Central Luzon State University: Module 4: Page 1 of 40

ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)
Central Luzon State University

Science City of Muñoz 3120
Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Instructional Module for the Course

ABEN 3412 – IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING
Module 4
Topic 1: OPEN CHANNEL
Overview
This section discussed the open-channel and its classifications. It presents

the different cross-section of an open channel and the different equations in
computing the flow. It also describes the energy principles in an open channel.
I. Objectives
1) Identify the different open-channel cross-section and its geometric elements;
2) Discuss the different classification of open channel flow;
3) Discuss the energy principles in an open channel; and
4) Determine the dimensions, velocity and discharge of an open channel.
II. Learning Activities
Definition of Open Channel
Open channel is a conduit in which water flows with free surface. Open channel
can be (1) Natural channel, which include all watercourses that exist naturally on the
earth. Underground streams carrying water with free surface are also considered natural
open channel, or (2) Artificial channel, which was constructed or developed by human
effort.
Definition of terms:
Prismatic channel – a channel built with unvarying cross-section and constant bottom
slope; otherwise the channel is nonprismatic.
Module 4: Page 1 of 40
Channel section – refers to the cross section of a channel taken normal to the direction
of flow.
Depth of flow, y – is the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel section from
the free surface (or depth of flow section, d).
Stage – is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum. If the
lowest point of the channel section is chosen as the datum, the stage is identical with the
depth of flow.
Top width, T – is the width of channel section at the free surface.
Water area, A – is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of flow.
Wetted perimeter, P – is the length of the line of intersection of the channel wetted
surface with a cross-sectional plane normal to the direction of flow.
Figure 8.1. Channel section
Hydraulics of Flow
For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by:
Q = AV (Eq. 8.1)
Where: Q = discharge (m3/s)

A = cross-sectional area (m2)
V = velocity of flow (m/s)
For a continuous steady flow, continuity equation is expressed as:
Q = A 1 V 1 = A2 V 2 (Eq. 8.2)
Field studies have shown that the velocity at a depth equal to 0.6 times the total depth
is close to the average velocity for the entire section. The average of measurements made
at 0.2 times depth and 0.8 times depth is also used to represent the average velocity of
the entire profile (Fetter, 2001).
Figure 8.2. Typical parabolic velocity profile for a natural stream
Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s principles, in fluid dynamics, presents the relationships between

pressures, velocities, and elevations along a moving fluid (liquid or gas). The Bernoulli’s
equation and the energy principles are presented below (Eq. 8.3 and Figure 8.3):
(Eq. 8.3)
 The hydraulic grade is the sum of the pressure head (p/γ) and elevation
head (z). For open channel flow (in which the pressure head is zero), the
hydraulic grade elevation is the same as the water surface elevation.
Figure 8.3 Energy principles
 The energy grade is the sum of the hydraulic grade and the velocity head
(V2/2g). This is often referred to as the energy grade line, or EGL. For a lake
or reservoir in which the velocity is essentially zero, the EGL is equal to the
HGL.
 Energy (or head) losses (HL) in a system are due to a combination of several
factors. The primary cause of energy loss is usually the internal friction between
fluid particles traveling at different velocities. Secondary causes of energy loss
are localized areas of increased turbulence and disruption of the streamlines,
such as disruptions from valves and other fittings in a pressure pipe, or
disruptions from a changing section shape in a river.
 The rate at which energy is lost along a given length of channel is called the
friction slope, and is usually presented as a unitless value or in units of length
per length (ft/ft, m/m, etc.).
Flow Measurement in Open Channels
 Timed Gravimetric Method – the flow rate is calculated by weighing the entire
content of the flow stream that was collected in a container for a fixed length of
time.
 Dilution Method – the flow rate is measured by determining how much the flowing
water dilutes an added tracer solution.
 Velocity-Area Method – measuring the mean flow velocity across section and
multiplying it by the area at that point to calculate the flow rate.
 Hydraulic Structure Method – this method uses a hydraulic structure placed in the
flow stream of the channel to produce flow properties that are characterized by
known relationships between the water level measurement at some location and
the flow rate of the stream.
 Slope-hydraulic Radius-Area Method – measurement of water surface slope, cross-

sectional area, and wetted perimeter over a length of uniform section channel are
used to calculate the flow rate, by using a resistant equation such as the Manning
formula.
Classification of Open-Channel Flow
A. Steady flow
1. Uniform flow
2. Varied flow
a. Gradually varied flow
b. Rapidly varies flow
B. Unsteady flow
1. Unsteady uniform flow (rare)
2. Unsteady flow
a. Gradually varied unsteady flow
b. Rapidly varied unsteady flow
Uniform Flow and Varied Flow:

 Uniform Flow – if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the channel. A
uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth
changes with time.
 Steady Uniform Flow – if the depth of the flow does not change during the time
interval under consideration.
 Unsteady Uniform Flow – water surface fluctuates from time to time while
remaining parallel to the channel bottom (impossible condition).
 Varied Flow – if the depth of flow changes along length of the channel.
 Rapidly Varied Flow – if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short
distance; otherwise, it is Gradually Varied Flow.
State of Flow
The state or behavior of open-channel flow is governed basically by the effects of

viscosity and gravity relative to the inertial forces of the flow.
Effects of Viscosity
The flow may be laminar, turbulent, or transitional.

 Laminar flow – if the viscous forces are so strong relative to the inertial forces that
viscosity plays a significant part in determining flow behavior.
 Turbulent flow – if the viscous forces are weak relative to the inertial forces.
 Transitional flow – mixed state between laminar and turbulent states.
The effect of viscosity relative to inertia can be represented by the Reynolds’ number:
𝑉𝐿
𝑅= (Eq. 8.4)
𝑣
Where: R = hydraulic radius of a conduit

V = velocity of flow in fps
L = characteristics length in ft
ν (nu) = kinematic viscosity of water in ft2/sec
 The kinematic viscosity in ft2/sec is equal to the dynamic viscosity μ (mu) in slug/ft-
sec divided by the mass density ρ (rho) in slug/ft 3. For water at 68oF (20oC), μ =
2.09 x 10-5 and ρ = 1.937; hence, ν = 1.08 x 10-5.
 An open-channel flow is laminar if the Reynolds number R is small and turbulent

if R is large. Numerous experiments have shown that the flow in a pipe changes
from laminar to turbulent in the range of R between the critical value 2,000 and a
value that may be as high as 50,000.
Effect of Gravity
The effect of gravity upon the state of flow is represented by a ratio of inertial
forces to gravity forces. This ratio is given by the Froude number:
𝐹 = 𝑉/√𝑔𝐿 (Eq. 8.4)
Where: V = mean velocity in fps

g = acceleration due to gravity in ft/sec2
L = characteristics length in ft
In open-channel flow the characteristic length is made equal to the hydraulic depth
D, which is defined as the cross-sectional area a of the water normal to the direction of
flow in the channel divided by the width w of the free surface. For rectangular channels
this is equal to the depth of flow section.
D = a/w (Eq. 8.5)
When F is equal to unity:
𝑽 = √𝒈𝑫 (Eq. 8.6)
And the flow is said to be in a critical state.
If F is less than unity, or 𝑽 < √𝒈𝑫 , the flow is subcritical. In this state the role played
by gravity forces is more pronounced; so the flow has a low velocity and is often described
as tranquil and streaming.
If F is greater than unity, or 𝑽 > √𝒈𝑫, the flow is supercritical. In this state the inertial
forces become dominant; so the flow has a high velocity and is usually described as rapid,
shooting and torrential.
Regimes of Flow
A combined effect of viscosity and gravity may produce any one of four regimes
of flow in an open channel, namely, (1) subcritical-laminar, when F is less than unity
and R is in the laminar range; (2) supercritical-laminar, when F is greater than unity
and R is in the laminar range; (3) supercritical-turbulent, when F is greater than unity
and R is in the turbulent range; and (4) subcritical-turbulent, when F is less than unity
and R is in turbulent range.
Figure 8.4 shows the depth-velocity relationships for the four flow regimes in a
wide open channel by a logarithmic plot. The heavy line for F = 1 and the shaded band
for the laminar-turbulent transitional range intersect on the graph and divide the whole
area into four portions, each of which represents a flow regime.
Figure 8.4. Depth-velocity relationship for four regimes of open-channel flow
Uniform Flow
Uniform flow refers to the hydraulic condition in which the discharge and cross-
sectional area (and therefore velocity) are constant throughout the length of the channel.
For an open channel, additional assumptions include:
 The depth of flow must be constant (that is, the hydraulic grade line must be
parallel to the channel bed). This depth of flow is called normal depth.
 Because the velocity is constant, the velocity head does not change through the
length of the section; therefore, the energy grade line is parallel to both the
hydraulic grade line and the channel bed.
Manning’s Equation
The Manning equation is an empirical equation widely used for uniform open channel
flow:
1.486
𝑉= 𝑅 2⁄3 𝑆 1⁄2 (for English unit) (Eq. 8.7)
𝑛
1
𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅 2⁄ 3 𝑆 1 ⁄ 2 (for metric unit) (Eq. 8.8)
Since Q = AV
Then,
1.486
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 2⁄3 𝑆 1⁄2 (for English unit) (Eq. 8.9)
𝑛
1
𝑄 = 𝑛 𝐴𝑅 2⁄3 𝑆 1⁄2 (for metric unit) (Eq. 8.10)
Where:
V = average velocity, (ft/s; m/s)
R = hydraulic radius, R = A/P , (ft; m)
A = channel cross-section, (ft2; m2)
P = wetted perimeter, (ft; m)
Q = channel discharge, (ft3/s; m3/s)
S = energy gradient, which is the slope of the water surface or channel slope
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
Channel Geometry and Sections
 Top width, T – is the width of the channel section at the free surface.
 Water area, A – is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of
flow.
 Wetted perimeter, P – is the length of the line of intersection of the channel wetted
surface with a cross-sectional plane normal to the direction of flow.
 Hydraulic radius, R=A/P – is the ratio of the water area to its wetted perimeter.
 Hydraulic depth, D=A/T – is the ratio of the water area to the top width.
Table 8.1. Geometric elements for different channel cross-sections
Velocity Distribution
The velocity distribution in an open-channel flow (Figure 8.5) is quite non-uniform

because of (1) non-uniform shear stress along the wetted perimeter, (2) presence of free
surface on which the shear stress is zero.
Nonerodible Channel – lined channels and built-up channels that can withstand erosion
satisfactorily.
Erodible channel – unlined channels except those excavated in firm foundations, such
as rock bed.
In designing nonerodible channels, factors to be considered are:
a) the kind of material forming the channel body, which determines the roughness
coefficient;
b) the minimum permissible velocity, to avoid deposition if the water carries silt or
debris;
c) the channel bottom slope and side slopes;
d) the freeboard; and
e) the most efficient section, either hydraulically or empirically determined.
Nonerodible Material and Lining
a) The nonerodible materials used to form the lining of a channel and the body of a
built-up channel include concrete, stone masonry, steel, cast iron, timber, glass,
plastic, etc.
b) The purpose of lining a channel is in most cases to prevent erosion, but
occasionally it may be to check seepage losses.
Minimum Permissible Velocity
a) The minimum permissible velocity or non-silting velocity is the lowest velocity that
will not start sedimentation and induce the growth of aquatic plant and moss.
b) A mean velocity of 2 to 3 fps may be used safely when the percentage silt present
in the channel is small; and a mean velocity of not less than 2.5 fps will prevent a
growth of vegetation that would seriously decrease the carrying capacity of the
channel.
Figure 8.5. Velocity distribution in an open-channel flow
Example:
1. A trapezoidal channel has a base width of 6 meters and a side slope of 1H:1V. The
channel bottom slope is 0.0002 and the Manning roughness coefficient is 0.014.
Compute (a) the depth of flow if Q=12.1 m3/s; and (b) the state of flow.
Solution:
(a) 𝐴 = 𝑦 (𝑏 + 𝑧𝑦)
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 √1 + 𝑧 2
1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅2⁄3𝑆 1⁄2
𝑛
2⁄ 3
1 𝑦 (6 + 1𝑦)
12.1 = 𝑦 (6 + 1𝑦) [ ] 0.00021⁄2
0.014 6 + 2𝑦 √1 + 12
By trial and error:

𝑦 = 1.5 𝑚
𝑉
(b) 𝐹= 𝐷 = 𝐴/𝑇 𝑇 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦
√𝑔𝐷
𝐴 = 𝑦 (𝑏 + 𝑧𝑦) = 1.5 (6 + 1(1.5) = 11.25 𝑚2
𝑇 = 6 + 2(1.5) = 9𝑚
11.25
𝐷= = 1.25 𝑚
9
𝑄 12.1
𝑉= = = 1.076 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 11.25
1.076
𝐹= = 0.307
√(9.81)(1.25)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 0.307 < 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
Freeboard
The freeboard of a channel is the vertical distance from the top of the channel to
the water surface at the design condition. This distance should be sufficient to prevent
waves or fluctuations in water surface from overflowing the sides. Preliminary estimates
of the freeboard required under ordinary conditions using the formula:
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 = √𝐶𝑦 (Equation 8.11)
Where: y = depth of water in the canal, ft

C = coefficient varying from 1.5 for a canal of 20 cfs to 2.5 for a canal
capacity of 3,000 cfs or more
Figure 8.6. Recommended freeboard and height of bank of lined channels

(US Bureau of Reclamation)
Best Hydraulic Section
The conveyance of a channel section increases with increase in the hydraulic radius
or with decrease in the wetted perimeter; therefore, the channel section having the least
wetted perimeter for a given area has the maximum conveyance; such a section is known
as the best hydraulic section. The semicircle has the least perimeter among all sections
with the same area; hence it is the most hydraulically efficient of all sections.
Table 8.2. Best Hydraulic Section
Specific Energy and Critical Flow
For any flow section, the specific energy is defined as the sum of the depth of
flow and the velocity head.
𝑉2
𝐸 =𝑦+ (Equation 8.12)
2𝑔
Where: E = specific energy (m, ft)

y = depth of flow (m, ft)
V = mean velocity (m/s, ft/s)
g = gravitation acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)
As Figure 8.7 shows, a depth for which the specific energy is at a minimum is
called the critical depth. If the velocity is higher than critical velocity (that is, the depth
is less than critical depth), the flow is considered supercritical. If the velocity is lower
than critical velocity (the depth is greater than critical depth), the flow is subcritical.
Figure 8.7. Specific Energy
The velocity at critical depth is equal to the wave celerity—the speed at which
waves will ripple outward from a pebble tossed into the water. A unitless value called the
Froude number, F, represents the ratio of actual fluid velocity to wave celerity. The
Froude number is computed as follows:
𝑉
𝐹= (Equation 8.13)
√𝑔𝐷
Where: F = Froude number (unitless)

D = hydraulic depth of the channel = A/T
A = flow area (m2, ft2)
T = top width of flow (m, ft)
V = fluid velocity (m/s, ft/s)
By definition, when the flow is at critical depth (that is, the velocity is equal to
the wave celerity), the Froude number must be equal to 1. The equation can therefore
be rewritten and re-factored to form the following equality:
𝐴3 𝑄2
= (Equation 8.14)
𝑇 𝑔
Where: A = flow area (m2, ft2)

T = top width of flow (m, ft)
Q = channel flow rate (m3/s, ft3/s)
Example:
What is the critical depth for a grassy triangular channel with 2H:1V side slopes and a 0.5% slope
when the flow is 3.00 m3/s? If the channel is actually flowing at a depth of 1.2 m, is the flow
critical, subcritical, or supercritical?
Determination of Section Dimensions
Section factor,
𝑛𝑄
𝐴𝑅 2⁄3 = 1.486 (Equation 8.15)
√𝑆
Example:
A trapezoidal channel carrying 400 cfs is built with nonerodible bed having a slope of 0.0016 and
n = 0.025. (a) Determine the depth of water, y and the cross-sectional area, A, if b = 20 ft and z =
2; (b) what is the total depth and top width of the channel if freeboard will be added?; (c) determine
the best hydraulic section.
Solution:
(a)
0.025 𝑥 400
𝐴𝑅 2⁄3 = = 167.7
1.486√0.0016
Where:
𝐴 = (𝑏 + 𝑧𝑦)𝑦
(𝑏 + 𝑧𝑦)𝑦
𝑅=
𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑧 2
Substituting A and R in the above equation:
5/3
[((𝑏 + 𝑧𝑦)𝑦)]
2/3 = 167.7
(𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑧 2)
5/3
[((20 + 2𝑦)𝑦)]
2/3 = 167.7
(20 + 2𝑦√1 + 22 )
𝑦 = 3.36 𝑓𝑡
𝐴 = (20 + 2 𝑥 3.36) 𝑥 3.36 = 89.78𝑓𝑡 2
(b)
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 = √2(3.36) = 2.6 𝑓𝑡
Therefore, the total depth (D = y + Freeboard) of the channel is 5.96 ft.,

and the top width (T = b+2zD) of the channel (not the width of the water surface)
is 43.84 ft.
(c)
For Best Hydraulic Section (Trapezoidal section):
𝐴 = √3𝑦 2
1
𝑅= 𝑦
2
Since section factor, 𝐴𝑅2⁄3 = 167.7
Simplify and compute for y;
Then 𝒚 = 𝟔. 𝟔 𝒇𝒕
The water area, 𝐴 = √3(6.6)2 = 75.45𝑓𝑡 2
Since the best hydraulic trapezoidal section is the half hexagon, the side slopes
are 1 on √3/3. Computing for bottom width, b:
𝐴 74.45 √3
𝒃= − 𝑧𝑦 = − ( ) 6.6 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟐 𝒇𝒕
𝑦 6.6 3
The Maximum Permissible Velocity
The maximum permissible velocity or nonerodible velocity, is the greatest mean

velocity that will not cause erosion of the channel body.
Design Velocity Criteria:

1. Design for the maximum permissible velocity that will prevent scouring and
excavation.
2. Design for the minimum permissible velocity that will prevent silting and
sedimentation.
a) For earth canals, the maximum permissible velocity is 1.5 m/s (average).
b) For minimum limiting velocities, see Table and Figures below for details.
Disadvantages of Earth Canals

1. Excessive seepage losses
2. Low velocities & therefore large cross-sectional areas
3. Danger of breaks due to erosion and burrowing of animals.
4. Favorable conditions for growth of mass and aquatic weeds w/c retard the velocity
and cause high maintenance costs.
Purposes of lining canals

1. Decrease conveyance-seepage losses
2. Provide safety against breaks
3. Prevent weed growth
4. Retard moss growth
5. Decrease erosion from high velocities
6. Cut down maintenance costs
7. Reduce drainage problems
8. Increase canal capacity
Canal Lining Materials

1. Concrete
2. Rock masonry
3. Brick
4. Bentonite-earth mixtures
5. Clay
6. Rubber
7. Plastic
8. Asphalt
III. Assessment
1. Consider a farm irrigation ditch in a loam soil having the following dimensions:
a) Bottom width, 0.5 meters.
b) Total depth, 0.60 meters.
c) Side slopes of 1 horizontal to 1 vertical.
d) Depth of water, 0.40 meters.
Find the following properties:
a) Cross-sectional area of the stream.
b) Wetted perimeter.
c) Hydraulic radius of the stream.
2. If the bottom of the ditch described in previous problem (Problem 1) has a

uniform slope of 1 meter per kilometer, and if the bottom and sides are kept
smooth and free from weeds, what will be the mean velocity of flow and the
discharge? Use n = 0.02.
3. If the canal described in previous problem (Problem 1) were permitted to grow

weeds on the sides and bottom, what would be the velocity and discharge?
Use n = 0.04.
4. A trapezoidal channel with 3 meters bottom width, side slope 2H:1V, channel
gradient of 0.002, and n = 0.025, carries a discharge of 200 m3/min. Compute
the normal depth and velocity.
5. Determine the slope of a channel if it has a bottom width of 20 ft, side slope
of 2:1, water depth of 3.36 ft, discharge of 400 cfs and n = 0.025.
6. Determine the discharges in channels having the following sections for y = 6

ft, n = 0.015, and S = 0.0020.
a) Rectangular section, 20 ft wide.
b) Triangular section with a bottom angle equal to 60o
c) Trapezoidal section with a bottom width of 20 ft and side slopes of 2:1.
d) Parabolic section having a width of 16 ft at the depth of 4 ft.
7. A rectangular channel, 20 feet wide, carries a discharge of 200 cfs. Compute

the critical depth and velocity.
8. Determine the best hydraulic section for rectangular channel that can carry 200
m3/min.
9. Determine the best hydraulic section for trapezoidal channel that can carry 200
m3/min.
Module 4
Topic 2: SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM DESIGN
Overview
This section discussed the sprinkler irrigation system’s planning factors and
general design concepts. It also presented the procedures in designing sprinkler
irrigation system.
I. Objectives
1) Identify the different planning and design factors to be consider in designing
sprinkler irrigation system;
2) Discuss the procedures in designing sprinkler irrigation system; and,
3) Design sprinkler irrigation system.
II. Learning Activities
Planning and Design Factors
The first step in the preliminary design phase is the collection of basic farm data. The
data include:
 a topographic map showing:
o The proposed irrigated area, with contour lines
o Farm and field boundaries and water source or sources
o Power points, such as electricity lines, in relation to water source and area
to be irrigated, roads and other relevant general features such as obstacles
 data on water resources, quantity and quality over time, on water rights and on
cost of water where applicable
 the climate of the area and its influence on the water requirements of the selected
crops
 the soil characteristics and their compatibility with the crops and irrigation system
proposed
 the types of crops intended to be grown and their compatibility with both the
climate in the area, the water availability and the soils; current agricultural
practices should be identified.
The next step is to analyze the farm data in order to determine the following
preliminary design parameters:
 peak and total irrigation water requirements

 infiltration rate of soils to be irrigated
 maximum net depth of water application per irrigation
 irrigation frequency and cycle
 gross depth of water application
 preliminary system capacity
Table 9.1 is useful for organizing the often referred to as information and data
developed through carrying out steps.
Table 9.1. Sprinkler System Design Factors

CROP TYPE
a) Root Depth (ft)
b) Growing Season (days)
c) Water Use Rate (in/day)
SOILS and AREA
a) Field layout
a.1) Length
a.2) Width
b) Depth (ft)
c) Water Holding Capacity (in/ft)
d) Allowable Depletion (in)
e) Intake Rate (in/hr)
IRRIGATION
a) Interval (days)
b) Net Depth (in)
c) Efficiency ( % )
d) Gross Depth (in)
SYSTEM CAPACITY
a) Lateral Capacity (gpm)
b) Manifold Capacity (gpm)
c) Mainline or Total System Capacity (gpm)
PUMP
a) Discharge (gpm)
b) Total Dynamic Head (ft)
POWER UNIT
a) Brake Horsepower
b) Kilowatt Rating
c) Voltage
d) Ampere Rating
e) Phase
Rooting Depth. Where local data is not available, the root depths given in Table
9.2 may be used.
Figure 9.1. Design of periodic-move sprinkler systems

(adapted from the Irrigation Association, 1983)
Table 9.2. Effective root depths which would contain approximately 80 % of the
elder roots in a deep uniform well-drained soil profile.
CROP ROOT DEPTH CROP ROOT DEPTH
(FT) (FT)
Asparagus 2.0 - 3.0 Lettuce 0.5 – 1.5
Avocado 2.0 - 6.0 Onion 1.0
Banana 1.0 - 2.0 Pasture 1.0 – 2.5
Beans 1.5 – 2.0 Pepper 1.5 – 2.0
Broccoli 2.0 Potato (Irish) 2.0 – 3.0
Cabbage 1.0 - 2.0 Potato (Sweet) 2.0 – 3.0
Carrot 2.0 Radish 1.0
Citrus 3.0 – 5.0 Sorghum 1.5 – 2.0
Coffee 3.0 – 5.0 Squash 1.0 – 2.0
Cotton 2.0 – 4.0 Strawberry 1.0 – 2.5
Corn 1.5 – 3.0 Sugarcane 1.5 – 2.5
Eggplant 2.0 Tomato 1.0 – 2.0
Grapes 1.5 – 3.0 Tobacco 1.0 – 2.0
Watermelon 1.0 – 2.0
Growing Season. Table 9.3 gives some crops and their approximate days of
the growing season. This will serve as a guide on how long irrigation water will
be applied.
Table 9.3. Approximate growing period of some vegetables.

CROP DAYS CROP DAYS
Amargoso 150 Peanut 110
Cabbage 95 Pepper 90
Cucumber 60 Soybean 90
Eggplant 60 Tomato 90
Mungbearn 75 Watermelon 75
Onion 110
Daily Water Use Rate. The daily water use rate is a function of the crop's
evapotranspiration and irrigation efficiency which will account for unavoidable
losses during water application. It is also known as the crop daily water
requirement (WR). The peak water use rate of a crop is the one used in the design
of irrigation systems. Since the crop's evapotranspiration is associated with climatic
variables, potential evapotranspiration (PET), which is evapotranspiration that will
occur when water supply is not limiting, may then be classified according to
climate. Table 9.4 gives values of PET based on this classification.
Plant factor (k) values such as those given in Table 9.5 are also needed to specify
the daily crop water requirement. Likewise, recommended irrigation
efficiencies (Ea) for different climatic conditions are also needed are in Table 9.6.
Table 9.4. Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) based on climatic classification.

Potential Evapotranspiration
Climate Inches of water Millimeters of water
used per day used per day
Cool humid 0.10 – 0.15 2.5 – 3.8
Cool dry 0.15 – 0.20 3.8 – 5.1
Warm humid 0.15 – 0.20 3.8 – 5.1
Warm dry 0.20 – 0.25 5.1 – 6.3
Hot humid 0.20 – 0.30 5.1 – 7.6
Hot dry 0.30 – 0.45 7.6 – 11.5
Table 9.5. Crop factors (k) for field and vegetable crop
CROP FACTORS, CROP FACTORS,
CROP CROP
K K
Beans 1.00 Melons 0.95
Broccoli 0.95 Peppers 0.95
Carrot 1.00 Peanuts 0.95
Celery 1.00 Peas 1.05
Corn 0.95 Potatoes 1.05
Cotton 0.95 Radishes 0.80
Cabbage 0.95 Sugar Cane 1.05
Cauliflower 0.95 Tomatoes 1.05
Eggplant 0.95 Tobacco 1.05
Lettuce 0.95 Soybeans 1.00
Table 9.6. Recommended irrigation efficiency, E a

CLIMATIC CONDITION IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY, Ea
Hot, dry climate 0.85
Moderate climate 0.90
Humid climate 0.95
The daily crop water use rate (WR) is then computed by
WR = (k x PET)/Ea
Values of k, PET and Ea are to be taken from Tables 9.4 to 9.6.
Field Layout. A preliminary field layout is an important guide in determining the

total area to be irrigated. It will also be an aide in determining the number of
sprinkler heads needed and the required number and length of laterals, manifolds,
and mainline pipes.
Soil Depth. An investigation of the soil depth is necessary to make sure that it is
capable of supporting the root system of the crop or crops to be planted. That is,
soil depth should be greater than or at least equal to the plant root depth. Soil
depth is therefore one of the field data to be gathered and may differ from one
field to another.
Water Holding Capacity. Table 9.7 gives typical ranges of available water
holding capacity of soils of different textures. Where local data is not available, the
listed averages may be used as a guide.
Table 9.7. Available water holding capacity of soils of different texture
AVAILABLE WATER HOLDING CAPACITY

SOIL TEXTURE (Inches of water per foot of soil depth)
Range Average
Very coarse texture
(Very coarse sand) 0.40 – 0.75 0.5
Coarse texture
(Coarse sand, fine sand, and
loamy sand) 0.75 – 1.25 1.0
Moderately coarse texture
(Sandy loam) 1.25 – 1.75 1.5
Medium texture
(Very fine sandy loam, loam and
silt loam) 1.50 – 2.30 2.0
Moderately fine texture
(Very fine sandy loam and sandy
clay loam) 1.75 – 2.50 2.2
Fine texture (sandy clay, silty clay
and clay) 1.60 – 2.50 2.3
Soil Intake Rate. The rate of water application should be planned so that it is
no higher (by the end of an irrigation) than the capacity of the soil to absorb water.
The soil intake rate is the capacity of the soil to absorb water and it differs from
one soil texture to another Suggested maximum water application rates of
sprinklers for different soils, slope and tilt are given in Table 9.8.
Table 9.8. Suggested maximum water application rates (in/hr) of sprinklers for
different soils, slope (% ) and tilt.
SLOPE
SOIL TEXTURE AND PROFILE
0 – 5% 5 – 8% 8 – 12% 12– 16%
Coarse sandy soil to 6 ft 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50
Coarse sandy soil over more compact soils 1.50 1.00 0.75 0.40
Light sandy loam to 6 ft 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40
Light sandy loam over more compact soils 0.75 0.50 0.40 0.30
Silt loam to 6 ft 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20
Silt loam over more compact soils 0.30 0.25 0.15 0.15
Heavy textured clay or clay loam 0.15 0.10 0.08 0.06
The values in Table 9.8 were based on soil conditions for the irrigation of all
crops in various slopes. For bare ground and poor soil conditions reduce the
values by about 25 %.
Preliminary Design Procedure (Sprinkler Irrigation System)
1. Net Depth of Water Application
The depth of water application is the quantity of water, which should be applied during
irrigation in order to replenish the water used by the crop during evapotranspiration. The
computation of the net depth of water application requires the following inputs:
 the available soil moisture (FC-PWP)

 the allowable soil moisture depletion (MAD)
 the effective root zone depth of the crop (drz)
dnet = (FC-PWP) x drz x MAD
where:
dnet = net depth of water application per irrigation for the selected crop (mm)
FC = soil moisture at field capacity (mm/m)
PWP = soil moisture at the permanent wilting point (mm/m)
drz = the depth of soil that the roots exploit effectively (m)
MAD = the allowable portion of available moisture permitted for depletion by the crop
before the next irrigation
2. Irrigation Frequency at Peak Demand
The peak daily water use is the peak daily water requirement of the crop determined
by subtracting the rainfall (if any) from the peak daily crop water requirements.
Irrigation frequency is the time it takes the crop to deplete the soil moisture at a given
soil moisture depletion level.
𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐼𝑓 =
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐸𝑇𝑎
where:
If = irrigation frequency (day)
dnet = net depth of water application (mm)
peak ETa = actual evapotranspiration at peak period, mm/day
3. Gross Depth of Water Application
The gross depth of water application equals the net depth of irrigation divided
by the farm irrigation efficiency.
𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 =
𝐸𝑎
where:
dgross = gross depth of water application (mm)
dnet = net depth of water application (mm)
Ea = application efficiency
Table 9. Farm irrigation efficiencies for sprinkler irrigation in different climates

(Source: FAO, 1982)
Climate Farm Irrigation Efficiency, %
Cool 80
Moderate 75
Hot 70
Desert 65
4. Preliminary System Capacity
10 𝑥 𝐴 𝑥 𝑑𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 𝑁𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑥 𝑇
where:
Qprelim = preliminary system capacity, m3/h
A = design area, ha
dgross = gross depth of water application, mm
If = irrigation frequency, days
Nshift = number of shifts per day
T = irrigation time per shift, h
5. Final Design Procedure
Sprinkler and lateral spacing shall be decided based on the extent of field
area, source of water and type of sprinkler irrigation system. If wind is a major
factor in the area, Tables 9.10 and 9.11 may be used. Tables 9.10 and 9.11 show
the suggested spacing of sprinklers and laterals based on the wind velocity and
spacing pattern. Table 9.12 shows a sample suggested sprinkler spacing from a
manufacturer’s data, based on the sprinkler size.
Table 9.10. Maximum sprinkler spacing as related to wind velocity, rectangular

pattern
Average Wind Speed Spacing as Percent of Wetted Diameter (D)
(km/hr)
Up to 10 40% between sprinklers, 65% between laterals
10-15 40% between sprinklers, 60% between laterals
above 15 30% between sprinklers, 50% between laterals
SOURCE: FAO – Irrigation Manual Volume III – Module 8, 2001
Table 9.11. Maximum sprinkler spacing as related to wind velocity, square

pattern
Average Wind Speed Spacing as Percent of Wetted Diameter (D)
(km/hr)
Up to 5 55%
6-11 50%
13-19 45%
SOURCE: FAO – Irrigation Manual Volume III – Module 8, 2001
Table 9.12. Sprinkler Specifications and Suggested Spacing
Table 9.13. Sample sprinkler characteristics for a Head with Two Nozzles
5.1. Sprinkler Selection
Sprinklers shall be selected such that the average application rate is less than the
infiltration rate of the soil. Data are usually available from the manufacturer of the
sprinkler as shown in Table 9.12 and Table 9.13 or the theoretical nozzle discharge
of the nozzle can be computed as follows:
𝑞 = 𝑆𝑙 𝑆𝑚 𝑟 ; 𝑟 = 𝑞/𝑆𝑙 𝑆𝑚
1⁄
𝑞 = 0.00111 𝐶 𝑑𝑛2 𝑝 2
where:
q = discharge of each sprinkler, m3/h
Sl = sprinkler spacing along the lateral, m
Sm = sprinkler spacing along the main, m
r = application rate, mm/h
C = coefficient of discharge
dn = diameter of the nozzle orifice, mm
p = pressure at the nozzle, kPa
Table 9.14. Maximum precipitation rates to use on level ground (FAO, 2001)
Soil Type Maximum Precipitation Rates (mm/hr)
Light sandy soils 18-12
Medium textured soils 12-6
Heavy textured soils 6-2.5
Table 9.15. Precipitation rates reduction on sloping ground (FAO, 2001)

Slope, % Percent Reduction
0–5 0
6–8 20
9 – 12 40
13 – 20 60
> 20 75
Table 9.16. Suggested maximum sprinkler application rates for average soil,
slope and tilth (Source: Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
Slope
0 – 5% 5 – 8% 8 – 12% 12–16%
Soil texture and profile
Maximum application rate
mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr
Coarse sandy soil to 1.8 m 50 38 25 13
Coarse sand soils over more compact 38 25 19 10
soils
Light sandy loams to 1.8 m 25 20 15 10
Light sandy loams over more compact 19 13 10 8
soils
Silt loams to 1.8 m 13 10 8 5
Silt loams over more compact soils 8 6 4 2.5
Heavy textured clays or clay loams 4 2.5 2 1.5
5.2. System Capacity
Q = N c x Ns x q
where:
Q = system capacity, m3/h
Nc = number of laterals operating per shift
Ns = number of sprinklers per lateral
5.3. Determination of Pipe Sizes
5.3.1. The total pressure variation in the laterals, if practicable shall not be
more than ±10% of the design pressure.
5.3.2. If the lateral runs up or downhill, allowance for the difference in
elevation shall be made in determining the variation in the head.
5.3.3. The diameter of the main shall be adequate to supply the laterals in
each of their positions.
5.3.4. The position of the lateral that gives the highest friction loss in the
main shall be considered.
5.3.5. The allowable friction loss in the laterals is 20% of the average
pressure.
5.3.6. The velocity in the main line shall be less than or equal to 2 m/s.
5.4. Friction Loss in Main Lines
Friction loss in main lines can be determined using Hazen-Williams Equation,

Darcy Weisbach or other friction loss formula.
Hazen-Williams Equation:
𝑄 1.852
1.21 𝑥 1010 𝐿 ( 𝐶 )
𝐻𝑓 =
𝐷 4.87
where:
Hf = total friction loss in pipe with the same flow throughout, m
L = length of pipe, m
Q = total discharge, L/s
C = pipe roughness coefficient, 145 to 150 for plastic pipe, 120 for aluminum
pipe with couplers and new or coated steel pipe
D = inside diameter of pipe, mm
5.5. Friction Loss in Laterals
hf = Hf x F
where:
hf = friction loss in the lateral, m
Hf = total friction loss in pipe with the same flow throughout, m
F = correction factor depending on the number of outlets in the laterals (Table
9.17)
5.6. Average Pressure Head
𝑆𝑒 𝐿𝐿
𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑑 + 0.26ℎ𝑓 +
2
where:
Ha = average sprinkler pressure of a lateral, m
Hd = sprinkler pressure at the distal end of the lateral, m
Se = uniform slope of the lateral from the inlet – positive slope is uphill
LL = lateral length, m
Table 9.17. F factors for various numbers of outlets

Number of F Number of F
outlets outlets
1 1.000 14 0.370
2 0.625 15 0.367
3 0.518 16 0.365
4 0.469 17 0.363
5 0.440 18 0.361
6 0.421 19 0.360
7 0.408 20 0.369
8 0.398 21 0.357
9 0.391 22 0.355
10 0.385 23 0.353
11 0.380 24 0.351
12 0.376 25 0.350
13 0.373
SOURCE: Keller, J. and R.D. Bliesner. 1990. Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation
5.7. Sprinkler Pressure at the Inlet to the Lateral
𝑆𝑒 𝐿𝐿
𝐻𝑜 = 𝐻𝑎 + 0.74ℎ𝑓 +
2
where:
Ho = sprinkler pressure at the inlet to the lateral, m
Ha = average sprinkler pressure of a lateral, m
Se = uniform slope of the lateral from the inlet – positive slope is uphill
LL = lateral length, m
5.8. Total Dynamic Head
TDH = Hn + Hm + Hj + Hs
Hn = Ho + Hrh
where:
TDH = total dynamic head against which the pump is working, m
Hn = head required at the junction of the lateral and the main, m
Hm = maximum friction loss in the main and the suction line, m
Hj = elevation difference between the pump and the junction of the
lateral and the main, m
Hs = elevation difference between the pump and the water supply after
drawdown, m
Ho = sprinkler pressure at the inlet to the lateral, m
Hrh = riser height, m
Figure 9.2. Head Losses in a Sprinkler Irrigation System

(SOURCE: Fangmeier, D.D, et al. 2006. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Fifth Edition)
5.9. System Capacity
Q=qxN
where:
N = total number of sprinklers
5.10. Pump and Power Selection
𝑄 𝑥 𝑇𝐷𝐻
𝑃=
360 𝑥 𝐸𝑝
where:
P = power requirement, kW
TDH = total dynamic head against which the pump is working, m
Ep = pump efficiency from the pump performance chart
5.11. Other Components – The following components must be sized and

selected based on the parameters computed above:
 Fittings and pipes
 Protective cage for sprinklers
 Shed for power components
 Headworks
5.12. Map of Design – The map of design shall include the following:
 Map of the area
 System layout indicating the position of the mains and laterals
 Map of uphill and downhill flow
 Bill of quantities
III. Assessment
a. Given the field layout below (Figure A), (a) determine the TDH and Power
Requirement, and (b) draw a layout for the sprinkler irrigation system. Show
all computations and assumptions.
100 meters
Location of Pump
150 meters
90 meters
75 meters
Figure A. Field Layout (not to scale)
ABE 412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)
IV. References
Agulto, Ireneo C. 2002. Precision Irrigation System Planning Factors and General
Design Concepts. A Paper presented during the training on Precision
Irrigation System for High Productivity and Efficient Water Management
held on September 4-6, 2002 at the Water Resources Management Center,
Central Luzon State University, Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija.
Chow, Ven Te. 1959. Open-Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2001. Irrigation Manual:
Planning, Development Monitoring and Evaluation of Irrigated Agriculture
with Farmer Participation. Volume III, Module 8. SAFR/AGLW/DOC/003.
PAES 608:2016. Design of a Pressurized Irrigation System – Part A: Sprinkler

Irrigation.
Prepared by:
MARVIN M. CINENSE
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
College of Engineering, Central Luzon State University
Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija, 3120 Philippines
E-mail: marvin_cinense@clsu.edu.ph / marvin_cinense@clsu2.edu.ph

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ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Central Luzon State University

Instructional Module for the Course

This section discussed the open-channel and its classifications. It presents

II. Learning Activities

Definition of Open Channel

Top width, T – is the width of channel section at the free surface.

Figure 8.1. Channel section

For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by:

Where: Q = discharge (m3/s)

For a continuous steady flow, continuity equation is expressed as:

Figure 8.2. Typical parabolic velocity profile for a natural stream

Bernoulli’s principles, in fluid dynamics, presents the relationships between

Figure 8.3 Energy principles

Flow Measurement in Open Channels

 Slope-hydraulic Radius-Area Method – measurement of water surface slope, cross-

Classification of Open-Channel Flow

Uniform Flow and Varied Flow:

The state or behavior of open-channel flow is governed basically by the effects of

The flow may be laminar, turbulent, or transitional.

Where: R = hydraulic radius of a conduit

 An open-channel flow is laminar if the Reynolds number R is small and turbulent

𝐹 = 𝑉/√𝑔𝐿 (Eq. 8.4)

Where: V = mean velocity in fps

D = a/w (Eq. 8.5)

When F is equal to unity:

𝑽 = √𝒈𝑫 (Eq. 8.6)

And the flow is said to be in a critical state.

Figure 8.4. Depth-velocity relationship for four regimes of open-channel flow

Channel Geometry and Sections

Table 8.1. Geometric elements for different channel cross-sections

The velocity distribution in an open-channel flow (Figure 8.5) is quite non-uniform

In designing nonerodible channels, factors to be considered are:

e) the most efficient section, either hydraulically or empirically determined.

Nonerodible Material and Lining

Minimum Permissible Velocity

Figure 8.5. Velocity distribution in an open-channel flow

By trial and error:

𝐴 = 𝑦 (𝑏 + 𝑧𝑦) = 1.5 (6 + 1(1.5) = 11.25 𝑚2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 0.307 < 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 = √𝐶𝑦 (Equation 8.11)

Where: y = depth of water in the canal, ft

Figure 8.6. Recommended freeboard and height of bank of lined channels

Best Hydraulic Section

Table 8.2. Best Hydraulic Section

Specific Energy and Critical Flow

Where: E = specific energy (m, ft)

Figure 8.7. Specific Energy

Where: F = Froude number (unitless)

Where: A = flow area (m2, ft2)

Determination of Section Dimensions

Substituting A and R in the above equation:

𝐴 = (20 + 2 𝑥 3.36) 𝑥 3.36 = 89.78𝑓𝑡 2

Therefore, the total depth (D = y + Freeboard) of the channel is 5.96 ft.,

For Best Hydraulic Section (Trapezoidal section):

The water area, 𝐴 = √3(6.6)2 = 75.45𝑓𝑡 2

The Maximum Permissible Velocity

The maximum permissible velocity or nonerodible velocity, is the greatest mean

Design Velocity Criteria: