OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

1. TYPES OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Open channel are natural or manmade conveyance structure which has a free surface at
atmospheric pressure. For example, flow in rivers, streams, flow in sanitary and storm sewers
flowing partially full. The flow of liquid through a channel with a free surface is defined as
open channel flow. This free surface of the liquid is subjected to atmosferic pressure. The flow
in an open channel takes place duw to gravity. That is achievedby providing a bed slope.

A trapezoidal shaped open channel

Types of open
channel flow

Unsteady flow Steay flow

Unsteady Unsteady Steady uniform Steady non-

uniform flow non-uniform flow uniform flow
flow

Gradually Varied Rapidly Varied Flow

Gradually Varied Rapidly Varied Flow (GVF) (RVF)
non-uniform flow non-uniform
flow

Accelerating flow Deccelerating flow

Figure 1. Classification of open channel flows

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The fluid flow is a uniform flow if the flow parameters remain constant with distance along the
flow path. And the fluid flow is non-uniform if the flow parameters vary and are different at
different points on the flow path.

For uniform flow S0  S E  S w

Definisions
Flume is the channel made of wood, metal, concrete or masonry usually supported on or
above to carry out water across a depression. 
A chute is a channel having steep slopes.
A drop is similar to chute but the change in the elevation is effected in a short distance.
A culvert when partially full is a covered channel installed to drain water through highways or
railways embankment.
A channel in which the cross sectional shape, size and the bottom slope are constant is termed
as prismatic channel.

All natural channels generally have varying cross section and consequently are nonprismatic.
Most of the man made channel are prismatic channels over long stretches. The rectangle,
trapezoid, triangle and circle are commonly used shapes in manmade channels.

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Rigid channels are those in which the boundary is not deformable. The shape and roughness
magnitudes are not functions of flow parameters. For example, lined canals and non erodible
unlined canals.

When the boundary of the channel is mobile and flow carries considerable amounts of sediment
through suspension and is in contact with the bed. Such channels are classified as mobile
channels. In the mobile channel, not only depth of flow but also bed width, longitudinal slope
of channel may undergo changes with space and time depending on type of flow.

The Froude Number (Fr) is a dimensionless parameter measuring the ratio of "the inertia
force on a element of fluid to the weight of the fluid element" - the inertial force divided by
gravitational force.

v
Fr  (1)
g D

in which v=average velocity, D Hydraulic depth (D =A/T=Wetted perimeter/channel open

surface) ve g acceleration of gravity.

Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to determine the type of flow
pattern as laminar or turbulent while flowing through a pipe. Reynolds number is defined by
the ratio of inertial forces to that of viscous forces.

İnertial forces V . D
Re   (2)
Viscous forces 

Where V = average velocity, D= pipe diameter and=viscosity of the fluid.

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2. FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
2.1. Continuity Equation

A1 v 1  A2 v 2  Q (3)

A=wetter area, V=average velocity, Q=discharge

2.2. Energy Equation

p v2
Bernoulli Equation z  C H (4)
 2g

where z= height above reference level (m), v = average velocity of fluid (m/s), p = pressure of
fluid (Pa),and g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

Figure 3. Open channel flow

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Writing energy equation between sections (1) ve (2) for ideal flow (inviscid flow =0)

p1 v2 p v2
z1     1  z2  2    2 (5)
 2g  2g

z =elevation above datum (potential head), p/ = pressure head ve v2/2g =velocity head

p v2
H  z    (6)
 2g

where  = kinetic energy correction factor

1
3 
 u 3  dA (7)
A v

where u= velocity at each point of the cross section, v = average veocity ve A wetted area. Its
value for a fully developed laminar pipe flow is around 2, whereas for a turbulent pipe flow it is
between 1.04 to 1.11. It is usual to take it is 1 for a turbulent flow. It should not be neglected
for a laminar flow.

Figure 4. (a) Uniform flow

For channels with small slopes, θ ≈ sinθ and p   h . For channels with large slopes

Figure 4. (b) Uniform flow

Pressure distribution in a channel with large slope can be computed by
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 p   h  cos  (8)

The specific energy E of a liquid in an open channel is the total mechanical energy (expressed
as a head) relative to the bottom of the channel (z=0).

v2
E  H 0  h  cos     (9)
2g

Pressure distribution in curvilinear flow

Figure 5. Pressure flow in open channe flow; a) uniform flow, b) convex curvilinear flow
c) concave curvilinear flow

p  v2 
 h  1   (convex curvilinear flow) (10-a)
  g r 

p  v2 
 h  1   (concave curvilinear flow) (10-b)
  g r 

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 Figure 6. Speific energy head

dz
I0    sin  bottom slope (14-a)
dx

dh
Iw   water surface slope (11-b)
dx

dH
IE   energy line slope (11-c)
dx

In the text I 0  S 0 , I E  S f , I w  S w are used interchangeably

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2.2.1. Specific Energy, Flow Regimes and Types of Channel

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 Figure 7. Specific energy

Şekil 8. Specific energy and flow depth relation

v  Q A and   1

Q2
E h  (15)
2 g  A2

dE Q 2 dA
1  
dh g  A 3 dh

Q 2 Akr3
 (13)
g T kr

Akr /T Kr  D kr ve v kr  Q / Akr

v kr2
Fr 2  1  (14)
g  D kr

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 v kr2
E min  hkr 
2g

Constant discharge situation

For constant Q and E>Emin two different flow depths with same specific energy can occur:
a) For subcritical flow h2=hsub>hkr average velocity is vsub<vkr and Fr<1.
b) For supercritical flow h1=hsup<hkr average velocity is vsup>vkr and Fr>1

Varying discharge situation

The specific energy diagram can be plotted for discharges Q = Qi = constant (i = 1, 2, 3,…) as
in the figüre below. As the discharges increase, the specific energy curves moves right since the
specific energy increases with the discharge.

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Characteristics of Subcritical and Supercritical Flows

Wave celerity at shallow water depths is defined as

c  g h (15)

Figure 9. Behavior of waves generated on the water surface in different flow regimes

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 Table Hata! Belgede belirtilen stilde metne rastlanmadı.. Flow regimes, characteristics abd
channel types

Average
Flow Slope Froude Channel
Flow regime velocity
Depth (h) (S) (Fr) type
(v)
Subcritical h>hkr v<vkr S<Ikr Fr<1 M
Critical flow hkr vkr S=Ikr Fr=1 C
Supercritical h<hkr v>vkr S>Ikr Fr>1 S

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 Q2 Q2 n2
I   (16)
k st2  A 2  R 4 3
A2  R 4 3

P =wetted perimeter, A= flow area, Q=discharge, R=hydraulic radius

A
R (17)
P

Figure Hata! Belgede belirtilen stilde metne rastlanmadı.0. E=f(h) for Q=constant and
I=f(h)for E=constant

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2.3. Impulse-Momentum Equation

Newton’s Second law of Motion (F=m·a)

 
dv d 
F m  mv  (18)
dt dt

d
F 
dt
  V v      Q  2 v 2    Q  1 v 1 

where V average velocity, ß momentum correction factor.

F  P1  P2  PU  FG  sin  (19)

where  density of water, PU frictional force acting on the control volume along the wet
perimeter U, FG·sin component of water weight in the flow direction ve Pi hydrosatic
pressure force

Pi   p  dA
A

Figure Hata! Belgede belirtilen stilde metne rastlanmadı.1. Momentum equation

Taking FG  sin   0 for a horizontal channel and PU=0 for a short lehgth control volume

  Q  1 v 1  P1    Q  2 v 2  P2 (20)

where P1 and P2 = hydrostatic pressure forces at (1) ve (2) sections of control volume.
Dividing the momentum equation by spesific weight of the fluid, spesific force (M0) is found.
Thus, Specific force is the sum of the momentum flowrate and the hydrostatic thrust on a

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cross sectional area normal to a parallel flow, divided by the specific weight of the flowing
liquid. It has the dimensions of length cubed and is also known by other names
including specific momentum and specific thrust.

P   Q   v P Q2
M0     (21)
   g A

Where  =momentum correction factor and is given by

1
2 
 u 2 dA (22)
A v

where u= velocity at each point of the cross section, v = average veocity ve A flow area.

Hydrostatic pressure force can be found by

P   h  A (23)

Where h is the vertical distance of the center of gravity of the flow section to the water
surface (Figure Hata! Belgede belirtilen stilde metne rastlanmadı.).

Thus the specific force equation in a short horizontal or near horizontal channel is

M0 1  M0 2 (24)

Q2 Q2
A1  h1  1  A2  h2  2 (25)
g  A1 g  A2

3. VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNELS

As the ratio of the width of the channel to its depth decreases and the surface roughness
increases, secondary currents that affect the velocity distribution of open channel flows occur.
(Hata! Başvuru kaynağı bulunamadı.2-b, c, d). When these secondary currents are
superposed with the main longitudinal stream flow, they cause the water particles on the wall
to be transmitted to the water surface and cause a decrease in velocities close to the surface
(Figure 12-b, c, d).

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Figure 12. Velocity distribution in open channel

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IMPORTANT NOTE: These lecture notes are not an original work. They are compiled from
the main reference book of the IM 473 Water Resources Engineering 1 course, "Hydraulics of
Open Channel Flows and Hydraulic Structures" and various other sources. These notes were
prepared for online education purposes only within the scope of Gazi University Faculty of
Engineering Civil Engineering Department 2020-2021 Fall Semester Online Education
Program and cannot be reproduced or used as a source in any way.

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