Auld & Srinivas 1995-2011 www.aerodynamics4students.

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Properties of Fluids

Fluidsareveryfamiliartous.Ourbodyitselfismostlywater,whilewhatsurroundsusislargelyair
whichagainisafluid.Infact,GreeksandIndiansinthepastworshippedearth,fire,waterandair;
threeofthesebeingfluids.Weencountermotionoffluidsalmosteverywhereinsideourbodies,in
ourdailyactivitysuchastakingashower,cleaning,swimmingetc.Wealsoflyandsail,activities
whicharethemotionofanobjectthroughafluid.FluidMechanicsisasciencethatstudiesthe
behaviouroffluidsanditseffectonotherbodies.Itcomprisesoffluidstatics,whichisastudyof
fluidsatrestandfluiddynamics,whichconcernsfluidsinmotion.Thenwealsoclassifythemfurther
asaerodynamics,whichspecialisesinflowofair.Ifweconcentrateonwater,wehavehydrostatics
andhydrodynamics.

ThreeApproachestofluidMechanics

TherearethreeapproachestoFluidMechanics:Experimental,TheoreticalandComputational.

Theexperimentalapproachistheoldestapproach,employedbyArchimedescenturiesago.Itisa
verypopularapproachwhereyouwillmakemeasurementsusingawindtunnelorasimilar
equipment.Butthisisacostlyandsometimesdangerousventure.

Thetheoreticalapproachwhereweemploythemathematicalequationsthatgoverntheflowandtryto
capturethefluidbehaviourwithinaclosedformsolutioni.e.,formulasthatcanbereadilyused.Thisis
perhapsthesimplestoftheapproaches,butitsscopeissomewhatlimited.Noteveryfluidflow
rendersitselftosuchanapproach.Theresultingequationsmaybetoocomplicatedtosolveeasily.

ThethirdapproachisComputational.Herewetrytosolvethecomplicatedgoverningequationsby
computingorsimulatingthemusingacomputer.Thishastheadvantagethatawidevarietyoffluid
flowsmaybecomputedandthatthecostofcomputingseemstobegoingdowndaybyday.Withthe
resulttheemergingdisciplineComputationalFluidDynamics,CFD,hasbecomeaverypowerful
approachtodayinindustryandresearch.Itisworthnotingthatanytheoreticalcalculationora
numericalcomputationhastobevalidated.Forthisitisusualtorelyonexperiments.Afterallseeing
isbelieving.Theoryguidesandexperimentdecides.

Inthischapter,weconcentratemainlyonthetheoreticalapproachasitgivesusagoodinsightinto
fluidmechanicsandprovidesthebackgroundknowledgerequiredforsomeofthefollowingchapters.
Ofcourse,wewillbebenchmarkingtheoryagainstinformationprovidedbytheexperimentalstudies.
Computationalapproachwillbeseeninlaterchapters.
What is a Fluid?

Itiswellknownthatmatterisdividedintosolidsandfluids.FluidscanbefurtherdividedintoLiquids
andGases.Solidshaveadefiniteshapeandadefinitesize,whiletheliquidshaveadefinitesize,but
nodefiniteshape.Theyassumetheshapeofthecontainertheyarepouredinto.Gasesontheother
handhaveneitherashapenorasize.Theycanfillanycontainerfullyandassumeitsshape.For
engineeringweneedamoreprecisedefinition.Thiscomeswhenweconsidertheresponseofasolid
orafluidtoashearforce.Asolidresistsashearforcewhileafluiddeformscontinuouslyunderthe
actionofashearforce.

Figure 1. Deformation of a Solid

ConsidertwoflatplatesofinfinitelengthplacedadistancehapartasshowninFig1.Thelowerplate
isfixedwhiletheupperplateisallowedtomove.Letusfillthegapinbetweentheplatesfirstwitha
solidsubstance.Ifnowashearforceisappliedtotheupperplatethesolidblockdeformsasshown.
Lineabassumesanewpositionab'andtheupperplateisdisplacedbyadistancebb'.The
deformationproducedisproportionaltotheappliedshearstressF/A,whereAistheareaofthesolid
surfaceincontactwiththeplate.

Figure 2. Deformation of a Fluid.

Nowletusfillthegapwithafluid,saywater.Whathappenswhenashearforceisappliedtothetop
plate?Wefindthatitmovescontinuouslyie.,pointbkeepsmovingandoccupiespositionsb1,b2,b3,
etcatdifferentinstantsoftime.Thefluidblockbetweentheplatesdeformsandcontinuestodeform
aslongastheforceisapplied.Thisexperimentshowsthatafluidatrestcannotresistshearstress.
Suchanexperimentalsohelpsustodefineviscosity,whichwewilltakeuplater.

Continuum Hypothesis

Weknowthatallmatterismadeupofmolecules,whichareinrandommotion.Anyfluidweconsider
hasmoleculesbombardingeachotherandtheboundaries.Howeverthenumberatanylocationinthe
fluidisusuallysolargethatwecanconsiderjusttheiraveragebehaviour.

Anaverageofvelocities(ordensities)ofthemoleculesthatpassthroughasmallvolumesurrounding
thatpointcanbeobtained.Thesizeofthissmallvolumehastomeetwithcertaincriteria.Itmustbe
smallerthanthephysicaldimensionsoftheregionunderconsiderationlikethewingofanaircraftor
thepipeinahydraulicsystem.Atthesametimeitmustbesufficientlylargetoaccommodatealarge
numberofmoleculestomakeanyaveragingmeaningful.

Theexistenceofthislimitisestablishedbyconsideringthedefinitionofdensityasmassperunit
volume( m/V ).Considerasmallvolume V aroundthepointP(Fig.3)withintheregionof
interest,R.LetuscalculatedensityatPbyconsideringdifferentsizesof V .Valuesofdensityso
calculatedareplottedinthesamefigure.Itisclearthatthesize V hasanenormousinfluenceon
thecalculatedvalueofdensity.Toosmalla V ,thevalueofcalculateddensityfluctuatesbecause
thenumberofmoleculeswithin V isvaryingsignificantlywithtime.Toobiga V mightmean
thatdensityitselfisvaryingsignificantlywithintheregionofinterest.Itisclearthatthereisalimit
V o belowwhichmolecularvariationsassumeimportanceandabovewhichonefindsa
macroscopicvariationofdensitywithintheregion.

Figure 3: Definition of Density

Thereforedensityisbestdefinedasalimit

=lim V V o
m
V
(1)

AtStandardTemperatureandPressureconditions(STP)thelimit( V o )isaround109mm3and
airatthistinyvolumehasabout3x107molecules.Thisisalargeenoughnumbertogiveaconstant
valueofdensitydespitetherigorousmolecularmotionwithinit.FormanyoftheapplicationsinFluid
Mechanics,thisvolumeissmallerthantheoveralldimensionsoftheregionsofinterestconsidered
suchasanaeroplane,wingofanaeroplane,shiporthepartsofanengineetc.Theseconsiderations
donotholdgoodwhenwegotogreateraltitudes.Forexample,atanaltitudeof130kmthemolecular
meanfreepathisabout10.2mandthereareonly1.6x1017moleculesinacubicmeterofair
(MolecularMeanFreePath, isdefinedastheaveragedistanceamoleculehastotravelbeforeit
collideswithanothermolecule.AtSTPconditionsitsvalueis6x108m).Undertheseconditionsit
becomesnecessarytoconsidertheeffectofeverymoleculeorgroupsofmolecules,asin
calculationsconcerningsatellitesorreentryvehicles.Thatbranchoffluidmechanicsiscalled
RarefiedGasdynamics.

Viscosity,

We all have a feel for viscosity. The more viscous a fluid, the more sticky it is and the more difficult for
it to flow. Oils flow at a slower rate than water. We understand viscosity as a property that tends to
retard fluid motion. But we do have a more rigorous definition of viscosity.
 Figure 4: Flow between parallel plates

It was seen that when a shear force is applied to the top plate the fluid undergoes a continuous
deformation (Fig.2). As a result the block of fluid abcd deforms to ab'c'd after a time t . Let the
speed of the top plate be U. It is an important property of fluids that the layer of fluid adjacent to a
solid surface moves with the same velocity as the solid surface. This is called the "No Slip" condition.
Accordingly, the fluid layer closest to the top plate moves with a speed U while that closest to the
lower plate is at rest. Thus the velocity of the fluid varies continuously from zero on the lower plate to
U at the upper plate. In other words, a velocity gradient develops in the fluid. In the simple case of the
flow between parallel plates this is a linear profile. The velocity gradient is given by
du U
= (2)
dy h

where h is the distance between the two plates.

In a small instant of time t we find that the upper plate has moved by a distance bb' which is
equal to U. t .

Now
Ut
tan = (3)
h

Noting that for solids the shear stress is proportional to strain while for fluids it is
proportional to rate of strain, , which in turn is defined as

=lim t 0

t
(4)

Substituting for we have

U du
= = (5)
h dy
Since is proportional to , we have

or
du
(6)
dy

It is found that for common fluids such as air, water and oil the relationship between shear stress and
velocity gradient can be expressed as,

du
= (7)
dy
The constant of proportionality is an important property of fluids in determining the flow
behaviour and is called Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity. It is usually referred to as just
Viscosity. It has the dimensions FLT-2 and units of Ns/m2 in the SI system.

Fluids for which the shear stress varies linearly as rate of strain are called Newtonian Fluids. Many
of the common fluids belong to this category- air, water. When the relationship between shear stress
and rate of strain is not linear, the fluid is designated Non-Newtonian. Examples of this category are
some of the industrial fluids such as plastics, sludge and biological fluids such as blood. Typical plots
of shear stress vs rate of strain are shown in Fig 5. Rheology is the branch of fluid mechanics which
specialises in these non-Newtonian fluids. Here, we consider primarily common fluids such as water
and air and hence restrict ourselves to Newtonian fluids.

Figure 5 : Flow between parallel plates

Viscosity of a fluid is strongly dependent on temperature and is a weak function of pressure. For
example, when the pressure of air is increased from 1 atm to 50 atm, its viscosity increases only by
about 10 percent allowing one to ignore its dependence on pressure. Fig 6. shows the manner of
dependence of viscosity on temperature for some of the common fluids. It is seen that the viscosity of
liquids deceases with temperature while that for the gases increases with temperature. This difference
in behaviour is explained by the cohesive and intermolecular forces within the fluid. Liquids are
characterised by strong cohesive forces and close packing of molecules. When temperature
increases cohesive forces are weakened and there is less resistance to motion. Hence viscosity
decreases. With gases, the cohesive
forces are very weak and the molecules
are spaced apart. Viscosity is due to the
exchange of momentum between
molecules as a result of random motion.
As the temperature increases, the
molecular activity increases giving rise to
an increased resistance to motion or in
other words viscosity increases.
Formulas for Viscosity

A widely used formula for the calculation of viscosity of gases is the Sutherland Equation given by
b T 3 /2 (8)
=
T S
where b and S are constants and T is temperature.
kg
For air b=1.458105 1 /2 and S = 110.4 K.
msK
Power Law is another approximation to calculate viscosity and is given by

0.7

=
T

o T o
(9)

where o is the value of viscosity at a reference temperature T o ,which could be 273K.

An empirical fit for the viscosity of liquids is

ln


o
T T
=ab o c o
T T (10)

For water, T o = 273.16K o = 0.001792 kg/(m.s), a=-1.94, b = -4.80 and c = 6.74.

Another empirical formula for liquids is the Andrade equation namely,

B /T
=D e (11)

where B and D are constants and T is the temperature in K

Kinematic Viscosity,
In fluid flow problems viscosity often appears in combination with density in the form

= (12)

One of the common examples is Reynolds Number, defined as VL/ being one of the very
important parameters in Fluid Dynamics. This term is referred to as Kinematic Viscosity and has
the dimensions of L2/T. Figure 7 shows a plot of for air and water against temperature.
 Figure 7 : Kinematic Viscosity plotted against temperature

Density,

Density is defined as mass per unit volume of the substance. However, as discussed before, in the
Continuum Hypothesis, it is defined as a limit. If m is the mass of a small volume V then

=lim V V o
m
V
(13)

Unit of density in the SI system is kg/m3 . Under ordinary conditions the density of water is 993 Kg/m3
while that for air at 15oC and atmospheric pressure is 1.225 Kg/m3

Density of liquids is somewhat insensitive to the changes in pressure and temperature. For gases
there is a strong dependence of density on these quantities and is given by the equation of state of
the particular gas.

Specific Volume, v

Specific Volume, v of a fluid is defined as the volume per unit mass and its numerical value is given
by the reciprocal of density.
1
v= (14)

Specific Weight,

Specific Weight, of a fluid is defined as the weight per unit volume and is related to density.

= g (15)

where g is acceleration due to gravity. Its units (in SI units) are N/m 3 . Noting that the value of g is
9.807m/s2 specific weight of water at 60oC is 9.8 KN/m3. For air at 15oC and atmospheric pressure
specific weight is 12 N/m3.
Specific Gravity, SG

Specific Gravity, SG of a fluid is the ratio of its density to that of water under reference conditions,
usually at 4oC (i.e., 1000Kg/m3.)

SG=
water at 4 C
o (16)

Specific Gravity being a ratio of densities is independent of units. Its value for mercury at 20oC is
13.55. There is not a single set standard for reference density. Sometimes for gases, density of air
under standard conditions 1.225 Kg/m3 is used as the reference.

Pressure, P
Pressure along with velocity is one of the main parameters in Fluid Dynamics. It is defined as the
compressive stress at any point in a fluid at rest. Imagine a thin plate immersed in a fluid at rest.
Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on the plate. It is brought about by the
bombardment of fluid molecules upon the solid surface.
Dimensions of pressure are F/L2 which is also called a Pascal.

At low speeds fluid flow is caused by pressure differences and gradients than due to pressure itself;
the actual pressure level within a fluid becomes less important. But for high speed flows the
magnitude of pressure may become important. On the other hand at very low pressures, vaporisation
may set in a liquid.
Pressure values read by measuring devices such as a manometer are the pressure levels above the
atmospheric pressure and are called gauge pressure. When pressure is referred to a vacuum it
becomes an Absolute Pressure being the sum of the gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.

Temperature, T
Temperature is a measure of the random molecular motion of the fluid at a point. The hotter the fluid
the more energy is stored in random motion of molecules.
The unit of temperature is Kelvin (K), as an absolute measure of thermal energy or Centigrade (oC),
as a relative measure with 0 degrees at the freezing point of water.

Velocity, V
Velocity of the flow is the average speed of all molecules at a point in the flow at a given time. Velocity
is a vector quantity and can be constructed from three scalar components (u,v,w) (horizontal, vertical,
forward)

The units of Velocity are m/s in the metric system.

Ideal Gas Law

Pressure, density and temperature of a gas are related through an equation of state. Under ordinary
conditions for air,
P= R T (17)
where P is the absolute pressure, the density, T the absolute temperature and R is a gas
constant. The above equation is called the Ideal Gas Law or the Perfect Gas Equation. The gases
obeying this equation are called Ideal Gases.

The gas constant R (Ideal Gas Law ) is given by

R=
M (18)

where is called the universal gas constant and is equal to 8314 J/kg.K. For air the gas constant
R = 286.9 J/kg.K .

Bulk Modulus, Ev

Bulk Modulus determines how compressible a fluid is. In other words, it tells us how the density of a
fluid changes when the fluid is subjected to pressure. It is defined as
dP dP
E v =V =
dV d (19)

where dP is the pressure change that is required in order to change the volume by d V , V
being the initial volume. The negative sign indicates that an increase in pressure is accompanied by a
decrease in volume.
The dimensions of Bulk Modulus are FL-2; the units being N/m2. Higher the value of Bulk Modulus
indicates that it is difficult to compress the fluid. Take water for example. Its Bulk Modulus is 2.15 x
109 N/m2 meaning that it requires an enormous pressure to change the volume of water by a small
amount. For all practical purposes water (and many other liquids as well) is treated as being
incompressible.

Bulk Modulus for Gases

Gases have an equation of state that connects pressure, density and temperature i.e., equation of
state. This enables us to deduce an explicit relationship between pressure and density. Such a
relationship depends upon the process being considered - isothermal (at constant temperature) or
isentropic (at constant entropy). The deduced equations are
P
=constant For an isothermal process (20)

and
P
=constant For an isentropic porcess. (21)
k
where k is the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure, Cp to the specific heat at constant
volume,Cv. In addition C pC v =R , where R is the gas constant. Under ordinary conditions k=1.4
for air.

By substituting equations 20 and 21 in the definition for bulk modulus, Eqn. 19 we have,
E v =P For an isothermal process (22)
E v =k P For an isentropic process (23)

Thus we see that the bulk modulus for a gas depends upon its pressure. Given that for air the
atmospheric pressure at STP conditions is 1.01325 x 10 5 N/m2 , the bulk modulus is of the same order
( while that for water it is 2.15 x 109 N/m2 ). These figures show that air is about 15,000 times as
compressible as water.
Vapour Pressure
When a liquid is exposed to atmosphere molecules escape from its surface in a vapour form.
Supposing the liquid is placed in a closed container, the activity continues so that vapour fills the
space in between the liquid level and the container. A pressure develops and reaches an equilibrium.
The vapour is said to be saturated. The pressure it exerts upon the liquid surface is the vapour
pressure.

Surface Tension,
Surface Tension is said to act between two immiscible liquids or between a liquid and gas, say water
and air. The interface between the two fluids is assumed to act like a stretched membrane under
tensile stress. This stress is required to hold the membrane in position. Many instances from everyday
life could be cited to justify this assumption. A steel needle will float on water due to the apparent
tension developed at the water surface. Water drops form on smooth surfaces. Tiny spheres of
mercury will form when it is poured on a smooth surface. Unbalanced cohesive forces acting on liquid
molecules at the interface are balanced by the tensile force due to surface tension.
Surface Tension, is expressed as force per unit distance (N/m) and has dimensions of FL -1. Its
magnitude depends upon the two fluids in contact and on temperature.

Pressure inside a Drop of Fluid

It is because of surface tension that pressure of a liquid increases within a bubble. Consider the free-
body diagram of a bubble as shown in Fig.8.

Figure 8 : Forces acting on a bubble membrane

If the force due to surface tension at the edge is balanced by the pressure force inside the bubble, we
have
2
2 R =P R (24)
i.e.,
2
P=
R
where P is the pressure difference between inside the drop and that outside. In addition the pressure
inside the bubble is greater than that outside.
Capillary Tube
 Figure 9 : Capillary Tube

As shown in Fig. 9, if a small open tube is inserted into a container with water, we see that water
raises into the tube. We now get a liquid-gas-solid interface. In this case, attraction or adhesion
between solid and water is strong and is able to overcome the mutual cohesion between liquid
molecules. That is why water rises into the tube. The liquid is said to wet the surface.

The height of the liquid column is related to surface tension, tube radius, specific weight of the liquid
and angle of contact between liquid and the tube. The vertical force due to surface tension ,
2 R cos and weight of the fluid, R2 h ,will balance each other.

R2 h=2 R cos .
or
2 cos
h= (25)
R
It is seen that if the tube radius is small the capillary rise, h is pronounced. That is narrower the tube
more the height to which the fluid rises in it. But whether the fluid rises in the capillary tube or not is
decided by the contact angle, shown in the figure. It is the angle between the solid and the liquid
surfaces. When this angle is less than 90o the surface tension is such as to pull the fluid through the
tube. There is a meniscus (concave upwards). The liquid is said to wet the surface. But when the
angle is greater than 90o as happens with mercury the liquid level is actually depressed. Now the
liquid does not wet the surface.

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