CHAPTER ONE

1. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS

Introduction
The flow of water with an unconfined free surface at atmospheric pressure presents some of the most common
problems of fluid mechanics to civil and environmental engineers. Rivers, canals, drainage canals, floods, and
sewers provide a number of important applications which have led to the theories and methods of open channel
hydraulics. The main distinguishing characteristic of such studies is that the location of the surface is also part
of the problem. This allows the existence of waves, both stationary and travelling. In most cases, where the
waterway is much longer than it is wide or deep, it is possible to treat the problem as an essentially one-
dimensional one, and a number of simple and powerful methods have been developed. In this course we attempt
a slightly more general view than is customary, where we allow for real fluid effects as much as possible by
allowing for the variation of velocity over the waterway cross section. We recognize that we can treat this
approximately, but it remains an often-unknown aspect of each problem.

Classification of Open Channel flows

Open channel flows versus pipe flow

Open channel: is a conduit for flow, which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary, exposed to the atmosphere. The flow of
water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe flow. Open channel is a conduit for flow which has a free
surface, i.e. a boundary exposed to the atmosphere. The two kinds of flows, i.e. open channel and pipe flow, are similar in
many ways but differ in one important aspect. Open channel flow must have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has none,
since the water must fill the whole conduit. A free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. Pipe flow being confined in
closed conduit, exerts no direct atmospheric pressure but hydraulic pressure. In the case of the flowing fluid in open
channel, the motion is usually caused by gravity effects and the pressure distribution within the fluid is generally
hydrostatic1

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Figure 1-1Comparison between pipe flow and open channel flow.

Questions:

Where is the HGL in case of the open channel flow?

What is the influence of the change in cross–section of the pipe?
Is a half–filled pipe flow open channel flow or pipe flow?

The two kinds of flows are compared in Figure 1-1 shown on the left side is pipe flow. Two piezometer tubes are installed
on the pipe at section 1 and 2. The water levels in the tubes are maintained by the pressure in the pipe at elevations
represented by the so–called hydraulic grade line. The pressure exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is indicated
in the corresponding tube by the height (y) of the water column above the centerline of the pipe. The total energy in the
flow of the section with reference to a datum line is the sum of the elevation z of the pipe center line, the piezo metric
height of the flow and the velocity head V2/2g, where v is the mean velocity of flow. The energy is represented in the
figure by what is called the energy grade line or a simply energy line. The loss of energy that result when water flow from
section 1 to section 2 is represented by hf. A similar diagram for open channel flow is shown on the right side of Figure 1-
1. For simplicity, it is assumed that the flow is parallel and has a uniform velocity distribution and that the slope of the
channel is small. In this case, the water surface is the hydraulic grade line, and the depth of the water corresponds to the
piezo metric height.

Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve problems of flow in open channels
than in pressure pipes.

Reasons:

In open channels the position of the free surface is likely to change with respect to time and space,
Depth of flow (y), discharge (Q), and bottom slope (S) and slope of the free surface are independent,
Physical condition of open channels varies more widely than that of pipes,
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 Cross section of open channel is widely variable and even might not be ridged,
Selection of friction coefficient is difficult and it varied with the position of the free surface.

Examples of Open channel Flows

- Storm sewer (partially field sewers),

- Flow in rivers,

- Flow in irrigation canals,

- gutters along residential streets and no roof open channel.

Types of flows

Steady flow and unsteady flow: Time as the criterion

Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change or if it can be assumed to be constant
during the time interval under consideration at a fixed point. In steady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density,
flow path etc) do not vary with time at the spatial point in the flow. In steady flow streamline is also the path followed by
an individual water particle. The flow is unsteady if the depth changes with time. In most open channel problems it is
necessary to study flow behavior only under steady conditions. If, however, the change in flow condition with respect to
time is of major concern, the flow should be treated as unsteady. In floods and surges, for instance, which are typical
examples of unsteady flow, the stage of flow changes instantaneously as the wave pass by, and the time element becomes
vitally important in design of control structures. In unsteady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path
etc) vary with time at the spatial points in the flow.

Examples of unsteady flow:

 Oscillatory sea waves,

 Dam break flood waves

 Surges due to gate operation,  Floods.

For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by

Q = VA Equation 1-1

Where v is the mean velocity and A is the flow cross sectional area normal to the direction of the flow, since the mean
velocity is defined as the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area. In most problems of steady flow the discharge is
constant throughout the reach of the channel under consideration; in other words the flow is continuous. Thus, using
equation 1-1.

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Q = V1 A1 = v2 A2 = - - - - Equation 1-2

Where the subscripts designate different channel sections. This is the continuity equation for a continuous steady flow.

Figure 1-2 steady and unsteady flow

Equation 1.2 obviously invalid, however, where the discharge of a steady flow is non-uniform along the channel, that is,
where water runs in or out along the course of the flow. This type of flow is called spatially varied or discontinuous flow.
Spatially constant flow occurs when the density and average velocity are the same in all points in a flow field. If these
quantities change along or across the flow lines the flow is spatially variable. Examples are side channel spillways, roadside
gutters, and the flow in uniform canal of constant slope receiving inflow or having outflow (e.g. main drainage channels
and feeding channels in irrigation systems).

The law of continuity of unsteady flow requires considerations of the time effect. Hence, the continuity equation for
continuous unsteady flow should include time element as a variable (section 2-3).

Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion

Open channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the channel. A uniform flow
may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes with time.

Steady uniform flow is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel hydraulics. The depth of flow does not change
during the time interval under consideration. The establishment of unsteady uniform flow would require that the water
surface fluctuate from time to time while remaining parallel to the channel bottom.

Obviously, this is a practically impossible condition. The term “uniform flow” is therefore, used here after only to steady
uniform flow.

Flow is varied if the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may be either steady or unsteady.
Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term “unsteady flow” is used hereafter to designate unsteady varied flow
exclusively.

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Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied. The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes
abruptly over a comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as a
local phenomenon; examples are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop. For clarity, the classification of open-channel
flow is summarized as:

Figure 1- Classification of open channel flows

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 CHAPTER TWO

BASIC HYDRAULICS PRINCIPLES

2.1. Geometry of Open Channels

Open channels can be natural (rivers, streams, estuaries) or artificial (canals, flumes, chutes, culverts, drops,
open-flow tunnels). The channel geometry can be prismatic (constant So and constant A) or non-prismatic. The
geometry is defined by its cross section and water depth (y).

Some conventions for naming of canal geometric parameters is given underneath:

Figure 0-1Geometry of an open channel

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 2.2 Main Principles

To any situation in hydraulics we can apply two out of three principles:

1-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

1-b Principle of conservation of energy (in case all energy “losses” are known)

2-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

2-b momentum principle (in case all external forces are known)

2.2.1 Continuity Principle

In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q is:

If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A =
Q/V) remains constant. The open channel has a prismatic cross -section. This means for
uniform flow a constant water depth in all section. Uniform flow is a result from an exact
balance between the force of gravity and the frictional resistance.

Application of the continuity principle to unsteady, open channel flow is more difficult. In unsteady open channel
flow the water surface will change over a certain distance X  X 2 X1.and during a certain time t .

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This is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow.

2.2.1. Energy and depth relationship

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 Figure: Specific Energy Curve

Characteristics of critical flow

The characteristics of critical flow are

(i) The specific energy and specific force are minimum for the given discharge.
(ii) The Froude number is equal to unity.
(iii) For a given specific energy the discharge is maximum at the critical flow.
(iv) The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope.
(v) The velocity of flow in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity distribution, is equal to the
celerity of small gravity waves (C = (gh) 1/2) is shallow water caused by local disturbance.
(vi) Flow at the critical state is unstable.

Critical flow may occur at a particular section or in the entire channel, then the flow in the channel is called
"Critical flow".

y f A, D c = ( ) for a given discharge.

For a prismatic channel for a given discharge the critical depth is constant at all sections of a channel. The
bed slope which sustains a given discharge at a uniform and critical depth is called "Critical slope Sc". A
channel slope causing slower flow in sub critical state for a given discharge is called "sub critical slope or
mild slope". A slope greater than the critical slope is called steep slope or super critical slope.

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Analytical Properties of Critical Flow

The subscript c indicates critical flow conditions.

Thus the critical depth yc is a function of discharge per unit width alone. Further, the above equation it can
be written as

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 Variation of the Discharge with depth for a given specific energy value

Momentum Principle

The momentum equation is developed from Newton’s second law of motion by summing up the resultant force
on a free body of fluid on one side of the equation and by developing the other side of the equation into an
equivalent expression in terms of rates of in flow and outflow of momentum.

CHAPTER THREE

FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS

3.1 Critical flow

The critical state of flow through a channel is characterized by several important conditions.

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Discussions on critical stage of flow have referred mainly to a particular section of a channel, known as the
critical section. If the critical state of flow exists throughout the entire length of the channel or over a reach of
the channel, the flow in the channel is critical flow. The slope of a channel that sustains a given discharge at a
uniform and critical depth is called the critical slope (Sc). A slope of the channel less than the critical slope will
cause a slower flow of sub critical state for the given discharge, as will be shown later, and hence, is called a
mild or sub critical slope. A slope greater than the critical slope will result in a faster flow of supercritical state,
and is called a steep or supercritical slope.

A flow at or near the critical state is unstable. This is because a minor change in specific energy at or close to
critical state will cause a major change in depth. This fact can also be recognized in the specific energy curve. It
can be observed also that, which the flow is near the critical state, the water surface appears unstable and wavy.
Such phenomena are generally caused by the minor changes in energy due to variations in channel roughness,
cross-section, slope or deposits of sediment or debris. In the design of channel, if the depth is found at or near
the critical depth for a greater length of the channel, the shape or slope of the channel should be altered, if
practicable, is order to secure greater stability.

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is the basis for the computation of critical flow. Two major applications of critical, flow theory are flow control
and flow measurement.

The section factor for critical flow computation

Take the criterion for a critical state of flow

Computation of critical flow

Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and velocity (yc & vc) when the
discharge and the channel section are known. The methods illustrated by examples are given below. On the other
hand, if critical depth and channel section are known, the critical discharge can be determined from the relation
Q

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Algebraic method: For a simple geometric channel section, the critical flow can be determined by an algebraic
computation using the basic equations.

Examples

For a trapezoidal channel with base width b = 6.0 m and side slope m = 2, calculate the critical depth of flow if
Q = 17 m3/s.

Solution
The criterion for critical state of flow is the basis for the computation of critical flow viz.

The hydraulic depth (D) and water area of the trapezoidal section are expressed in terms of the depth y as

B2 = B + 2my = 6 + 4y

A (3  y) y
 D 
Bs 3  2y

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Method of design chart: the design chart for determining the critical depth can be used with great expediency.
In developing a chart for this purpose, it is convenient to define the section factor for critical flow computation
as discussed before. Substituting V=Q/A

Example
A circular channel 0.91 m in diameter conveys a flow of 0.71 m3/s; estimate the critical depth of flow

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For complex designed sections which cannot be treated by either the analytical method or the design chart
method, a graphical method may be used. This method is also applicable to natural channels. In this
procedure, a curve of yc versus Z is constructed

Example
A trapezoidal channel with b = 6.0 m and m = 1.5 conveys a flow 17 m3/s ; estimate the critical depth of
flow.

Control section (flow control)

The control of flow in an open channel or at a structure means the establishment of explicit
relationship (one to one relationship) between the stage (water level) and the discharge of flow.
When the control of flow is achieved at a certain section of a channel or structure, this section is
called the control section. Holding a fixed stage –discharge relationship, the control section is
always suitable for gauging station since it is always suitable site for developing the discharge
rating curve, a curve representing the depth – discharge relationship.

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Control sections occur at entrances and exists to channels and at changes in channels
slopes, under certain conditions. A gate in channel can be a control for both the upstream and
downstream reaches. When a flow changes from sub- critical to super –critical conditions or vice
versa, the water depth must pass through the critical depth. The change from sub critical to
supercritical occurs in a control section. The change from super –critical to sub –critical is only
possible by means of a hydraulic jump.

A small change in downstream conditions (depth or discharge) of a flow will and cannot change
the upstream conditions when the upstream depth is critical or less than critical (yupstream = < yc). In
this case downstream conditions do not control the flow.

All super – critical (rapid) flows are controlled by upstream conditions and computations of surface
profiles start at the upstream end of a channel. However, sub –critical (or tranquil) flows will be
affected by small changes in downstream conditions and therefore the latter controls these flows.
Sub critical or tranquil flow computations start at the downstream end of a reach and are carried
out in an upstream direction.

If a flow over a spillway passes through critical stage at the channel, the depth can be computed
therefore a given discharge or the discharge can be found from the given (measured) water depth.
In case of steep channel the computation proceed in the downstream direction.

A change in a channel slope from mild to steep causes the flow to pass through critical stage at the
beak in slope. Computation advance both upstream and downstream from the control section at
the break.

Example of a control section is for example a reservoir (pool) created by a dam and the water
flowing over the dam through an overflow spillway. Different flow conditions might occur in the
channel downstream of the spillway.

If the channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical throughout
the channel. In the proximity of the dam, however, the flow in the reservoir is sub critical and the
reservoir surface will approach the horizontal. At the downstream end of the reservoir, near the
spillway a so called drawdown curve will develop, extending in an upstream direction, starting at
a section near the spillway crest. The drawdown curve will be asymptotic to the upstream reservoir
level.

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If the channel upstream of the spillway has a mild slope, the flow near the entrance is initially
subcritical. In the presence of the dam, the reservoir level will be raised for a long distance
(upstream from the spillway crest). The additional height in water level is required to build up
enough energy head, necessary to convey water over the spillway crest. This effect of raising the
water level upstream of s spillway is known as a backwater curve.

When in channel the bottom slope changes and the flow at that point alters from sub – critical to
super –critical, then the slope upstream of the break is mild, because the upstream flow is sub
critical and yn > yc. At the break the depth passes through critical depth. This point called the
control section since the depth at the break controls the upstream depth.

A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which the uniform depth
is smaller than the critical depth (yn < yc). In this case the depth passes through critical depth in
the vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is the control section. By measuring the depth
at the control section, a reasonably accurate value of Q can be computed.

Change from sub critical to supercritical flow at a change in slope

Another example where critical depth occurs is that of a free outfall with sub –critical
flow upstream of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in the
direction of flow, it is clear that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any point upstream.
As critical depth is the value for which the specific energy is a minimum, one would expect critical
depth to occur at the outfall. However, the value for the critical depth is derived on the assumption
that the water is flowing in straight and parallel flow lines. However at the free outfall gravity
forces create curved streamlines. So that the depth at the brink (outfall) yb is 0.72 *yc. Critical depth
occurs somewhere upstream of the brink (between 3 yc and 10 yc). For super –critical flow
conditions; upstream of the outfall, on drop down curve develops.

Flow measurement

It was mentioned in the preceding article that, at a critical control section, the relationship between
the depth and the discharge is explicit, independent of channel roughness and other uncontrollable
circumstances such an explicit relationship between stage –discharge relationship offers a
theoretical basis for the measurement of discharge in open channels

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Based on the principle of critical flow, various devices for flow measurement have been developed.
In such devices the critical depth is usually created by the construction of a low hump on the
channel bottom, such as a weir, or by contraction in the cross- section, such as a critical flow flume.
(venturi flume) (Example, par shall flume). The use of a weir i. a simple method, but it causes
relatively high head loss. If water contains suspended particles, some will be deposited in the
upstream pool formed by the weir, resulting in a gradual change in discharge coefficient. These
difficulties, however, can be overcome at least partially by the use of critical -flow flume.

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