Open Channel Flow

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT,
MURTHAL, SONEPAT
E-NOTES, SUBJECT: OPEN CHANNEL FLOW, SUBJECT CODE: CE-204B
COURSE: B.TECH, BRANCH: CIVIL ENGINEERING, SEM- 4TH ,
CHAPTER NAME: COMPLETE SYLLABUS
PREPARED BY: MR. SAHIL KAUSHIK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, CE
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, MURTHAL, SONEPAT
COURSE: B.TECH, BRANCH: CIVIL ENGINEERING, SEM- 4TH , CHAPTER NAME: INTRODUCTION TO OCF
PREPARED BY : MR. SAHIL KAUSHIK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, CE
UNIT – 1
INTRODUCTION TO OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
1.1 What is Open Channel Flow?
Flow in open channels is defined as the flow of a liquid with a free surface. A free surface is a surface having constant
pressure such as atmospheric pressure. Thus, a liquid flowing at atmospheric pressure through a passage is known as flow
in open channels. In most of cases, the liquid is taken as water. Hence flow of water through a passage under atmospheric
pressure is called flow in open channels. The flow of water through pipes at atmospheric pressure or when the level of water
in the pipe is below the top of the pipe, is also classified as open channel flow.
In case of open channel flow, as the pressure is atmospheric, the flow takes place under the force of gravity which means
the flow takes place due to the slope of the bed of the channel only. The hydraulic gradient line coincides with the free
surface of water.
Simply stated, Open channel flow is a flow of liquid in a conduit with free space. Open channel flow is particularly applied
to understand the flow of a liquid in artificial (flumes, spillways, canals, weirs, drainage ditch, culverts) and natural (streams,
rivers, flood plains). The two kinds of flow are similar in many ways but differ in one important respect. Open-channel flow
must have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has none.
Velocity
Y
1 Pressure
Y
2
Potential
Figure 1: Schematic Presentation of Open Channel

Flow
1.2 Classification of Open Channel Flows:
A channel in which the cross-sectional shape and size and also the bottom slopes are constant is termed as a prismatic
channel. Most of the man-made (artificial) channels are prismatic channels over long stretches. The rectangle, trapezoid,
triangle and circle are some of the commonly used shapes in made channels. All natural channels generally have varying
cross-sections and consequently are non-prismatic.
a) Steady and Unsteady Open Channel Flow: If the flow depth or discharge at a cross-section of an open channel flow is
not changing with time, then the flow is steady flow, otherwise it is called as unsteady flow. Flood flows in rivers and
rapidly varying surges in canals are some examples of unsteady flows. Unsteady flows are considerably more difficult to
analyze than steady flows.
b) Uniform and Non-Uniform Open Channel Flow: If the flow depth along the channel is not changing at every cross-
section for a taken time, then the flow is uniform flow. If the flow depth changes at every cross-section along the flow
direction for a taken time, then it is non-uniform flow.
A prismatic channel carrying a certain discharge with a constant velocity is an example of uniform flow.
c) Uniform Steady Flow: The flow depth does not change with time at every cross section and at the same time is constant
along the flow direction. The depth of flow will be constant along the channel length and hence the free surface will be
parallel to the bed.
Figure 2: Schematic representation of different types of open channel flow

d) Non-Uniform Steady Flows: The water depth changes along the channel cross sections but does not change with time
at every cross section with time. A typical example of this kind of flow is the backwater water surface profile at the
upstream of a dam.
e) Rapidly Varied Flow (R.V.F.): Rapidly varied flow is defined as that flow in which depth of flow changes abruptly over a
small length of the channel. When there is any obstruction in the path of flow of water, the level of water rises above the
obstruction and then falls and again rises over a small length of channel. Thus, the depth of flow changes rapidly over a
short length of the channel. For this short length of the channel the flow is called rapidly varied flow (R.V.F.).
f) Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F.): If the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a long length of the channel, the
flow is said to be gradually varied flow and is denoted by G.V.F.
g) Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow: The flow in open channel is said to be laminar if the Reynold number (Re) is less than
500 or 600. Reynold number in case of open channels is defined as: Re= pVR
where V = Mean velocity of flow of water, R = Hydraulic radius or Hydraulic mean depth
=Cross-section area of flow normal to the direction of flow/ Wetted perimeter
p and µ = Density and viscosity of water.
If the Reynold number is more than 2000, the flow is said to be turbulent in open channel flow. If Re lies between 500 to
2000, the flow is considered to be in transition state.
1.3 Difference between Open Channel & Pipe Flow
Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve problems of flow in
open channels than in pipes. Flow conditions in open channels are complicated by the position of the free surface
which will change with time and space. And also by the fact that depth of flow, the discharge, and the slopes of the
channel bottom and of the free surface are all inter-dependent.
Physical conditions in open-channels vary much more than in pipes - the cross-section of pipes is usually round - but for
open channel it can be any shape. Treatment of roughness also poses a greater problem in open channels than in pipes.
Although there may be a great range of roughness in a pipe from polished metal to highly corroded iron, open channels
may be of polished metal to natural channels with long grass and roughness that may also depend on depth of flow. And
also, Open channel flows are found in large and small scale. Open channel flow is driven by gravity rather than by pressure
work as in pipes.
Pipe flow Open Channel flow
Flow driven by Pressure work Gravity (potential energy)
Flow cross section Known, fixed Unknown in advance because the flow depth is
unknown
Characteristics flow velocity deduced from Flow depth deduced simultaneously from solving both
parameters continuity continuity and momentum equations
Specific boundary Atmospheric pressure at conditions the free surface
➢ 1.4 Discharge through Open Channel by Chezy’s Constant
Consider uniform flow of water in a channel as shown in Fig. 16.2. As the flow is uniform, it means the velocity, depth of
flow and area of flow will be constant for a given length of the channel. Consider sections 1-1 and 2-2.
Let L = Length of channel, A= Area of flow of water, i = Slope of the bed, V = Mean velocity of flow of water, P = Wetted
perimeter of the cross-section, f = Frictional resistance per unit velocity per unit area.
• The weight of water between sections 1-1 and 2-2.

W = Specific weight of water x volume of water =wxAxL
• Component of W along direction of flow = W x sin i = wAL sin i
• Frictional resistance against motion of water= f x surface area x (velocity)n
• The value of n is found experimentally equal to 2 and surface area = P x L
• Frictional resistance against motion = f x P x L x V2
The forces acting on the water between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
1. Component of weight of water along the direction of flow,
2. Friction resistance against flow of water,
3. Pressure force at section 1-1,
4. Pressure force at section 2-2.
As the depths of water at the sections 1-1 and 2-2 are the same, the pressure forces on these two sections are same and
acting in the opposite direction. Hence they cancel each other. In case of uniform flow, the velocity of flow is constant for
the given length of the channel. Hence there is no acceleration acting on the water. Hence the resultant force acting in
the direction of flow must be zero.
Numerical related to Chezy’s constant:
Q1. Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a rectangular channel of 6 m wide and 3 m deep, when it
is running full. The channel is having bed slope as 1 in 2000. Take Chery 's constant C = 55.
Explanation: In the question width & depth of the channel was provided, using which Area is determined first. Later
perimeter is calculated. After which we have area & perimeter, using which we can calculate the hydraulic mean depth
of the channel. To calculate the velocity, we have slope and m, along with the C provided in question.
Rate of flow is nothing but Discharge in the channel, which is Velocity * Area of the channel.
Q2. Find the slope of the bed of a rectangular channel of width 5 m when depth of water is 2 m and rate of flow is given
as 20 m3/s. Take Chery's constant, C = 50.
Solution: Width = 5m Depth = 2m Q = 20 m3/s
Geometric Properties Necessary for Analysis:

1.5 Velocity Distribution in Open Channel:
Naturally three types of velocity are occurred in open channel flow, namely longitudinal the one along the flow
direction, lateral at the bedside of the channel and normal perpendicular to the flow direction. However, the two
velocities (the lateral and normal) are insignificance as compared to the longitudinal velocity. So we consider the
longitudinal velocity in the analysis of velocity distribution. The longitudinal velocity commonly represent with v and its
value is minimum at the bedside and gradually increase with the distance from the boundary and its maximum occur at
a certain distance below the free surface around the center of the channel.
0.82
0.8
0.6
Vs
0.2Yo
V0.2
0.6Yo
V0.6
= v 0 .6
0.8Yo
0 .2 0 .8
av
Yo V0.8
2
References:
• Book – “Flow in Open Channel” By – K. Subramanya

• Book – “Fluid Mechanics” By - R.K Bansal
COURSE: B.TECH, BRANCH: CIVIL ENGINEERING, SEM- 4TH , CHAPTER NAME: Unit-3
UNIT – 3
Design of Channel Section
3.1 Most Efficient Channel Sections
A section of a channel is said to be most economical when the cost of construction of the channel is minimum.
But the cost of construction of a channel depends upon the excavation and the lining. To keep the cost down or
minimum, the wetted perimeter, for a given discharge, should be minimum. This condition is utilized for
determining the dimensions of an economical sections of different form of channels.
Most economical section is also called the best section or most efficient section as the discharge, assing through
a most economical section of channel for a given cross-sectional area (A), slope of the bed (i) and a resistance
co-efficient, is maximum. But the discharge, Q is given by equation as
Hence the discharge, Q will be maximum, when the wetted perimeter P is minimum. This condition will be
used for determining the best section of a channel i.e., best dimensions of a channel for a given area.
The conditions to be most economical for the following shapes of the channels will be considered :
1. Rectangular Channel,
2. Trapezoidal Channel, and
3. Circular Channel.
3.1.1 Most Efficient Rectangular Channel:
The condition for most economical section, is that for a given area, the perimeter should be minimum.
Consider a rectangular channel as shown in Fig.
Let, b = Width of Channel
d = Depth of the flow then Area, A = b * d
& Wetted Perimeter P = b + 2d
From above we get b = A / d,
Substituting this value in case of wetted perimeter, we get P = b + 2d = A/d + 2d
Now, for most efficient channel section, P should be minimum for a given area.
But, A = b * d which implies > b * d = 2d2 or b = 2d (i)
= 2d × d / 2d + 2d = 2d2/ 4d (ii)
From eqn (i) & (ii), it is clear that the rectangular channel will be most economical when:
• Either b = 2d which means width is two times the depth of flow.
• Or m = d/2 means hydraulic depth is half of depth of flow.
3.1.2 Most Efficient Trapezoidal Channel Section:
The trapezoidal section of a channel will be most economical when its wetted perimeter is minimum.
Consider a trapezoidal channel section as shown in fig. below:
Let, b = width of channel Bottom
d = Depth of the flow
ø = angle made by the sides with horizontal
But,
From above equation is the required condition for a trapezoidal section to be most economical, which can be
expressed as half of the top width must be equal to one of the sloping sides of the channel.
(ii) Hydraulic Mean Depth
Also,
Hence for a trapezoidal section to be most economical hydraulic mean depth must be equal to half the depth of
flow,
(iii) The three sides of the trapezoidal section of most economical section are tangential to the semi-circle
described on the water line. This is proved as:
Let Fig. below shows the trapezoidal channel of most economical section.
Let ø = angle made by the sloping side with horizontal, and
O = the centre of the top width, AD.
Draw OF perpendicular to the sloping side AB.
Triangle OAF is a right-angled triangle and angle OAF = ø
Substituting this value of AO in above equation, we get
Thus, if a semi-circle is drawn with O as centre and radius equal to the depth of flow d, the three sides of most
economical trapezoidal section will be tangential to the semi-circle.
Hence the conditions for the most economical trapezoidal section are:
•
• m = d/ 2
• A semi-circle drawn from O with radius equal to depth of flow will touch the three sides of the channel.
3.1.3 Best Side Slope for Most Economical Trapezoidal Section
For the most economical trapezoidal section depth of flow d, and area A, is the only variable. Best side slope
will be when section is most economical or in other words, P is minimum. For P minimum we have, dP/dn = 0
If the sloping side makes and Angle ø , with the horizontal then we have,
Tan ø = 1/n = 1/ 1√3 = tan 60◦
Ø = 60◦
Hence best side slope is at 60 to the horizontal or the value of n for the best side slope is given by eqn
Substitute the value of n from above equation:
• Flow through Circular Channel

The flow of a liquid through a circular pipe, when the level of liquid in the pipe is below the top of the pipe is
classified as an Open Channel flow. The rate of flow through circular channel is determined from the depth of
flow and angle subtended by the liquid surface at the centre of the circular channel.
Fig. below shows a circular channel through which water is flowing.
Let d = depth of water,
2ø = angle subtended by water surface AB at the centre in radians
R = radius of the channel
Then the wetted perimeter and wetted area is determined as:
Wetted perimeter,
• Most Economical Circular Section

As discussed above that for a most economical section the discharge for a constant cross-sectional area, slope of
bed and resistance co-efficient, is maximum. But in case of circular channels, the area of flow cannot be
maintained constant. With the change of depth of flow in a circular channel of any radius, the wetted area and
wetted perimeter changes. Thus, in case of circular channels, for most economical section, two separate
conditions are obtained. They are:
i. Conditions for maximum velocity, and
ii. Condition for maximum discharge.
1. Condition for Maximum Velocity for Circular Section:
Fig. shows a circular channel through which water is flowing.
Let, d = depth of water,
2ø = Angle subtended at the corner by water surface,
R = radius of channel, and
i = slope of the bed
The Velocity of flow through a circular channel is maximum when the hydraulic mean depth m or A/P is
maximum for a given value of C and i. In case of circular pipe, the variable is ø only.
Hence for maximum value A/P we have the condition,
Where A & P both are function of ø.

The value of wetted area, A is given by equation as
The value of wetted perimeter, P is given by eqn as:
P = 2Rø
Differentiating eqn with respect to ø, we have:
Where D = diameter of the circular channel.

Thus, for maximum velocity of flow, the depth of water in the circular channel should be equal to 0.81
times the diameter of the channel.
Hydraulic mean depth for maximum velocity is:
Thus, for maximum velocity, the hydraulic mean depth is equal to 0.3 times the diameter of circular channel.
• Condition for Maximum Discharge for Circular Section
Discharge through a channel is given by:
But, P = 2Rø,
So dP/dR = 2ø
Depth of Flow for maximum discharge:
Where D = Diameter of the circular channel

Thus for maximum discharge through a circular channel the depth of flow is equal to 0.95 times its
diameter.
Note:
Students you are advised to try the numericals being told & explained in the class.
E-NOTES, SUBJECT: OPEN CHANNEL FLOW, SUBJECT CODE:
COURSE: B.TECH, BRANCH: CIVIL ENGINEERING, SEM- 4TH , CHAPTER NAME: PUMPS & TURBINES
(PREPARED BY : MR. SAHIL KAUSHIK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, CE)
UNIT-4
Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy (energy possessed by water) into
mechanical energy (which is further converted into electrical energy) or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The
hydraulic machines, which convert the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy, are called turbines while the hydraulic
machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy are called pumps. Thus, the study of hydraulic
machines consists of study of turbines and pumps. Turbines consists of mainly study of Pelton turbine, Francis Turbine and
Kaplan Turbine while pumps consist of study of centrifugal pump and reciprocating pumps.
4.1 TURBINES
Turbines are defined as the hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. This mechanical
energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine. Thus, the mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy. The electric power which is obtained from the hydraulic energy (energy of water)
is known as Hydroelectric power.
At present the generation of hydroelectric power is the cheapest as compared by the power generated by other sources such
as oil, coal etc.
4.2 GENERAL LAYOUT OF A HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT
Fig. below shows a general layout of a hydroelectric power plant which consists of:
• A dam constructed across a river to store water.

• Pipes of large diameters called penstocks, which carry water under pressure from the storage reservoir to the
turbines. These pipes are made of steel or reinforced concrete.
• Turbines having different types of vanes fitted to the wheels.
• Tail race, which is a channel which carries water away from the turbines after the water has worked on the turbines.
The surface of water in the tail race channel is also known as tail race.
Fig. 4.1 Layout of Hydroelectric Power Plant
• Gross Head: The difference between the head race level and tail race level when no water is flowing is known
as Gross Head.
• Net Head: It is also called effective head and is defined as the head available at the inlet of the turbine. When
water is flowing from head race to the turbine, a loss of head due to friction between the water and penstocks
occurs. Though there are other losses also such as loss due to bend, pipe fittings, loss at the entrance of penstock
etc., yet they are having small magnitude as compared to head loss due to friction. If 'h/is the head loss due to
friction between penstocks and water then net heat on turbine is given by H = Hg – hf .
Where Hg = Gross Head and hf = 4×f×l×V2 / D × 2g, in which V = Velocity of flow in penstock,
L = Length of penstock, D = Diameter of penstock.
4.3 Efficiency of turbines:
• Hydraulic Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of power given by water to the runner of a turbine (runner is a
rotating part of a turbine and on the runner vanes are fixed) to the power supplied by the water at the inlet of the
turbine. The power at the inlet of the turbine is more and this power goes on decreasing as the water flows over the
vanes of the turbine due to hydraulic losses as the vanes are not smooth. Hence, the power delivered to the runner
of the turbine will be less than the power available at the inlet of the turbine. Thus, mathematically, the hydraulic
efficiency of a turbine is written as
“Power Delivered to runner/ Power supplied to inlet”
• Mechanical Efficiency: The power delivered by water to the runner of a turbine is transmitted to the shaft of the
turbine. Due to mechanical losses, the power available at the shaft of the turbine is less than the power delivered to
the runner of a turbine. The ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine (known as S.P. or B.P. ) to the
power delivered to the runner is defined as mechanical efficiency. Hence, mathematically, it is written as
• Volumetric Efficiency: The volume of the water striking the runner of a turbine is slightly less than the volume of
the water supplied to the turbine. Some of the volume of the water is discharged to the tail race without striking the
runner of the turbine. Thus the ratio of the volume of the water actually striking the runner to the volume of water
supplied to the turbine is defined as volumetric efficiency. It is written as
• Overall Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power supplied by
the water at the inlet of the turbine. It is written as:
If the shaft power is taken in kW then water power should also be taken in kW. Shaft power is commonly represented
by P.
4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINES:

The hydraulic turbines are classified according to the type of energy available at the inlet of the turbine, direction of flow
through the vanes, head at the inlet of the turbine and specific speed of the turbines. Thus the following are the important
classifications of the turbines:
1. According to the type of energy at inlet:
a. Impulse turbine, and
b. Reaction turbine.
2. According to the direction of flow through runner:
a. Tangential flow turbine,
b. Radial flow turbine,
c. Axial flow turbine, and
d. Mixed flow turbine.
3. According to the head at the inlet of turbine:
a. High head turbine,
b. Medium head turbine, and
c. Low head turbine.
4. According to the specific speed of the turbine:
a. Low specific speed turbine,
b. Medium specific speed turbine, and
c. High specific speed turbine.
If at the inlet of the turbine, the energy available is only kinetic energy, the turbine is known as impulse turbine. As the
water flows over the vanes, the pressure is atmospheric from inlet to outlet of the turbine. If at the inlet of the turbine, the
water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure energy, the turbine is known as reaction turbine. As the waters flows
through the runner, the water is under pressure and the pressure energy goes on changing into kinetic energy. The runner is
completely enclosed in an air-tight casing and the runner and casing is completely full of water.
If the water flows along the tangent of the runner, the turbine is known as tangential flow turbine. If the water flows in the
radial direction through the runner, the turbine is called radial flow turbine. If the water flows from outwards to inwards,
radially, the turbine is known as inward radial flow turbine, on the other hand, if water flows radially from inwards to
outwards, the turbine is known as outward radial flow turbine. If the water flows through the runner along the direction
parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner, the turbine is called axial flow turbine. If the water flows through the runner in
the radial direction but leaves in the direction parallel to axis of rotation of the runner, the turbine is called mixed flow
turbine.
4.5 PELTON WHEEL TURBINE
The Pelton wheel or Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The water strikes the bucket along the tangent of
the runner. The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy. The pressure at the inlet and outlet of the
turbine is atmospheric. This turbine is used for high heads and is named after L.A. Pelton, an American Engineer.
The water from the reservoir flows through the penstocks at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted. The nozzle increases the
kinetic energy of the water flowing through the penstock. At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out in the form of a
jet and strikes the buckets (vanes) of the runner. The main parts of the Pelton turbine are:
1. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement (spear),
2. Runner and buckets,
3. Casing, and
4. Breaking jet.
Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement: The amount of water striking the buckets
(vanes) of the runner is controlled by providing a spear in the nozzle as shown in Fig. below.
The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand wheel or automatically in
an axial direction depending upon the size of the unit. When the spear is pushed forward
into the nozzle the amount of water striking the runner is reduced. On the other hand, if the
spear is pushed back, the amount of water striking the runner increases.
Fig. 4.2 Nozzle Arrangement
Runner with Buckets: Fig. below shows the runner of a Pelton wheel. It consists of a circular
disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly spaced are fixed. The shape of the
buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical
parts by a dividing wall which is known as splitter. The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The
splitter divides the jet into two equal parts and the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket.
The buckets are shaped in such a way that the jet gets deflected through 160° or 170°. The
buckets are made of cast iron, cast steel bronze or stainless steel depending upon the head at
the inlet of the turbine.
Casing: Figure below shows a Pelton turbine with a casing. The function of the casing is to
prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge water to tail race. It also acts as safeguard
Fig. 4.3 Runner of Pelton
against accidents. It is made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates. The casing of the Pelton
wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
Fig. 4.4 Casing of Pelton Wheel
Breaking Jet: When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction, the amount of water
striking the runner reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time. To stop the runner in a
short time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of water on the back of the vanes. This jet of water is called
breaking jet.
4.6 FRANCIS TURBINE:
The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as Francis Turbine, after the name of J.B.
Francis, an American engineer who in the beginning designed inward radial flow reaction type of turbine. In the modern
Francis turbine, the water enters the runner of the turbine in the radial direction at outlet and leaves in the axial direction at
the inlet of the runner. Thus the modern Francis Turbine is a mixed flow type turbine.
The velocity triangle at inlet and outlet of the Francis turbine are drawn in the same way as in case of inward flow reaction
turbine. As in case of Francis turbine, the discharge is radial at outlet, the velocity of whirl at outlet (i.e., V w ) will be zero.
Hence the work done by water on the runner per second will be
= pQ[Vw1u1]
And work done per second per unit weight of water striking/s = 1/g [Vw1u1]
Hydraulic efficiency will be given by,
The following are the important relations for Francis Turbines :
1. The ratio of width of the wheel to its diameter is given as n= B1/D1. The value of n varies from 0.10 to .40.
2. The flow ratio is given as,
4.7 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy are called pumps. The hydraulic energy
is in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by means of centrifugal force
acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called centrifugal pump.
The centrifugal pump acts as a reverse of an inward radial flow reaction turbine. This means that the flow in centrifugal
pumps is in the radial outward directions. The centrifugal pump works on the principle of forced vortex flow which means
that when a certain mass of liquid is rotated by an external torque, the rise in pressure head of the rotating liquid takes place.
The rise in pressure head at any point of the rotating liquid is proportional to the square of tangential velocity of the liquid
at that point. Thus, at the outlet of the impeller, where radius is more, the rise in pressure head will be more and the liquid
will be discharged at the outlet with a high-pressure head. Due to this high-pressure head, the liquid can be lifted to a high
level.
4.7.1 MAIN PARTS OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
The following are the main parts of a centrifugal pump:
• Impeller.
• Casing.
• Suction pipe with a foot valve and a strainer.
• Delivery pipe.
All the main parts of the centrifugal pump are shown in Fig. below:
1. Impeller. The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is called 'impeller'. It consists
of a series of backward curved vanes. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which
is connected to the shaft of an electric motor.
2. Casing. The casing of a centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of a reaction
turbine. It is an air-tight passage surrounding the impeller and is designed in
such a way that the kinetic energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the
impeller is converted into pressure energy before the water leaves the casing and Fig. 4.5 Centrifugal Pump
enters the delivery pipe. The following three types of the casings are commonly
adopted:
a. Volute Casing
b. Vortex Casing
c. Casing with guide blades
3. Volute Casing: Fig below shows the volute casing, which surrounds the impeller. It is of spiral type in which area
of flow increases gradually. The increase in area of flow decreases the velocity of flow. The decrease in velocity
increases the pressure of the water flowing through the casing. It has been observed that in case of volute casing,
the efficiency of the pump increases slightly as a large amount of energy is lost due to the formation of eddies in
this type of casing.
4. Vortex Casing: If a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and the impeller as shown in Fig, the casing
is known as Vortex Casing. By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of energy due to the formation of eddies
is reduced to a considerable extent. Thus the efficiency of the pump is more than the efficiency when only volute
casing is provided.
5. Casing with Guide Blades: This casing is shown in Fig, in which the impeller is surrounded by a series of guide
blades mounted on a ring which is known as diffuser. The guide vanes are designed in such a way that the water
from the impeller enters the guide vanes without stock. Also the area of the guide vanes increases, thus reducing
the velocity of flow through guide vanes and consequently increasing the pressure of water. The water from the
guide vanes then passes through the surrounding casing which is in most of the cases concentric with the impeller.
Fig. 4.6 Different type of

Casing
6. Suction Pipe with a Foot valve and a Strainer: A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of the pump and other
end dips into water in a sump is known as suction pipe. A foot valve which is a non-return valve or one-way type
of valve is fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe. The foot valve opens only in the upward direction. A strainer
is also fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe.
7. Delivery Pipe. A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and other end delivers the water at a
required height is known as delivery pipe.
4.7.2 ANALYSIS OF FLOW THROUGH THE IMPELLAR OR WORKING OF C.P
In runners of turbines and in impellers of pumps, the flow of fluid is usually a combination of: (a) circulatory flow (i.e.,
flow in concentric circles), and (b) radial flow (i.e., flow involving a change of distance from the axis of rotation). The path
resulting from the superimposition of these two motions is in the form of a spiral. In a centrifugal pump, water enters through
an opening provided at the centre and leaves at the periphery. Guide vanes are made of spiral shape to enable water to have
both circulatory and radial flows inside the impeller.
As the radius increases from inlet to outlet, the area across the flow must also increase, and consequently the relative velocity
decreases so that and where q = quantity of water flowing per second, and a1, a2 are areas across flow at
the inlet and outlet, respectively between two consecutive blades.
Therefore, pressure difference due to the change of kinetic energy is given as per unit weight of water. Also,
pressure difference (ΔP) due to the centrifugal head can be expressed as: , where, R1 and R2 are inner radius and
outer radius of the impeller, respectively. This pressure difference is due to cylindrical vortex only.
Therefore, the total pressure difference due to two flows (i.e., circulatory and radial) or due to spiral vortex will be:
Where, H = head developed by the impeller, u1 = peripheral velocity of water at the inlet of the impeller, and u2 = peripheral
velocity of water at the outlet of the impeller.
4.7.3 HEADS & EFFICIENCY OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
4.7.3.1 Heads
1. Suction Head: It is the vertical height of the centre line of the C.P above the water surface in the tank or pump from
which water is to be lifted. This height is also called suction lift & denoted by ‘hs’.
2. Delivery Head (hd). The vertical distance between the centre line of the pump and the water surface in the tank to
which water is delivered is known as delivery head. This is denoted by ‘hd’.
3. Static Head (Hs). The sum of suction head and delivery head is known as static head. This is represented by
‘Hs’ and is written as Hs = hs + hd
4. Manometric Head (Hm): The manometric head is defined as the head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.
It is denoted by 'Hm'. It is given by the following expressions:
4.7.3.2 EFFICIENCIES:
Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump. In case of a centrifugal pump, the power is transmitted from the shaft of the electric
motor to the shaft of the pump and then to the impeller. From the impeller, the power is given to the water. Thus power
is decreasing from the shaft of the pump to the impeller and then to the water. The following are the important
efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:
• Manometric efficiency: The ratio of the manometric head to the head imparted by the impeller to the water is
known as manometric efficiency. Mathematically, it is written as
• Mechanical efficiency: The power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is more than the power available at the
impeller of the pump. The ratio of the power available at the impeller to the power at the shaft of the centrifugal
pump is known as mechanical efficiency. It is written as
• Overall efficiency: It is defined as ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the pump. The
power output of the pump in Kw.
4.8 PRIMING OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Priming of a centrifugal pump is defined as the operation in which the suction pipe, casing of the pump and a portion of the
delivery pipe upto the delivery valve is completely filled up from outside source with the liquid to be raised by the pump
before starting the pump. Thus the air from these parts of the pump is removed and these parts are filled with the liquid to
be pumped.
The work done by the impeller per unit weight of liquid per sec is known as the head generated by the pump.
Equation gives the head generated by the pump as= 1/g[Vw2u2] metre. This equation is independent of the density of the
liquid. This means that when pump is running in air, the head generated is in terms of metre of air. If the pump is primed
with water, the head generated is same metre of water. But as the density of air is very low, the generated head of air in
terms of equivalent metre of water head is negligible and hence the water may not be sucked from the pump. To avoid
this difficulty, priming is necessary.
4.9 CAVITATION:
Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure
of the liquid falls below its vapour pressure and the sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure.
When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic surfaces, above which these vapour bubbles
collapse, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the
metallic surface and also considerable noise and vibrations are produced.
Cavitation includes formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid and collapsing of the vapour bubbles. Formation of
vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid take place only whenever the pressure in any region falls below vapour pressure. When
the pressure of the flowing liquid is less than its vapour pressure, the liquid starts boiling and vapour bubbles are formed.
These vapour bubbles are carried along with the flowing liquid to higher pressure zones where these vapours condense and
bubbles collapse. Due to sudden collapsing of the bubbles on the metallic surface, high pressure is produced and metallic
surfaces are subjected to high local stresses. Thus the surfaces are damaged.
4.9.1 Precaution Against Cavitation:
The following precautions should be taken against cavitation :
• The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system should not be allowed to fall below its
vapour pressure. If the flowing liquid is water, then the absolute pressure head should not be below 2.5 m of
water.
• The special materials or coatings such as aluminium-bronze and stainless steel, which are cavitation resistant
materials, should be used.
4.9.2 Effects of Cavitation:
The following are the effects of cavitation :
• The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.
• Due to sudden collapse of vapour bubble, considerable noise and vibrations are produced.
• The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to pitting action, the surface of the turbine blades
becomes rough and the force exerted by water on the turbine blades decreases. Hence, the work done by water
or output horse power becomes less and thus efficiency decreases.
4.9.3 Hydraulic Machines Subjected to Cavitation:
The hydraulic machines subjected to cavitation are reaction turbines and centrifugal pumps.
4.9.3.1 Cavitation in Turbines:
In turbines, only reaction turbines are subjected to cavitation. In reaction turbines the cavitation may occur at the outlet of
the runner or at the inlet of the draft tube where the pressure is considerably reduced (i.e., which may be below the vapour
pressure of the liquid flowing through the turbine). Due to cavitation, the metal of the runner vanes and draft-tube is
gradually eaten away, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine. Hence, the cavitation in a reaction turbine can
be noted by a sudden drop in efficiency. In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of a reaction
turbine, the critical value of Thoma's cavitation factor (sigma) is calculated.
4.9.3.2 Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps:
In centrifugal pumps the cavitation may occur at the inlet of the impeller of the pump, or at the suction side of the pumps,
where the pressure is considerably reduced. Hence if the pressure at the suction side of the pump drops below the vapour
pressure of the liquid then the cavitation may occur. The cavitation in a pump can be noted by a sudden drop in efficiency
and head. In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the suction side of the pump, the critical
value of Thoma's cavitation factor is calculated.
COURSE: B.TECH, BRANCH: CIVIL ENGINEERING, SEM- 4TH , CHAPTER NAME: NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS

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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT,

Figure 1: Schematic Presentation of Open Channel

Figure 2: Schematic representation of different types of open channel flow

=Cross-section area of flow normal to the direction of flow/ Wetted perimeter

p and µ = Density and viscosity of water.

1.3 Difference between Open Channel & Pipe Flow

Pipe flow Open Channel flow

Flow driven by Pressure work Gravity (potential energy)

Specific boundary Atmospheric pressure at conditions the free surface

➢ 1.4 Discharge through Open Channel by Chezy’s Constant

• The weight of water between sections 1-1 and 2-2.

Numerical related to Chezy’s constant:

Solution: Width = 5m Depth = 2m Q = 20 m3/s

Geometric Properties Necessary for Analysis:

• Book – “Flow in Open Channel” By – K. Subramanya

Substituting this value of AO in above equation, we get

Substitute the value of n from above equation:

• Flow through Circular Channel

• Most Economical Circular Section

Where A & P both are function of ø.

Where D = diameter of the circular channel.

Depth of Flow for maximum discharge:

Where D = Diameter of the circular channel

• A dam constructed across a river to store water.

Fig. 4.1 Layout of Hydroelectric Power Plant

4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINES:

Fig. 4.4 Casing of Pelton Wheel

Fig. 4.6 Different type of

4.8 PRIMING OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

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