Hydraulics II (Chaptr-1) Aksum Institute of Technology 2021

Chapter One

1.1 Introduction to open channel flow

When the flow takes place in a channel or pipe such that the water has a free surface exposed to
the atmosphere, we spoke of open channels, culverts, spillways, and similar human made
structures are designed & analyzed by the method of open channel hydraulics.

The primary differences b/n the confined flow in pipes & open channel flow is that the pipe flow
is closed channel, which is the top surface is covered by solid boundary, it is not exposed to
atmospheric pressure but open channel flow is exposed to atmospheric pressure. In open
channels the cross-sectional area of the flow is variable that depends on many parameters of the
flow. For this reason hydraulic computations related to open channel flow are more complicated.

The prime motivating force (the force causing motion) for open channel flow is gravity or the
slope provided at the bottom (bed).

Let’s compare the two flow types using figure.

EL Hf

Hf
Y1 HGL V 2
EL
2g
HGL
Y1
Y2
Y2
Z1
Z2 Z1
Z2

Fig 1(a) Pipe flow Fig. 1(b) Open channel flow

Where HGL - Hydraulic grade line (coincide with water surface)

EGL - Energy grade line

Hf - head loss due to friction

V2/2g - velocity head

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Despite the similarity between these two flows it is much more difficult and complex to solve
problems of the open channel case. This is due to the fact that the flow condition in open channel
flow varies as per time and place. When we say the flow condition it includes depth of flow,
cross-sectional area and slope of the channel. In turn the depth of flow, discharge and slope of
the channel and water surface are related to each other.

In addition the bed roughness varies greatly leading the selection of friction coefficient to
uncertainty. The cause of flow in open channel the gravitational forces and viscous shear forces
along the channel wetted perimeter resists flow.

Table 1. Comparison of open channel versus pipe flow.

Pipe flow Open Channel flow

Flow driven by Pressure work Gravity(potential energy)

Flow cross section Known(fixed) Unknown in advance because the flow depth is unknown

Characteristics Velocity deduced Flow depth deduced simultaneously from solving both
flow parameters from continuity continuity & momentum equations

Specific boundary Atmospheric pressure at the free surface

conditions

1.2 Types of flow in open channel

According to the characteristics of the flow with respect to time and place, different
categories can be set.
A. Steady flow: - Here the criterion is time. A flow can be said steady if the fluid
characteristics like velocity, pressure density, depth of flow doesn’t change or if it can be
assumed constant between the time of consideration.

V p y
0 ,  0 and 0
t t t
B. Unsteady flow: - Here the fluid characteristics vary with time such that

V p y
0 0 0
t , t and t

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C. Uniform flow: - A space as a criterion is used. Open channel flow is said to be uniform if
the depth of flow, velocity remains constant or the same at every section of the channel.
Uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes
with time.

V y
0 0
s , and s

D. Non uniform flow: - In case when the velocity, depth of flow in a channel changes with
space:

V y
0 0
s , and s

E. Steady uniform flow: - The depth of flow does not change during time interval and space
under consideration.

F. Steady non-uniform flow:- Depth varies with distance but not with time. This type of flow
may be either (a) gradually varied or (b) rapidly varied. Type (a) requires the application of the
energy and frictional resistance equations while type (b) requires the energy and momentum
equations.

G. Unsteady uniform flow: - This is a flow in which the depth is varying time but not with
space.

H. Unsteady non uniform flow: - Is the flow in which the depth is varying with space and time.

1.3 Properties of open channel flow

Types of channels

 Natural channels: These channels naturally exist without the influence of human beings.
E.g. Rivers, streams, tidal estuaries, aqueducts.
Aqueducts are underground conduits which carry water with free surface.

 Artificial channels: Such channels are formed by man’s activity for various purposes.
E.g. irrigation channel, navigation channel, sewerage channel, culverts, power canal……
etc.
The above two channels can have either of the following features:

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Prismatic channel: - channels with constant shape and slope.

Non-prismatic channels: - channels with varying shape and slope.

Generally the natural channels fall into the non-prismatic group. That is why intensive study of
the behavior of flow in natural channels requires other fields of studies like, sediment transport,
geomorphology, hydrology, river engineering.

Geometric properties necessary for analysis

For analysis various geometric properties of the channel cross-sections are required. For artificial
channels these can usually be defined using simple algebraic equations given y the depth of flow.

The commonly needed geometric properties are shown in the figure below and defined as:

Depth (y) – the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel section to the free surface.
Stage (z) – the vertical distance from the free surface to an arbitrary datum
Area (A) – the cross-sectional area of flow, normal to the direction of flow
Wetted perimeter (P) – the length of the wetted surface measured normal to the direction of
flow
Surface width (B) – width of the channel section at the free surface
Hydraulic radius (R) – the ratio of area to wetted perimeter (A/P)
Hydraulic mean depth (D) – the ratio of area to surface width (A/B)

Most Efficient Cross-Section

The uniform flow formulas given above show that for a given slope and roughness, the velocity
increases with the hydraulic radius. Therefore, for a given area of water cross-section, the rate of
discharge will be a maximum when R is a maximum, which is to say, when the wetted perimeter
and so the frictional resistance is a minimum. Such a section is called the most efficient cross-
section.

The velocity in an open channel is:

V = f(R, S)…………………………………….. (a)

Q = A*V = A*f(R, S)…………………………….. (b)

Equation (b) indicates that for the given area of cross section and slope the discharge Q will be
maximum when R is maximum.

Since, R = A/P, R will be maximum when P is minimum for a given area.

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We can conclude that for most efficient and economical channel section the wetted perimeter
should be minimum & also frictional resistance, o is minimum.

For example, a rectangular channel of depth y and width B

A = BY…………………………. (i)

P = B + 2Y………………………. (ii)

From eqn. (i), B = A/Y

Substituting in (ii) P = A/Y + 2Y…………. (iii)

For maximum Q, P- is minimum.

dp d
0 ( A / Y  2Y )  0
dY dY

A 20
Y

 A  2Y 2  B * Y

So, B = 2Y (or Y = B/2)

Thus, the rectangular channel is most efficient and economical when the depth of water is one-
half of the width of the channel and the discharge will be maximum.

Accordingly, the most efficient channel shape is the semi-circle. The usual shape for new
channel & canal is the rectangular or trapezoidal such that the inscribed semi-circle is tangential
to the bed & sides.

1.4 Fundamental Equations of Open channel flow

The equations which describe the flow of fluid are derived from three fundamental laws of
physics:
1. Conservation of matter (or mass)
2. Conservation of energy
3. Conservation of momentum

Although first developed for solid bodies they are equally applicable to fluids. A brief
description of the concepts are given below.
Conservation of matter

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This says that matter cannot be created nor destroyed, but it may be converted (e.g. by a
chemical process.) In fluid mechanics we do not consider chemical activity so the law reduces to
one of conservation of mass.

Conservation of energy
This says that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but may be converted form one type to
another (e.g. potential may be converted to kinetic energy). When engineers talk about energy
"losses" they are referring to energy converted from mechanical (potential or kinetic) to some
other form such as heat. A friction loss, for example, is a conversion of mechanical energy to
heat. The basic equations can be obtained from the First Law of Thermodynamics but a
simplified derivation will be given below.
Conservation of momentum
The law of conservation of momentum says that a moving body cannot gain or lose momentum
unless acted upon by an external force. This is a statement of Newton's Second Law of Motion:
Force = rate of change of momentum

In solid mechanics these laws may be applied to an object which is has a fixed shape and is
clearly defined. In fluid mechanics the object is not clearly defined and as it may change shape
constantly. To get over this we use the idea of control volumes. These are imaginary volumes of
fluid within the body of the fluid. To derive the basic equation the above conservation laws are
applied by considering the forces applied to the edges of a control volume within the fluid.
1.4.1 The Continuity Equation (conservation of mass)

For any control volume during the small time interval t the principle of conservation of mass
implies that the mass of flow entering the control volume minus the mass of flow leaving the
control volume equals the change of mass within the control volume.

If the flow is steady and the fluid incompressible the mass entering is equal to the mass leaving,
so there is no change of mass within the control volume.

So for the time interval t:

Mass flow entering = mass flow leaving

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Considering the control volume above which is a short length of open channel of arbitrary cross
section then, if  is the fluid density and Q is the volume flow rate then mass flow rate is
Q and the continuity equation for steady incompressible flow can be written
Q entering = Q leaving

As, Q, the volume flow rate is the product of the area and the mean velocity then at the upstream
face (face 1) where the mean velocity is u1 and the cross-sectional area is A
Q entering = A1U1

Similarly at the downstream face, face 2, where mean velocity is U2 and the cross-sectional area
is A2
Then: Q leaving = A2U2

Therefore the continuity equation can be written as

A1U1= A2U2-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Eqn. 1.1

1.4.2 The Energy equation (conservation of energy)

Consider the forms of energy available for the above control volume. If the fluid moves from the
upstream face 1, to the downstream face 2 in time t over the length L.
The work done in moving the fluid through face 1 during this time is
Work done = P1A1L

Where
p is pressure at face 1
The mass entering through face 1 is
Mass entering = 1A1L

Therefore the kinetic energy of the system is:

KE = 1/2mv2 = ½ 1A1L U12

If z1 is the height of the centroid of face 1, then the potential energy of the fluid entering the
control volume is:
PE = mgz1 = 1A1 Lg z1

The total energy entering the control volume is the sum of the work done, the potential and the
kinetic energy:

Total energy = P1A1L + ½ 1A1L U12 + 1A1Lg z1

We can write this in terms of energy per unit weight. As the weight of water entering the control
volume is 1 A1L g then just divide by this to get the total energy per unit weight:

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2
p1 u1
Total energy per unit weight =   Z1
g 2 g
At the exit to the control volume, face 2, similar considerations deduce
2
p u
Total energy per unit weight = 2  2  Z 2
g 2 g
If no energy is supplied to the control volume from between the inlet and the outlet then energy
leaving = energy entering and if the fluid is incompressible
1 = 2 = 

2 2
p1 u1 p u
So   Z 1 = 2  2  Z 2 = H= constant---------------------------------eqn. 1.2
g 2 g g 2 g
This is the Bernoulli equation.

Note:
1. In the derivation of the Bernoulli equation it was assumed that no energy is lost in the control
volume - i.e. the fluid is frictionless. To apply to non frictionless situations some energy loss
term must be included

2. The dimensions of each term in equation 1.2 has the dimensions of length (units of meters).
For this reason each term is often regarded as a "head" and given the names

P1/g – pressure head Z- Potential head

U2/2g – velocity head

3. Although above we derived the Bernoulli equation between two sections it should strictly
speaking be applied along a stream line as the velocity will differ from the top to the bottom of
the section. However in engineering practice it is possible to apply the Bernoulli equation
without reference to the particular streamline

1.4.3 The momentum equation (momentum principle)

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Integration over a volume gives the total force in the x-direction as

Fx  Q(V2 x  V1x ) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------eqn. 1.3

Energy and Momentum coefficients

In deriving the above momentum and energy (Bernoulli) equations it was noted that the velocity
must be constant (equal to V) over the whole cross-section or constant along a stream-line.
Clearly this will not occur in practice. Fortunately both these equation may still be used even for
situations of quite non-uniform velocity distribution over a section. This is possible by the
introduction of coefficients of energy and momentum,  and β respectively.

The values of  and β must be derived from the velocity distributions across a cross-section.
They will always be greater than 1, but only by a small amount consequently they can often be
confidently omitted – but not always and their existence should always be remembered. For
turbulent flow in regular channel  does not usually go above 1.15 and  will normally be below
1.05. We will see an example below where their inclusion is necessary to obtain accurate results.

Determination of energy and momentum coefficients

To determine the values of  and  the velocity distribution must have been measured (or be
known in some way). In irregular channels where the flow may be divided into distinct regions 
may exceed 2 and should be included in the Bernoulli equation.

The figure below is a typical example of this situation. The channel may be of this shape when a
river is in flood – this is known as a compound channel.

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1.5. Uniform flow and the Development of Friction formula

When uniform flow occurs gravitational forces exactly balance the frictional resistance forces
which apply as a shear force along the boundary (channel bed and walls).

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Uniform flow is the result of exact balance between the gravity and friction force

gALsin =  o .PL, but  = g

Where - unit weight of the water

A L sin =  o .P.L

But sin  = hf/L = S, bed slope

Solving for  o ,

A
 o = .S  R.S ………………………………… eqn. 1.4
P

1.5.1. The Chezy equation

The shear stress is assumed proportional to the square of the mean velocity,

Or o= kV2

Therefore, kv2 = RS

 
V2 = RS , Let  C 2 -constant (b/c &k- are constant)
k k

V  C RS . ……………………………………………….... eqn. 1.5

This is the Chezy –formula

C = Chezy coefficient (Chezy’s resistance factor)

V = Average velocity of flow

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1.5.2 The Manning equation

A very many studies have been made of the evaluation of C for different natural and manmade
channels. These have resulted in today most practicing engineers use some form of this
relationship to give C:
1

R6
C
n
This is known as Manning’s formula, and the n as Manning’s n.

Substituting equation 1.5 in to the above equation gives velocity of uniform flow:

1 2 1
V= R 3 S0 2 ……………………………………………… eqn. 1.6
n

Since Q = VA, then

1 2 1
Q= AR 3 S 0 2
n

1.5.3 Conveyance
Channel conveyance, K, is a measure of the carrying capacity of a channel. The K is really an
agglomeration of several terms in the Chezy or Manning's equation:
So,

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Use of conveyance may be made when calculating discharge and stage in compound channels
and also calculating the energy and momentum coefficients in this situation.

1.6. Application of Energy and Momentum principles in open channel flow

1.6.1. Specific energy and specific energy curve

Specific Energy

It is total available energy in a given open channel flow, taking the bed of the flow channel as
datum line.

For any cross section, shape, the specific energy (E) at a particular section is defined as the
energy head to the channel bed as datum. Thus,

V2
E  Y  …………………………………………….. (1)
2g

(- is kinetic energy correction factor 1)

For a rectangular channel, the value of flow per unit width is Q/B = q, and average velocity

qB q
V Q  
A BY Y

Therefore, eqn. (1) becomes:

2
q y 

E  y  y q
2
…………………………………… (2)
2g 2 gy 2

q2
( E  y)Y 
2
(For the case of constant q)………………………… (3)
2g

A plot of E vs y is a hyperbola like with asymptotes (E-y) = 0 i.e. E = y and y = 0. Such a curve
is known as specific energy diagram.

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Fig. Specific energy curve

For a particular q, we see there are two possible values of y for a given value of E. These are
known as Alternative depths (for e.g. y1 & y2 on fig. above)

The two alternative depths represent two totally different flow regimes slow & deep on the upper
limp of the curve (sub critical flow) & fast and shallow on the lower limb of the curve.(super
critical flow)
Flow over a raised hump -Application of the Specific energy equation.
The specific energy equation may be used to solve the raised hump problem. The figure below
shows the hump and stage drawn alongside a graph of Specific energy E against y.

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Apply the Bernoulli equation between sections 1 and 2. (Assume a horizontal rectangular
channel

This equation may be written in terms of specify energy:

These points are marked on the figure. Point A on the curve corresponds to the specific energy at
Point 1 in the channel, but Point B or Point B' on the graph may correspond to the specific
energy at point 2 in the channel.
All point in the channel between point 1 and 2 must lie on the specific energy curve between
Point A and B or B'. To reach point B' then this implies that Es1 –Es2 >Z which is not physically
possible. So point B on the curve corresponds to the specific energy and the flow depth at section
2.

1.6.2. Critical flow, sub – critical and super critical flow

The specific energy change with depth was plotted above for a constant discharge Q, it is also
possible to plot a graph with the specific energy fixed and see how Q changes with depth. These
two forms are plotted side by side below.

From these graphs we can identify several important features of rapidly varied flow.

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For a rectangular channel Q = qb, B = b and A = by

For non-rectangular cross-section the specific energy equation,

Q2
E  y ………………………………………….. (1) [V=Q/A]
2gA2

To find the critical depth,

dE Q 2 dA
 1 3 ……………………………………….. (2)
dy gA dy

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From fig of specific energy curve dA = dy*T (at Yc, T = Tc)

Therefore, the above equation becomes:

2
Qmax Tc
3
 1 …………………………………………….. (3)
gAc

The critical depth must satisfy this equation

3
gAc
From eqn. (3) Q 2  and substitute in eqn. (11) then
Tc

Ac
Ec  y c  ………………………………………….. (4)
2Tc

Q 2T
eqn. (3) can be solved by trial & error for irregular section by plotting f ( y )  and critical
gA3
depth occurs for the value of y which makes f(y) =1

The Froude number

The Froude number is defined for channels as:

Its physical significance is the ratio of inertial forces to gravitational forces squared

It can also be interpreted as the ratio of water velocity to wave velocity

This is an extremely useful non-dimensional number in open-channel hydraulics.

Its value determines the regime of flow – sub, super or critical, and the direction in which
disturbances travel

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1.7. Open Channel transitions

A transition in general form may have a change of channel shape, provision of a hump or a
depression, contraction or expansion of channel width, or any combination.

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• It’s possible to have open channel transitions in two general way:

 Change on the bed (e.g. hump raise)

 Change on the width (e.g. width narrowing ,width widening )

The concepts of specific energy and critical energy are useful in the analysis of open channel
transition problems.

Common types of open channel transitions are:-

Bed raising===hump

Width narrowing===constriction

Width widening===expansion

Any of the above combinations

Fig. Bed raising==hump

b/ Bed raising

E1=E2+DZ, DZ=hump rise

Energy loss is assumed to be negligible

The maximum DZ is when the flow @2 is critical

i.e. E2=minimum

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 What happens when DZ>DZmax?

 No flow with Y1 or will have choking conditions!

c/ Width narrowing

The specific energy @1 is equal to the specific energy @2, since no loss in energy.

What is the minimum value of B2 ?

 when the flow @2 is critical (qmax)

What happen if B2<Bmini?

 Choking===Y1 rises above the previous value

Choking condition:-

 DZ<=DZmax B2<=Bmini
 The upstream water surface elevation is not affected by the conditions at
section 2 till a critical stage is first achieved.
 DZ>DZmax B2>Bmini
 the upstream water depth is different from Y1 and this condition is called
choking

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Fig. Width narrowing

Fig. Width widening

Function of Channel Transitions

 Channel transitions occur at locations of cross-sectional change, usually over a short distance
 Transitions are also used at entrances and exits of pipes such as culverts and inverted siphons
 Below are some of the principal reasons for using transitions:

1. Provide a smooth change in channel cross section

2. Provide a smooth (possibly linear) change in water surface elevation
3. Gradually accelerate flow at pipe inlets, and gradually decelerate flow at pipe outlets
4. Avoid unnecessary head loss through the change in cross section
5. Prevent occurrence of cross-waves, standing waves, and surface turbulence in general
6. Protect the upstream and downstream channels by reducing soil erosion
7. To cause head loss for erosion protection downstream; in this case, it is an energy
dissipation & transition structure
1.8. Application of the Momentum equation for Rapidly Varied Flow

The concept of this principle is applied when it’s not possible to apply the energy principle. One of
the major situations where momentum principle is applied is during analysis of rapidly varied flow
(RVF). In rapidly varied flow there is an excess amount of energy loss. Therefore, it is not possible
to analyze such type of flow using energy equation. Good example for RVF is Hydraulic Jump.

Hydraulic Jump
By far the most important of the local non-uniform flow phenomena is that which occurs when
supercritical flow has its velocity reduced to sub critical. There is sudden rise in water level at
the point where hydraulic jump occurs (Rapidly varied flow). This is an excellent example of the
jump serving a useful purpose, for it dissipates much of the destructive energy of the high –
velocity water, thereby reducing downstream erosion. The turbulence with in hydraulic jumps
has also been found to be very useful & effective for mixing fluids, & jumps have been used for
this purpose in water treatment plant & sewage treatment plants.

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Y2
V2
V1
Y1

Lj

Fig 1.6 hydraulic jump on horizontal bed following over a spillway

 Purposes of hydraulic jump:-

i) To increase the water level on the d/s of the hydraulic structures
ii) To reduce the net up lift force by increasing the downward force due to the increased
depth of water,
iii) To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing the effective head causing
flow,
iv) For aeration of drinking water
v) For removing air pockets in a pipe line
 Analysis of hydraulic jump
Assumptions
1) The length of the hydraulic jump is small, consequently, the loss of head due to friction is
negligible,
2) The channel is horizontal as it has a very small longitudinal slope. The weight
component in the direction of flow is negligible.
3) The portion of channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs is taken as a control volume &
it is assumed the just before & after the control volume, the flow is uniform & pressure
distribution is hydrostatic.
Let us consider a small reach of a channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs.

The momentum of water passing through section (1) per unit time is given as:

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p1 rQV1
  QV1 ………………………………………. (i)
t g

Momentum at section (2) per unit time is:

p2 rQV2
  QV2 …………………………………………. (ii)
t g

Rate of change of momentum b/n section 1 & 2

P
 Q (V2  V1 ) ………………………………………. (iii)
t

The net force in the direction of flow = F1-F2 ……………….. (iv)

F1  A1Y1 , F2 A2 Y2

 Y 1 & Y 2 are the center of pressure at section (1) & (2)

Therefore F1-F2 =M =Q (V2-V1)

Q
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2  (V2  V1 ) …………………………………… (v)
g

From continuity eqn. Q= A*V, V= Q/A, so

 
Q  Q Q
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2    
g  A2 A1 
 
2
Q  1 
A1Y 1  A2 Y2   A  1 A .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( iv)
g  2 1

Rearranging this eqn.

 Q2   Q2 
  A1Y 1     A2 Y 2  = Constant. …………… (vii)
 gA1   gA2 
M1 M2

M1and M2 are the specific forces at section (1) & (2) indicates that these forces are equal
before & after the jump.

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Y1= initial depth

Y2 = sequent depth

Hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel

A1=By1 the section has uniform width (B)

A2= By2

Y1 Y
Y 1 ,Y 2  2
2 2

Now from eqn. (Vii) above:

Q2 y 
 By2 *  2 
Q y
 By1  1  
gBy1  
2 gBy2  2
Q2 By 2 Q2 By 2
 1   2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(viii)
gBy1 2 Bgy2 2

Flow per unit width of q= Q/B Q=qB, then eqn. (viii) becomes

q 2 B 2 By12 q 2 B 2 By22
  
Bgy1 2 Bgy2 2

q2 1 1  y22  y12
   ………………………………… (.ix)
g  1
y y 2 2

2q 2
 y1 y2
y  y12
2
2 
g  y2  y1 

2q 2
 y1 y2 ( y1  y2 )......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( x)
g
2q 2
y2 y12  y1 y22   0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( xi)
g

This is quadratic eqn. & the solution is given as

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Hydraulics II (Chaptr-1) Aksum Institute of Technology 2021

 y2
2
 y  2q
2
y1    2  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .( xii)(a )
2  2 gy2
 y1 
2
y1  2q
2
y2      .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( b)
2  2 gy2

y2 8q 2
y1  (1  1  )......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( c)
2 gy23

y1 8q 2
y2  (1  1  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( xii)(d )
2 gy13

The ratio of conjugate depths;

2
y1 8q
 1 (1  1  3 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( xii)(e)
y2 2 gy 2

2
y2 8q
 1 (1  1  3 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ( f )
y1 2 gy 1

q
V1 V2 y2 q
F1  , F2  
gy1 gy2 gy2 gy23

y1 1
Therefore  (1  1  8F22 )......... .......... .....( g )
y2 2
y2 1
 (1  1  8F12 .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( h)
y1 2

 Energy dissipation in a Hydraulic Jump

The head loss hl.f caused by the jump is the drop in energy from section (1) to (2) or:
hlf= E = E1 - E2
 V2   V2 
  y1  1    y2  2 .......... .......... .......... .........(1)a
 2g   2g 

 q2   q2 
  y1     y  .......... .......... .......... ......( b)
2 gy12   2 gy22 
2


q 2  y22  y12 
    ( y2  y1 )......... .......... ....( c)
2 g  y12 y22 

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Hydraulics II (Chaptr-1) Aksum Institute of Technology 2021

2q 2
From eqn. (x) substituting:  y1 y2 ( y1  y2 ) in to this eqn. & by rearranging:
g

hlf  E 
 y2  y1 3 .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( 2)
4 y1 y2
Therefore power lost =  Q hlf (kw)………………… (3)
 Types of Hydraulic jump
Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the upstream Froude number and depth ratio

F1 Y2/y1 Classification

<1 1 Jump impossible

1-1.7 1-2 Undular jump (standing wave)

1.7-2.5 2-3.1 Weak jump

2.5-4.5 3.1-5.9 Oscillating jump

4.5-9.0 5.9-12 Steady jump (45-70% energy loss)

>9.0 >12 Strong or chopping jump (=85% energy

loss)

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