Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1

1.0 Introduction to open channel flow

When the flow takes place in a channel or pipe such that the water has a free surface exposed to the
atmosphere, we spoke of open channels, curvets, spillways, and similar human made structures are
designed & analyzed by the method of open channel hydraulics.
The primary difference b/n the confined flow in pipes & open channel flow is that the pipe flow is
closed channel, which is the top surface is covered by solid boundary, it is not exposed to atmospheric
pressure but open channel flow is exposed to atmospheric pressure. In open channels the cross-
sectional area of the flow is variable that depends on many parameters of the flow. For this reason
hydraulic computations related to open channel flow are more complicated.

The prime motivating force (the force causing motion) for open channel flow is gravity or the slope
provided at the bottom (bed).

EL Hf

Y1 HGL V 2
EL
2 g
HGL
Y2 Y1

Y2

Z2 Z1
Z2

Fig 1(a) Pipe flow

Fig. 1b. open channel flow
HGL - Hydraulic grade line (coincide with water surface)
EGL - Energy grade line
Hf - head loss due to friction
V2/2g - velocity head
Open channel may be classified as artificial or natural depending on whether the cross-section is man
made or otherwise.

 Natural channels: _ include all water courses that exist naturally on the earth, varying in
size from tiny hillside rivulets, through brooks, streams, small &large rivers, to tidal estuaries.

 Underground streams carrying water with a free surface are also considered as natural open
channels.

The Hydraulic properties of natural channels are generally very irregular in shape, alignment & rough-
ness of the surface.

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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

A comprehensive study of the behavior of flow in natural channels requires knowledge of other fields,
such as sediment transportation, geomorphology, hydrology etc. It constitutes in fact, a subject of its
own, know as river Hydraulics.
 Artificial Channels: - are those constructed or developed by human effort such as
navigation channels, power canals, irrigation canals & flumes, drainage ditches, road side
gutters etc, as well as model channels that are built in the laboratory for testing purposes.

The hydraulic properties of such channels can be either controlled to the extent desired or designed to
meet given requirements.
The Artificial open channel is given different names, such as canals, “flumes “chute”, drop”, culvert”
open flow tunnel, etc.
 Channel Geometry: - A channel, which has a constant shape and size and is laid to a constant
slope is said to be a prismatic channel. An artificial channel will be prismatic as long as its
cross section (size and shape) and slope remain unchanged. Either a change in the size or shape
or slope or any combination of these variables will make it non- prismatic.

1.1 Types of flow

Flows can be classified in a number of ways. The system generally adopted is considering the flow as
characterized by distance & time parameters:

a) Steady flow: -A flow is saide to be steady if at any point in the flowing fluid characteristics such
as velocity, pressure, density etc do not change with time. However these characteristics may be
different at different point in the flowing fluid.
v/t=0, p/t=0
b) Unsteady flow: -If at any point in the flowing fluid any one or all of the characteristics that
describe the behavior of the fluid in motion change with time.
(v/t 0, (p/t0)
c) Uniform flow: - This occurs when the velocity both in magnitude and direction remains constant
with respect to distance, i.e. it doesn’t change from point to point.
v/s =0
E.g. Flow of liquid under pressure through long pipe of constant diameter
d) Non –Uniform flow: - If there is change in velocity with in magnitude or direction with respect to
distance. v/s 0
e) Steady –uniform flow: - is the flow in which the depth is constant, both with time & distance.
f) Steady-non-uniform flow: - is the flow in which the depth varies with distance, but not with time.
g) Unsteady-uniform flow: - is the flow in which the depth is varying with time, but not with
distance.
h) Unsteady-non-uniform flow: - is the flow in which the depth varies both with time & distance.

Geometrical properties of open channel flow

Various geometric properties of natural and artificial channels need to be determined for hydraulic
purposes. In the case of artificial channels, these may all be expressed algebraically in terms of the
depth (y).
The commonly used geometric properties are defined as follows:
 Depth (y): the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel section from the free surface.
 Stage (h):- the vertical distance of the free surface from an arbitrary datum.
 Wetted Area (A):- the cross sectional area of flow normal to the flow direction.

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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

 Wetted perimeter (P):- the length of the wetted surface measured normal to the direction of
flow.
 Top width (T):- the width of the channel section at the free surface.
 Hydraulic Radius (R):- the ratio of wetted area to wetted perimeter.
R=A/P
 Hydraulic mean depth (Dm):- the ratio of flow area to surface width.
Dm=A/T
 Section factor (Z): is the product of the wetted area and the two-third power of the hydraulic
1
2
A  A3  2
radius Z=A D =A =   =A R 3
T T 
 Conveyance (K) :
2 1
1
Q=VA………………………….V= R 3 S 2
n
2 1
1
Q=A R 3 S 2
n
2 1
3
1 2
= AR S
n
1
= KS 2 S= bed slope
2
1 3
K= AR n= Manning’s constant
n
= CA R c= Chezy’s constant

UNIFORM FLOW:- it is the flow in which the cross-section through which flow occurs is constant
along the channel, and also is the velocity. Thus, Y1=Y2 and V1=V2 and the channel bed, water
 Z h
surface, and energy line are parallel to one another. Also, Sw=So=S= =tan, while S= f  sin  ,
X L
where  is the angle the channel makes with the horizontal.

2
V1/2g
ENER GY T
LINE SL hf
OP=S
f

2 T.E.L
V /2g
f

WATER A
SURFAC
E SLOP=S 2
Y1
W V2 /2g FR EE SU
RFACE

Y V

F1
WsinT
Y2
BOTTOM
SL OP=S
O
B tO Y

Z1 F2

T D

L
Z2
DATUM
P
W

Fig1.2
Where So=bed slope of channels W= weight of water
Sw=water surface slope, Wsin= gravitational force along the flow of
S = slope of E.G.L water. o =shear stress
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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

L =length of the channel b/n section-1 and sect-2.

 Uniform flow is the result of exact balance between the gravity and frictional force (average
boundary shear stress,  o acting over the area LP) thus:
Wsin =  o .P.L……………………………. (1)
A L sin =  o .P.L
But sin  = hf/L = S, solving for o ,
A
 o =  .S  R.S ………………………………… (2)
P
Where - unit weight of the water
The shear stress is assumed proportional to the square of the mean velocity,
2
Or o= kV …………………………………..…….. (3)
Therefore, kv2=RS

V2= RS ,
k

Let  C 2 -constant (b/c &k- are constant)
k
V  C RS . ……………………………………………….... (4)
This is the Chezy –formula
C= chazy coefficient (chezys resistance factor)
V= Average velocity of flow
Manning Formula
1 2 1
V= R 3 S 0 2 ……………………………………………… (5)
n
 The best as well as most widely used formula for uniformly for uniform flow.
n- is the roughness coefficient.
A relation between the Chezy’s C and Manning’s n may be obtained by comparing eqn (4) & (5)
1

R6
C ………………………………………….. (6)
n
 The value of n ranges from 0.009 (for smooth straight surfaces) to 0.22 (for very dense flood plain
forests).

1.2 Hydraulically Efficient Channel Cross-Section

A channel section is said to be efficient if it gives the maximum discharge for the given shape, area &
roughness.
The velocity in an open channel is:
V= f(R, S)…………………………… (a)
Q=A*V= A.f(R, S)……………….…. (b)
Equation (b) indicates that for the given area of cross-section & slope, the discharge Q will be
maximum, when R – is maximum.
Since, R= A/P, R will be maximum when p- is minimum for a given area.

We can conclude that for most efficient and economical channel section the wetted perimeter should be
minimum & also frictional resistance,  o is minimum.
For example, a rectangular channel of depth Y and width, B

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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

A= BY………………………….. (i)
P= B+2Y……………………….. (ii)
From eqn. (i), B= A/Y
Substituting in (ii) P=A/Y+ 2Y……….. (iii)
For maximum Q, p- is minimum.
dp d
0 ( A / Y  2Y )  0
dY dY
A
  Y 2  2  0
 A  2Y 2 ,  B * Y ,
So, B  2Y (orY  B / 2)
Thus the rectangular channel is most efficient & economical when the depth of water is one half of the
width of the channel and the discharge flow will be maximum.

1.3 Specific Energy

For any cross-section, shape, the specific energy (E) at a particular section is defined as the energy
head to the channel bed as datum, thus,
E=Y+V2/2g………………………………………… (1)
(- is kinetic energy correction factor  1.0).
For a rectangular channel, the value of flow per unit width is Q/B=q, and average velocity
qB q
V Q  
A BY Y
Therefore eqn (1) becomes:
2
 q 
 y q2
E  y Y  ..................................................(2)
2g 2 gy 2
q2
(E-Y) Y2 = (For the case of constant q)………………….. (3)
2g
A plot of E vs. Y is a hyperbola like with asymptotes (E-y) =0 i.e., E=Y and Y=0. Such a curve
is known as specific energy diagram.

Fig 1.3 specific energy curve

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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

For a particular q, we see there are two possible values of y for a given value of E. These are
known as Alternate depths (for e.g. Y1&Y2 on fig above)
The two alternate depths represent two totally different flow regimes: slow & deep on the upper
limb of the curve (sub- critical flow) & fast & shallow on the lower limb of the curve, (Super
critical flow)
1.4. Critical depth
From fig.1.3 above, at point C for a given q the value of E is a minimum and the flow at this
point referred to as critical flow. The depth of flow at that point is the critical depth Y c & the
velocity is the critical velocity VC.
For example, a relation for critical depth in a wide rectangular channel can be found by
differentiating E of eqn. (2) with respect to Y to find the value of Y for which E is a minimum.
dE q2
 1  3 ....................…………………….(4)
dY gy
And when E is a minimum, Y=Yc and dE  0 ,so that
dY
q2
0  1  3  q 2  gyc3 ………………………. (5)
gyc
Substituting q = vy =Vc*Yc, gives
Vc2  gyc
q …………………… (6)
 Vc  gyc 
yc
It may be expressed as:
1
V 2  q2  3
yc  c    …………………………….. (7)
g  g 
V2 y
From eqn. (7) c  c , hence,
2g 2
Vc2
Ec  Emin  yc   yc  1 2 yc  3 2 yc .....................(8)
2g
and yc = 2 Emin ………………………………………..(9)
3
3
From eqn. (7): qmax= gyc ……………………………. (10)
For non- rectangular cross-section the specific energy eqn.
Q2
E  y ………………………………. (11)
2gA2
[V= Q/A]
To find the critical depth,
dE Q 2 dA
 1 3 ………………………………….. (12)
dy gA dy
From fig 1.3 (b) dA = dy*T (at yc, T= Tc)
Therefore the above equation becomes:
2
Qmax Tc
3
 1 ………………………………………….. (13)
gAc
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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

The critical depth must satisfy this equation

gA3
From eqn. (13) Q 2  c and substituting in eqn. (11) then
Tc
A
Ec  yc  c ……………………………………….(14)
2Tc
eqn. (13) can be solved by trial & error for irregular section by plotting
Q 2T
f ( y)  and critical depth occurs for the value of y which makes f(Y) =1
gA3
Sub-critical, critical and super-critical flow
If specific energy curve for Q- constant is redrawn along side a second curve of depth against
discharge for constant E, will show the variation of discharge with depth.

q max

y>yc
yc= 2/ E
3 q

y<yc

a) For a given constant discharge fig (1.4)

i) The specific energy curve has a minimum value Ec at point c with a corresponding depth Yc
known as critical depth
ii) For any other value of E there are two possible depths of flow known as alternate
depths, one of which is termed substantial (Y>Yc) and the other supercritical (Y<Yc).
b) For a given constant specific energy (fig 1.5 (b);
i) The depth discharge curve shows that discharge is a maximum at the critical depth
ii) For all other discharges there are two possible depths of flow (sub- & super critical) for any
particular values of E.
From eqn. (13) above if we substitute
Q= AV (continuity eqn.), we get
Q2 T
1
gA3
A2V 2T V2 T
 1  1
gA3 g A
A
But  D (hydraulic depth), ther[ D  Y for rec tan gular sec tion]
T
V2
 1  V  gy ......................................................(*)
gy
V
 1  Froude number at critical state.
gy

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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

V
F ……………………………………………(N)
gy
Thus, i) F= 1  critical flow
ii) F < 1  sub critical flow
iii) F>1  super critical flow
1.5 Hydraulic Jump
By far the most important of the local non-uniform flow phenomena is that which occurs when
supercritical flow has its velocity reduced to sub critical. There is sudden rise in water level at the point
where hydraulic jump occurs (Rapidly varied flow). This is an excellent example of the jump serving a
useful purpose, for it dissipates much of the destructive energy of the high –velocity water, there by
reducing downstream erosion. The turbulence with in hydraulic jumps has also been found to be very
useful & effective for mixing fluids, & jumps have been used for this purpose in water treatment plant
& sewage treatment plants.

Hydraulic
Jump
F2

F1

1 2

Fig 1.5 hydraulic jump on horizontal bed following over a spillway

Purposes of hydraulic jump:-

i) To increase the water level on the d/s of the hydraulic structures

ii) To reduce the net up lift force by increasing the downward force due to the increased depth
of water,
iii) To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing the effective head causing flow,
iv) For aeration of drinking water
v) For removing air pockets in a pipe line

Analysis of hydraulic jump

Assumptions
1) The length of the hydraulic jump is small, consequently, the loss of head due to friction is
negligible,
2) The channel is horizontal as it has a very small longitudinal slope. The weight component in
the direction of flow is negligible.
3) The portion of channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs is taken as a control volume & it is
assumed the just before & after the control volume, the flow is uniform & pressure distribution
is hydrostatic.

Let us consider a small reach of a channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs.

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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

The momentum of water passing through section (1) per unit time is given as:
P1 QV1
  QV1 ………………………………………. (i)
t g
Momentum at section (2) per unit time is:
P2 QV2
  QV2 ...................................................................…. (ii)
t g
Rate of change of momentum b/n section 1 & 2
P
 Q (V2  V1 ) ………………………………………. (iii)
t
The net force in the direction of flow = F1-F2 …...…………….. (iv)
F1  A1Y1 , F2 A2 Y2
 Y 1 & Y 2 are the center of pressure at section (1) & (2)
Therefore F1-F2 =M =Q (V2-V1)
Q
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2  (V2  V1 ) …………………………………… (v)
g
From continuity eqn. Q= A*V, V= Q/A, so
 
Q  Q Q 
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2    
g  A2 A1 
 
2
Q 1 
A1Y 1  A2 Y2   A  1 A .................................................(iv)
g  2 1 
Rearranging this equation.

 Q2   Q2 
  A1 Y 1    A2 Y 2 
 gA1   gA2  = Constant. ……………(vii)
M1 M2
M1and M2 are the specific forces at section (1) & (2) indicates that these forces are equal before & after
the jump.
Y1= initial depth
Y2 = sequent depth

Hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel

A1=By1 the section has uniform width (B)

A2= By2
Y1 Y
Y 1 ,Y 2  2
2 2

Now from eqn. (Vii) above:

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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

Q2 y  Q
 By1  1    By 2  y 2 
gBy1  2  gBy 2  2
Q2 By12 Q2 By 22
   ..............................................................(viii)
gBy1 2 Bgy 2 2

Flow per unit width of q= Q/B Q=qB, then eqn. (viii) becomes

q 2 B 2 By12 q 2 B 2 By22
  
Bgy1 2 Bgy2 2

q2  1 1  y22  y12
   ………………………………… (ix)
g  y1 y2  2

2q 2
 y1 y2
y 2
 y12
2 
g  y2  y1 
2q 2
 y1 y2 ( y1  y2 )...................................................................(x)
g
2 2q 2
2
y y yy 
2 1 1 2  0...........................................................(xi )
g
This is quadratic eqn. & the solution is given as

2
 y2  y2  2q 2
y1      ...................................................( xii )(a)
2  2  gy 2
2
 y1  y  2q 2
y2    1
  .......................................................(b)
2  2 gy 2
y2 8q 2
y1  (1  1  3 )...........................................................(c)
2 gy 2

y1 8q 2
y2  (1  1  .............................................................(d )
2 gy13
The ratio of conjugate depths;

2
y1 8q
 1 (1  1  3 ...........................................................(e)
y2 2 gy 2

2
y2 8q
 1 (1  1  3 ..........................................................( f )
y1 2 gy 1

q q
V1 y1 q V2 y2 q
F1    , F2   
3
gy1 gy1 gy1 gy 2 gy 23 gy 23
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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

y1 1
Therefore  (1  1  8F22 )........................(g )
y2 2
y2 1
 (1  1  8 F12 ..........................................(h)
y1 2

 Energy dissipation in a Hydraulic Jump

The head loss hl.f caused by the jump is the drop in energy from section (1) to (2) or:
hlf= E = E1 - E2
 V2   V2 
  y1  1    y 2  2 .......................................(1)(a)
 2g   2g 
 q2   q2 
  y1     y  ....................................(b)
2 gy12   2 gy22 
2

q 2  y22  y12 
    ( y2  y1 ).......................(c )
2 g  y12 y22 
2q 2
From eqn. (x) substituting:  y1 y2 ( y1  y2 ) in to this eqn. (c) & by rearranging:
g

hlf  E 
 y2  y1 
3
..............................................(2)
4 y1 y2
Therefore power lost =  Q hlf (kw)………………… (3)

 Types of Hydraulic jump

Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the upstream Froude number and depth ratio.

F1 Y2/y1 Classification
<1 1 Jump impossible
1-1.7 1-2 Undular jump (standing wave)

1.7-2.5 2-3.1 Weak jump

2.5-4.5 3.1-5.9 Oscillating jump
4.5-9.0 5.9-12 Steady jump (45-70% energy loss)
>9.0 >12 Strong or chopping jump (=85% energy loss)

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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

TUTORIAL ON CHAPTER ONE

1. For the best hydraulic trapezoidal channel show that:

a) its section is one half of a hexagon.
b) Half the top width is equal to the inclined length.
c) A semicircle with radius D & the center at the free surface can be inscribed in a
trapezoid.
d) The hydraulic radius is one half of the depth of water.
2. A given trapezoidal channel has the following dimensions:
B=10m, m=1.5, y=3m and designed to carry 40 m3/s. Using the same cross-sectional area and
side slopes, how much would the most efficient cross-section increase the present hydraulic
radius and flow capacity? What would be the corresponding depth and bed width?
3. The discharge in m3/s over a V-notch is given by Q=1.447H5/2, where H is in m measured over
the bottom of the notch. Determine the discharge when the head is 0.25m and find the accuracy
with which it is measured if the error in the estimation of discharge is not to exceed 1.5%. After
passing the notch the water discharged in to a rectangular channel 0.4m wide. Find the gradient
of the bed of the channel for steady flow if the depth of water is 0.15m. Take C=66.
4. (Circular section) For a circular cross-section, show that:
i). the maximum discharge occurs when D=0.95d;
ii) The maximum velocity occurs when D=0.81d.
Where D is depth of liquid in the channel and d is diameter of a channel.
5. A sewer with diameter 0.5m is laid at a slope of 1in 225. What is the maximum velocity of flow
that can occur? What would be the discharge at that velocity, Take C=60.
6. An irrigation channel of trapezoidal section has side slope, m=2 and carries a discharge of
15m3/s on a longitudinal slope of 1 in 5000. The channel is to be lined for which the value of
friction coefficient in Manning’s formula is n=0.012. Find the dimension of the most economic
section of the channel.
7. A rectangular channel, which is laid on a bottom slope of 0.0064, is to carry 20m3/s of
water. Determine the width of the channel when the flow is in critical condition. Take
n=0.015.
8. In a rectangular channel there occurs a jump corresponding to Froude number (F=2.5).
Determine the critical depth and head loss in terms of the initial depth y1.
9. A trapezoidal channel having bottom width 10m and side slope 2:1(H:V) carries a discharge of
100m3/s. Find the depth conjugate to the initial depth of 1m before the jump. Also determine
the loss of energy in the jump.
10. Show that the head loss in a hydraulic jump formed in a rectangular channel may be expressed
as
v1  v2 3
E 
2 g v1  v 2 
11. For a hydraulic jump in a horizontal triangular channel show that:
2
Fr1 

r 2 r3 1 

3 r 2 1
Where r =y2/y1.

12. In a horizontal triangular channel with sides sloping 300 to the horizontal, the depth before &
after jump are observed as 1m and 1.5m respectively. Determine the discharge flowing through
the channel.

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 Hydraulics II Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Channel Flow

13. Given a wide & shallow rectangular channels:

gn 2
i)
Show that critical bed slope is given by Sc  1/ 3
yc
ii) For a rectangular channel of 20 m, determine critical bed slope & discharge for critical
depths of 0.2m & 0.5m.Assum n = 0.035.

14 An over flow spillway has its crest on elevation of 125 .40m 7 a horizontal apron at an
elevation of 95 .0m on the downstream side. Find the tail water elevation required to form a
hydraulic jump when the elevation of energy line is 127.0m & also find energy loss in jump.
The coefficient of discharge (Cd) for the flow can be assumed as 0.735. The energy loss fro the
flow over the spillway can be ignored. The unit discharge over the spill way is give by,
2
q Cd 2g H 3/ 2
3
15. Construct a family of specific energy curves for q = 0, 1.5, 3.0, 9.0& 12.0m3/s for a trapezoidal
channel section having bottom width of 6.2m & m=2.0.
16. Determine the initial & sequent depth of a hydraulic jump in a horizontal rectangular section
9.25m wide & carrying 8.80m3/s .The loss of energy in the jump is 1.54m.
17. A triangular highway gutter (one side vertical & one side has slope m) is designed to carry a
discharge of 52m3/min on a channel bed slope of 0.0016 .The gutter is d0.8m deep. The
channel surface is clean earth excavation, n = 0.022. Determine the side slope m. If the channel
is to be most efficient section, determine the slope and capacity of the channel.

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