3.

FLOW THROUGH OPEN CHANNELS

3.1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

A “channel” is a passage through which liquid flows with its free liquid surface exposed to
atmosphere and it does so under the influence of its weight or a passage through which
water flows under atmospheric pressure.

An open channel is a conduit through which liquid flows with a free surface as a result of
gravity. The pressure at the surface of the liquid is constant at all points along the length of
the channel, and this pressure is usually atmospheric. A pipe which is partly full and which
has a free surface is an open channel. It is important to distinguish this situation from a pipe
flowing full under pressure, such as a pipeline discharging from a reservoir.

Thus, the flow in open channels is due to the force of gravity (e.g. flow in a canal, a sewer or
an aqueduct, the flow is said to be through an open channel). The slope of the channel
therefore, influences greatly the flow condition conditions in it. The longitudinal slope of the
free liquid surface is the “hydraulic gradient” of the open channel.

3.2. PRINCIPLES OF FLOWS IN OPEN CHANNELS

In channels, the flow of water takes place with a free surface which is subjected to
atmospheric pressure; in the case of flow through a pipe there is no free surface as in the
case of flow through a channel. This is so because the water flowing in a pipe is under
pressure, which at any section of a pipe is indicated by the level of water column in a
piezometric tube installed on the pipe at the section (see Fig. 1).

1
In the case of channel flow, the water surface itself is the hydraulic grade line. However, the
total energy lines in both the cases lie at a distance of (𝑉 2 /2𝑔) above the hydraulic grade
line at every section, where 𝑉 is the mean velocity of flow at the section. Since the pressure
on the top surface of water in a channel is constant, no pressure difference can be built up
between any two sections along the channel as in the case of pipes.
3.3. VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN A CHANNEL SECTION
The velocity of flow at any channel section is not uniformly distributed. The non-uniform
distribution of velocity in an open channel is due to the presence of a free surface and the
frictional resistance along the channel boundary. The velocity distribution in a channel is
measured either with the help of a pitot tube or a current meter. The general patterns for
velocity distribution as represented by lines of equal velocity, in some of the common
channel sections are illustrated below.

In a straight reach of a channel, maximum velocity usually occurs below the free surface at a
distance of 0.05 to 0.15 of the depth of flow. The velocity distribution in a channel section
depends on the various factors such as the shape of the section, the roughness of the
channel and the presence of bends in the channel alignment.

2
3.4. CLASSIFICATION OF CHANNELS

(1.) Classification on the basis of the nature of formation of a channel.

(a) Natural channel: - is a channel which is formed by the ‘natural processes’ and has
irregular sections of varying shapes; e.g. natural drainage channels, rivers, and
stream.
(b) Artificial channel: - is a channel which is ‘man-made’, for carrying water for various
purposes. This has its cross-section with fairly well maintained regular geometrical
shape which, usually remain the same throughout its length and lifetime.
It has defined characteristics like width, roughness, bed slope, etc. and such channels
may be further classified according to the shapes of their cross-sections as: -
Rectangular, Trapezoidal, Triangular, Parabolic and Circular channels.

(2.) Classification on the basis whether the channel is covered at the top or open.
(a) Uncovered-type channel: - which is completely open to the atmosphere (e.g. canals
& rivers).
(b) Covered type channel: - which is completely covered and always run partially full in
order that the flow of the liquid is a channel flow with atmospheric pressure
prevailing over the entire top surface (e.g. closed conduits/pipes partially full of
liquid, underground drains, tunnels, sanitary sewers, etc.).

(3.) Classification on the basis of Variation in the cross-sectional shape and the bottom
slope along the channel length.
(a) Prismatic channel: - has definite and the same shape/cross-section at various
sections along its length and, is laid on a constant bottom slope.
(b) Non-prismatic channel: - has different shapes at various sections and/or has varying
bottom slope along its length.
(4.) Classification on the basis Erodibility of the Channel Surfaces
(a) Non-erodible channel: - which is made of hard surfaces that do not erode with flow.
(b) Erodible channel: - whose surfaces are affected by the erosion action of the flow.
Most rivers and canals irrigation and flood control have alluvial (sand) sections which
are erodible. Hence their study requires knowledge of sediment transport.

(5.) Classification on the basis of construction treatment of the surfaces of the channel its
formation.
(a) Lined channel
(b) Unlined channel

3
3.5. GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF A CHANNEL SECTION

The geometrical properties of a channel section can be defined by the geometry of the
section and the depth of flow: -

(1.) Depth of flow, (𝒚): - is the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel section from
the free surface.
(2.) Depth of flow-section, (𝒅): - is the depth of flow normal to the channel bed.
𝒅 = 𝒚cos𝜽 ……………………………………………….2.1 (i)

Free Liquid Surface

𝒚 X
𝒅 = 𝒚cos𝜃
90o

𝜃o
X

Where, 𝜃 = angle of bed slope of the channel;

Since the channels are laid on very small slopes, cos𝜃 ≈ 1 and thus, d ≈ 𝑦

3.1. Figure 2.1 Shows Depth of flow Section, (𝒅); and Depth of flow, (𝒚)

(3.) Wetted perimeter, (𝑷): - is the length of the channel boundary in contact with the
flowing water at any section.

(4.) Cross Sectional area of flow, (𝑨): - is the cross-sectional area of the flow section of the
channel. It is taken as a vertical section 𝑿-𝑿.

(5.) Channel Top width, (𝑻): - is the width of the channel section at the free surface of the
flowing liquid in it.
𝒅𝑨
This can be expressed as: - 𝑻 = …………………………………………………………2.1(ii)
𝒅𝒚

(6.) Hydraulic radius, (𝑹) : - is the ratio of the c/s area of flow, (𝑨), to its corresponding
wetted perimeter, (𝑷):
𝑨
𝑹 = 𝑷 ……………..………………………………………………..2.1(iii)
Examples:-

(a) Pipe of diameter , “𝑫”, running full of water:-

4
 𝝅
𝑨 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 and 𝑷 = 𝝅𝑫
𝑫 Therefore,
𝜋 2
𝐴 𝐷 𝑫
4
𝑹=𝑃= = ………………………………..2.1(iii)a
𝜋𝐷 𝟒

(b) Pipe of diameter, “𝑫”, NOT running full of water:-

𝒓
Let 𝒓 = radius of the pipe
𝒓𝟐
𝑫 𝐴 𝟐
(𝜽−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽ሻ
𝑹= = …………………..2.1(iii)b
𝑃 𝒓𝜽
𝜽

𝐴 𝑩.𝒚
𝑹= = ………………………….2.1(iii)c
𝒚 𝑃 𝑩+𝟐𝒚

3.2. Figure 2.2 Determination of Wetted Perimeter and Hydraulic

Radius

(7.) Hydraulic Mean depth (H.M.D.), (𝑫): - is the ratio of the wetted area, (A), to its
corresponding top width:
𝑨
𝑫 = 𝑻 ……………..………………………………………………..2.1(iv)
NB:- This represents a rectangular area (𝑻 x 𝑫), having the same area as that of a c/s
area the flow

(8.) Free board: - is the vertical distance from the top of the channel to the water surface.
This free surface is required to prevent overflowing due to waves and fluctuations.
(9.) Bed slope, (𝑺𝒐 ): - is the longitudinal slope of the bed of the channel.
𝑺𝒐 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽; since 𝜃 is very small ……………………………………2.1(v)

5
(10) Hydraulic slope, (𝑺𝒇 ): - is the slope of energy line.
𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔, (𝒉𝒇 ሻ 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝐿
i.e., 𝑺𝒇 = ; ……………………………………2.1(vi)
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝑳ሻ

(11) Water Surface slope, (𝑺𝒘 ): - is the slope of the water surface line at any section.
If the depth (y) varies along the length (x) of the channel, then dy/dx is the slope of the
water surface line at the section
Note: - the water surface line in a channel represents the hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L.)

3.6. TYPES OF FLOW CONDITIONS IN CHANNELS

The “flow” in channels can be classified into the following types depending on the change in
the “flow characteristics (e.g. velocity, pressure, viscosity, etc.)” with respect to ‘space’ and
‘time’:-
3.6.1. STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW CONDITIONS
(a) Steady flow: - in which the flow characteristics at any point do not change with time;
𝒅𝑭
( 𝒅𝒕𝒄 = 𝟎).
Where, ‘𝑭𝒄 ’ designates the flow characteristic, and ‘𝒕’ stands for time.
Note: - in prismatic channels, steady flow condition may be obtained if only the
𝒅𝒚
depth of flow (𝒚) does not change with time, i.e., =0
𝒅𝒕
(b) Unsteady flow: - in which any one of the flow characteristics at any point changes
𝒅𝑭
with time; ( 𝒅𝒕𝒄 ≠ 𝟎).

3.6.2. UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW CONDITIONS

(a) Uniform flow: - in which flow characteristics at any time do not change with
𝒅𝑭
space; ( 𝒅𝒔𝒄 = 𝟎).
• For uniform flow in an open channel everything must be constant, that is the
discharge (Q), depth (D), breadth (B) and mean velocity (V) of the flow are the
same at all cross-sections along the length of the channel. These variables are
related by the continuity equation, Q = AV = BDV
• The depth, slope, cross-section, and velocity remain constant over a given length
of the channel.
• This can occur only in a prismatic channel in which the flow will be uniform if
𝒅𝒚
only the depth of flow (y) is the same at every section of the channel, ( 𝒅𝒔 = 𝟎).
(b) Non-Uniform flow: - in which the flow characteristics at any time changes with
𝒅𝑭
space; ( 𝒅𝒔𝒄 ≠ 𝟎).
• Non-uniform flow is basically the opposite of uniform flow. Although, the
discharge passing all the cross-sections along the length of a channel may be

6
 constant, the depth, breadth and mean velocity of flow may change gradually
from section to section.
• The depth of flow (y) changes from section to section, along the length of the
𝒅𝒚
channel, ( 𝒅𝒔 ≠ 𝟎).
• This type of flow may further be sub-divided into two types:-
(i) Rapidly Varied Flow, (R.V.F.): - in which the depth of flow changes abruptly
over a comparatively short distance (e.g. hydraulic jump and hydraulic drop).
(ii) Gradually Varied Flow, (G.V.F.): - in which the changes in depth of flow takes
place gradually in a long reach of the channel.

3.6.3. LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW CONDITIONS

Depending on the relative effect of ‘viscous force’ and ‘inertia force’, whose measure is:
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑖 𝝆𝒗𝑹
“Reynold’s number”; i.e., 𝑹𝒆 = (= ) ………………………………2.1(vii)
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑣 𝝁

Where; 𝑹 = hydraulic radius (or Hydraulic Mean Depth, H.M.D.);

𝒗 = mean velocity of flow;
𝝆, and 𝝁 = mass density and absolute (dynamic) viscosity, respectively.
From the experimental data, ikt has been found:
𝑹𝒆 < 500 ……………….. for Laminar flow;
500 ≤ 𝑹𝒆 ≤ 2000 ……………… for Transitional state of flow; and
𝑹𝒆 > 2000. ……………..for Turbulent flow
3.6.4. SUB-CRITICAL, CRITICAL AND SUPER-CRITICAL FLOW CONDITIONS

Because gravity is a predominant force in the case of channel flow, again depending on the
relative effect of ‘gravity’ and ‘inertia’ forces in the channel flow, another parameter called:
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑖 𝒗
“Froude’s Number”, i.e., 𝑭𝒓 = (= ) ……………………………………2.1(viii)
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑣 √𝒈𝑫
This is used to classify the flow in channels.
Where; 𝒗 = mean velocity of flow;
𝒈 = acceleration due to gravity; and
𝑫 = hydraulic depth of channel flow.
𝑭𝒓 < 1 (i.e., 𝒗 < √𝒈𝑫) ………………for Sub-critical flow (or ‘Tranquil’, or ‘Streaming’ flow);
𝑭𝒓 = 1 (i.e., 𝒗 = √𝒈𝑫) ………………for Critical flow; and
𝑭𝒓 > 1 (i.e., 𝒗 > √𝒈𝑫) …………...…for Super-critical flow (or ‘Rapid’ or ‘Shooting’ flow)

3.7. OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORM FLOW

The flow of water in an open channel is not due to any pressure as in the case of pipe flow;
but it is due to slope of the bed of the channel. Thus, during the construction of a channel,
a uniform slope in its bed is provided to maintain the flow of water.

7
The conditions of flow in steady uniform flow are such that depths of flow, average velocity,
etc do not change with respect to time, and also remain the same for all sections along the
channel. Uniform flow is possible in case of prismatic channel.

The actual conditions of flow vary with respect to time. the velocity of flow is different at
different points in the cross-section of a channel; but all calculations are based on the mean
velocity of flow. To simplify these conditions steady flow conditions are assumed. So, we
refer to the condition in which the rate of discharge, depth of flow, velocity, slope bed, and
cross-sectional area remain constant over the given length of the channel.

3.7.1. CHEZY’S EQUATION OF FLOW

(1.) BASIC EQUATION

By Chezy Antoine de, (1775) an French Engineer

𝒉𝒇 = 𝑺𝒇 . L
𝒗𝟐 /𝟐𝒈 𝑺𝒇

𝒗 𝑺𝒘
𝒗
𝑭𝟏 𝒚 𝑾𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

𝑭𝟐

𝒛 = 𝑺𝒐 𝑳 𝑾 𝑺𝒐
𝝉𝒐 𝑳
𝜽
Figure 2.1 Steady Uniform Flow

For a Steady Uniform flow: 𝑺𝒐 = 𝑺𝒘 = 𝑺𝒇

𝑺𝒐 𝑳 = 𝑺𝒇 . 𝐿 or 𝒛 = 𝒉𝒇

Consider an open channel of uniform cross-section and bed slope, 𝑺.

Let, 𝑳 = Length of the channel; 𝑨 = flow c/s area; 𝑷 = wetted perimeter of the flow c/s area; 𝒇 =
frictional resistance per unit area at unit velocity; and 𝑺 = uniform bed slope.
The total frictional resistance, in the length, 𝑳, of the channel follow the law:
Frictional Resistance = 𝒇 x 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 x (𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚ሻ𝒏
𝑭 = 𝑓 x (𝑃𝐿ሻ x 𝑣 𝑛 ………………………………………2.2(i)
Where the 𝒏 -value has been found experimentally to be nearly equal to 2 (But, practically
taken as 2); and so put 𝒏 = 2 in eqn. (i)
Since the water moves through a distance 𝑣 in one second, then work done in overcoming
friction:

8
 = 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 x 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= [𝑓 x (𝑃𝐿ሻ x 𝑣 2 ] x 𝑣 = 𝒇(𝑷𝑳ሻ𝒗𝟑 ………………....………………….2.2(ii)
The weight of water in the channel in a length, 𝑳 is:
𝑾 = 𝜸𝑨𝑳 (where, 𝜸 = unit weight of water)
This water will fall vertically down by a distance equal to “𝒗 ∗ 𝑺” during one second.
Therefore, Loss of potential energy = Weight of water, (𝑾) x Height fallen, (𝒗 ∗ 𝑺)
= (𝜸𝑨𝑳ሻ(𝒗𝑺ሻ ……………………………………………………2.2(iii)

Note that, work done in overcoming friction = Loss of potential energy, i.e.’
𝒇(𝑷𝑳ሻ𝒗𝟑 = (𝜸𝑨𝑳ሻ(𝒗𝑺ሻ or 𝒇𝑷𝒗𝟐 = 𝜸𝑨𝑺; which on solving for v we get:-
𝜸 𝑨
𝒗 = (√𝒇) √𝑷 𝑺;

𝜸
Where, (√𝒇) = 𝑪, (known as Chezy’s coefficient); and
𝑨
𝑷
= 𝑹, (known as hydraulic mean depth, or hydraulic radius).
Therefore, Chezy’s equation of flow:
𝒗 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 …………………………………………….. 2.2(iv)

EXAMPLES-2.1

Q1. A rectangular channel has a width of 2.5 m and slope of 1 in 400. Find the depth of flow if the
discharge is 10 m3/s. Use Chezy’s formula.

Solution:-
Let 𝑦 = depth of flow. Given channel width, 𝑩= 2.5 m, then Area of flow, 𝐴 =
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝐵 x 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ, 𝑦 = 2.5𝑦. Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 = 2.5 + 2𝑦.
𝐴 2.5𝑦
Then the hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = = .
𝑃 2.5 + 2𝑦
1
Given discharge 𝑄 = 10 m3/s; Chezy’s coefficient, 𝐶 = 50; and channel slope, 𝑆 = 400 for
𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗 = 𝑨 ∗ 𝑪√𝑹𝑺
2.5𝑦 1 2.5𝑦 1.6 2
10 = 2.5𝑦 x 50√(2.5 + 2𝑦) (400) which becomes (2.5 + 2𝑦) = ( 𝑦 )
OR 𝑦 3 − 2.05𝑦 − 2.56 = 0 . Solving by trial-and-error, we get: - 𝒚 = 1.85 m

(1.) MODIFIED MOODY DIAGRAM COR CHEZY, “𝑪”

Q2. Water is flowing at the rate of 8.5 m3/s in an earthen trapezoidal channel with bed width 9 m,
water depth 1.2 m and side slope 1:2. Calculate the bed slope if the C-value in Chezy’s
formula is 49.5.

Solution:-

9
 1
𝒚

z Side slopes 𝐙H:1V=1H : 2V

= ½𝑯: 𝟏V
𝑩 Therefore, z = ½

Given: Discharge, 𝑸 = 8.5 m3/s, Bed width, 𝑩 = 9m

Flow depth, 𝒚 = 1.2 m, and Chezy’s constant, 𝑪 = 49.5.
1
Flow c/s area, 𝑨 = 𝒚(𝑩 + 𝒛𝒚ሻ = 1.2(9 + ∗ 1.2ሻ = 11.52 m2
2
1 2
Wetted perimeter, 𝑷 = 𝑩 + 𝟐𝒚√𝒛𝟐 + 𝟏 = 9 + 2 x 1.2 x √(2) + 1 = 11.68 m
𝑨 11.52
Hydraulic mean depth, 𝑹 = = = 0.986
𝑷 11.68
Discharge, 𝑸 = 𝑨 ∗ 𝒗 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝐶√𝑅𝑆 = 11.52 x 49.5 x √0.986 𝑆
8.5 2 𝟏
Therefore, 8.5 = 566.23√ 𝑺; 𝑺 = (566.23) = 𝟒𝟒𝟑𝟖 Answer

(2.) MODIFIED MOODY DIAGRAMS

The Chezy coefficient varies with roughness, 𝒌𝒔 and Reynolds number, 𝑹𝒆 inversely as does
𝒇 in Darcy-Weisbach equation. Modified Moody diagrams shown in Appendix 2.1, represent
𝟐𝑹
the variation of 𝑪 with 𝑹𝒆 and “Relative Roughness (= )”.
𝒌𝒔
Table 2.1 can be used in conjunction with table 2.7 and figure in 2.10 in Appendix 2.1 to find
appropriate 𝑪-values. Note that Chezy’s 𝑪 is not identical in English and SI units.
𝟖𝒈 𝑪𝑺𝑰 𝟗.𝟖
Since 𝑪 = √ 𝒇 , where 𝒇 is dimensionless, = √𝟑𝟐.𝟐 = 0.552, and therefore,
𝑪𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉

𝑪𝑺𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝑪𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 ………………………………………………….2.2(vii).

EXAMPLES-2.2
Q1. A very smooth cement plastered surface (𝒌𝒔 = 0.0003) forms an open channel 0.6 m wide
which carries a flow of 0. 25 m3/s at a depth of 0.5 m. Find the values of C and S.

Solution:-
Given: - Roughness 𝒌𝒔 = 0.0003 m; Discharge, 𝑸 = 0.25 m3/s; Channel width, B = 0.6 m; and
flow depth 𝒚 = 0.5 m.
𝑨 𝑩𝒚 0.6 x 0.5
Hydraulic radius, 𝑹 = = = = 0.1875 m
𝑷 𝑩+ 𝟐𝒚 0.6+( 2 x 0.5ሻ
𝑄 0.25
Flow velocity, 𝑣 = 𝐴 = (0.6 x 0.5) m/s
2𝑅 2 x 0.1875
Relative roughness, 𝑘 = = 1250
𝑠 0.0003

10
 0.25
𝟒𝒗𝑹 4x( ) x 0.1875
0.6 x 0.5
Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 = = = 625,000 (assume kinematic viscosity of
𝝂 1 𝐱 10−6
-6 2 o
water 𝜈 = 1 x 10 m /s at 20 C).
Use table 2.7 and figure 2.10 in Appendix 2.1; 𝑪 ≈ 125 (in English units).
In SI units, 𝑪𝑺𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝑪𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 = 0.552 x 125 = 69.
0.25 2
𝒗𝟐 ( )
0.6 x 0.5
From velocity of flow, 𝒗 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺; Channel bed slope, 𝑺 = 𝑪𝟐 𝑹 = (69ሻ2 x 0.1875
≈ 0.00078
Note:- “Zones” of Flow Condition as indicated in the figure2.10 in Appendix 2.1 may be
described mathematically by the equations in Table 2.1: -

Q2. Determine C-value in Q1. using the appropriate equation in the following table.

3.8. Table 2.1 C-values of Different Zones of Turbulent Flow Condition

𝑪-value
Zone (in English units)
𝒈 = 32.2 ft2/s (SI units)
𝟏/𝟖
𝑨 𝟐𝟖. 𝟔 𝑹𝒆
𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟓𝑹𝒆
𝑪𝑺𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝑪𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉
𝑩 𝟑𝟐. 𝟏 [𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )]
𝟐. 𝟓𝟏𝑪
𝑪 𝟏𝟐𝑹 𝜸
(Fully Rough Zone 𝟑𝟐. 𝟏 [𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )] Generally, 𝑪 = √𝒇
or Manning) 𝒌𝒔
Where 𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈 : 𝝆 = density
𝑫 𝒌𝒔 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏𝑪
−𝟑𝟐. 𝟏 [𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( + )] 𝒈 = 9.81 m/s2
(Transition Zone) 𝟏𝟐𝑹 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟓𝑹𝒆
𝟐𝑹 𝟒𝒗𝑹
Note:- Relative Roughness = and Reynolds Number, 𝑹𝒆 = ;
𝒌𝒔 𝝂
Where; 𝒌𝒔 = Absolute roughness; 𝑹 = Hydraulic Mean Radius; 𝒗 = Flow velocity, and
𝝂 = kinematic viscosity

Solution:-
𝟐𝑹
Given: - Relative roughness, = 1250 and Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 = 625,000. These values
𝒌𝒔
plot in the “Transition Zone, (𝑫)” in figure in Appendix 2.2.
𝒔 𝒌 𝟐.𝟓𝟏𝑪
So the appropriate equation to be used is −𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝟏𝟐𝑹 + ]
𝟏𝟔.𝟎𝟓𝑹𝒆
𝑪 = −32.1𝑙𝑜𝑔[(1.333 x 10−4 ሻ + ( 2.492 x 10−7 ሻ𝐶] or
𝑪 = −32.1𝑙𝑜𝑔10−4 [(1.333 ሻ + ( 2.492 x 10−3 ሻ𝐶]
𝑪 = −32.1𝑙𝑜𝑔10−4 − 32.1𝑙𝑜𝑔[(1.333 ሻ + ( 2.492 x 10−3 ሻ𝐶]
𝑪 + 32.1𝑙𝑜𝑔(1.333 + 0. 00025𝐶ሻ = −32.1𝑙𝑜𝑔10−4 = (−32.1ሻ x (−4ሻ
𝑪 + 32.1𝑙𝑜𝑔(1.333 + 0. 00025𝐶ሻ = 128.4
Solving by trial-and-error, gives 𝑪 = 121 (English units) thus, 𝑪𝑺𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝑪𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 =
0.552 x 121 = 66.79 (Ans.)

11
3.8.1. MANNING’S EQUATION OF FLOW

Manning, after carrying out a series of experiments, deduced the following relation for the
value of 𝑪:
𝟏
𝑪 = 𝒏 𝑹𝟏/𝟔 …………………………………………………………….2.2(ix).
Where n = Manning’s constant
𝟏
Then, the velocity, 𝒗 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 = 𝑹𝟏/𝟔 √𝑹𝑺; and thus,
𝒏
𝟏
𝒗 = 𝒏 𝑹𝟐/𝟑 𝑺𝟏/𝟐 ……………………………………….…2.2(ix).

3.9. Table: 2.2 Values of Manning’s Roughness Coefficient

Manning’s
Material
S/N. “𝒏”
1. Glass, Plastic, machined metal 0.010
2. Dressed timber, joints flush 0.011
3. Sawn timber, joints uneven 0.014
4. Cement plaster 0.011
5. Concrete steel- troweled 0.012
6. Concrete, timber forms, unfinished 0.014
7. Untreated Gunite 0.016
8. Brickwork or dressed masonry 0.014
9. Rubble set in cement 0.017
10. Earth, smooth, no weeds 0.020
11. Earth, some stones and weeds 0.025

3.9.1. EMPIRICAL RELATIONS FOR C-VALUE IN THE CHEZY’S FORMULA

The constant “𝑪” [ref: eqn 2.2(vi)] depends on Reynolds number, Relative roughness of the
surface, and shape of channel section. But it is difficult to know exact effect of all these
factors, therefore following empirical formulae are used to determine the 𝑪-values.
The important relations are:- (i) Bazin’s formula(1897), and (ii) Kutter’s formula.

3.9.2. BAZIN’S FORMULA FOR CHEZY’S CONSTANT “C”:-

By Bazin Henry –Emile(1897), a French Engineer

𝟏𝟓𝟕.𝟔
𝑪 = 𝑲 ………………………………………………………….2.2(viii)
𝟏.𝟖𝟏+
√𝑹
Where; 𝑹 = hydraulic mean depth; and 𝑲 = a constant, - known as “Bazin’s constant”,
whose value depends on the roughness of the channel surface (Ref table: 2.3).

EXAMPLES-2.3

Q1. An earthen channel with a base 3 m wide and side slope 1:1 carries water with a depth of 1 m.
If the bed slope is 1 in1, 600 estimate the discharge. Use n = 0.04 in Manning’s formula.

Solution:-

12
 𝑻 Given:
Base width, 𝑩 = 3 m; Side slope, z:1 =1:1;
1
Bed slope, 𝑺 = 𝟏: 𝟏, 𝟔𝟎𝟎 = = 0.000165;
1,600
𝟏 Manning’s, 𝒏 = 0.04; and Flow depth, 𝒚 = 1 m.
Top width, 𝑻 = 𝑩 + 𝒛𝒚
𝒚 1 1
𝒛 Flow Area, 𝐴 = (𝐵 + 𝑇ሻ𝑦 = [𝐵 + (𝑩 + 𝟐𝒛𝒚ሻ]𝑦
2 2
= [𝐵 + 𝒛𝒚]𝑦
𝑩 Wetted perimeter, 𝑷 = 𝑩 + 𝟐𝒚√𝒛𝟐 + 𝟏

𝑨 = [3 + (1 x 1ሻ]1 = 4 m2 𝑷 = 3 + (2 x 1ሻ√12 + 1 = 5.828 m

𝑨 4
Hydraulic radius, 𝑹 = = = 0.686 m. Therefore discharge, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑷 5.828
𝟏 𝟐/𝟑 𝟏/𝟐 𝟏
𝑸 = 𝑨. 𝒏 𝑹 𝑺 =𝟒x x (𝟎. 𝟔𝟖𝟔ሻ𝟐/𝟑 x (0.000165ሻ𝟏/𝟐 = 1.42 m3/s (Ans)
𝟎.𝟎𝟒

3.10. Table 2.3 Values of K in Bazin’s Formula

S/N. Type of Inside Surface of Channel K-value
1. Smooth cement plaster or planed wood 0.109
2. Concrete, good brickwork, or unplanned wood surface 0.210
3. Smooth, stone or wood work 0.290
4. Dirty brick stone, or wood work 0.500
5. Smooth rubble masonry or poor brickwork, stone, 0.833
6. Earth of very good surface 1.540
7. Natural earth, i.e. in fair condition 2.350
8. Earth of very rough surface with weeds on sides 3.170

Q2. A rectangular channel 1.2 m wide and 1 m deep has longitudinal slope 1 in 3,000. Using
Bazin’s formula, determine the discharge through the channel. Use K = 1.54.

Solution:-
Given: - Flow area, 𝑨 = 𝑩𝒚 = 1.2 x 1.0 = 1.2 m2; Wetted perimeter, 𝑷 = 𝑩 + 𝟐𝒚 =1.2 +(2 x 1.0) = 3.2 m
𝑨 𝟏.𝟐
Therefore, hydraulic mean depth, 𝑹 = 𝑷 = 𝟑.𝟐 = 0.375 m
1
Longitudinal slope, 𝑺 = = 0.00033; and Bazin’s constant, 𝑲 = 1.54.
3,000
𝟏𝟓𝟕.𝟔 157.6
Bazin’s formula for Chezy’s constant, 𝑪 = = 1.54 = 36.4
𝟏.𝟖𝟏+ √
𝑲 1.81+
𝑹 √0.375

Therefore, the discharge, 𝑄 = 𝐴. 𝐶√𝑅𝑆 = 1.2 x 36.43 x √0.375 x 0.00033 = 0.486 m3/s (Ans).

Q3. The bed slope of a river canal was found to be 0.000146, and its hydraulic mean depth was 2
m. The velocity of determined by vertical floats was 1 m/s. Find the Chezy’s constant value
and the Bazin’s constant in Bazin’s formula.

Solution:-
Given: - 𝑺 = 0.000146; 𝑹 = 2 m; and 𝒗 = 1 m/s
Applying Chezy’s formula:
𝟏
𝒗 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 or 1 = 𝑪√2 x 0.000146 and thus, 𝑪 = = 58.5
√2 x 0.000146
Applying Bazin’s formula:
13
 𝟏𝟓𝟕.𝟔 𝟏𝟓𝟕.𝟔
𝑪 = 𝑲 or 𝟓𝟖. 𝟓 = 𝑲
𝟏.𝟖𝟏+ 𝟏.𝟖𝟏+
√𝑹 √𝟐
𝐾
Therefore, 58.5 (1.81 + ) = 157.6; or 41.37 𝐾 + 105.89 = 157.6
√2
157.6−105.89
𝐾 =( ) ≈ 1.25 (Ans)
41.37

3.10.1. KUTTER’S FORMULA FOR CHEZY’S CONSTANT “C”:-

3.11. Table: 2.4 Values of Kutter’s Roughness Coefficient
Kutter’s
S/N. Channel’s Inside Surface Material “N”
1. Well planed timber 0.009
2. Smooth cement plaster or planed wood (including wood-stave pipes) 0.010
3. Cement plaster with one-third sand 0.011
4. Pipes of iron or steel, cement or terra-cotta 0.011
5. Unplaned timber, new brickwork, ordinary iron pipe 0.012
6. Rubble masonry (Rubble set in cement) 0.017
7. Earth of very good surface, in faultless condition 0.018
8. Brickwork or dressed masonry 0.014
9. Earth of good surface 0.020
10. Natural earth 0.025
11. Canal and river of rough surface with weeds 0.030
Note: - The values of Manning’s “n”are found to be approximately equal to those of Kutter’s “N” for
the normal ranges of slope and hydraulic radius.

By two Swiss Engineers – Ganguillet and Kutter (1869)

𝟏 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
+ (𝟐𝟑 + )
𝑵 𝑺
𝑪=[ 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓 𝑵 ] ………………………………………………………….2.2(ix)
𝟏 + (𝟐𝟑 + )
𝑺 √𝑹
Where, 𝑵 = Kutter’s constant which depends on the roughness of the channel (the values are
given in table 2.4)

3.12. TUTORIAL QUESTIONS 2 – I

Q1. A channel has vertical walls 1.2 m apart and a semicircular invert. If the centre line depth is
0.9 m and the bed slope 1 in2,500, find the discharge:
(a) Using Chezy Chezy’s formula with Manning’s n = 0.04.
(b) Using Chezy’s formula with Kutter’s constant N = 0.04.

Q2. A channel has two sides vertical and semi-circular bottom of 2 m diameter. Calculate the
discharge of water through the channel, when depth of flow is 2 m:
(a) Use Chezy’s formula with Bazin constant K = 1.54; and bed slope as 1 in 1000.
(b) Use Manning formula with Chezy’s constant got in part (a) of this question.

Q3. A cement-lined rectangular channel 6 m wide carries water at the rate of 10 m 3/s. Assume
Manning’s 𝒏 = 0.012 and calculate:-
(a) Bazin’s constant 𝑲; and

14
 (b) Slope required in maintaining a flow depth of 1.5 m, by applying Chezy’s formula.

Q4. An irrigation channel of trapezoidal section having slope sides 2H:3V is to carry a flow of 10
m3/s on a horizontal longitudinal slope of 1:5,000. The channel is to be lined so that
Manning’s n = 0.017. Using Chezy’s formula, determine the dimensions of the section of the
channel if the hydraulic radius is to be equal to half the flow depth of the channel.

Q5. An earth channel with a base 3 m wide and side slopes 1H : 2V carries water with a depth of 1
m. If the bed slope is 1 in 625 and Kutter’s N = 0.03, using Mannin’s formula, calculate the
discharge (Hint: Kutter’s constant determines Chezy’s constant, which you should use to get Manning’s
n-value).

Q6. A town has a drainage area of 10 km2, with a population of 4,000 persons per km2; and its
daily water supply is 150 𝒍/𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅. During dry weather it is found that 7% of the daily dry
weather flow passes along the sewer between the hours 12 noon and 1 p.m.
Assuming a maximum rainfall of 2 cm in 24 hrs over the whole area, determine the diameter
of a circular sewer having a slope of 1 in 3,000; which will take the maximum dry whether
flow and the rainfall without the sewer becoming more than half full. Assume chezy’s
constant C = 70.

Q7. A river to be used for navigation has its cross section shown in figure below:-
What depth of water may be expected for a flood flood flow of
3
5000 m /s? The bed slope of both parts of the channel is to
Shallow Part
be taken as 1:10,000. The The side
side slopes
slopes for deep and for
Deep Part shallow parts are equal to 1H:1V
shallow 1H:1V and
and 1.5H:1V
1.5H:1V respectively.
respectively.
10 m
The C-values in Chezy’s
Chezy’s formula
formula are
are 55 and 40 for deep and
200 m shallow portions
shallow portions respectively.
respectively. Take
Take the velocity
velocity of water in
600 m the shallow channel as half the
the velocity
velocity in the deeper
deeper part.
Assume uniform
Assume uniformflow.
flow.
3.3.
Q8. The bed of a stream has a slope of 1 in 1,000 and the depth of water is 1 m. A dam is to be
built across the stream and provided with a sluice gate. Find the height of the dam so that
the rise in level of the water when the sluice gate is closed may be limited to 2.5 m. Take 𝒏 =
0.012 in Manning’s formula, the coefficient of discharge of the dam (as a weir) = 0.56, and in
calculating the hydraulic radius 𝑹, assume that the breadth of the stream is in comparison
𝟐
with the depth. (Hint: - as the dam acts as a weir, the discharge, 𝑸 = 𝟑 𝑪𝒅 𝑩(√𝟐𝒈)𝑯𝟑/𝟐 ).

3.13. BEST HYDRAULIC OPEN CHANNEL CROSS-SECTIONS

For a given cross sectional area of flow and bed slope, the “most efficient or the best
hydraulic section” of a channel is one which gives the maximum rate of discharge for
maximum hydraulic radius.

15
 𝟏
Ref: - Chezy’s formula, = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 ; or Manning’s formula, 𝑣 = 𝒏 𝑹𝟐/𝟑 𝑺𝟏/𝟐 . Keeping the
roughness dependent coefficients (𝑪 or 𝒏) and longitudinal slope (𝑺) constant, the velocity
is maximum if the hydraulic radius R is maximum.
Further, Ref: - Continuity equation (𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣): 𝑸 = 𝑨. 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 (for Chezy equation); and 𝑸 =
𝟏
𝑨. 𝒏 𝑹𝟐/𝟑 𝑺𝟏/𝟐 (for Manning equation), if the flow area remains constant, the hydraulic mean
𝐀
depth (𝑹 = 𝐏) is maximum, if the wetted perimeter (𝑷) is minimum.
Therefore,
• The channel of the most economical section is defined as a channel which has a “minimum
wetted perimeter, 𝑷”, so that there is a minimum resistance to flow and thus resulting in a
maximum discharge (i.e., most efficient or best hydraulic section) and consequently lesser
excavation and thus minimum cost of construction.

From the above definitions, while deriving the condition for the most efficient section, the
cross-sectional area is assumed to be constant, and a relation between depth and breadth of
the section is found out to give “minimum wetted perimeter, (𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒏)” and thus, “maximum
discharge, (𝑸𝒎𝒂𝒙 ).
3.13.1. CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE THROUGH A CHANNEL OF
RECTANGULAR SECTION

The cross-sectional area A of the channel is taken as constant.

𝑨
Wetted area, 𝑨 = 𝑩𝒚 or bottom width, 𝑩 = 𝒚
𝑨
𝒚 Wetted perimeter, 𝑷 = 𝑩 + 𝟐𝒚 or 𝑷 = 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒚
But wetted area is kept constant
𝑩

3.4. Figure 2.5 Most Economical Rectangular Open-Channel Section

Differentiate the expression for wetted perimeter, 𝑷 with respect to flow depth, 𝒚 and
equate to zero to get the condition for 𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒏 .
𝑨
𝑑𝑷 𝑑( + 𝟐𝒚) 𝑨
𝒚
Thus to get 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑑𝑦 = = − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐 = 0;
𝑑𝑦
Then −A + 2y 2 = 0 or 2y 2 = A = By ===➔ 𝟐𝒚 = 𝑩
Putting, 2𝑦 = 𝐵; in equation for 𝑅, we get:
𝐴 𝑩𝒚 𝐵(𝑦ሻ 𝟏
𝑹 = 𝑃 = 𝑩+𝟐𝒚 = = 𝟐 𝒚. Therefore,
2𝐵
For the most efficient ‘rectangular’ section,
𝟏
𝑩 = 𝟐𝒚; and 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝒚 ……………………………2.3(i)
EXAMPLE
Q. A rectangular cannel 5.4 m wide and 1.2 m deep has a slope of 1 in 1,000 and is lined with good
rubble masonry for which 𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕. It is desired to increase the discharge to maximum by
16
 changing the channel slope or to form a most efficient section. Dimensions of the section may
be changed but the channel must contain the same amount of lining. Compute the new
dimensions and the probable increase in discharge.

Solution:-
With original dimesions,
1
𝑄1 = 𝐴 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 𝑛= 0.017 𝑆 = 1/1000 = 0.001
Flow area, 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 = 5.4 x 1.2 = 6.48 m2,
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 = 5.4 + (2x12ሻ = 7.8 m.
𝐴 6.48
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = 𝑃 = = 0.83 m
7.8
1
Therefore discharge, 𝑄1 = 6.48 x x (0.83ሻ2/3 (0.001ሻ1/2 = 10.65 m3/s (Ans).
0.017
For the new Channel
Let 𝐵 = bottom width, and 𝑦 = depth of flow. For the same amount of lining as in the
previous case; wetted perimeter: 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 = 7.8 m. ……(i)
Also for the maximum discharge 𝐵 = 2𝑦 ……..(ii)
Solving these two simultaneous equations: substitute eqn (ii) in (i). Thus, 2𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 7.8, and
7.8
so 4𝑦 = 7.8 where, 𝑦 = 4.0 = 1.95 m. Hence eqn (ii) becomes 𝐵 = 2𝑦 = 2 x 1.95 = 3.9 m
Flow area, 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 = 3.9 x 1.952 = 7.605 m2,
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 = 7.8 m (supposed to remain as previous).
𝐴 7.605
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = 𝑃 = = 0.975 m
7.8
1
Therefore discharge, 𝑄2 = 7.605 x x (0.975ሻ2/3 (0.001ሻ1/2 = 13.91 (Ans).
0.017
The probable increase in discharge,∆𝐐 = (Q2 − Q2 ሻ = 13.91 − 10.65 = 3.26 m3/s (Ans)

3.13.2. CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE THROUGH A CHANNEL OF

TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION

(1.) WITH SIDE SLOPES “zH:1V” BEING KEPT CONSTANT

Differentiating 𝑷 with respect to 𝒚 and equating to zero (ref: fig.2.6. for the fomula of P and A):
𝐴
𝑑𝑷 𝑑( −𝑧𝑦)+(2𝑦√𝑧 2 +1)
𝑦
Thus to get 𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒏 , is such that: = =0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝑻 𝐵
𝐴
𝑶 Flow area, 𝐴 = (𝐵 + 𝑧𝑦ሻ𝑦 or 𝐵 = 𝑦 − 𝑧𝑦
𝑪
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦√𝑧 22 + 1; or
𝒚
𝒚 𝐵
𝐴
𝑨 𝑃 = ( − 𝑧𝑦) + (2𝑦√𝑧2 + 1)
𝟏
𝒍 𝑦
𝜽
𝒛 Area, A and z being kept constant: -
𝒛𝒚 𝑩 𝒛𝒚 17

3.5. Figure 2.6 Most Economical Trapezoidal Open-channel Section

 Prove that: - A most efficient trapezoidal channel section inscribes a semi-circle with a radius equal
to the flow depth and its centre at the free water surface. i.e., the three sides of the section are
tangential to the semi-circle with its centre 𝑶 coinciding with that of the top width of the flow
section and its radius 𝒓 being equal to flow depth, 𝒚.

Solution:-
Let O be the centre of the top width of the flow section. Draw a line 𝑶𝑨 from 𝐴 and perpendicular
to the sloping side of the channel section. If 𝜽 = angle made by the sloping side with the horizontal,
then from the right-angled triangle OAC, then 𝑶𝑨 ̅̅̅̅ = 𝑶𝑪
̅̅̅̅ sin𝜽……………………………………………………… (i)
𝑩 + 𝟐𝒛𝒚 𝒚 𝒚
But ̅̅̅̅
𝑶𝑪 = 𝟐
and sin𝜽 = = 𝒍
. Now, on substitution of these two substituting these two
𝑦√𝑧2 +1
𝑩+𝟐𝒛𝒚
𝑩 + 𝟐𝒛𝒚 𝒚 ( )
̅̅̅̅ = (
in the eqn (i) we get: ==➔ 𝑶𝑨 )( 2 ) = 𝟐
= ………………,.…..………………………….(ii)
𝟐 𝑦√𝑧 +1 √𝑧2 +1
(𝐵+2𝑧𝑦ሻ
But, = 𝑦√𝑧 2 + 1; which when substituted in eqn. (ii) we get:
2
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑦√𝑧2 +1
𝑶𝑨 = 2 ; =========➔thus, 𝑶𝑨 = 𝒚 (proved) ………………………………………………………….(iii)
√𝑧 +1
Hence, if a semi-circle is drawn with O as centre and the radius equal to depth, the three sides of the
channel section (i.e., bottom, and two sloping sides will be tangential to it (semi-circle).

𝑨
− 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒛 + 𝟐√𝑧 2 + 1 = 0. Now putting, 𝐴 = (𝐵 + 𝑧𝑦ሻ𝑦, we get:
(𝐵+𝑧𝑦ሻ𝑦 𝑦 (𝐵+𝑧𝑦ሻ 𝒚
+ 𝒛 = 𝟐√𝑧 2 + 1 , and multiplying both sides by 2===➔ + 𝒛. 𝟐 =
𝒚𝟐 𝟐

𝒚√𝑧 2 +1
(𝑩+𝟐𝒛𝒚ሻ 𝑻
OR = 𝒚√𝒛𝟐 + 𝟏 ======➔ 𝟐 = 𝒍
𝟐

OR 𝐵 + 𝑧𝑦 = 2𝑦√𝑧 2 + 1 − 𝑧𝑦 and therefore, 𝑩 = 𝟐𝒚(√𝒛𝟐 + 𝟏 − 𝒛)

𝑨 (𝐵+𝑧𝑦ሻ𝑦
The hydraulic radius, 𝑹 = 𝑷 = ; putting 𝐵 = 2𝑦(√𝑧 2 + 1 − 𝑧); then
𝐵+2𝑦√𝑧 2 +1
[2𝑦(√𝑧 2 +1− 𝑧)+𝑧𝑦]𝑦 𝟏
𝑹= ; which on simplifying the expression, we get: 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝒚
2𝑦(√𝑧 2 +1− 𝑧)+2𝑦√𝑧 2 +1
For most efficient ‘trapezoidal’ section (with constant side slopes):
𝟏 𝟏
𝑩 = 𝟐𝒚(√𝒛𝟐 + 𝟏 − 𝒛) or 𝒍 = 𝟐 𝑻; and 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝒚 …………………….…2.3(ii)

(2.) WITH SIDE SLOPE “zH:1V” VARYING

If the side slopes are not fixed, then for the most efficient section, the condition must be
𝒅𝑷
= 0 (assuming 𝑨 and 𝑦 constant)
𝒅𝒛
𝐴
Since 𝑃 = (𝑦 − 𝑧𝑦) + (2𝑦√𝑧 2 + 1) then,

18
 𝒅 𝐴 1
[(𝑦 − 𝑧𝑦) + (2𝑦√𝑧 2 + 1)] = −𝑦 + 2𝑦. 2 (𝑧 2 + 1ሻ−1/2 . 2𝑧 = 0
𝒅𝒛
𝑦
Therefore, √𝑧 2 . 2𝑧 = y; or 2𝑧 = √𝑧 2 + 1; or 4𝑧 2 = 𝑧 2 + 1; 3𝑧 2 = 1
+1
𝟏
Solving for z we get 𝒛 =
√𝟑
For most efficient ‘trapezoidal’ section (with varying side slopes): Ref: fig. 2.6

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Side slope 𝐳: 1 =
√𝟑
: 1, or 𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒛 = √𝟑) = 𝟔𝟎𝒐 ; and 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝒚 …………………….2.3(iii)a

Summary: -
For the most efficient section of a trapezoidal channel to give maximum discharge one of the
following conditions must be satisfied:-
𝟏
(i) Half top width = Sloping side (i.e. 𝑻 = 𝒍).
𝟐
𝟏
(ii) Hydraulic radius = Half of depth of flow (i.e. 𝑹 = 𝒚).
𝟐
(iii) Perpendiculars drawn from the centre of top width, to the bottom and sloping sides,
are all equal; and
(iv) The sides of the channel must be at an angle of 60𝑜 for given depth of channel.

• NB:- For the bottom width to be kept constant,

𝒛
𝒚 = 𝑩. (𝟏 – 𝒛𝟐 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝒚 = √𝑨. 𝒛 ………………………..2.3(iii)b

EXAMPLE
Q. A trapezoidal channel of the most efficient cross-section carries a discharge of 15 m3/s. at a
slope of 1 in 400. Design the channel, taking Manning’s n as 0.025.

Solution:-
A trapezoidal channel of the most efficient c/s is half-hexagon: side slope = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 60𝑜 such
𝟏
that 𝒛 = = 0.577.
√𝟑
𝑩+𝟐𝒛𝒚
Also for the least cost, half of the top width = sloping side; i.e. = 𝒚√𝒛𝟐 + 𝟏 which,
𝟐
when solving for B, we have: 𝑩 = 𝟐𝒚(√𝒛𝟐 + 𝟏 − 𝒛).
Now, substituting the value for z: 𝑩 = 2𝑦 (√(0.577ሻ2 + 1 − 0.577) or
𝑩 = 1.155𝑦
The c/s area of flow, 𝑨 = (𝐵 + 𝑧𝑦ሻ𝑦 = [(1.155𝑦 ሻ + 0.577𝑦]𝑦 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐𝒚𝟐
𝟏
Again the hydraulic radius, 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝒚, for an efficient (or economical) section.
Using Manning’s formula:
1
Where, 𝒏 = 0.025; 𝑺 = 400 = 0.0025 and 𝑸 = 15 m3/s
1 2/3 1/2 1
𝑅 𝑆 = 𝑣= (0.5𝑦ሻ2/3 (0.0025ሻ1/2 = 1.26𝑦 2/3
𝑛 0.025
Thus, 𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗 =====➔ 15 = (𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐𝒚𝟐 )(1.26𝑦2/3 ) = 1.182𝑦8/3

19
 15 3/8
Therefore, 𝒚 = ( ) = 2.06 m (Ans)
2.182

3.13.3. CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE THROUGH A CHANNEL OF A

TRIANGULAR SECTION

1
𝟐𝒚𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 Flow c/s area, 𝑨 = 2 . 𝑦 .2𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝒚𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
𝑨
=====➔ 𝑦 = √𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
Wetted perimeter,𝑷 = 2𝑦𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
𝟏
𝟐𝜽 𝒚 𝑨
𝒛 𝜽 ====➔ 𝑷 = 𝟐 (√𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽) 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝜽

3.6. Figure 2.7 Most Economical Triangular Open-channel Section

Assume the area 𝑨 to be constant and differentiate the equation for wetted perimeter 𝑷
with respect to angle 𝜽, and eaquate to zero in order to get the condition for 𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑑𝑃 𝑑 𝐴
Thus, 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 [2 (√𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃] = 0
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃.𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃
= 2√𝐴 [ − ] = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃(2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃ሻ = 0
√𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃ሻ3/2
Since it will never occur that 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 0, then (2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃ሻ = 0
1 1
√2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 or 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = and therefore, 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (√2) = 45𝑜 or 𝑧 = 1
√2
𝐴 𝒚𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 1
The hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = 𝑃 = = 2√2 𝑦
2𝑦𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
For most economical ‘triangularl’ section (with constant side slopes):
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓𝒐 or 𝒛 = 𝟏; and 𝑹 = 𝒚 …………………….…2.3(iv)
𝟐√𝟐

EXAMPLE
Q. An channel open is V-shaped each side being inclined at 45o to the vertical. If it carries a
discharge of 0.04 m3/s, when the depth of flow at the centre is 22.5 cm, calculate the slope of
the channel assuming that Chezy’s C = 50 .

Solution:-
Given: - Discharge, 𝑄 = 0.04 m3/s; flow depth, 𝑦 = 22.5 cm = 0.225 m; Chezy’s constant, C =
50; and Angle of the sides with the vertical, 𝜃 = 45𝑜 (hence the channel is of an economical
section);
𝟏 𝟏
Therefore hydraulic radius, 𝑹 = 𝟐√𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟐√𝟐 x 0.225 = 0.07955 m
𝑜
Flow c/s area, 𝑨 = 𝒚𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝑦 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 = 𝑦 2 = (0.225ሻ2 = 0.05063 m2
𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗 = 𝑨. 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 , on substitution we get: 0.04 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟔𝟑 x 50 √0.07955 x 𝑆

20
 0.04 2
0.07955 x 𝑆 = (0.05063 ) = 2.497 x 10-4.
x 50
2.497 x 10−4
Thus, 𝑆 = =0.00314 (Ans)
0.07955

3.13.4. MOST ECONOMICAL CIRCULAR SECTION

As the depth of flow varies, the shape of the flow area also
varies due to the convergence of the boundaries towards
the top.
𝜽 Thus, both flow area and wetted perimeter vary with the
depth of flow. So in circular channel, two separate
𝒓 conditions may be derived, i.e., condition for:-
• Maximum discharge; and
𝒚 • Mean velocity of flow

3.7. Figure 2.8 Most Economical Circular Open-channel Section.

(1.) CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE

𝒓
Let 𝒓 = radius of the channel section when the depth of flow
is 𝒚.
𝒓𝟐
𝒚 𝜽 Wetted area, 𝑨 = (𝜽 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽ሻ and Wetted perimeter, 𝑷 =
𝟐
𝒓𝜽
𝑫 Where, 𝜃 = the angle subtended at the centre by the portion of
circular arc which in contact with water.

𝐴 𝑨𝟑
Using Chezy’s formula: discharge, 𝑄 = 𝐴. 𝐶√𝑅𝑆 = 𝐴. 𝐶√𝑃 𝑆 = 𝑪√ 𝑷 𝑺. Now, assuming 𝐶
𝑨𝟑
and 𝑆 are constant, then the discharge is maximum when ( ) is maximum. For the
𝑷
maxima, differentiate this term with respect to 𝜃 and equating to zero:
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
𝑑 𝑨𝟑 𝑃.3𝐴2 − 𝐴3 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(𝑷) = = 0 or 3𝑃 𝑑𝜃 − 𝐴 𝑑𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝜃 𝑃2
𝑑𝐴 𝑟2 𝑑𝑃
Ref: the above equation for A and P; = (1 − cos 𝜃ሻ and = 𝑟.
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃
On substitution for these parameters; and for P and A, the equation becomes:
3 3 𝑟3
𝑟 𝜃(1 − cos 𝜃ሻ − (𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃ሻ = 0 ==➔ 2𝜃 − 3𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0;
2 2
The solution is: 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎𝟖𝒐
Substituting this 𝜽-value in the equation: 𝒚 = 𝒓 + 𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝜽ሻ
𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (180 − 2 ) = 𝑟[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(26𝑜 ሻ] ≈ 1.8988𝑟

21
Thus, for maximum discharge (the most efficient circular section):
𝐷
𝒚 = 1.8988𝑟 = 1.8988 ( 2 ) or 𝒚 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝑫 …………………………………….…2.3(v)a
Note:- If Manning’s formula is used, θ = 302o 𝐲 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝐃

𝐴 𝑟2 1 𝑟 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Hydraulic mean depth, 𝑹 = 𝑃 = (𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃ሻ = 2𝜃 (𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃ሻ = 𝑟 (2 − )
2 𝑟𝜃 2𝜃
Substituting 𝜽-value for maximum discharge (i.e. 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎𝟖𝒐 )
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 308𝑜 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 308𝑜 1 0.788 x 180
𝑹=( − ) = 𝑟 [ − ] = 𝑟[ − ] = 0.5732𝑟
2 2 x 308𝑜 2 (𝜋 x 616) 2 (𝜋 x61ሻ
180
𝐷
Or 𝑹 = 0.5732 ( 2 ) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟔𝑫 …………………………………….…2.3(v)b
𝜋 𝐷
Wetted perimeter, 𝑷 = 𝑟 𝜃 = (308 x ). 2
180
𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝑫…………………………………….…2.3(v)c
𝑦 𝜋
Also, wetted perimeter, 𝑷 = 𝑟 𝜃 = ( ) (308 x )
1.899 180
𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑𝒚…………………………………….…2.3(v)d

Summary: -
For the most efficient section of a circular channel to give maximum discharge, one of the
following conditions must be satisfied:-
(i) Depth of water = 0.95 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝑫).
(ii) Hydraulic radius = 0.286 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟔𝑫).
(iii) Wetted perimeter = 2.60 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝒚 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟎𝑫); and
= 2.83 depth of water (i.e. 𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑𝒚)

(2.) CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM VELOCITY OF FLOW

According to Chezy’s or Manning’s formula, the ‘mean velocity’ of flow through the circular
channel “is proportional to the hydraulic radius”. Thus, it will have a maximum value when
𝐴
the hydraulic radius (𝑃) is a maximum.
𝑨
Therefore, differentiating (𝑷) with respect to 𝜽 and equating to zero:
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
𝑑 𝑨𝟑 𝑃.
𝑑𝜃
−𝐴
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
( )= = 0 or 𝑃 𝑑𝜃 − 𝐴 𝑑𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝜃 𝑷 𝑃2
𝑑𝐴 𝑟2 𝑑𝑃
Ref: the above equation for A and P; = (1 − cos 𝜃ሻ and = 𝑟. On substitution for
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃
these parameters and for P and A, the equation becomes:
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝜃(1 − cos 𝜃ሻ − (𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃ሻ = 0 ===➔ 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0;
2 2
or 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 whose solution is: 𝜽 = 𝟐𝟓𝟕. 𝟓𝒐 .
Substituting this 𝜽-value in the equation: 𝒚 = 𝒓 + 𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝜽ሻ

22
 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (180 − 2 ) = 𝑟[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(51.25𝑜 ሻ] = 1.626𝑟
𝐷
Depth of water, 𝑦 = 1.626 ( 2 ) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟑𝑫……………………2.3(v)e
𝑨 𝒓𝟐 𝟏 𝒓 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Hydraulic radius, 𝑷 = (𝜽 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽ሻ = 𝟐𝜽 (𝜽 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽ሻ = 𝟐 (𝟏 − )
𝟐 𝒓𝜽 𝜽

𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛257.5 − 180 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛(257.5 − 180ሻ 𝑟 0.9763 x 180

𝑹= (1 − ) = (1 − ) = (1 − )=
2 257.5 x 𝜋 2 257.5 x 𝜋 2 257.5 x 𝜋
180 180
𝐷
𝑹 = 0.6085𝑟 = 0.6085 ( )
2
𝑹 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟒𝑫……………….……………….…2.3(v)f

𝜋 𝐷
Wetted perimeter, 𝑷 = 𝑟 𝜃 = (257.5 x ).2
180
𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝟓𝑫 ……………………………….…2.3(v)g

𝑦 𝜋
Also, wetted perimeter, 𝑷 = 𝑟 𝜃 = ( ) (257.5 x )
1.899 180
𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝒚…………………………………….…2.3(v)h

Summary: -
For the most efficient section of a circular channel to give maximum velocity one of the following
conditions must be satisfied:-
(iv) Depth of water = 0.813 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟑𝑫).
(v) Hydraulic radius = 0.304 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟒𝑫).
(vi) Wetted perimeter = 2.245 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝟓𝑫); and
= 2.367 depth of water (i.e. 𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝒚𝒚)

EXAMPLES
Q. A circular sewer of 60 cm inside diameter has a slope of 1 in 400. Using chezy’s formula with C
= 50.
(a) Find the depth when the discharge is 0.28 m3/s.
(b) Determine depth of flow in the sewer for the most efficient/ economical section:
(i) Under condition for maximum discharge; and
(ii) Under condition for maximum velocity.

Solution:-
𝑟2 0.09
Radius of circular sewer, 𝑟 = 0.3 cm; flow c/s Area, 𝑨 = (𝜃 − sin 𝜃ሻ = (𝜃 − sin 𝜃ሻ;
2 2
and wetted perimeter, 𝑷 = 𝑟𝜃 = 0.3𝜃.
0.09
𝐴 (𝜃−sin 𝜃ሻ 0.3(𝜃−sin 𝜃ሻ
2
Hydraulic radius, 𝑹 = 𝑃 = =
0.3𝜃 2𝜃
Using Chezy’s formula, 𝑸 = 𝑨. 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 where, 𝑸 = 0.283 m /s, C = 50 and S = 1/400 = 0.0025.
3

Thus, by substitution, we get:

0.09 0.3(𝜃−sin 𝜃ሻ
0.283 = (𝜃 − sin 𝜃ሻ x 50 x √ x 0.0025 , which simplifies to:
2 2𝜃

23
 (𝜃 − sin 𝜃ሻ3 = 42.19𝜃; when solving by trial we get 𝜃 ≈ 𝟐𝟖6𝑜
𝟐𝟖6𝑜 𝟐𝟖6𝑜
(a) Thus, the depth of flow, 𝑦 = 𝑟 + 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 (180𝑜 − )=0.3 [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (180𝑜 − )]
2 2
𝑦 = 0.3[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 37𝑜 ] = 0.54 m (Ans)
(b) HOMEWORK Solve:
(i) Under condition for maximum discharge; and
(ii) Under condition for maximum velocity.

3.14. CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION OF AN OPEN CHANNEL

The following considerations are made in the selection of an open channel:

(1.) Geometrical Section: - Ref: art 2.3 (sec. 2.3.1 to 2.3.4) for conditions worked out for the
various most economical geometrical sections of an open channel.
The most economical section is which has minimum wetted perimeter for a particular
area. It is because the costs for excavation and lining decreases for such a section. A
circular section is the most efficient.

(2.) Side Slope: -This is mainly dependent on soil conditions.

(3.) Bed Slope: - Depends upon conditions of land as well as bed erosion. With higher bed
slope, land erosion would be more.

(4.) Top Width: - If top width is more, the channel surface exposed to evaporation becomes
more, especially in hot climate.

(5.) Flow Velocity: - The velocity of flow is an important factor to prevent suspended
sediments from settling down. The velocity should be such that the water carries the
sediments with it otherwise with their settling down efficiency of the channel get
decreased. On the other hand the velocity of flow should not be that high as to cause
erosion.

(6.) Seepage: - If seepage has to be prevented then sealing of the channel surface is
required; this is done by lining of the channel.

3.15. TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Q1. A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1:1, has to be designed to convey 10 m3/s at a
velocity of 2 m/s so that the amount of concrete lining for the bed and sides is a minimum.
Calculate the area of lining required for one meter length of the canal.

Q2. A power canal of triangular section has to be excavated through hard clay at the least cost.
Determine the dimensions of the channel for the discharge equal to 14 m3/s, bed slope 1:2500
and Manning’s n =0.02.

24
Q3. An open channel of most economical section, having the form of a half hexagon with
horizontal bottom is required to give a maximum discharge of 20.2 m3/s of water. The slope of
the channel is 1 in 2,500. Taking Chezy’s constant, C = 60 in Chezy’s equation, determine the
dimensions of the cross-section.

Q4. A most hydraulically efficient trapezoidal channel having bottom with 6 m and side slope
2H:1V is laid on a bottom slope of 0.0016. If it carries a uniform flow of water at the rate of
10 m3/s, compute the normal depth and the mean velocity of flow. Take Manning’s 𝒏 = 0.025.

Q6. A circular pipe of 2.5 m diameter is laid at a slope of 1:1200. Find the maximum discharge that
can be secured at atmospheric pressure, if the value of C is 50. What would be the depth of
flow for the discharge?

Q7. A triangular channel has side slope 1½ H:1V. It is to discharge 20 m3/s of water with a grade of
0.5 m/km. Find the depth of the channel for its best form, use Manning’s formula taking 𝒏 =
0.01

Q8. Design an economical earthen trapezoidal channel for water having a velocity of 0.6 m/s. Side
slope of the channel is 1.5H:1V and quantity of water flowing is 3 m 3/s. Assume C in Chezy’s
formula as 0.65.

Q9. An irrigation channel of trapezoidal section, having side slopes 3H:1V, is to carry a flow of 10
m3/s on a longitudinal slope of 1:5,000. The channel is to be lined for which Chezy’s constant
is 58. Using Manning’s flow equation, find the dimensions of the most economic section of
the channel.

Q10. A circular sewer of 75 cm inside diameter has a slope of 1 in 400. Using chezy’s formula with
C = 50.
(a) Find the depth when the discharge is 0.35 m3/s.
(b) Determine depth of flow in the sewer for the most efficient/ economical section:
(i) Under condition for maximum discharge; and
(ii) Under condition for maximum velocity.

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 APPENDIX: 2.1
Table 2.7

3.16.

Figure 2.10 Moody Diagram for Chezy (in Open Channels)

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 APPENDIX: 2.2

BEST HYDRAULIC OPEN CHANNEL CROSS-SECTIONS

For a given cross sectional area of flow and bed slope, the “most

(1.) CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE THROUGH A CHANNEL OF

RECTANGULAR SECTION

The cross-sectional area A of the channel is taken as constant.

For the most efficient ‘rectangular’ section,

𝒚 𝟏
𝑩 = 𝟐𝒚; and 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝒚 ……………………………2.3(i)

𝑩
3.8. Figure 2.5 Most Economical Rectangular Open-Channel Section

(2.) CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE THROUGH A CHANNEL OF

TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION

(a) With Side Slopes “zH:1V” Being Kept Constant:-

𝑻 𝐵
𝑶 Flow area, 𝐴 = (𝐵 + 𝑧𝑦ሻ𝑦 or 𝐵 = 𝑦 − 𝑧𝑦
𝑪
𝑩 = 𝟐𝒚(√𝒛𝟐 + 𝟏 − 𝒛) or
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦√𝑧 2 + 1; or
𝒚
𝒚 𝟏 𝐵
𝑨 𝑃 =𝑹(= 𝟏−𝒚𝑧𝑦)
𝒍 = 𝟐 𝑻; and + (2𝑦√𝑧 2 + 1)
𝒍
𝟏
𝑦 𝟐 …………………….…2.3(ii)
𝜽
𝒛 Area, A and z being kept constant: -
𝒛𝒚 𝑩 𝒛𝒚

3.9. Figure 2.6 Most Economical Trapezoidal Open-channel Section

(b) With Side Slope “zH:1V” Varying:-

For most efficient ‘trapezoidal’ section (with varying side slopes): Ref: fig. 2.6

𝟏
Side slope 𝐳: 𝟏 =
√𝟑
: 𝟏, or

𝟏 𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( 𝒛 = √𝟑) = 𝟔𝟎𝒐 ; and 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝒚 …………………….2.3(iii)a

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(c) Summary for the Most Efficient Trapezoidal Section : -
For the most efficient section of a trapezoidal channel to give maximum discharge one of the
following conditions must be satisfied:-
𝟏
(v) Half top width = Sloping side (i.e. 𝑻 = 𝒍).
𝟐
𝟏
(vi) Hydraulic radius = Half of depth of flow (i.e. 𝑹 = 𝒚).
𝟐
(vii) Perpendiculars drawn from the centre of top width, to the bottom and sloping sides,
are all equal; and
(viii) The sides of the channel must be at an angle of 60𝑜 for given depth of channel.

• NB:- For the bottom width to be kept constant,

𝒛
𝒚 = 𝑩. (𝟏 – 𝒛𝟐 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝒚 = √𝑨. 𝒛 ………………………..2.3(iii)b

(3.) CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE THROUGH A CHANNEL OF A

TRIANGULAR SECTION

For most economical ‘triangularly’ section (with constant

𝟐𝒚𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
side slopes):
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓𝒐 or
𝒛 = 𝟏; and
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝜽 𝒚 𝑹 = 𝟐√𝟐 𝒚 …………………….…2.3(iv)
𝒛
𝜽

3.10. Figure 2.7 Most Economical Triangular Open-channel Section

(4.) MOST ECONOMICAL CIRCULAR SECTION

As the depth of flow varies, the shape of the flow area also
varies due to the convergence of the boundaries towards
the top.
𝜽 Thus, both flow area and wetted perimeter vary with the
depth of flow. So in circular channel, two separate
𝒓 conditions may be derived, i.e., condition for:-
• Maximum discharge; and
𝒚 • Mean velocity of flow

3.11. Figure 2.8 Most Economical Circular Open-channel Section.

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(a) Condition for Maximum Discharge:-
𝒓
Let 𝒓 = radius of the channel section when the depth of flow
is 𝒚.
𝒚 𝒓𝟐
𝜽 Wetted area, 𝑨 = (𝜽 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽ሻ and wetted perimeter, 𝑷 =
𝟐
𝒓𝜽
𝑫 Where, 𝜃 = the angle subtended at the centre by the portion of
circular arc which in contact with water.

Using Chezy’s formula: - the discharge is maximum when 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎𝟖𝒐

Summary: -
For the most efficient section of a circular channel to give maximum discharge one of the
following conditions must be satisfied:-
(vii) Depth of water = 0.95 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝑫).
(viii) Hydraulic radius = 0.286 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟔𝑫).
(ix) Wetted perimeter = 2.60 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝒚 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟎𝑫); and
= 2.83 depth of water (i.e. 𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑𝒚)
Note:- If Manning’s formula is used, θ = 302o 𝐲 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝐃

(b) Condition for Maximum Velocity of Flow:-

According to Chezy’s or Manning’s formula, the ‘mean velocity’ of flow through the circular
channel be maximum when 𝜽 = 𝟐𝟓𝟕. 𝟓𝒐 .
Summary: -
For the most efficient section of a circular channel to give maximum velocity one of the following
conditions must be satisfied:-
(x) Depth of water = 0.813 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟑𝑫).
(xi) Hydraulic radius = 0.304 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟒𝑫).
(xii) Wetted perimeter = 2.245 diameter of circular section (i.e. 𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝟓𝑫); and
= 2.367 depth of water (i.e. 𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝒚𝒚)

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