METHODS OF IRRIGATION WATER CONVEYANCE SYSTEM

Open Channel Flow

There are two kinds of flow: Open channel and pipe. These flows differ in many ways. The important
difference is that open channel flow has free water surface whereas pipe flow does not have free water
surface.
1 Open Channels
Irrigation water is conveyed in either open channel or closed conduits. Open channels receive
water from natural streams or underground water and convey water to the farm for irrigation. Open
channels have free surface. The free surface is subjected to atmospheric pressure. The basic equations
used for water flow in open channels are continuity equation, Bernoulli equation and Darcy Weisbach
equation.

Fig. 1. A trapezoidal shaped open channel.

Types of Open Channels
(a) Prismatic and Non-Prismatic Channels
A channel in which the cross sectional shape, size and the bottom slope are constant over long
stretches is termed as prismatic channel. Most of the man-made or artificial channels are prismatic
channels. The rectangular, trapezoidal (Fig. 2), triangular and half-circular are commonly used shapes
in manmade channels. All natural channels generally have varying cross section and consequently are
nonprismatic.

Fig. 2. Sketch of a prismatic channel.

(b) Rigid and Mobile Boundary Channels
Rigid channels are those in which the boundary or cross section is not deformable. The shape
and roughness magnitudes are not functions of flow parameters. The lined channels and non erodible
unlined channels are rigid channels. In rigid channels the flow velocity and shear stress distribution are
such that no major scouring, erosion or deposition takes place in the channel and the channel geometry
and roughness are essentially constant with respect to time.
Types of Open Channel Flow
Open channel flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways. The
following section describes classification based on variation of flow properties such as depth of flow,
velocity etc. with respect to time and space.

a) Steady and Unsteady Flows

 Flow is steady if the velocity and depth are constant with respect to time. If the depth velocity
or discharge changes with time, the flow is termed as unsteady. Flood flows in rivers and rapidly
varying surges in canals are examples of unsteady flow.
b) Uniform and Non-Uniform Flows
If the flow properties, say the depth of flow and discharge in an open channel remain constant
along the length of the channel, the flow is said to be uniform. A prismatic channel carrying a certain
discharge with a constant velocity is an example of uniform flow.

Fig. 3. Uniform flow in a prismatic channel.

If the flow properties such as depth and discharge vary with distance along the channel is
termed as non-uniform flow

Fig. .4. Uniform and non-uniform flows.

Fig. 4 shows a view of uniform and non uniform flow. In uniform flow, the gravity force on the
flowing water balances the frictional force between the flowing water and inside surface of the
channel, which is in contact with the water. In case of non-uniform flow, the friction and gravity forces
are not in balance. The flow in open channel can be steady or unsteady. It can be uniform or non -
uniform. A non-uniform flow is also termed as varied flow. Steady and unsteady flows can be uniform
or varied.
c) Gradually Varied and Rapidly Varied Flow
The non-uniform flow can be classified as gradually varied flow (GVF) and rapidly varied flow
(RVF). Varied flow assumes that no flow is externally added to or taken out of channel system and
hence the volume of water in a known time interval is conserved in the channel system and hence the
volume of water in a known time interval is conserved in the channel system. If the change of depth is
gradual so that the curvature of streamlines is not excessive, such a flow is said to be gradually varied
flow (GVF).
4 Sate of Flow
The state of flow in open channels is influenced by viscosity, gravity and inertial forces. The ratio of
inertial to viscous force is the Reynolds number.
4.1 Effect of Viscosity
In open channel flow may be laminar, transitional or turbulent depending on viscosity in relation to
inertial force. If viscous forces are strong in comparison to inertial force, the flow can be laminar
otherwise vice versa for turbulentant flow.
The characteristic length-scale for an open channel of width (b) and depth (y), the hydraulic radius (R)
= (by/b+2y). As a general rule, open channel flow in laminar, if Reynolds number defined by
 Re = is less than 500.
Where,
V = Flow Velocity
R = Hydraulic radius
v = Kinematic viscosity.
In open channels the transitional range of Re for practical purpose, is considered between 500 and
2000.The revalue exceeding 2000 is considered as turbulent flow.
In close conduits the flow is i) laminar for Re < 2000, ii) transitional 2000 < Re < 4000 and iii)
turbulent Re > 4000.
4.2 Effect of Gravity
The effect of gravity is represented by ratio of inertial forces to gravitational forces. This ratio is
known as Froude number (Fr), given by

Fr = (11.1)
V = mean flow velocity,
g = acceleration due to gravity
L = characteristic length (it can be hydraulic depth, y or hydraulic radius, R ).

For the flow to be critical (Fr = 1) i.e. (11.2)

For sub critical flow (Fr < 1) i.e. and

For super critical flow (Fr > 1) i.e.

5. Seepage in Canals and Field Channels
Seepage loss in unlined canals and farm ditches often range from one-fourth to one-third of the
total water diverted. In extremely sandy or gravelly ditches, half the water can be lost through seepage.
Reducing seepage by using improved conveyance facilities can increase water available for crop
needs, allowing irrigation of additional land, prevent water-logging, increase in channel capacity,
reduction in maintenance cost and more importantly enable to use available water sustainably.
Especially in the regions of water scarcity, minimising the seepage losses is important.
6 Measurement of Seepage in Canal
The most commonly used methods applied for measuring the quantity of water lost due to seepage in a
canal section are as follows:
1. Ponding method
2. Inflow-outflow method
3. Seepage meter method
6.1 Ponding Method: The ponding method is one of the simplest methods of determining seepage
from a canal section. Water is ponded in temporary water-tight dikes constructed in a straight length of
canal under investigation. The time rate of drop of the water in the canal level is measured. The
dimension of the ponded reach of the canal are measured the seepage computed as volume of water
lost from the canal per unit wetted area of canal per unit time and normally is expressed as m3/m2/day.
6.2. Inflow-Outflow Method: The inflow-outflow method is based on measuring the rates of water
flowing into and out of selected section of canal reach. It is based on water balance approach
considering the inflows outflows and losses into account. Canal sections with minimum number of
outlets and diversions and no appreciable inflow from higher lands are considered for seepage
measurement. Water stage recorders are also used to record the height of flow in the flume as a
function of the elapsed time. The seepage is computed as the difference in inflow and outflow per unit
wetted area of canal section under consideration.
6.3. Seepage Meter Method: The seepage meter is a device for directly measuring the flow between
ground water and surface water body such as lake or stream. The seepage meter is a modified form of
the constant head permeameter. It is mainly used to determine location of relatively high seepage
losses. Seepage meter can be constructed from inexpensive material such as galvanised iron sheet.
Seepage meters are suitable when many measurements are needed to characterize groundwater surface
water exchange in different sequent of water body.
7. Materials for Lining Canals and Field Channels
A large variety of lining materials for seepage loss control from canals and field channels is available
for use. Lining of canals or channels offers other advantage such as enhance stability, increasing life,
protection from flood in addition to seepage control. The various types of channel lining material
commonly used are as follows:
a) Hard surface linings
i) Cement concrete or pre cost concrete,
ii) Stone masonry,
iii) Brick tile or concrete tile
iv) Asphaltic concrete
b) Earth type lining
i) Compacted earth
ii) Soil cement
iii) Bentonite - clay soil mixture
c) Synthetic sheet/film
i) Rubber or synthetic materials
ii) Low density polyethylene sheet
❖ The following points are normally considered for selecting method of lining and materials.
a) Availability and cost of the material at the site or within reach.
b) Labour available for lining at a reasonable cost
c) Degree of water-tightness desired
d) Velocity of flow in the channel
e) Useful life of the lining material
f) Maintenance cost.
 Design of Open Channel
1 Introduction
Open Channel is a passage through which water flows and has upper surface exposed to
atmosphere. Open channel design involves determining cross-section dimensions of the channel for the
amount of water the channel must carry (i.e., capacity) at a given flow velocity, slope and, shape or
alternatively determining the discharge capacity for the given cross-section dimensions.
The terminologies used in the design of open channels of different geometry are given below:
i) Area of Cross Section (a): Area of cross section of for a rectangular cross section, of wetted section.
For a rectangular cross section, if b = width of channel and y = depth of water, the area of wetted
section of channel (a) = b.y.
ii) Wetted Perimeter (p): It is the sum of the lengths of that part of the channel sides and bottom
which are in contact with water. The wetted perimeter (p) = b+2y.
iii) Hydraulic Radius (R): It is the ration of area of wetted cross section to wetted perimeter. The
hydraulic radius

iv) Hydraulic Slope (S): It is the ratio of vertical drop in longitudinal channel section (h) to the
channel length (l). Hydraulic slope

v) Freeboard: It is the vertical distance between the highest water level anticipated in channel flow
and the top of the retaining banks. This is provided to prevent over topping of channel embankments or
damage due to trampling. This is provided between 15.25% of normal depth of flow.
2 Discharge Capacity of Channel
Channel capacity can be estimated by equation given as:

(12.1)
where,
Q = channel capacity (L/min)
DDIR = design daily irrigation requirement (mm/day)
A = irrigated area supplied by canal or ditch (ha)
HPD = hours per day that water is delivered
Ei = irrigation efficiency including conveyance efficiency of canal or ditch (percent).
The velocity of flow in a canal or ditch should be non erosive and non silting that prevent the
deposition of suspended substances. Normally flow velocity in excess of 0.6 m/s is non silting
(Schwab et al., 1993). The maximum velocity that does not cause excessive erosion depends on the
erodibility of the soil or lining material..
The discharge from a channel is given by

(12.2)
where Q = discharge (m3/s), A = area of cross section (m2), C = Chezys constant,
R= Hydraulic radius (m), P = wetted perimeter (m), = bed slope (fraction or m/m), K = constant for
given cross sectional area and bed slope and = A3/2 C So1/2
In equation (12.2) the discharge Q will be maximum when the wetted perimeter P is minimum.
(i) Channel Shape: Among the various shapes of open channel the semi-circle shape is the best
hydraulic efficient cross sectional shape. However the construction of semicircle cross section is
difficult for earthen unlined channel. Trapezoidal section is commonly used cross section.
(ii) Channel Dimensions: The channel dimensions can be obtained using uniform flow formula,
which is given by
Q =AV (12.3)
Where,
V = flow velocity (m/s)
A = cross-sectional area of canal perpendicular to flow (m2)
Q = capacity of the channel (m3/s)
Velocity is computed by Manning’s formula or Chezy formula.
Manning’s Equation is given by

(12.4)
Chezy’s equation is given by
V = C R1/2 S1/2 (12.5)

Where,
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
C = Chezy’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S = bed slope (m/m)
On Farm Structures for Water Conveyance
It is necessary that the flow of irrigation water in the water conveyance system is always under
control. Water control structures are therefore required for water conveyance system to control the
flow of water and dispose at safer velocity. The different types of flow control structures used to
regulate water flow are presented in this lesson
1 Drop Structures
Drop structure is used for conveying water in the channel from higher elevation to lower
elevation while controlling the energy and velocity of the water as it passes over. These structures are
needed in canals and ditches to convey water down steep slopes at non-erosive velocities. Drop
structure is constructed at end of each reach to lower water head abruptly in to the next reach by
subdividing the slope in to several reaches with relatively flat slopes. Water is conveyed down the
slope in the stepwise manner. The components of drop structure include an inlet section, a vertical or
inclined drop, a stilling pool or other means of dissipating energy, and an outlet section for discharging
water into the next reach. Kruse et al., (1980) recommend that drop heights in conveyance canals and
ditches be limited to maximum of 0.6 m to 1 m and that drop height in distribution laterals be less than
15 to 30 cm. Fig.1 shows series of drop structures on a steep sloping land.

Fig. 1. A view of Drop structures in a canal on steep sloping land.

2 Chute Spillways
These are used to convey water from steep slopes. Chutes are
lined, high-velocity open channels (Fig. 2 and 3). Chute
structures are constructed with concrete, bricks or cement. They
have an inlet, a steep-sloped section of lined canal where the
elevation change occurs, a stilling pool or other energy
dissipation device, and an outlet section. Chutes may be made to
control flow for elevation changes up to 6m. A straight apron is
used for small structure used in small irrigation channel.

Fig. 2. Chute spillway.

Fig. 3. Section of Chute spillway.

3 Pipe Drop Spillways
Pipe drop structure (Fig. 4) is used where a channel has to cross an embankment. In such cases water
can be safely discharged from a higher to a lower one by providing a pipe drop. This type of structure
allows the discharge of water through a pipeline, without disturbing the existing bunds or
embankment. The components of structures are gated pipe, stilling basin with end sill. Stilling basin is
provided for dissipation of energy of water flow. A stilling basin is made up of brick or stone masonry,
or concrete. A masonry or concrete apron is provided at the inlet end of the pipe to prevent seepage
around it. The discharge capacity of the pipe drop structure may be determined by the relationship
Q =AV
in which,
Q = discharge (m3s-1)
 A= area of cross-section of the pipe (m2)
V = velocity of flow (m/sec)
In designing the pipe size, head loss due to friction in the pipe line, entrance losses and loss at the
bends are considered.

Fig. 4. A drop-inlet pipe spillway with drain pipe.

Structures for Diversions and Channel Crossings

Water from the farm irrigation channel is diverted to branch channels or into field channels by
means of junction boxes, and gates and siphons. These structures are used as water diversions
structures or application structures for water application from irrigation channels of the fields. Brief
description of these structures is given in this lesson.
1 Check Gates
The check gate is a structure used to maintain or increase water level in an open channel.
Check is placed in an irrigation channel to form an adjustable dam to control or rise the elevation of
the water surface upstream by at least about 8 to 12 cm above ground surface so as to use siphon tubes
or turnouts for water diversion from channel to field efficiently. Fig. 1 shows the canal check gates.
When there is no flow past them, checks act as dam that confine water release in the area along the
canal or ditch being used for irrigation. Permanent check can be used in either lined or unlined
channels. A check structure consists of canvas, metal or masonry walls built across the channel and
provided with a suitable gate or outlet device.

2 Portable Check Dams

Portable checks can be removed when irrigation is complete and reset at another location along
the canal or open channel to irrigate another area. They are used when the water level in canals and
ditches must be raised above the normal depth of flow to provide head for operating outlets. Portable
check dams are made of sheet metal or plastic sheet or canvas. Canvas or plastic dams are supported
on a pipe or wooden cross-bar with suitable loops. A loop is usually provided at the bottom to anchor
the dam to a small post. A sleeve made near the bottom of a canvas dam allows any desired quantity of
water to pass downstream, while maintaining a constant level upstream. In very hard soil it may be
necessary to make grooves with the shovel to insert the edges. The canvas and plastic dams are
removed after irrigation, properly washed, dried and stored in order to protect them and make usable
for the next season. Metal sheet of about 18 gauge mild steel is cut to suit the channel cross section and
driven at about 10 cm deep. Metal sheet has greater durability than other materials. Metal dams are
always painted to prevent rusting (Michael, 2010).
3 Turnouts
Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal to divert part of the water from the canal and
ditches to basins, borders, and distribution laterals. Turnouts can be concrete structures or pipe
structures. A turnout may have a fixed opening in the side and equipped with the device to control the
area of opening. They usually have removable flashboards or a circular or rectangular slide gate to
regulate flow. Drop-open gates (similar to drop-open checks) are utilized in semiautomatic turnouts.
Turnout commonly used is a metal pipe with slide gate on the inlet. The orifice flow formula is
commonly used to determine the capacity of pipe turnout.
4 Siphon Tubes
Siphon tubes (Fig. 2) are curved plastic, rubber or aluminum pipes that are laid over the bank
of delivery channels to deliver water to borders and furrows. The siphon tubes are completely filled
and dipped in to water. Water flows into the tube, is pulled (siphoned) over the bank of the delivery
channel, and delivered into borders and furrows when there is sufficient operating head and the tube is
properly positioned and full of water (primed).For a free-flowing tube, the effective operational head is
difference in elevation between the water surface at the tubes entrance and the center of its outlet end.
The discharge from a siphon tubes depend on the diameters of the tube and the difference in elevation
between the water surface at the upstream and downstream ends of the tube. It may be estimated by the
following formula:

in which,
Q = discharge from siphon tube (L s-1)
a = internal area of cross-section of tube (cm2)
g = acceleration due to gravity (cm/sec2)
H = effective head causing flow (cm)
If the outlet is not submerged, the effective head is the vertical distance from the water level over the
inlet end to the center of the discharge end.

Fig.2. Siphon tubes.

5 Flumes
Flumes are constructed to carry irrigation water across streams, canals, gullies, ravines or other
natural depressions. They may be open channels or pipes which are often supported by pillars or may
be fixed to bridges. Open channels are made of concrete or wooden having rectangular or trapezoidal
shapes. Alternative steel, concrete or vitrified clay pipes could also be used.
6 Culverts
A culvert is a drain or pipe that allows water to flow under a road. Fig 3 Shows culvert pipes
below a road. Culverts are most suitable structures at the channel crossing when the road fill is
sufficiently high and the channel bed lies on the field surface on either side. About 45 cm soil cover is
desired above the culvert pipe (Michael, 2010). The pipe used as a culvert has the simple function of
providing passage for water underneath the path.

Fig. 3. Culverts.
7 Inverted Siphons
The inverted siphon (Fig. 4) is constructed when a channel has to cross a wide depression or
where the road surface lies close to the field surface. It has an inlet and an outlet tank connected
together at their bottom by a pipe. A check gate is used at the inlet end to control the water surface
level in the upstream channel. The tank of an inverted siphon also acts as stilling basin. The bottom of
the tanks is kept about 15-20 cm below the bottom of the pipe to collect the silt deposited due to slow
down velocity of silt carrying water from upstream erosion.

Fig. 4. Inverted siphons. (Source: Murty, 1985)

Design of Irrigation Canals Using Kennedy's Theory (Refer notes)
Kennedy's theory is used for designing irrigation canals carrying sediment-laden water. It
focuses on maintaining a velocity sufficient to keep the sediment in suspension without scouring the
canal bed excessively. This velocity is referred to as "critical velocity."
• Assumptions of Kennedy's Theory
1. Critical Velocity: The sediment transport is governed by the critical velocity, which depends
on the hydraulic mean depth.
2. Uniform Flow: The flow in the canal is steady and uniform.
3. Non-Erodible Bed: The canal bed is resistant to excessive erosion under critical velocity
conditions.
4. Silt in Suspension: The silt remains in suspension at the critical velocity, preventing silting.
5. Empirical Relationship: The relationship between velocity and hydraulic depth is empirical
and based on observations.
• Limitations of Kennedy's Theory
1. Empirical Nature: The theory is empirical, and its applicability is limited to the conditions for
which it was developed (Indian canals).
2. Neglect of Bed Slope: The effect of bed slope on canal stability is not explicitly considered.
 3. Limited to Alluvial Channels: The theory is primarily suited for alluvial canals and may not
work well for lined or rigid canals.
4. Sediment Characteristics Oversimplified: Sediment is assumed to be uniform, which is often
not true in real scenarios.
5. No Consideration for External Factors: Factors like wind, vegetation, and side inflows are
ignored.
6. Iterative Process: The design requires iterations, making it time-consuming and less precise
without computational tools.
Kennedy's theory provides a foundational approach for designing irrigation canals, emphasizing
critical velocity to balance sediment transport. However, its empirical nature and assumptions limit its
application in modern, diverse conditions. It is often supplemented with other methods or theories for
better accuracy.
Design of Irrigation Canals Using Lacey's Theory (Refer class notes)
Lacey's theory focuses on designing irrigation canals under *regime conditions*, where the canal is
stable and maintains an equilibrium between the sediment it carries and the hydraulic forces acting on
it. The design process involves determining the canal's dimensions (width, depth, slope) based on the
discharge and the sediment's silt factor.
• Assumptions of Lacey's Theory
1. True Regime Conditions: The canal is stable, without silting or scouring.
2. Uniform Sediment Transport: The sediment load is uniformly distributed, and its size is
consistent.
3. Uniform Flow: The flow in the canal is steady and uniform, without sudden changes in discharge.
4. Dependence on Discharge: The design depends primarily on discharge and silt factor, with other
factors being secondary.
5. Empirical Parameters: Parameters like silt factor are derived empirically, assuming typical
conditions of Indian rivers.
• Limitations of Lacey's Theory
1. Regional Applicability: Lacey's theory was developed for Indian conditions and may not work
well for regions with different soil and sediment properties.
2. Simplistic Assumptions: Assumes uniform flow and sediment, which are rarely found in real-world
canals.
3. Empirical Nature: The theory is empirical, lacking a strong theoretical foundation, which reduces
its applicability to diverse conditions.
4. Silt Factor Challenges: Determining the silt factor accurately can be difficult in practice, leading to
errors in design.
5. Limited to Unlined Canals: Lacey's theory is best suited for unlined canals, while many modern
canals are lined for improved efficiency and reduced sedimentation.
6. Complex Sediment Behaviour Ignored: Does not consider non-uniform sediment transport or
variations in sediment load due to external factors.
Lacey’s theory provides a practical framework for designing irrigation canals that are stable
under regime conditions. However, its empirical nature and assumptions limit its use in modern
irrigation systems with complex sediment and flow dynamics. Adjustments or alternative theories like
Kennedy’s or computer-based models are often used in contemporary designs.
 Underground Pipeline Systems
Water is conveyed from the water source to the cropped field using networks of open channels and or
pipe lines. Pipe lines have several advantages over open channels. A properly designed pipeline system
saves water, energy consumption and land used for field channels. Underground pipe line types and its
components are presented in this lesson.
1 Advantages of Underground Pipeline System
The water distribution system of deep wells tube, which are usually owned by the government or
cooperative or group farming societies, usually comprise of open channels or buried pipes
(underground pipe) with outlets at suitable points in the command area. Buried pipeline water
distribution systems, though comparatively more expensive, have major advantages over surface water
distribution systems comprising of network of field channels. The following are the major advantages:
1. The farmers get water at or near their fields.
2. Water conveyance losses through seepage, evaporation and breaches in the channels are
avoided.
3. The quantity of water delivered from each outlet remains the same, irrespective of the elevation
of the outlet.
4. The pipeline can be laid with complete freedom to best suit the requirements of water supply
and cost of pipelines, irrespective of the topographic features of the tube well command area.
5. Outlet valves can be provided wherever desired in the pipeline, as determined in the interest of
minimising the distance from the outlet to the field, the number of cultivators served by an
outlet and ensuring gravity flow from outlet to the fields.
6. Water is supplied to each field plot either directly or through a field channel of short length
originating from the outlet.
7. Maintenance cost of the water distribution system is very low.
8. There is full control of the water supply to the fields within a tube well command area.
Limitations
Underground pipe line irrigation system requires high initial investment as compared to open
channel systems. This also needs higher operating pressure and additional power to distributed water,
whereas in open channel system do not need. The canal carrying svet laden water cannot be connected
with underground pipe line system as canal provide very little head and pipe lines are likely to be
blocked.
Pipes:
An underground pipeline water distribution system consists of buried pipes for conveying
water to different points on the farm and allied structures required for the efficient functioning of the
system. Underground pipe lines are being widely used for conveyance of irrigation water from lift
irrigation projects.
1.Non-reinforced concrete pipes: Subjected to low pressures
(< 0.6 kg / m2).
2. Reinforced concrete pipes: IS 458: Sizes – 15, 22.5, 30 and 60 cm.
Length - 2 to 2.5 metres (1:1.5:3, 1:2:2, 1:2.5:2, 1:2:3 and 1:2:4
(Cement: Sand: Coarse aggregate / Gravel: 10 to 15 mm size)
3. Galvanized iron pipes ; 4. Aluminum pipes
5. Cast iron pipes
6. HDPE pipes
7. PVC pipes.
5. Components of Underground Pipelines
All the low head underground pipe line system requires pump stand as inlet or gravity inlet, gate
stands, pressure relief valves, outlets and end plug. Typical components of underground pipeline are

illustrated in Fig. 1.
Fig.1. Components of an underground pipeline irrigation system.
5.1 Inlet Components of Underground Pipeline System
Water inlet components are required to carry water from the source in to low head underground
pipelines. An inlet structure is required to develop adequate pressure and full flow capacity so as to
distribute water at different points on the farm. Inlet components use a sand trap and trash screen to
prevent entry of debris and heavy suspension of sand in the pipe lines.
Pump Stand
A pump stand is located at the inlet end of underground pipeline system. Pump stand must be
high enough to provide the pressure needed at all the pipe outlets. Pump stands size is larger than the
diameter of pipe line, to dissipate high velocity stream and release of entrapped air before water enters
pipeline. A view of the pump stand is shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2. Pump stands for underground pipeline.

Gravity Inlets
The gravity inlet is used when water surface elevation of the water source is sufficient to allow
gravity flow into the pipeline and to provide the adequate pressure needed at every point of pipe line
and outlet. The low head underground pipe line directly connected with water source can be used for
delivering water from a minor canal as shown in Fig. 3.
GateStands
Gate stands are installed to control flow into branch lines. These are installed where branch
lines take off from main line. They also prevent high pressure and act as surge chamber. Each outlet of
a gate stand is equipped with slide gate or gate valve to release water through a particular gate valve.
Fig. 4 shows branching off water from main pipeline and (gate stand).

Fig. 4. (a) Gate stands and (b) Overflow from Gate stands.
Air Vents
Air vents are vertical pipe structures to release air entrapped in the pipeline and to prevent
vacuum. Entrapped air must be removed to permit an even flow and avoid the danger of water
hammer. - - They are installed near the pump stand, at all high points in the line, at sharp turns, at
points where there is a downward deflection of more than 10 degrees. Vents are generally installed at
points about 150 metres apart on straight pipelines with uniform slope.

End plug
End plug is provided where the line terminates. - - - The function of an end plug is to close a
line and to absorb the pressure developed at the end of the line an account of water hammer. The plug
is backed by a masonry block which provides sufficient strength to meet unexpected high pressures
developed due to sudden opening or closing of valves.
Pressure Relief Valves
Pressure relief valves open at certain preset pressure and discharge fluid to relieve the surge.
They close immediately when pressure drops below settings. In situation, when rapid changes in flow
velocity are necessary, the pressure relief valves are used to prevent water hammering. The air inlet
valves (also called vacuum relief) are used at desired places in the pipe lines to prevent vacuum
formation. The air vents are also used to release entrapped air and to prevent vacuum formation. These
air release devices (air vents) are installed at inlet end near pump stands, sharp bends, high elevation
points and before end of pipe lines.
5.2 Outlet Structures
Outlet structures are devices that release water from pipelines to any desired locations in the
farm. They consist of a riser pipe, and one or more valves to control the flow. The most common outlet
consists of a concrete riser pipe and valves to control the flow. The riser valves, hydrants and gated
pipes are connected with riser pipe to distribute water to furrow or a border or a basin. A section of
riser pipe with alpha-alpha valve is shown through Fig. 5.

Fig.5. Section of an alfalfa valve for a low head pipeline.

Riser pipe
Riser pipe is used to bring the water from the buried pipeline to the ground surface and an attached
valve to control the flow of water. - The diameter of the riser pipe is usually same as the main pipe
line. -The riser pipes are installed on the pipeline by cutting a hole on the upper surface of the pipe.

Riser Valve
Riser valve is a screw valve installed on top of the riser pipe. A handle and cap plate are attached to a
screw type shaft that moves up or down as the handle is turned. -The riser valves are of two types: the
valve for releasing water directly to fields or open channels and hydrant valves which are adapted for
fixing a portable hydrant on it. The hydrant valves are provided with a cage to seat the hydrant.

Hydrants
Hydrants are devices placed over riser valve outlets as a means of connecting portable gated
pipes to the pipeline. They are portable so that they can be moved from one valve outlet to another to
serve the portion of the field which is being irrigated at a particular time. Hydrant can also be used for
connecting the suction hose of a pump to the water supply carried in the pipeline under low pressure,
so that the pump can develop the high pressure.

Gated pipes

• Gated pipes are portable lines with uniformly spaced outlets used for releasing irrigation water
to furrows, border strips or check basins.
• When gated pipes are connected to buried pipelines through hydrants they permit conveyance
of the water in an enclosed system from the source to the head end of the irrigation strip.
Seepage losses are reduced to a minimum.
• They also provide a convenient means of regulating the flow of water into the furrows or
border strips.
• Gated pipes are usually constructed of aluminium or light weight steel tubing.
Components of Underground pipe line system and their functions

6 Underground Pipeline Materials

Both reinforced concrete pipes and PVC pipes are used for constructing water distribution
systems in the command areas of wells. PVC pipes are often preferred because of the ease of
installation and ensure leak proof joints. Other factors favouring its use are speed of laying and greater
resistance to internal friction, as compared to concrete pipes of a given diameter, to convey large
quantities of water. However, skill and adherence to proper procedure in laying the pipes and
accessories can be used more economically and with equal efficiency, as compared to PVC pipes on
plain land. PVC pipes have distinct advantages over concrete pipes. In undulation topography,
however, they need to be buried to avoid UV degradation. HDPE pipe can be used above ground level.
Design and Operation of Underground Pipeline System
1. Design of Underground Pipeline Systems
The design of underground pipe line system requires information on land topography, location
of water source and water discharge. Pump stands must be of high elevation to allow sufficient
operating head for the pipeline. However, stands higher than necessary may permits high heads of
water to build up, leading to excessive line pressures. The working pressures in the pipeline are kept
within one-fourth the internal bursting pressures of the pipe. When it is necessary to design pipelines
with higher heads, reinforced concrete pressure pipes are used. The sizes of the outlets are selected to
suit the flow required at diversion points. The PVC and HDPE are also used for water distribution at
low and moderate pressure. The components of the systems such as pipeline size and height of Pump
stands and control stands must be designed so as to obtain a balanced water distribution and provide
trouble free operation.
The height of water in the pump stands is estimated as follows:
Depth of water in pump stand (HPS ) (m) = Reduced level at height point (m) + losses in the pipe line
Reduced level at pump stand (m). A free board of 0.5m of water head is added to get the height pump
stand.
Losses in pipe line are head loss due to friction and also known as major loss. Various equations such
as Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen Williams and Scobey have been proposed to determine head loss due to
friction (Refer lesson 15). The Darcy’s Weisbach equation is scientifically based and applicable to both
laminar and turbulent flows.
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is

(16.1)
where,
Hf = head loss due to friction,(m)
f = friction factor,
L = length of the pipe(m)
d = Inside diameter of the pipe (m)
V = mean velocity of flow (m s-1)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m s-2)
The friction factor f is function of Reynolds number (Re) and relative roughness &. For laminar flow
(Re , the friction factor is

(16.2)
where

V = velocity, m s-1
D = diameter of pipe, m
ν = Kinematic viscosity, m2 s-1
For Re between 2000 and 100,000 (Turbulent flow)
f = 0.32 Re -0.25 (16.3)
For Re > 100,000 (Fully turbulent flow)

(16.4)
For most commercial materials, the friction factor is represented by the semi- empirical equation

(16.5)
Diameter of Pipe Line
The diameter of pipe line is computed considering the head loss due to friction in pipe line
(Equation 16.1) and discharge. Too small, diameter will increase the pumping cost due to increased
frictional head losses and too large pipe diameter will add to the system cost. The material and size of
pipe are selected considering the hydraulically efficiently and pumping cost.
2. Laying Out of Underground Pipeline System
Preparation of contour map is essential requirement to lay and construct underground pipeline
for a command area. The map should depict North direction and important features locating revenue
division and sub divisions. The map should show field boundaries, streams, rivers, tanks, earth
embankments, roads, wells and village boundary and other major features of the area which will come
under the command of the tubewell and the area immediately adjoining it. The alignment of the buried
pipeline water distribution system and the location of the valves should be planned based on the
inspection of the field contours and the various features on the ground. The alignment of the earthen
field channels and essential field structures like inverted siphons are decided based on the ground
elevation. Profiles along each pipe and channel route are surveyed and plans are prepared showing
depth, gradient and earth work along their length and the location of the structures. These include inlet,
water control and diversion structures, air release vents and end plugs.
After laying of PVC pipes and backfilling of the trenches and construction of the outlet
structure, the water is allowed to pass through the pipeline. All air in the pipe should be allowed to
escape through the pressure release pipe. For 3 to 4 days, all the outlets are kept open for 3 to 4 hours,
with the pump in operation, in order to check if there are any leakages in the pipe or in any of the
outlets. If leakage is noticed, repairs are done after draining the entire pipeline system.
3. Operation and Maintenance of Underground Pipeline Systems
The underground pipeline may fail due to i) lack of inspection or maintenance, ii) improper
construction, iii) improper design and iv) wrong manufacturing processes and poor quality materials
used.
The underground pipelines operate without trouble when it is properly designed and correctly
installed. Inadequate procedures in design and installation and unforeseen situations give rise to the
following troubles.
a) Development of longitudinal cracks in the pipe, usually at the top or both at top and bottom
b) Telescoping of sections
c) Pushing of the pipe into the stands
d) Development of circumferential cracks
e) Surging or intermittent flow of water
Leak Testing and Repair
All buried low pressure irrigation pipelines should be tested for leaks before the trench is filled.
The pipeline should be filled with water and slowly brought up to operating pressure with all turnouts
closed. Any length of pipe section or joints showing leakage should be replaced and the line retested.
The water should remain in pipelines throughout the backfilling of trenches, because the internal
pressure helps to prevent pipe deformation from soil loading and equipment crossings.. Buried plastic
pipelines can be expected to have a usable life of about 15 years, if well maintained. The annual cost of
maintenance can be estimated as approximately 1% of the installation cost.
INSTALLATION OF UNDERGROUND PIPELINE
Installing an underground pipeline requires careful planning and execution to ensure the
pipeline is secure, stable, and compliant with local codes and regulations. Here’s a general step-by-step
guide to installing an underground pipeline:
1. Planning and Permits
- Survey the Site: Conduct a site survey to understand the soil type, topography, and any obstacles.
- Design the Pipeline Route: Determine the most efficient and safest path for the pipeline,
considering elevation changes, potential obstacles, and future accessibility needs.
- Obtain Permits and Approvals: Check local laws and codes, and secure any required permits or
permissions, especially if crossing public land or other utilities.
2. Excavation
- Mark the Route: Use stakes, paint, or flags to clearly mark the intended route of the pipeline.
- Locate Existing Utilities: Contact local utility services to mark any existing underground utilities
to avoid accidental damage during excavation.
- Excavate the Trench:
- Dig a trench following the marked route. The trench depth should meet regulatory requirements
and account for soil type, weather conditions, and pipeline purpose.
- The trench bottom should be flat and level, with a consistent gradient to ensure proper drainage if
needed.
3. Prepare the Trench Bed
- Remove Debris: Clear rocks, roots, and other debris from the trench to prevent damage to the
pipeline.
- Create a Bedding Layer: Lay a layer of sand or gravel (usually 4-6 inches) at the bottom of the
trench. This bedding helps protect the pipe from sharp objects and distributes load pressure.
- Compact the Bedding: Compact the bedding layer to create a stable base.
4. Install the Pipeline
- Lay the Pipes:
- Start at one end of the trench and place the pipes into the trench, carefully connecting each
section.
- Use rubber gaskets, welds, or other appropriate fittings to securely join pipe sections.
- Check Pipe Slope and Alignment: For drainage or sewage pipes, ensure the pipeline has the
required slope for gravity flow.
- Inspect Connections: Test each connection to make sure it is secure and watertight, especially for
pressurized pipelines.

5. Backfilling and Compacting

- Initial Backfill Layer: Cover the pipeline with 6-12 inches of sand or fine soil. Avoid using large
rocks or debris directly on the pipeline to prevent damage.
- Compact the Soil: Compact this initial layer to secure the pipeline, which minimizes the risk of
movement or sagging over time.
 - Final Backfill: Add remaining soil layers, compacting each one as you go. Leave a slight mound of
soil on top to account for future settling.
6. Testing and Inspection
- Hydrostatic or Pressure Testing: For water or gas pipelines, fill the pipeline with water or air and
pressurize it to check for leaks.
- Camera Inspection (for Sewage Pipes): Use a camera to inspect inside the pipe and verify the
connections and alignment.
- Compliance Checks: Ensure the pipeline installation meets all regulatory codes and standards.
Schedule an inspection if required by local authorities.
7. Finishing and Restoration
- Restore the Surface: Level and compact the ground surface, restoring it to the original condition
as much as possible. Replant grass, add gravel, or repair paved surfaces as necessary.
- Install Markers: Place markers or signage as required to indicate the presence of underground
pipelines, which helps prevent accidental damage during future excavations.
Discharge capacity of an underground pipeline
To measure the discharge capacity of an underground pipeline, you can use various methods,
depending on the level of accuracy required, the pipeline size, and access points. Here are some
common techniques:
1. Volumetric Flow Measurement (Direct Measurement)
- Description: This method measures the volume of water that exits the pipeline over a set period.
- Process:
a) Find an outlet or open section of the pipeline.
b) Measure the time taken to fill a container with a known volume (e.g., a bucket or tank).
c) Calculate discharge as: Q=V/t
Where, Q is the discharge (flow rate) in cubic meters per second, V is the volume of water, and t
is the time taken.
- Pros/Cons: This method is simple but not practical for large or pressurized pipelines.
2. Velocity-Area Method
- Description: By calculating the flow velocity and cross-sectional area of the pipe, the discharge
rate can be estimated.
- Process:
- Measure the pipeline’s internal diameter for cross-sectional area calculation.
- Use a flow velocity sensor (e.g., an electromagnetic or ultrasonic flowmeter) inserted into the pipe
at an accessible point to get the average flow velocity.
- Calculate discharge as: Q=A.v
Where, A is the cross-sectional area, and v is the velocity.
- Pros/Cons: This method is widely applicable, especially with non-invasive flowmeters, but may
require calibration.
3. Using Differential Pressure (Venturi Meter or Orifice Plate)
 - Description: Pressure differences across a constriction in the pipe can give flow rates, based on
Bernoulli’s equation.
- Process:
- Install a Venturi meter or orifice plate in the pipeline.
- Measure the pressure difference between two points (before and after the constriction).
- Use the flow equation derived for the device to calculate discharge, typically:

Where, C is the discharge coefficient, ∆ P is the pressure difference, and is the fluid density.
- Pros/Cons: Highly accurate but requires access for installation and can be expensive.
4. Ultrasonic Flow Measurement (Non-Invasive)
- Description: Ultrasonic sensors can be clamped externally to the pipe to measure the flow rate
without disturbing the system.
- Process:
- Attach ultrasonic sensors to the outside of the pipeline.
- The sensors use sound waves to measure the flow velocity and calculate discharge based on the
internal diameter.
- Pros/Cons: Non-invasive, accurate, and suitable for large pipelines, though dependent on proper
calibration.
5. Tracer Dilution Method
- Description: Involves injecting a tracer substance (e.g., dye or salt) and measuring its
concentration downstream to estimate flow rate.
- Process:
- Inject a known amount of tracer at a specific point.
- Measure the concentration of the tracer downstream after it has fully mixed.
- Calculate the flow rate based on the dilution of the tracer.
- Pros/Cons: Useful for complex flow systems but requires specific equipment and analysis.