to suit the
originated independently in Africa and Asia. music. The trough xylophone is a favorite
Wooden bars were originally seated on a se- teaching instrument.
ries of hollow gourds, and the gourds gener-
ated the resonating notes that are produced Early music for the xylophone was tradi-
on modem instruments by metal tubes. For tional and passed down from teacher to stu-
centuries, xylophone makers struggled with dent. A European form of the xylophone
methods of tuning the wooden bars. Old first known around the fifteenth century and
methods consisted of arranging the bars on was developed in Central and Eastern Eu-
tied bundles of straw, and, as still practiced rope; was probably more closely related to
today, placing the bars adjacent to each the dulcimer than the African and Asian xy-
other in a ladder-like layout. Ancient mal- lophones. In the nineteenth century, this folk
lets were made of willow wood with spoon- instrument was modified by adding extra
like bowls on the beaten ends. rows of bars; four rows became standard.
Western composers did not "discover" the
African xylophonists had the widest variety xylophone or begin writing classical music
of instruments, including some that were for it until the mid-1800s. Hans Christian
plucked instead of hammered and light- Lumbye entered the history books as the
weight instruments that were suspended on first western composer to write a score for
a rope around the player's neck. They used the xylophone in his 1873 "Traumbilder."
wooden boxes for resonators as well as clay The French composer Camille Saint-Saens
pots in Nigeria and pits in the ground in (1835-1921) incorporated the xylophone in
Kenya and Central and West Africa. They his 1874 "Danse Macabre." Spanish com-
inserted membranes between the bars and poser Manuel de Falla (1876-1946) used the
resonators to give the instrument a buzzing xylophone for some percussion in his
sound; these membranes were made of spi- dances from "The Three Cornered Hat".
der cocoons or cigarette papers. In south- The Russian composers Aram Ilyich
eastern Africa, the Chopi people play xylo- Khachaturian (1903-1978) and Igor Fy-
phones in groups of as many as six dorovich Stravinsky (1882-1971) experi-
instruments of different sizes and ranges. mented with many percussive types in their
pioneering forays into modem Russian com-
In the seventeenth century, African instru- positions. Khachaturian's "Sabre Dance"
mentalists took the xylophone with them to from his ballet called "Gayane Suite" has a
Central America where it was modified and challenging xylophone part, and Stravin-
became known as the marimba. The marim- sky's ballet "Petrouchka" includes his best-
ba remains popular throughout Mexico and known use of this unusual instrument.
Central America and is considered the na-
tional instrument of Guatemala. The Modern musicians returned to the xylo-
Africans who were responsible for the in- phone in the 1960s with another flurry of
462
Xylophone
A. Keys. B. Resonators. C. An ex-

interest in writing for the instrument. In Ravw Materials ample of a four-row xylophone.
1961, Istv n Lang wrote a concerto for xy- The materials needed to make an orchestral
lophone, and his Japanese counterpart, quality xylophone begin with rosewood for
Toshiro Mayuzumi, composed a xylophone the bars. Some teaching instruments for
concertino in 1965. Also in the 1960s, a schools are made with keys fabricated from
variation on the xylophone called the xy- synthetic materials, but a true xylophone
lorimba was rediscovered. It had been cre- must have rosewood keys. Resonators are
ated early in the twentieth century to give made from aluminum tubing that is also ac-
the xylophone greater range. Alban Berg quired in bulk from a specialty metal fabri-
(1885-1935) wrote "Three Pieces for Or- cator. Cords or pads of felt, synthetic, rub-
chestra" in 1915, which demonstrated the ber, wood, or other materials support the
xylorimba's capabilities. Another piece keys at the nodal points where they rest on
called "Hymnody" featured it in a chamber the frame over the resonators.
group written in 1963 by English composer
Roberto Gerhard. Gerhard was born in The frame itself may be constructed of metal
Spain and may have learned of the xy- or any wood, depending on the preferences
lorimba through his Spanish connections. of the customer and the manufacturer for the
His composition required two players for finished appearance of the instrument. Xylo-
the instrument. phones for high school and college marching
463
The ranges of various percussion the pitch. After final tuning, the bar is gently
instruments. sanded. When all the bars are tuned, they are
(middle C) (top C of piano) polished, stained, and varnished. Choice of
C- fl cl the color of stain is made by the customer
and manufacturer.
3 Aluminum tubular resonators are made
3from tubing purchased from a metal fab-
ricator. The tubes must be well made with
uniform circumferences and smooth finishes
that will not detract from the sound quality.
The tubes are cut to lengths that depend
more on the finished appearance of the xylo-
phone. Usually, the bottom ends of the tubes
have a tapered length with longer tubes at
the bass end and shorter tubes toward the
bands take tremendous abuse as they are higher end of the range, or an arched effect
transported from location to location, so the from one end to the other. The length of the
frame may be constructed of particle board tubes does not matter for sound production
that is easily replaced, patched, or painted if because the tubes are stopped inside like
damaged. Instruments used by professional organ pipes. The closing piece is added near
percussionists are usually crafted with the lower end once the tube has been tuned
frames of fine wood that are finished by to its bar.
skilled craftsmen. The frames, however, are 4 The frame is constructed as a separate
still simple and unomamented, unlike other 1
operation while the keys and tubes are
wooden instruments. Stains and vamishes being cut and tuned. The outer perimeter un-
are used to finish the wood.
derneath the keys is usually made of quality
wood that is finished to match the color of
The Manufacturing the keys. Legs or supports are made of wood
Process or metal and are bolted to the frame. The
feet touching the floor are fitted with castors
Construction of a xylophone begins with that can be locked so the xylophone won't
a design drawing. Xylophone manufac- move as its being played or with rubber or
ture is based on traditional designs with lit- synthetic feet.
tle variation, so the design process is limited
to selecting the size or range of the xylo- 5When the bars are complete, each one is
phone and the finish of the frame. test-fitted over its resonator and the res-
onator is tuned by inserting the stop. The
2 Rosewood for the keys is purchased in bars are then fitted over the nodal points and
bulk. Sections long enough to produce screwed into place with standard wood
several keys are cut and the wood is stored screws. The tubes are riveted together and
and aged for approximately two years be- suspended on the frame.
fore the keys are cut. The xylophone bars or
keys are cut to lengths ranging from long 6 Each mallet or beater consists of two
keys for the low notes to shorter keys for the 6parts, the stick and the head. The stick is
higher notes. The keys are a standard width made of bamboo, rattan, birch, or fiberglass.
of 1.5 in (3.8 cm) and a thickness of 1 in The spherical heads or ends are made of
(2.5 cm). Holes are drilled at the support hard rubber or plastic with an internal core
ends where the keys will be fitted to the of cord that is wound much like the inside of
nodes. The craftsman must then carve out a golf ball. Heads made for xylophone and
the arcuate notch, the gentle arch on the un- marimba mallets are also woven of tightly
derside of the key that provides accurate wrapped wool. Xylophone players use three
pitch. He does this in a series of cautious varieties of mallets constructed with differ-
steps-carving to rough tune, checking the ent combinations of stick and head to pro-
pitch, carving to truer tune, checking the duce a wider variety of sound. Players
pitch, carving to final tune, and confirming choose the beaters based on the music they
4 64
Xylophone
are playing, the sound of their instrument, range, repertoire, and opportunities for sig-
and their own wrist strength and technique. nificant growth are limited by both tradition
and possibility. In recent years, its close
cousin the marimba has grown considerably
Quality Control in popularity because of the interest in
Xylophone makers are skilled craftsmen Latin, jazz, and percussive music and a
with woodworking capabilities equivalent to broadening of the repertoire. Music enthusi-
those of cabinet makers. They take profes- asts hope the xylophone will also increase in
sional pride in producing high-quality instru- popularity, but it will assuredly be a valued
ments that live up to or exceed established orchestra member because of its unique mu-
standards of xylophone making. Because sical voice.
manufacture is a craft, each step is done ac-
cording to the quality control requirements Where to Learn More
of the builder. The iterative steps of tuning
the bars is considered the single-most impor- Books
tant part of xylophone manufacture, and the Baines, Anthony. The Oxford Companion
repetition itself is a quality measure. to Musical Instruments.New York: Oxford
University Press, 1992.
Byproducts/Waste
Bragard, Roger, and Ferdinand J. De Hen.
Xylophone makers do generate byproducts. Musical Instruments in Art and History.
Typically, they offer a line of xylophones New York: The Viking Press, 1967.
ranging from small or piccolo xylophones to
bass models for orchestras or individual in- Dearling, Robert, ed. The Illustrated Ency-
strumentalists. Some also make other types clopedia of Musical Instruments. New
of percussion instruments especially those York: Schirmer Books, 1996.
in the xylophone family.
Sachs, Curt. The History of Musical Instru-
Very little waste results from xylophone ments. New York: W. W. Norton & Com-
manufacture. Rosewood is too valuable a pany, Inc., 1940.
commodity to be used frivolously, and the
only wood scrap consists of shavings from Thamm, Duane. The Complete Xylophone
tuning the keys and minor end scrap. Alu- & Marimba Method. Glenview, IL: Cre-
minum scrap is returned to the supplier for ative Music, 1966.
recycling.
Other
The craftsmen handle a limited range of
hazardous equipment and almost no haz- Mallet Works Music. http://www.mallet-
ardous materials. Bench cutters are used to works.com (June 26, 2000).
cut the tubular resonators and the wood
keys. Hand tools are needed to tune the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra, Australia.
keys. Safety glasses are worn during all op- The Instruments in an Orchestra. http://
www.mso.com.au/edu/pages/orchestra/
erations. Quantities of stain and varnish are
minor; these materials are stored and han- percussion (June 26, 2000).
dled safely, and there are no related disposal Scott, W. L. Xylophone. http://www.music
or waste hazards. rafts.com (June 26, 2000).
The Future Vibraphone Web Site. http://www.thevibe.

net (June 26, 2000).
The xylophone itself is an established player
in an orchestra's percussion array; but its -Gillian S. Holmes
465

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What are the main steps in xylophone manufacturing?

What are the main steps in xylophone manufacturing?

'IObj

Jacqueline L. Longe, Editor

Jacqueline L. Longe, Coordinating Editor

Baby Wipes .....27 Evaporated and

..... 43 Ferris Wheel .. .171

Canal and Lock ... 78 H a rpsic h o rd

Chess ....... ....... 97 Ice C ream Cone .224

Litmus Paper ...... ...

Artificial Heart: Jay Caplan, Thermo Cardiosystems Inc., Wobum, Massachusetts.

AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission: Artificial Heart. Jarvik, Dr.

Crawford (standing, in military uniform), photograph; Hockey Puck. Gretzky,

Once conceived, a prototype of

WIRE FORM FORM

Assembly back to the manufacturer for approval. Then

Packaging and shipping Other advancements in action figures are

An example of an electrical plug- performance. During testing, S. C. Johnson

The angioplasty balloon is formed

An angioplasty balloon is inserted

Eccentric inlet port

Pneumatic drive line

A. A pneumatic artificial heart. B.

The Manufacturing facturers, including machine shops and

Once all components are obtained, the Quality Control

temperatures of 3,272-4,172°F (1,800- assigned a size, which is then matched to the

Different types of 6a6y carriers.

Backpack-type carriers 3 In the packing department, the infant

An example of a typical box of moisturization. In addition, some formulas

Immediately following this operation,

planning to boost their declining margins on Where to Learn More

A backhoe with highlights of its

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conveyors that are both electrically pow-

Byproducts/Waste ciations throughout the United States and

The Solvay ammonia process.

A typical basketball is 30-31 in ketball was made of laced leather and

A standard basketball court.

sturdy paper. This first guide mark denotes The Manufacturing

boomerang's wing tips were cut at an angle Periodicals

Where to Learn More Valenti, Michael. "The Return of the

A pair of boxing gloves. quires that all gloves either be thumbless or

Stuffing the glove

6The pattern for the glove being made is

7The cut pieces are layered to the speci-

Finishing the glove

awl. Each hole is strengthened with stitch- The Future

Scrap Zinc Other

I Cake /_ Reheating furnace

ANNEALING AND COLD ROLLING FINISH ROLLING

A diagram depiding typical manu-

the brass composition and desired proper- Quality Control

9Steps 7 and 8 may be repeated many Where to Learn More

Tablet-shaped mints are made in a

Enrique Bemat F.S.A., manufacturer of

A lock is a rectangular chamber

Primary excavation is done with earth-