OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Open Channel – is a conduit in which a liquid flows with a free surface.

Types of Flow:
1. Open Channel Flow – flow having a free surface and subjected to atmospheric
pressure
2. Pipe Flow – flow confined in a closed conduit, has no free surface and exerts no
direct pressure but hydraulic pressure only

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

• Flow condition in open channel is complicated by the fact that the portion of the
free surface is likely to change with respect to time and space and by the fact that
the depth of flow, the discharge, and the slopes of the channel bottom and of the
free surface are interdependent.
• Physical condition in open channel varies much more widely than that of pipes.
• Cross section in open channel may take any shape, from rectangular, square,
triangular, circular, and to the irregular forms of natural streams.
• In open channel, roughness varies with the position of the free surface, therefore,
the selection of friction coefficient is attended by greater efficiency.
• The treatment of open channel is somewhat more empirical than that of pipe flow.
• Open channel flow depend on energy gradient.

PIPE FLOW
• In pipes, the cross section of flow is fixed, since it is completely defined by the
geometry of the conduit.
• The cross-section of a pipe is generally round.
• Pipe flow depends on hydraulic gradient.

Where: EGL – Energy Grade Line

HGL – Hydraulic Grade Line
Energy Gradient – slope of EGL
Hydraulic Gradient – slope of HGL

If EGL, HGL, and channel bed are parallel, the flow is uniform and the Continuity
Equation applies,
Q = V1A1 = V2A2

Types of Open Channel Flow:

A. Time as criterion
1. Steady Flow – if the depth of flow does not change or if it can be assumed to be
constant during the time interval under consideration.
* For Steady Flow, the discharge is constant throughout the reach of the channel
under consideration, thus, the flow is continuous, therefore, Q = V1A1 = V2A2
2. Unsteady flow – if the depth changes with time
* The term Unsteady Flow is used to describe Unsteady Varied Flow.

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B. Space as criterion
1. Uniform Flow – if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the channel
- refers to Steady Uniform Flow
* Steady Uniform Flow – is the fundamental type of flow in open channel
hydraulics
2. Varied/Non-uniform Flow – if the depth of flow changes along the length of the
channel
Also known as Spatially Varied or Discontinuous Flow – where water runs in
or out along the course of flow
Example: roadside gutters, side-channel spillways, washwater trough in
filters, effluent channels around sewage-treatment tanks, main
drainage channels, feeding channels in irrigation systems.

Factors that Affect Open-Channel Flow:

1. Viscosity – together with gravity, they are the factor that basically affect open-
channel flow
Types of flow in terms of the effect of viscosity relative to inertia:
a. Laminar – water particles appear to move in definite smooth paths or
streamlines; and infinitesimally thin layers of fluid slide over
adjacent layers.
b. Turbulent – viscuous forces are weak relative to inertial forces
- water particles move in irregular paths which are neither
smooth nor fixed
c. Transitional

The effect of viscosity relative to inertia can be represented by the Reynold’s

Number;
VL
R= where: V = velocity (ft/s)

L = characteristics length (ft)
υ = kinematic viscosity (ft2/s)
= absolute viscosity (μ)/ density (ρ)
If the depth of flow is taken as the characteristic length,
For Laminar Flow, R < 500
For Turbulent Flow, R > 2,000
For Transitional Flow, 500 < R > 2000

2. Gravity – its effect upon the state of flow is represented by a ratio of inertial forces
to gravity forces, given by the Froude Number.
V
F= where: V = mean velocity
gL
g = acceleration due to gravity
L = characteristic length
* In open-channel flow, the characteristic length is equal to the hydraulic radius D,
A
D= where: A = cross-sectional area & b = width of the free surface
b

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 If F = 1, flow is critical
F > 1, flow is supercritical (inertial force is dominant; the flow is rapid, has
high velocity, and has torrential shooting)
F < 1, flow is subcritical (gravity force is more pronounced; the flow is
tranquil, has low velocity, and is streamlined)

Kinds of Open Channel

According to Origin or Nature
A. Natural – include all watercourses that exist naturally on the earth
Examples: rivulets, brooks, stream, small/large rivers, tidal estuaries,
underground streams

B. Artificial – those constructed or developed by human

Examples: navigation canals, power canals, irrigation canals, flumes, drainage
ditches, spillways, floodways, chutes, roadside gutters

Canal – usually a long and mild-sloped channel built in the ground which maybe
lined or unlined
- lining of canals maybe stone masonry, concrete, or wood
Flume – is a channel made of wood, metal, or concrete supported above the
surface of the ground to carry water across a depression
Chute – channel having a steep slope
Drop – similar to chute, but the change in elevation is effected in a short distance
Culvert – a covered channel of comparatively short length installed to drain water
through a highway and railroad embankments.
Open-Channel Tunnel – comparatively long covered channel used to carry water
through a hill or any obstruction on the ground.

Artificial channels are built for various purposes:

a. Irrigation. Water is brought from streams or reservoirs to storage ponds or
tanks or directly to the irrigated land.
b. Drainage. Low-lying, swampy, or waterlogged lands are made productive by
draining them through open ditches or by laying and covering pipe
which may or may not flow full.
c. Flood control. Protection of residential areas and valuable lands from floods
often requires improving a natural channel by straightening,
cleaning, or paving to increase its capacity, or by building
additional flood channels.
d. Domestic water supply. Water is brought from stream or storage reservoirs to
ponds supplying domestic water.
e. Waterpower development. Water is brought is brought from streams or
reservoir to headworks above power plants.
f. Sewerage. Sewers, although usually are covered conduits or pipes, are
designed as open channels since they are not supposed to flow full but
to have a free surface under atmospheric pressure.

According to Channel Geometry

A. Prismatic Channel – a channel built with uniform cross-section and constant
bottom slope
B. Non-Prismatic Channel

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Geometric Elements of Channel Section (Refer to Table 1)
a. Depth of Flow (y) – is the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel section
from the free surface
b. Stage – is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum
* If the datum is the lowest point of the channel section, the stage is equal to the
depth of flow)
c. Top Width (T)– is the width of channel section at the free surface
d. Water Area (A) – is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of
flow
e. Wetted Perimeter (P) – the length of the line of intersection of the channel wetted
surface with a cross-sectional plane normal to the direction of flow.
A
f. Hydraulic Radius (R) – ratio of water area to its wetted perimeter, R =
P
A
g. Hydraulic Depth (D) – ratio of the water area to the top width, D =
T
A
h. Section factor for critical flow computation, Z = A D = A
T
2/3
i. Section factor for uniform flow computation, Z = AR

THE CRITICAL FLOW

Characteristics of Critical Flow:
1. The specific energy is minimum for a given discharge.
2. The discharge is maximum for a given specific energy.
3. The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge
4. The velocity head is equal to half of the hydraulic depth in a channel of small
slope. V = gL
5. The Froude Number is equal to unity.
6. The velocity of flow in a channel, , of small slope with uniform velocity
distribution is equal to the celerity of small gravity waves in shallow water caused
by disturbances or obstacles in the channel that cause a displacement of water
above and below the mean surface level and thus create waves that exert a weight
or gravity force.

The flow is a critical flow when the critical state of flow exists throughout the
entire length of the channel or over the reach of the channel; and the slope of the channel
that sustains a given discharge at a uniform and critical depth is called the critical slope.
The critical depth is the depth, at which, for a given total head, the discharge is a
maximum or, conversely, the depth at which a given flow occurs with a minimum content
of energy.

Regimes of Flow:
1. Subcritical-laminar
2. Supercritical-laminar
3. Subcritical-turbulent
4. Supercritical-turbulent

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THE UNIFORM FLOW

Characteristics of a Uniform Flow:

1. The depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the channel reach
are constant
2. The energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel, that is, there
slope are equal.

Uniform flow is considered to be steady, since unsteady uniform flow is practically

non-existent. Even in natural streams where steady flow is rare and it scarcely experience
a uniform flow condition, it is assumed to be a uniform flow to offer a relatively simple
and satisfactory solution to many practical problems.
Uniform flow cannot occur at very high velocities or rapid flow. This is because, when
uniform flow reaches a certain high velocity, it becomes very unstable. At higher
velocities, the flow will eventually entrain air and become unsteady.
The depth and slope corresponding to a uniform flow discharge in any channel is
called normal depth and normal slope.

The first uniform flow formula was developed by French engineer Antoine Chezy,
known as the Chezy Formula,

V = C RS where: V – mean velocity (ft/s)

R – hydraulic radius (ft)
S – slope of the energy line
C – flow resistance factor (Chezy’s Constant)

Determination of Chezy’s Resistance Factor:

A. G.K.Formula - developed in 1869 by Swiss engineers Ganguillet and Kutter.
0.00281 1.811
41.65 + +
C= S n
 0.00281  n
1 +  41.65 + 
 S  R
Where: S - slope
R – hydraulic radius
n – coefficient of roughness (Kutter’s n)

B. Bazin’s Formula - proposed in 1897 by French hydraulician H. Bazin

157.6
C= where: m – coefficient of roughness (Refer to Table 3)
1+ m/ R

C. Powell Formula - a logarithmic formula for the roughness of artificial channels

developed by Powell in 1950
 C 
C = −42 log + 
 4R R 
Where: R – hydraulic radius
R – Reynold’s Number
ε – a measure of channel roughness

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Manning’s Formula. Presented in 1889 by Irish engineer Robert Manning. It is
the formula generally used in open channel conditions.
C m 23 12
V = R S where: Cm = 1.49 (English units)
n
Cm = 1.0 (Metric units)
R = A/P (hydraulic radius)
S – slope
Computing for the discharge,
Q = AV
 1.49 23 12   1 23 12 
Q = A R s  or Q = A R s 
 n  n 
Where: Q – channel discharge or flow rate
A – cross-sectional area of the channel
n – Manning’s roughness coefficient (Refer to Table 2)
* The value n is highly variable and depends or affected by several factors. A
channel, particularly natural channels, don’t have a single value of n for all
occasions.

Factors affecting Manning’s Roughness Coefficient:

A. Surface Roughness
It is represented by the size and shape of the grains of the material forming the
wetted perimeter and producing a retarding effect on the flow.
Generally, fine grains result in a relatively low value of n and coarse grains, in a
high n value.

B. Vegetation
It is, in itself, a kind of surface roughness but also markedly reduces the capacity
of the channel and retards the flow. This effect depends mainly on height, density,
distribution, and type of vegetation.
It is very important in designing small drainage channels.

C. Channel Irregularity
Channel irregularity comprises irregularities in wetted perimeter and variations in
cross section, size, and shape along the channel length. Such irregularities are usually
introduced by the presence of sand bars, sand waves, ridges and depressions, and holes
and humps on the channel bed. These irregularities definitely introduce roughness in
addition to that caused by surface roughness and other factors.
Generally, a gradual and uniform change in cross section, size, and shape will not
appreciably affect the value of n, but abrupt changes or alternation of a small and large
sections necessitates the use of a large value n.

D. Channel Alignment
Smooth curvature with large radius will give a relatively low value of n, whereas
sharp curvature with severe meandering will increase n.
It is suggested that the value of n be increased 0.001 for each 20 degrees of
curvature in 100 ft. of channel. Curvature may induce the accumulation of drift and
thus indirectly increase the value of n.
Generally, the increase of roughness in unlined channels carrying water at low
velocities is negligible. An increase of 0.002 in n value would constitute an adequate
allowance for curve losses in most channels containing pronounced curvatures,

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whether built or concrete or other materials. The meandering of natural streams,
however, may increase the n value as high as 30%.

E. Silting and Scouring

Silting may change a very irregular channel into a comparatively uniform one and
decrease n, whereas scouring may do the reverse and increase n. However, dominant
effect of silting will depend on the nature of the material deposited. Uneven deposits
such as sand bars and sand waves are channel irregularities and will increase the
roughness.
The amount and uniformity of scouring will depend on the material forming the
wetted perimeter. Thus, a sandy or gravelly bed will be eroded more uniformly than a
clay bed. The effect of scouring is not significant as long as the erosion on channel bed
caused by high velocities in progressing evenly and uniformly.

F. Obstruction
The presence of log jams, bridge piers, and the like tends to increase n. The
amount of increase depends on the nature of the obstructions, their size, shape,
number, and distribution.

G. Size and Shape of Channel

There is no definite evidence about the size and shape of a channel as an important
factor affecting the value of n. An increase in hydraulic radius may either increase or
decrease n, depending on the condition of the channel.

H. Stage and Discharge

The n value in most streams decreases with increase in stage and in discharge.
When the water is shallow, the irregularities of the channel bottom are exposed and
their effects become pronounced. However, the n value may be large at high stages if
the banks are rough and grassy.

I. Seasonal Change
The value n increases during the seasonal growth of grass, weeds, and other plants
in the channel or on the banks.

J. Suspended Material and Bed Load

The suspended material and the bed load, whether moving or not, would consume
energy and cause head loss or increase the apparent channel roughness.

With the effect of the foregoing factors, the final value of n may be computed by;

n = (no + n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 )m5
Where: no – the basic n value for a straight, uniform, smooth channel in the
natural materials involved
n1 – value to correct of the effect of surface irregularity
n2 – value for the variations in shape and size of the channel cross section
n3 – value for obstruction
n4 – value for vegetation and flow conditions
m5 – correction factor for meandering of channel
(Refer to Table 4)

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DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW

A. Non-Erodible Channel
These are lined and built-up channels which can withstand erosion satisfactorily.
Lining material maybe stone masonry, steel, cast iron, timber, glass, and plastic. The
selection of the material depends mainly on the availability and cost of the material, the
method of construction, and the purpose for which the channel is to be used.

Purpose of lining the channel:

a. To prevent erosion
b. To check seepage losses

Design Factors for Non-Erodible Channels:

1. Minimum Permissible Velocity or the Non-Silting Velocity
It is the velocity that will not start sedimentation and will not induce the growth of
aquatic plants and moss.
Generally, a mean velocity of 2 to 3 fps may be used safely when the percentage of
silt present in the channel is small, and a mean velocity of not less than 2.5 fps will
prevent a growth of vegetation that would seriously decrease the carrying capacity of
the channel.

2. Channel Slope and Side Slope (Refer to Table 5)

The channel (bottom) slope is governed by,
a. topography
b. the energy head required for the flow of water
c. purpose of the channel
(for water-distribution purposes such as for irrigation, domestic water
supply, and hydropower project, channels require a high level at the point
of delivery, thus, a small slope is desirable in order to keep the loss in
elevation to a minimum.)

The side slope of a channel depends mainly on the kind of material. Other factors
to be considered include,
a. method of construction
b. condition of seepage loss
c. climatic change
d. channel size
Generally, side slope should be made as steep as practicable and should be
designed for high hydraulic efficiency and stability.

3. Freeboard
It is the vertical distance from the top of the channel to the water surface at the
design condition. This is provided to prevent waves or fluctuations in water surface
from overflowing the sides. This factor becomes very important particularly in the
design of elevated flumes.
Freeboard used in the design vary from 5% to 30% of the depth of flow.
Freeboard in an unlined canal or lateral is normally governed by the following
considerations:
a. canal size and location
b. storm-water inflow
c. water table fluctuations caused by checks
d. wind action
e. soil characteristics
f. percolation gradients
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 g. operating road requirements
h. availability of excavated material

Freeboard may be computed using the formula,

F = Cy where: F – freeboard (ft)
y – water depth (ft)
C – coefficient
(1.5 for a canal capacity of 20 cfs and
2.5 for a canal capacity of 3,000 cfs)

The Best hydraulic Section (Refer to Table 6)

It is the channel section having the least wetted perimeter for a given area and
maximum conveyance.
The principle of the best hydraulic section applies only to the design of non-
erodible channels.

B. Erodible Channels (which scour but do not silt)

Design Methods for Erodible Channels:

1. Maximum Permissible Velocity Method (Refer to Table 7)
Maximum Permissible Velocity is the greatest mean velocity that will not cause
erosion of the channel body.

2. Tractive Force Method

Tractive Force is the pull of water on the wetted area.
In a uniform flow, the tractive force is apparently equal to the effective component
of the gravity force acting on the body of water, parallel to the channel bottom.

 = ALS where: τ – tractive force

ω – unit weight of water
A – wetted area
L – length of the channel reach
S – slope
The average tractive force per unit wetted area, or the so-called Unit Tractive
Force is,
ALS
0 = = RS where: τo – unit tractive force (Refer to Table 7)
PL
R – hydraulic radius

C. Grassed Channels (Refer to Tables 2 and 8)

The presence of grass or vegetation in channels will result in considerable

turbulence, which means loss of energy and retardance of flow.
For earth channels used for carrying water on farm lands, however, a lining of
grass is often found to be advantageous and desirable. The grass will stabilize the body
of the channel, consolidate the soil mass of the bed, and check the erosion on the
channel surface and the movement of soil particles along the channel bottom.
The Manning coefficient of roughness for grassed channels is specifically known
as Retardance Coefficient.