Chapter 1

Chapter 1
Open Channel Flow

1.1 Introduction
 Open channel flow occurs where ever the flow proceeds
with the liquid surface exposed to constant pressure.
 In practice this pressure is the atmospheric pressure, and

the flow proceeds with free surface (exposed to the
atmosphere).
 Thus open channel flow may occur regardless of the

type of conduit in which it is occurring i.e. an open channel
flow may exist in a pipe, if it is flowing partially full.
 In practice flow in sewers, canals, streams and gutters is

exposed to atmospheric pressure and hence is an
example of open channel flow.
Intro...
 The longitudinal profile of the free surface in an
open channel flow defines the hydraulic grade line and
determines the cross-sectional area of flow, as is shown
in Figure 1.1. Shown in next page.
 It also necessitates the introduction of an extra

variable, the stage, to define the position of the free
surface at any point in the channel.
 In consequence, problems in open channel flow are

more complex, and the solutions are more varied,
making the study of such problems both interesting and
challenging.
Intro
1.2 Flow classification
 Recalling that flow may be steady or unsteady and
uniform or non-uniform, the major classifications
applied to open channels are as follows:
 Steady uniform flow, in which the depth is

constant, both with time and distance.
 the gravity forces are in equilibrium with the resistance

forces.
Flow classification
 Steady non-uniform flow, in which the depth varies
with distance, but not with time.
 The flow may be either

a) gradually varied or
b) rapidly varied.
 Type (a) requires the joint application of energy

and frictional resistance equations.
 Type (b) requires the application of energy and
momentum principles.
Flow classification
 Unsteady uniform flow is very rare
 Unsteady non-uniform flow, in which the depth

varies with both time and distance.
 This is the most complex flow type, requiring the

solution of energy, momentum and friction
equations through time.
Types of Open Channel
 Channels where flow occurs under free surface can
either be natural, such as rivers and streams, or
artificial.
 Artificial channels comprise all man-made channels,

including irrigation and navigation canals, spillway
channels, sewers, culverts and drainage ditches.
 They are normally of regular cross-sectional shape

and bed slope, and as such are termed prismatic
channels∗. Their construction materials are varied,
but commonly used materials include concrete, steel
and earth.
Types…
 The surface roughness characteristics of these
materials are normally well defined within
engineering tolerances.
 In consequence, the application of hydraulic
theories to flow in artificial channels will normally
yield reasonably accurate results. Various terms
are used to refer to channels built under different
conditions.
 ∗ A prismatic channel is characterized by
unvarying cross section, constant bottom slope,
and relatively straight alignment.
Types...
 Canal: a channel built on ground, i.e excavated to the desired shape and
slope with or without lining, usually having a mild slope. The lining could
be made of concrete, stone masonry, cement, wood or bituminous
material.
 Flume: a channel built (or supported) above the ground to convey fluid
from one point to another. In the field flumes are made of concrete,
wood, sheet metal or masonry. Laboratory flumes are usually made of
wood, metal, glass or a composite of these materials.
 Chute: is a channel of steep slopes. If the change in elevation in the

direction of flow occurs in a relatively short distance the channel is
called a drop.
 Culvert: is a relatively short and usually buried conduit that is commonly

used for drainage purposes, as in highways and embankments. Open
channel prevails whenever the culvert is flowing partially full.
Types...
 In contrast, natural channels are normally very irregular in
shape, and their materials are diverse.
 The surface roughness of natural channels changes with

time, distance and water surface elevation.
 Therefore, it is more difficult to apply hydraulic theory to natural

channels and obtain satisfactory results.
 Many applications involve man-made alterations to

natural channels (e.g. river control structures and flood
alleviation measures).
 Such applications require an understanding not only of

hydraulic theory, but also of the associated disciplines of
sediment transport, hydrology and river morphology.
1.3 Difference between open channel
flow and pipe flow
 Open surface: atmospheric pressure
 Pipe flow: only hydraulic pressure
1.4 Geometric properties of Open Channels
 Depth (y) - the vertical
distance of the lowest
point of a channel section
from the free surface;
 Stage (h) - the vertical
distance of the free surface
from an arbitrary datum;
 Area (A) - the cross-
 Surface width (B) - the width sectional area of flow
of the channel section at the normal to the direction of
free surface; flow;
 Hydraulic radius (R) - the ratio  Wetted perimeter (P) - the
of area to wetted perimeter length of the wetted
(A / P); surface measured normal
 Hydraulic mean depth (Dm) - to the direction of flow;
the ratio of area to surface
width (A / B).
Table 1.1 Geometric properties of some common
prismatic channels
1.5 Velocity distribution in open
channels
 The measured velocity in an open channel will
always vary across the channel section because of
friction along the boundary.
 Neither is this velocity distribution usually axis

symmetric (as it is in pipe flow) due to the
existence of the free surface. It might be expected
to find the maximum velocity at the free surface
where the shear force is zero but this is not the
case.
 The maximum velocity is usually found just below

the surface.
velocity distribution in open channels
Energy and momentum coefficients
 In momentum and energy (Bernoulli) equations
it was noted that the velocity must be constant
(equal to V) over the whole cross-section.
 Clearly this will not occur in practice. Fortunately
both these equation may still be used even for
situations of quite non-uniform velocity
distribution over a section.
 This is possible by the introduction of
coefficients of energy and momentum, a and ß
respectively.
Determination of energy and
momentum coefficients
 To determine the values of α and β the
velocity distribution must have been
measured (or be known in some way).
 In irregular channels where the flow may be

divided into distinct regions α may exceed 2
and should be included in the Bernoulli
equation.
compound channel with three regions of flow
∫ dA
V13 A1 + V23 A2 + V33 A3 ∑ Vi ∆Ai
3 3
u
α= 3 = = 3
V A V ( A1 + A2 + A3 )
3
V ∑ ∆Ai
Q V1 A1 + V2 A2 + V3 A3
V = = =
∑V ∆A
i i
A A1 + A2 + A3 ∑ ∆A i
∫ dA
V12 A1 + V22 A2 + V32 A3 ∑ Vi ∆Ai
2 2
u
β= 2 = = 2
V A V ( A1 + A2 + A3 )
2
V ∑ ∆Ai
Example 1
Determine the average cross – sectional velocity

(v), the discharge (Q), the correction coefficients :
Alpha (α) and Beta (β) for the compound channel
V
shown in figure below.

Example 2
The velocity distribution in a rectangular

channel of width, B and depth of flow yo was
approximated as v = K1√y in which K1 is a
constant. Calculate the average velocity for the
cross-section and correction coefficient α and
β.
1.6 Fundamental equations
 Fluid flow: derived from three fundamental laws

of physics
1. Conservation of matter (or mass)
2. Conservation of energy
3. Conservation of momentum
1. The continuity equations(Conservation
of mass)
• Volumetric rate of inflow and outflow are equal
Q =A1V1=A2V2=constant
2. Conservation of energy
• The total energy remain the same
Energy1 = Energy2 + loss
2
P1 v1 P2 v2 2
+ z1 + = + z2 + + hL
g 2g g 2g
3. Conservation of momentum
the sum of the forces acting on the volume of fluid equals the time
rate of change of momentum

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Chapter 1

Open Channel Flow

 In practice this pressure is the atmospheric pressure, and

 Thus open channel flow may occur regardless of the

 In practice flow in sewers, canals, streams and gutters is

 It also necessitates the introduction of an extra

 In consequence, problems in open channel flow are

 Steady uniform flow, in which the depth is

 the gravity forces are in equilibrium with the resistance

 The flow may be either

 Type (a) requires the joint application of energy

 Unsteady non-uniform flow, in which the depth

 This is the most complex flow type, requiring the

 Artificial channels comprise all man-made channels,

 They are normally of regular cross-sectional shape

 Chute: is a channel of steep slopes. If the change in elevation in the

 Culvert: is a relatively short and usually buried conduit that is commonly

 The surface roughness of natural channels changes with

 Therefore, it is more difficult to apply hydraulic theory to natural

 Many applications involve man-made alterations to

 Such applications require an understanding not only of

 Neither is this velocity distribution usually axis

 The maximum velocity is usually found just below

 In irregular channels where the flow may be

Determine the average cross – sectional velocity

shown in figure below.

The velocity distribution in a rectangular

 Fluid flow: derived from three fundamental laws

• Volumetric rate of inflow and outflow are equal

Energy1 = Energy2 + loss

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