BCA Semester IV

BCA – 408 Networking – I

External Total Exam Marks : 35 Marks

Unit 1 : Network Fundamentals and Data Transmission

What is networking?

o In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more

computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data/resources.
o Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

Network Elements
o In the computer world, the term network describes two or more connected
computers that can share resources such as data, a printer, an Internet connection,
applications, or a combination of these.
o In the following sections, we’ll discuss each type of network and describe the
situation that is most appropriate for its use.
o The following set ups which constitute a network in some way are called as network
elements.

LAN (Local Area Network)

o A local area network (LAN) connects a group of computers in close proximity to

each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home.
 o It is limited to a specific area and cannot extend beyond the boundaries of a single
building.
o The first LANs were limited to a range (from a central point to the most distant
computer) of 185 meters (about 600 feet) and no more than 30 computers.
o A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other
applications.
o A LAN in turn can be connected to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN.
o Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as
Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs.
o The smallest home LAN can have exactly two computers; a large LAN can
accommodate many thousands of computers.
o Today’s technology allows a larger LAN, but practical administration limitations
require dividing it into small, logical areas called workgroups.
o A workgroup is a collection of individuals (a sales department, for example) who
share the same files and databases over the LAN. Figure above shows an example
of a small LAN and its workgroups.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

o A Wide area network connects computers over a large geographic area, such as a
state,
o province or country.
o WANs often connect multiple smaller networks, such as local area networks (LANs)
or metro area networks (MANs).
o WANs generally utilize different and much more expensive networking equipment
than do LANs.

WANs differ from LANs in the following ways:

SL No LAN WAN
1. WANs cover less distances WANs cover greater distances.
2. LAN speeds are more. WAN speeds are slower.
3. LANs primarily use private network WANs can use public or private network
transports. transports
4. It is a group of computers in close The Internet is actually a specific type of
proximity WAN. The Internet is a collection of networks
that are interconnected and, therefore, is
technically an internetwork
5. A LAN is always centralised A WAN can be centralized or distributed. A
centralized WAN consists of a central
computer (at a central site) to which other
computers and dumb terminals connect. The
Internet, on the other hand, consists of many
interconnected computers in many locations.
Thus, it is a distributed WAN.

HOST

o A host is a computer connected to a computer network.

o The term host comes from the era when the only intelligent devices on the network
 were mainframes, which were commonly referred to as hosts regardless of TCP/IP
functionality.
o In fact, a host, in TCP/IP terms, is any network device that has an IP address.
o A network host may offer information resources, services, and applications to users
or other nodes on the network.
o Computers participating in networks that use the Internet Protocol Suite are called
IP hosts.
o Specifically, computers participating in the Internet are called Internet hosts,
sometimes Internet nodes.
o Internet hosts and other IP hosts have IP addresses assigned to their network
interfaces.
o Every network host is a physical network node (i.e. a network device), but not every
physical network node is a host.
o Network devices such as modems, hubs and network switches are not assigned
host addresses and are consequently not considered as network hosts.
o Network hosts that participate in applications that use the client-server model of
computing, are classified as server or client systems.
o Workstations, servers, and any other network device (as long as it has one or
more IP addresses) can all be considered hosts.

WORKSTATION,

o A workstation is a high-end computer designed specifically for technical or

scientific applications.
o In the classic sense, a workstation is a powerful computer used for drafting or other
math-intensive applications.
o In the network environment, the term workstation normally refers to any computer
that is connected to the network and used by an individual to do work.
o It is important to distinguish between workstations and clients.
o A Client is any network entity that can request resources from the network;
o A workstation is a computer that can request resources.
o Workstations can be clients, but not all clients are workstations. For example, a
printer can request resources from the network, but it is a client, not a workstation.
o They are optimized for the visualization and manipulation of different types of
complex data such as 3D mechanical design, engineering simulation,
animation and rendering of images, and mathematical plots.
o Consoles consist of a high resolution display, a keyboard and a mouse at a
minimum, but also offer multiple displays.

SERVER

o A server is a powerful computer on a network that manages network resources.

o Servers run the software that controls and maintains the network. This software is
known as the network operating system.
o Servers are often dedicated, meaning that they perform no other tasks besides their
server tasks.
o For example, a file server is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing
files. Any user on the network can store files on the server.
o A print server is a computer that manages one or more printers.
o A network server is a computer that manages network traffic.
 o A database server is a computer system that processes database queries.
o Web Server Holds and delivers web pages and other web content using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
o Mail Server Hosts and delivers e-mail. It’s the electronic equivalent of a post office.
o Fax Server Sends and receives faxes (via a special fax board) for the entire
network without the need for paper.

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES, (BUS, STAR, RING , MESH BACKBONE)

o A topology is basically a map of a network.

o The physical topology of a network describes the layout of the cables and
workstations and the location of all network components.
o The topologies are usually similar.
o The cables or connections in a physical topology are often referred to as network
media (or physical media).

In the following sections, we’ll look at the five most common topologies:

o Bus
o Star
o Ring
o Mesh
o Backbone

BUS TOPOLOGY
 o In a bus topology, all computers are attached to a single continuous cable that is
terminated at both ends, which is the simplest way to create a physical network.
o A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that
attach devices with a connector.
o A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a
broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended
recipient actually accepts and processes the message.
o Bus networks work best with a limited number of devices.
o If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance
problems will likely result.
o In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes
unusable.
o Figure above shows an example of a bus network.
o You can think of a bus network as a small party. David is already there, along with
10 other people. David would like to tell Joe something. David yells out, “Joe! Will
you grab me a cup of coffee, please?” Everyone in the party can hear David, but
only Joe will respond.

Advantages:
o Is simple to install
o Is relatively inexpensive so more cheaper
o Is best suited for small networks
o Uses only one single cable so more cost effective than other topologies
o If one computer fails in the network, the other PC are still not affected and they
continue to work.
o Bus network is very simple and easy to set up.
o If there is an urgent need to set up a network and perhaps be used on a short term
basis then the Bus network is the best possibility.
Disadvantages:
o A single fault in the main cable can bring down the entire network
o As the cable length is limited, the number of PC to be connected is less.
o Not suited where the PC to be connected is large.
o If number of PC increases then speed becomes less due to shared bandwidth.
o The bus network is a bit challenging when you have to troubleshoot the problems.
o Terminators are required at both ends of the bus cable.

RING TOPOLOGY

o In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication
purposes.
o Although its name suggests a circle kind of wire, Token Ring does not use a
physical ring.
o Data moves down a one-way path from one computer to another.
o All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise").
o Each machine or computer has a unique address that is used for identification
purposes.
o Ring topologies typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to control access to
the network.
o By utilizing this scheme, only one machine which is having the token can
transmit on the network at a time.
o The machines or computers connected to the ring act as signal boosters or
repeaters which strengthen the signals that traverse the network.

Advantages:
o It does not require a network server to manage the traffic.
o No collisions of frames.
o The ring topology is relatively easy to troubleshoot. A station will know when a cable
fault has occurred because it will stop receiving data from its upstream neighbor.
o The good news about laying out cable in a ring is that the cable design is simple.

Disadvantages:
o The primary disadvantage of ring topology is the failure of one machine will cause
 the entire network to fail.
o Difficult to configure the PCs.
o A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire
network.
o The changes made to network PCs may affect the performance of the entire
network.

STAR TOPOLOGY

o All devices are connected to a central device (hub).

o The hub receives and forwards data packets.
o Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).
o Generally home networks use the star topology.

Advantages:
o A failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network
access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also
fails.) Fortunately, hub failures are extremely rare.
o It is the easiest topology to install and troubleshoot.
o New stations can be added easily and quickly.
o A single cable failure won’t bring down the entire network.
o It is relatively easy to troubleshoot.
o It gives more performance
o It is more reliable because if one connection fails, it doesn't affect others.
o Easy to replace, install or remove hosts or other devices
o Due to its centralized nature, the topology offers simplicity of operation.
Disadvantages:
o Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable.
o Total installation cost can be higher because of the larger number of cables.
o Performance and scalability depending upon central hub.
o Network size is limited by the number of connections that can be made to the hub
o Other nodes may see a performance drop if there is more traffic.

MESH TOPOLOGY

o Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes.

o In a mesh topology, a path exists from each station to every other station in the
network, resulting in the most physical connections per node of any topology.
o Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take
any of several possible paths from source to destination.
o A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full
mesh.
o In partial mesh networks, some devices connect only indirectly to others.
o It is generally found in wide area networks.
o It provides fault tolerance. If one cable is at fault, rest of the devices will work as
normal.
o A variation on this type of topology is the hybrid mesh because other types of
topologies might be mixed in as well.
o Hybrid Mesh is not a full mesh because there is not a connection between each and
every node, just a few for backup purposes.

Advantages:
o No traffic problem as there are dedicated links.
o Robust as failure of one link does not affect the entire system.
o Security as data travels along a dedicated line.
o Points to point links make fault identification easy.
o Data can be transmitted from one PC to many PCs as they are connected together.
 Disadvantages:
o A mesh topology can become quite complex as wiring and connections increase
exponentially.
o For every n stations, you will have n(n–1)/2 connections. For example, in a network
of 4 computers, you will have 4(4–1)/2 connections, or 6 connections.
o If your network grows to only 10 computers, you will have 45 connections to
manage!
o The payoff for all this work is a more fail-safe, or fault-tolerant, network, at least as
far as cabling is concerned.
o The mesh topology is expensive due to more number of cables.
o Some of the cables are unused or less for unnecessary expense.
o Setting up the network can take more time.

BACKBONE TOPOLOGY
o A backbone network allows several LANs to be connected togheter.
o In a backbone network, no station is directly connected to the backbone; the
stations are part of a LAN, and the backbone connects the LANs.
o A backbone can tie together diverse networks in the same building, in different
buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas.
o Normally, the backbone's capacity is greater than the networks connected to it.
o A large corporation that has many locations may have a backbone network that ties
all of the locations together, for example, if a server needs to be accessed by
different departments of a company that is located at different geographical
locations.
o Network congestion is often taken into consideration while designing backbones.
o The topology of the bus backbone is BUS topology.
o The topology of the star backbone is STAR topology.
o With complex networks, we must have a way of intelligently identifying which part of
the network we are discussing.
o For this reason, we commonly break networks into backbones and segments.
COMMON NETWORK CONNECTIVITY DEVICES (NIC, HUB, SWITCH, ROUTER,
GATEWAY)

The connectivity devices in networking are:

o The Network Interface card (NIC)

o The hub
o The switch
o The router
o The gateway

Network Interface Card (NIC):

o A commonly used Network Interface Card is shown in the figure above.

o The Network Interface card allows computers to communicate with each other
through the network
o Almost all NICs have LED indicators showing the network connectivity.
o Each NIC has a 48-bit unique hexadecimal address called the MAC address
o A computer or device on a network can be reached by its MAC address through the
NIC card
o An example of a MAC address: A1B2C3D4E5F6
o It will normally have a PCI connector to connect to one of the PC expansion slots,
and an RJ-45 connector to connect to external network.
 o The network interface card (NIC), as its name suggests, is the expansion card you
install in your computer to connect, or interface, your computer to the network.
o A NIC is either an expansion card or built into the motherboard of the computer.
o NIC cards generally all have one or two light emitting diodes (LEDs) that help in
diagnosing problems with their functionality.
o If there are two separate LEDs, one of them may be the Link LED, which
illuminates when proper connectivity to an active network is detected.
o The other most popular LED is the Activity LED. The Activity LED will tend to
flicker, indicating the intermittent transmission or receipt of frames to or from the
network.
o If the first Link LED is not illuminated, there will be no chance for the Activity LED to
illuminate.

HUB:

o In data communications, a hub is a place of convergence where data arrives from

all the directions and is forwarded out in one or more other directions.
o A Hub connects all the nodes of a network using Twisted Pair cables.
o In a Hub, the signals received on one port are transmitted to all other ports, and
vice versa.
o All nodes connected using a Hub can listen to one another all the time. But based
on addressing in the frame, only the intended recipient receives it.
o The advantage of using a Hub is low cost, and easy integration.
o The disadvantage is reduced bandwidth, and data security.
o If two or more workstations try to transmit during the same time, it results in
collision of signals, and the signals become weak. As a result, the effective
bandwidth of the Ethernet network is reduced.
o The reduction in bandwidth comes due to the fact that all workstations are in the
 same collision domain.
o It is important to note that hubs are nothing more than repeaters, which are
incapable of recognizing frame boundaries and data structures; that’s why they
act with such a lack of intelligence.
o Any two or more devices connected to the hub have the capablity of causing a
collision with each other’s frames.

Advantages:

o A network hub allows a single Internet connection to be shared among multiple

computers.
o Scalability: Network hubs may have four, five, eight or 16 ports to which
computers can be connected. Many network hubs also have an "uplink" port
which allows the user to connect multiple hubs so that more computers can be
connected to the network.
o Network Monitoring: Because network hubs transmit all data received to all
connected devices, they allow easy, inexpensive monitoring of the entire
network.
o The cost of hub is relatively less.

Switch:

48-port Switch

o A Switch is a networking device which does not distribute signals without verifying
whether it really needs to propagate to a given port or ports.
o Like a hub, a switch connects multiple segments of a network together, with one
important difference.
o Whereas a hub sends out anything it receives on one port to all the others, a
switch recognizes frame boundaries and pays attention to the destination
MAC address of the incoming frame.
o If the destination is known to be on a different port than the port over which the
frame was received, the switch will forward the frame out over only the port on
which the destination exists.
o If the location of the destination is unknown, then the switch acts much like a hub in
that it floods the frame out every port, except for the port over which it was received.
 o Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they
are received, determining the source and destination device of each packet, and
forwarding them appropriately. Generally they look alike a hub only except they
have more intelligence.
o It decides it based on its internal configuration settings.
o Switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model.
o By delivering messages only to the connected device intended, a network switch
conserves network bandwidth and offers generally better performance than a
hub.
o The cost to number of ports ratio is best i.e. for a cheaper cost you get
switches with more number of ports.

Router:

o A Router connects multiple, often dissimilar networks.

o It uses routing to forward packets.
o The router, once connected, can make intelligent decisions about how best
to get network data to its destination based on network performance data that it
gathers from the network itself.
o It is an OSI Layer-3 device (Network Layer).
o Routers are very complex devices. Often, routers are computers unto
themselves with their own complex operating systems to manage the routing
functions and CPUs dedicated to the functions of routing packets.
o Compare this with a Switch which works on the physical address (such as MAC
address) of a host.
o It uses network layer addresses (like IP address) to make data forwarding
decisions
o The device can connect a LAN to a WAN or a WAN to a WAN.
o Because a router has to make wide area network routing decisions, the router
has to dig down into the network layer of the packet to retrieve the network
destination address.
o It allows packets with known Network Addresses to pass through and hence
reduce traffic.
o It will select most cost effective path for sending of data packets.
o A simple DSL router is shown in the figure below.
How a Router Works

o When data packets are transmitted over internet they move through many routers
(because they pass through many networks) in their journey from the source
machine to the destination machine.
o Routers work with IP packets, meaning that it works at the level of the IP protocol.
o Each router keeps information about its neighbors (other routers in the same or
other networks). This information includes the IP address and the cost, which is in
terms of time, delay and other network considerations. This information is kept in
a routing table, found in all routers.
o Based on the destination and source IP addresses of the packet, the router decides
which neighbor it will forward it to.
o It chooses the route with the least cost, and forwards the packet to the first router
on that route.

When Do you need a router?

If you have a LAN and want to connect it to the Internet, then you need a router.
Gateways:

137.22.144.6

Netware
Gateway
TCP/IP 145.65.23.10
2

o A gateway is any hardware and software combination that connects dissimilar

network environments.
o For example, a gateway is the device that connects a LAN environment to a
mainframe environment. The two environments are completely different.
o Each of the LAN protocols is translated to its mainframe counterpart by the gateway
software.
o It provides protocol conversion so that end devices with dissimilar protocol
architectures can interoperate
o Gateways are the most complex devices with respect to the functionality.
o They typically work at the upper most layers of OSI model.
o Another popular example is the e-mail gateway. Most LAN-based e-mail software,
such as Novell’s GroupWise and Microsoft’s Exchange, can’t communicate directly
with Internet mail servers without the use of a gateway. This gateway translates
LAN-based mail messages into the SMTP format that Internet mail uses.
SENDER, RECEIVER, AND CARRIER

Let's take the example of a post office to understand the concept of Sender,Receiver and
Carrier.

At the sender’s Site

Let us first describe, in order, the activities that take place at the sender site.
o Higher layer. The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, writes
the sender and receiver addresses, and drops the letter in a mailbox.
o Middle layer. The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post
office.
o Lower layer. The letter is sorted at the post office; a carrier transports the letter.

The Way/Carrier
o The letter is then on its way to the recipient.
o On the way to the recipient's local post office, the letter may actually go through a
central office.
o In addition, it may be transported by truck, train, airplane, boat, or a combination of
these.

At the Receiver Site

Lower layer. The carrier transports the letter to the post office.
Middle layer. The letter is sorted and delivered to the recipient's mailbox.
Higher layer. The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and reads it.

Hierarchy
o According to our analysis, there are three different activities at the sender site
and another three activities at the receiver site.
o The task of transporting the letter between the sender and the receiver is done
by the carrier.
o Something that is not obvious immediately is that the tasks must be done in the
order given in the hierarchy.
o At the sender site, the letter must be written and dropped in the mailbox before
being picked up by the letter carrier and delivered to the post office.
o At the receiver site, the letter must be dropped in the recipient mailbox before
being picked up and read by the recipient.

VIRTUAL LANs
o Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN) is a local area network configured by software, not
by physical wiring.
o Figure below shows a switched LAN in an engineering firm in which 10 stations are
grouped into three LANs that are connected by a switch.
o In a switched LAN, changes in the work group mean physical changes in the network
configuration.
o Figure below shows the same switched LAN divided into VLANs.
o The whole idea of VLAN technology is to divide a LAN into logical, instead of physical,
segments.
o A LAN can be divided into several logical LANs called VLANs.
o Each VLAN is a work group in the organization. If a person moves from one group to
another, there is no need to change the physical configuration.
o The group membership in VLANs is defined by software, not hardware.
o Any station can be logically moved to another VLAN.
o All members belonging to a VLAN can receive broadcast messages sent to that particular
VLAN.

o This means if a station moves from VLAN 1 to VLAN 2, it receives broadcast messages
sent to VLAN 2, but no longer receives broadcast messages sent to VLAN 1.
o It is obvious that the problem in our previous example can easily be solved by using
VLANs.
o Moving engineers from one group to another through software is easier than changing the
configuration of the physical network.
o VLAN technology even allows the grouping of stations connected to different switches in a
VLAN.
The OSI model

6. Virtually all computer networks in use today are based on the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) standard.

7. OSI was developed in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization

(ISO), a global federation of national standards organizations representing
approximately 130 countries.

o The core of this standard is the OSI Reference Model, a set of seven layers that
define the different stages that data must go through to travel from one device to
another over a network.

o It is a way of sub-dividing a communications system into smaller parts called

layers.

o A layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that provide services to

the layer above it and receives services from the layer below it.

The Layers in OSI Model

o Think of the seven layers as the assembly line in the car manufacturing company.
At each layer, certain things happen to the data that prepare it for the next layer.The
 seven layers are:

Layer 7: Application Layer

o Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level
of OSI model.
o Provides a means for the user to access information on the network through an
application.
o Application layer functions typically include providing network services such
as identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and
synchronizing communication.
o When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide
whether sufficient network resources for the requested communication
exist.
o Some examples of application layer implementations include Telnet, File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
1.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
 o Presentation Layer takes the data provided by the Application layer and converts it
into a standard format that the other layers can understand.
o It converts local host computer data representations into a standard network
format for transmission on the network.
o On the receiving side, it changes the network format into the appropriate host
computer's format so that data can be utilized independent of the host
computer.
o Manages the presentation of the information in an ordered and meaningful
manner.
o This layer's primary function is the syntax and semantics of the data
transmission.
o The presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that
are applied to application layer data. ASCII and EBCDIC conversions,
cryptography, and the like are handled here.
o It is designed for data translation, encryption, decryption, and compression.
o These functions ensure that information sent from the application layer of one
system would be readable by the application layer of another system.

Layer 5: Session Layer

o Layer 5 i.e. Session Layer establishes, maintains and ends communication with
 the receiving device.
o Coordinates session/connection activities between devices over the network.
o Communication sessions consist of service requests and responses that occur
between applications located in different network devices.
o These requests and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the
session layer.
o Some examples of session-layer implementations include Zone Information Protocol
(ZIP), the AppleTalk protocol; and Session Control Protocol (SCP).
 Layer 4: Transport Layer

o The major responsibility of this layer is data integrity--that data transmitted

between hosts is reliable and timely.
o This layer maintains flow control of data and provides for error checking and
recovery of data between the devices.
o Flow control means that the Transport layer looks to see if data is coming from
more than one application and integrates each application's data into a single
stream for the physical network.
o Upper layer data is broken down into network-sized data grams if needed and then
implemented using appropriate transmission control.
o Two major transport protocols are the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
and the UDP (User Data gram Protocol).

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF TRANSPORT LAYER:

 Breaks the message (from Sessions Layer) into smaller packets, assigns
sequence number and sends them.
 In case IP, lost packets arriving out of order must be reordered.

Layer 3: Network Layer

o The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
o Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections.
o The way that the data will be sent to the recipient device is determined in this layer.
o Responsible for the routing of data (packets) through the network.
o This layer provides for congestion control, accounting information for the network,
routing and addressing.
o IP (Internet Protocol) is a good example of a network layer protocol.
o Network layer does not deal with lost messages.

Important features of Network layer protocols:

o Concerned with the transmission of packets.

o Choose the best path to send a packet (routing).
o The routing may be complex in a large network (e.g. Internet).

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

o The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one node to the next.

o Provides for the reliable delivery of data frames with the necessary
synchronization, error control, and flow control across a physical network.

o This layer has the important task of creating and managing frames which are sent
out on the network.

o In this layer, the appropriate physical protocol is assigned to the data.

 o The frame is made up of checksum, source address, destination address, and
the data itself.

o The largest packet size that can be sent defines the Maximum Transmission Unit
(MTU).

o Error notification alerts upper-layer protocols that a transmission error has

occurred in case of error, and asks for retransmission of frames.
o Finally, flow control moderates the transmission of data so that the receiving
device is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one time.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF DATA LINK LAYER:

 Handles errors in the physical layer.

 Groups bits into frames.
 Ensures correct delivery of frames.
 Adds some bits at the beginning and end of each frame plus the checksum.
 Receiver verifies the checksum.
 If the checksum is not correct, it asks for retransmission. (Send a control message).

Layer 1: Physical Layer

o It defines the physical characteristics of the network such as connections,

voltage levels and timing.

o The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node
to the next node.

o This is the level of the actual hardware.

 o Concerned with transmission of unstructured bit stream over physical
medium.

o Deals with the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural characteristics to

access the physical medium.

Physical layer is concerned with the following:

 Physical interface characteristics like electrical, and mechanical

specifications,
 Number of bits to be transmitted,
 Transmission type like duplex or half-duplex etc.

OSI Data Transmission Process:

o Data travels from the application layer of the sender, down through the levels,
across the nodes of the network service, and up through the levels of the receiver.

o To keep track of the transmission, each layer "wraps" the preceding layer's data
and header with its own header.

o A small chunk of data will be transmitted with multiple layer headers attached to it.

o On the receiving end, each layer strips off the header that corresponds to its
respective level.

o The flow of information is from the top layer and down to the physical layer at
source node; and from the physical layer up to the application later at the
destination node as illustrated in the figure below.
o Each layer in the source system adds control information to data and each layer in
the destination system analyzes and removes the control information from that data.
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

o The TCP/IP protocol suite, also referred to as the Internet protocol suite, is the
set of communications protocols that implements the rules on which the Internet
and most commercial networks run.
o It is named after the two most important protocols in the suite: the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP).
o The TCP/IP protocol suite—like the OSI reference model—is defined as a set of
layers.
o Upper layers are logically closer to the user and rely on lower layer protocols to
translate data into forms that are transmitted physically over the network.

Layers in TCP/IP Model

o The layered structure provides an advantage of separating functions according to

the purposes they serve.
o This simplifies troubleshooting due to separation of layers.

THE FOLLOWING LAYERS ARE AVAILABLE IN TCP/IP MODEL:

APPLICATION LAYER

o This layer is the topmost layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack.

o The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combination of top 03 layers
i.e. session, presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.
o The application layer deals with the actual applications running on the computers
which want to communicate.
o These applications perform the functions like network connection, internet
 utilities, remote connection services and various other internet services.
o Some well known examples of application level protocols within the TCP/IP domain
are:
• FTP/Telnet
• HTTP/Secure HTTP (SHTTP)
• SMTP

Transport Layer

o The transport layer of the TCP/IP model is same like transport layer of the OSI
model.
o The transport layer is the third layer of the TCP/IP protocol counting from lower
layers.
o The transmission and reception of data is handled by the transport layer.
o This layer is also functions for detecting the errors in the transmitted data.
o The applications used are different on different computers. To identify the
applications along with the operating systems, the transport layer uses a
numbering system.
o These numbers assigned are associated with the application used and are called
port numbers.

The transport layer uses two protocols which are:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

o The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to
applications.
o TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol.
o It is connection oriented protocol.
o The term stream, in this context, means connection-oriented: A connection must
be established between both ends of a transmission before either can transmit
data.
o At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into
smaller units called segments.
o Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt,
together with an acknowledgment number for the segments received.
o Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the
transmission based on sequence numbers.

UDP (USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL):

o The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP
transport protocols.
o It is connectionless protocol.
o It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum
error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.

INTERNET LAYER
o The Internet layer of the TCP/IP model maps to the network layer of the OSI
 model.
o Consequently, the Internet layer is sometimes referred to as the network layer.
o The primary component of the Internet layer is the Internet Protocol (IP).
o This layer Packages data into IP datagrams, which contain source and
destination address information that is used to forward the datagrams between
hosts and across networks.
o Performs routing of IP datagram.
o The data packets are sent from the host machine in any random order across the
network.
o The IP protocol is responsible for receiving the data packets in an ordered fashion
at the receiver end.

Network Access Layer:

o The lowest layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack is the Network Access Layer.
o The network access layer contains two sublayers, the media access control
(MAC) sublayer and the physical sublayer.
o The MAC sublayer aligns closely with the data link layer of the OSI model, and is
sometimes referred to by that name.
o The physical sublayer aligns with the physical layer of the OSI model.
o It specifies details of how data is physically sent through the network, including
how bits are handled by hardware devices that interface directly with a network
medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted-pair copper wire.
o This layer uses protocol to send packets of information over the network.
o The main functions of network interface layer are routing and synchronizing
data over the network, checking the data format, converting signals (analog
to digital or vice versa), and error detection in the transmitted data.
DATA AND SIGNALS
o One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move data in the form of
electromagnetic signals across a transmission medium.
o Whether you are collecting numerical statistics from another computer, sending
animated pictures from a design workstation, or causing a bell to ring at a distant
control center, you are working with the transmission of data across network
connections.
o Generally, the data usable to a person or application are not in a form that can be
transmitted over a network.
o For example, a photograph must first be changed to a form that transmission media
can accept.
o To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL

 Both data and the signals that represent them can be either analog or digital in
form.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA

 Data can be analog or digital.
 The term Analog data refers to information that is continuous varying;
 Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
 For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives
information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are continuous.
 On the other hand, a digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will
change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
 Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous
values.
 When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be captured
by a microphone and converted to an analog signal or sampled and converted to
a digital signal.
 Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer
memory is in the form of Os and 1s.
 So we can say that data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and
take continuous values.
 Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

o Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital.
o An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
o As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes
an infinite number of values along its path.
o A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined
values.
o It is as simple as 1 and 0.
o The simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular axis.
o The vertical axis represents the value or strength of a signal.
o The horizontal axis represents time. Figure given below illustrates an analog
signal and a digital signal.
o The curve representing the analog signal passes through an infinite number of
points.
 o The vertical lines of the digital signal, however, demonstrate the sudden jump that
the signal makes from value to value.

BANDWIDTH
o One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth.
o The bandwidth is normally a difference between two numbers. For example, if a
composite signal contains frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is
5000 - 1000, or 4000.
o However, the term bandwidth can be used in two different contexts with two
different measuring values:
 Bandwidth in hertz
 Bandwidth in bits per second.

Bandwidth in Hertz
8. Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies a channel can pass.
9. For example, we can say the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4-
40 kHz.

Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds

 The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a
channel, a link, or even a network can transmit.
 For example, one can say the bandwidth of a Fast network is a maximum of 100
Mbps.
 This means that this network can send up to 100 Mbps.
THROUGHPUT
o The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network.
o We can say that it is an output of a process.
o Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the
same, they are different.
o A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link
with T always less than B.
o In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the
throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
o For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices
connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps.
o This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.
o Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one point to
another. However, if there is congestion on the road, this figure may be reduced
to 100 cars per minute.
o The bandwidth is 1000 cars per minute; the throughput is 100 cars per
minute.

LATENCY (DELAY)
o The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an Entire Message to
Completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from
the source.
o We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time,
transmission time, queuing time and processing delay.
o Latency =propagation time +transmission time +queuing time + processing
delay

Transmission Modes:

TYPES

Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:

o Guided
o Unguided.
 Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
 Unguided medium is free space.
GUIDED MEDIA
o Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, or fiber-optic cable.
o A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium.
o Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current.
o Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

Twisted-Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure given below:

o One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference.
o The receiver uses the difference between the two.
o In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference
(noise) may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
o If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same
in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise sources
(e,g., one is closer and the other is farther).
o This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is
maintained.
o For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and
the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.
o Twisting causes both wires to be equally affected by external noise.
o This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between the two,
receives no unwanted signals.
o The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out.
Unshielded (UTP) Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable (STP):

o The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as

unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
o There is also a version of twisted-pair cable which is called shielded twisted-pair
(STP).
o STP cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that encases each pair of
insulated conductors.
o Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration
of noise, it is bulkier and more expensive.
o Figure above shows the difference between UTP and STP.
o Our discussion focuses primarily on UTP because STP is seldom used.
Connectors

o The most common UTP connector is RJ 45 (RJ stands for registered jack), as
shown in Figure above.
o The RJ-45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only
one way.

Advantages of twisted pair cable:

o They are less expensive than fiber cables.

o They are easily available.
o They are flexible and light weight.
o They are easy to work and install.
o Twisted pair cable is good for transferring balanced differential signals.
o These cables have advantages of improved signal-to-noise ratio.
o STP cables help prevent interference and noise from outside source due to
covering of shield with Aluminum foil on the cables.
o UTP system is Color-coded cabling making it easy to identify the cable.
o UTP is extremely easy to terminate.
Disadvantages:

o They are having the attenuation problem i.e. signal gets weak after traveling some
distance.
o So it requires repeater to enhance the signal strength.
o Their bandwidth is relatively less.
o They are still susceptible to interference and noise.
o Because there can be different kind signals wired to different outlets and all
outlets look the same, the user needs to be careful not to wire a device to an outlet
where a wrong type of signal is wired. If this happens then wrong Wring connection
can lead to situation that the system does not work correctly or even to equipment
damages.
o The application originally designed for some other type of cabling need usually
special adapters which cost money
o The current UTP systems have limited high frequency performance, so they do
not suit well for transmission of very high frequency signals like cable TV, TV
antenna and radio antenna signals.
o Limited data rates—the longer a signal has to travel over twisted-pair, the lower
the data rate. At 100 feet (30 meters), twisted-pair can carry 100Mbps, but at 3.5
miles (5.5 km), the data rate drops to 2Mbps or less.

Coaxial Cable

o Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair
cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
o Instead of having two wires, coaxial has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
o The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit.
o This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable
is protected by a plastic cover (see Figure given above).

Advantages of coaxial cable:

o Coaxial cable is flexible. The cable is designed in such a way that it can bend
easily. This means it can travel along paths that take it around corners and up and
down walls or wire tubes.
o Another benefit is its durability. The outer layer protects the wiring inside from
weather and the elements.
o Greater bandwidth-Compared to twisted-pair, coax provides greater bandwidth.
 Because it has greater bandwidth, it supports a mixed range of services. Voice,
data, and even video and multimedia can benefit from the enhanced capacity.
o Lower error rates-Because the inner conductor is in a shield, noise immunity is
improved, and coax has lower error rates and therefore better performance than
twisted-pair. The error rate is generally 10-9 (i.e., 1 in 1 billion) bps.
o Greater spacing between amplifiers/repeaters-Coax's cable shielding reduces
noise and crosstalk, which means amplifiers can be spaced farther apart than with
twisted-pair.

Disadvantages of coaxial cable:

The main disadvantages of coax are as follows:

o More costly than twisted pair cables.

o More bulky and heavy than twisted pair cables.
o High installation costs in the local environment.
o It still needs the repeaters though at more distances.
o Susceptible to damage from lightning strikes-Coax may be damaged by
lightning strikes. People who live in an area with a lot of lightning strikes must be
aware that if lightning is conducted by a coax, it could very well fry the equipment at
the end of it.

Applications
o Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the
entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however, cable TV providers replaced
most of the media with fiber-optic cable; hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at
the network boundaries, near the consumer premises.
o Cable TV uses RG- 59 coaxial cable.
o Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs.
Because of its high bandwidth, and consequently high data rate, coaxial cable was
chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs.
o Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single
coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
o Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could
carry digital data up to 600 Mbps.
o However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced today with
fiber-optic cable.

Fiber-Optic Cable

o A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the

form of light.
o To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of
light.
o Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform
substance.
o If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction. Figure below
shows how a ray of light changes direction.
 o Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
o A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of plastic or glass. The beam of
light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being
refracted into it. See Figure given below.

Advantages:

o Data Security: Magnetic fields work in two ways. They don't just generate
noise in signal carrying conductors; they also let the information on the
conductor to be leaked out. Fluctuations in the induced magnetic field outside a
conductor carry the same information as the current passing through the
conductor. Shielding the wire, as in coaxial cables can reduce the problem, but
sometimes shielding can allow enough signal leaks to allow tapping, which is
exactly what we wouldn't want. There are no radiated magnetic fields around
optical fibers; that makes it impossible to tap the signal being transmitted
through a fiber. Since fiber optics does not radiate electromagnetic energy,
emissions cannot be intercepted. Thus, the fiber is the most secure medium
available for carrying sensitive data.

o Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference: Electromagnetic Interference is a

common type of noise that originates with one of the basic properties of
electromagnetism. Electromagnetic Interference does occur in coaxial cables.
Fiber optics is immune to this since signals are transmitted as light
instead of current.

o Cables of optical fibers are smaller and lighter than conventional coaxial
cables, yet they can carry much more information, making them useful for
transmitting large amounts of data between computers and for carrying data-
intensive television pictures or many simultaneous phone conversations.

o Also, optical cables do not require electricity and therefore do not pose a
fire hazard because of sparks.

o Low Attenuation: Fiber optics experience very little data loss, even over long
distances, because light travels through the fiber without experiencing
attenuation or a loss of intensity over time.

o Safety from Lightening: A serious concern with outdoor cables in certain

computer networks is that they can be hit by lightning, causing destruction to
wires and other cables that are involved in the network. Any conductive cables
can carry power surges. Fiber optic cables do not have metal in their design and
hence immune to lightening.

o Ease of Installation: The small size, lightweight and flexibility of fiber optic
cables also make them easier to be used in temporary or portable installations.
 o High Bandwidth over Long Distances: Fiber optics has a large capacity to
carry high speed signals over longer distances without repeaters than other
types of cables.

Disadvantages:

o Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its

installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available
everywhere.
o Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
o More Expensive: Because of the relative newness of the technology, fiber optic
cables are more expensive. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the
use of optical fiber cannot be justified.
o The lack of standardization in the industry has also limited the acceptance of fiber
optics.
o Many industries are more comfortable with the use of electrical systems and are
reluctant to switch to fiber optics.

Applications of Fiber Optics:

o Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its high bandwidth
is cost-effective.
o Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable,
thus creating a hybrid network. Optical fiber provides the backbone structure while
coaxial cable provides the connection to the user premises. This is a cost-effective
configuration since the narrow bandwidth requirement at the user end does not
justify the use of optical fiber.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

o Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical

conductor.
o This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
o Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone
who has a device capable of receiving them.
o Figure above shows the part of the spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used
for wireless communication.
o Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in Several Ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and Line-Of-Sight propagation, as shown in
Figure below.
o IN GROUND PROPAGATION, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, near to the earth surface.
o These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna
and follow the curvature of the planet.
o Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the
greater the distance.
o The frequency range of such types of signals is generally below 2 MHz.

o IN SKY PROPAGATION, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the

ionosphere where they are reflected back to earth.

o This type of transmission allows for greater distances.

o The frequency range of such types of signals is generally between 2 – 30 MHz.

o IN LINE-OF-SIGHT PROPAGATION, very high-frequency signals are transmitted

in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.
o Antennas must be directional, facing each other and either tall enough or close
enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth.
o The frequency range of such types of signals is generally above 30 MHz.

The section of the spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves is divided into
eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities.
o These bands are rated from very low frequency (VLF) to extremely high frequency
(EHF).
o Table given below lists these bands, their ranges, propagation methods, and some
applications.
We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups:
1. Radio waves,
2. Microwaves,
3. Infrared waves.
See Figure below.

RADIO WAVES
o Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and microwaves,
yet we can say that radio waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are normally called radio waves;
o Radio waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
o However, the behavior of the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a better criterion
for classification.
o Radio waves, for the most part, are Omni-directional.
o When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions.
o A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
o This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
o The Omni-directional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna
that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
 o Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel
long distances.
o This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting.
o Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate
walls.
o This characteristic is an advantage because, for example, an transistor or radio
can receive signals inside a building also.
o The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared to the
microwave band.
o Almost the entire band is regulated by authorities.
o Using any part of the band requires permission from the authorities.
OMNI-DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA

o Radio waves use Omni-directional antennas that send out signals in all directions.
o Figure given below shows an Omni-directional antenna.

Applications

o The omni-directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for

multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers.
o Radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and pagers are examples of
multicasting.

Microwaves

o Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
o Microwaves are unidirectional.
o This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.

The following describes some characteristics of microwave propagation:

o Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.

o Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction.
o Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each
other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
o The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two
short towers to communicate by using microwaves.
 o Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication.
o Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic
can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
o The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 300 GHz. Therefore high data rate
is possible.
o Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
o Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when uni-cast
(one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.

INFRARED

o Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for very
short-range communication for example within our homes.
o We can compare it with a player who runs very fast but he can run only for
short distance such as 100 mtrs. But a player who runs slow can run for miles
or long distances.
o Infrared waves, having very high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
o This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system to
another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room.
o When we use our infrared REMOTE CONTROL, we do not interfere with the
use of the remote by our neighbors.
o However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-range
communication.
o In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.