CVE 111 Hydraulics

Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Kristine D. Sanchez, Ph.D.

CVE 111 Instructor
Contents
• Overview • BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM
• Intended learning outcomes • Energy Equation without head lost
• Objectives • Energy Equation with Head Lost
• Discharge of Flow Rate • Energy Equation with Pump
• Continuity Equation • Energy Equation with Turbine or motor
• Types of Flow • Energy and hydraulic grade lines
• Energy and head
• Sample Problem 1
• Kinetic Energy
• Sample Problem 2
• Elevation Energy
• Sample Problem 3
• Pressure Energy
• Sample Problem 4
• Total Flow Energy
• Power and Efficiency • Sample Problem 5
Overview

• This lecture will deal with fluids in motion which is based on the
following principles: (a) the principle of conservation of mass, (b) the
energy principle, and (c) the principle of momentum.
Intended learning outcomes
• To be able to learn about the concepts related to fundamental of fluid
flow.
Objectives
• At the end of this topic, the student will be able to:
• State the Bernoulli’s energy equation.
• State the continuity equation for incompressible flow.
• Solve problems related to fluid flow in pipes.
Discharge of Flow Rate, 𝑄
• The amount of fluid passing through a section per unit of time.
• Expressed as mass flow rate, weight flow rate, and volume flow rate or flow rate

Volume flow rate, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 Eq. (8.1)

Mass flow rate, 𝑀 = 𝜌𝑄 Eq. (8.2)
Weight flow rate, 𝑊 = γ𝑄 Eq. (8.3)
• where:
• 𝑄 = discharge in 𝑚3 Τ𝑠 or 𝑓𝑡 3 Τ𝑠
• 𝐴 = cross-sectional area of flow in 𝑚2 or 𝑓𝑡 2
• 𝑣 = mean velocity of flow in 𝑚/𝑠 or 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
• 𝜌 = mass density in 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 or 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3
• γ = weight density in 𝑁/𝑚3 or 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
Continuity Equation
• For incompressible fluids:

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Eq. (8.4)

• For compressible fluids:

𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝜌3 𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 or Eq. (8.5a)

γ1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = γ2 𝐴2 𝑣2 = γ3 𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Eq. (8.5b)

Types of Flow [1]
• Steady Flow
• Occurs when the discharge 𝑄 passing a given cross-section is constant with time.
• If the flow 𝑄 at the cross-section varies with time, the flow is unsteady.

• Uniform Flow
• This occurs if, with steady flow for a given length, or reach, of a stream, the average
velocity of flow is the same at every cross-section.
• This usually occurs when an incompressible fluid flows through a stream with
uniform cross section.
• In stream where the cross-section and velocity changes, the flow is non-uniform.

• Continuous Flow
• This occurs when at any time, the discharge 𝑄 at every section of the stream is the
same (principle of conservation of mass)
Types of Flow [2]
• Laminar Flow
• The flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual particles do not cross or intersect.
The flow is always laminar when the Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒 is less than approximately 2,100.
• Turbulent Flow
• The flow is said to be turbulent when the path of individual particles are irregular and
continuously cross each other.
• Turbulent flow normally occurs when the Reynolds number exceed 2,100.
• In most cases, flow is turbulent when 𝑅𝑒 exceeds 4,000.
• One-dimensional flow
• This occurs when in an incompressible fluid, the direction and magnitude of velocity at all
points are identical.
• Two-dimensional flow
• This occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or parallel planes and the streamline
patterns are identical in each plane.
Types of Flow [3]
• Streamlines
• These are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the direction of
motion in various sections of the flow of the fluid system.
• Streamtubes
• These represents elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded by a group
of streamlines which confine the flow.
• Flow nets
• These are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-dimensional flow, or
even three-dimensional flow.
Energy and head
• The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of the kinetic and
potential energy.
• Potential energy may be subdivided into energy due to position or
elevation of a given datum, and energy due to pressure in the fluid.
• Head – the amount of energy per pund or Newton of fluid.
Kinetic Energy
• The ability of the fluid mass to do work by virtue of its velocity

1
1 𝑊
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑀𝑣 2 = 2 2 Eq. (8.6)
2 𝑔𝑣

• Kinetic or velocity head:

𝐾. 𝐸. 𝑣2
= Eq. (8.7)
𝑊 2𝑔
Elevation Energy (Potential Energy)
• The energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its position or elevation
with respect to a datum plane:

Elevation energy = 𝑊𝑧 = 𝑀𝑔𝑧 Eq. (8.8)

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 Eq. (8.9)

Elevation head = =𝑧
𝑊
Pressure Energy (Potential Energy)
• Consider a closed tank filled with fluid which has a small opening at the
top. Without pressure at the top, the fluid practically will not flow.

𝑝
• 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊 γ Eq. (8.10)

𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝 Eq. (8.11)

• 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊
= γ

• where: 𝑧 = position of the fluid above (+) or below (-) the datum, 𝑝 = fluid
pressure, 𝑣 = mean velocity of flow
Total Flow Energy, 𝐸
• The sum of the kinetic and potential energies.

• Total Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy

𝑣2 𝑝 Eq. (8.12)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝐸 = + +𝑧
2𝑔 γ
Power and Efficiency [1]
• Power is the rate at which work is done.
• For fluid of unit weight γ (N/cu.m) and moving at a rate of 𝑄 (cu.m/s)
with a total energy of 𝐸 (m), the power in N-m/s (Joule/sec) or watts
is:

Eq. (8.13)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄γ𝐸

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 Eq. (8.14)

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, η = 𝑥100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Power and Efficiency [2]
• Note:
• 1 Horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts
• 1 Horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec
• 1 Watt = 1 N-m/s – 1 Joule/sec
BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM
• This theorem is derived from the principles of conservation of energy.
• Bernoulli’s principle states that as the speed of a moving fluid
increases, the pressure within that fluid decreases.
• The total energy in a steadily flowing fluid is constant along the flow
path. An increase in the fluid’s speed must therefore be matched by a
decrease in its pressure.

𝐸𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛1 + 𝐸𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 − 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛2 Eq. (8.15)

Energy Equation without head lost
• We get ideal or theoretical values:

𝐸1 = 𝐸2 Eq. (8.16)

𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2 Eq. (8.17)

+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ
Energy Equation with Head Lost
• Considering head lost, the values we attain are actual values.

𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2 Eq. (8.18)

𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2 Eq. (8.19)
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ
Energy Equation with Pump
• Pump is used to increase the head.
• It is usually to raise water from a lower to higher elevation.
• The input 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 of the pump is the electrical energy and its output 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
is the flow energy.

𝐸1 + 𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2 Eq. (8.20)

𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 + 𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2 Eq. (8.21)
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ

Output power of pump = 𝑄γ𝐻𝐴 Eq. (8.22)

Energy Equation with Turbine or motor
• Turbines or motor extract flow energy to do mechanical work which
in turn is converted into electrical energy for turbines.

𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐸 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2 Eq. (8.23)

𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 − 𝐻𝐸 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2 Eq. (8.24)
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ

Eq. (8.25)
Input power of turbine = 𝑄γ𝐻𝐸
ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES [1]
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
• Also known as pressure gradient
• A graphical representation of the total potential energy of flow.
• It is the line that connects the water levels in successive piezometer
tubes placed at intervals along the pipe.
𝑝
• Distance from datum is + 𝑧
γ
ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES [2]
Characteristics of HGL
• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but may rise or fall due
to changes in velocity or pressure.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to EGL.
• For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in pressure
heads between any two points is also equal to the head lost between
these points.
ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES [3]
Energy Grade Line (EGL)
• Is a graphical representation of the total energy of flow (the sum of
the kinetic and potential energies). Its distance from the datum plane
𝑣2 𝑝
is 2𝑔 + γ + 𝑧.
ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES [4]
Characteristics of EGL
• EGL always slope downward in the direction of flow, and it will only
rise with the presence of a pump.
• The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head lost between
those points.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, EGL is parallel to HGL.
• EGL
2
is always above the HGL by an amount equal to the velocity head,
𝑣
.
2𝑔
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.
ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES [5]

Fig. 8.1. Illustration showing hydraulic gradient and energy gradient. Taken from: CE Board Nov 1986 Besavilla (1983).
Sample Problem 1 [1]
• Water flows through a 75 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3m/s.
Find (a) the volume flow rate in cu.m/sec, (b) the mass flow rate in
kg/sec, and (c) the weight flow rate in N/sec.

• Ans: (a) 13 L/s, (b) 13 kg/s, (c) 127 N/s

• Source: Gillesania, D. I. T. (2015), “Problem 5-1, Chapter Five Fundamentals of Fluid Flow”, in Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4 th edition, p. 250, Cebu City.
Sample Problem 1 [2]
• Solution:
π 2 𝑚3 𝑙𝑖𝑡
• (a) 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 = 0.075 3 = 0.013 𝑥 1000 3 = 𝟏𝟑 𝒍𝒊𝒕/𝒔
4 𝑠 𝑚
𝐤𝐠
• (b) 𝑀 = ρQ = 1000 0.013 = 𝟏. 𝟑 𝐬
• (c) 𝑊 = γ𝑄 = 9810 1.3 = 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝑵/𝒔
Sample Problem 2 [1]
• A 100-mm diameter plunger is being pushed at 60 mm/s into a tank
filled with oil having s.g. = 0.82. If the fluid is incompressible, how
many N/s of oil is being forced out at a 30-mm diameter hole?

• Ans: 3.78 N/s

• Source: Gillesania, D. I. T. (2015), “Problem 5-4, Chapter Five Fundamentals of Fluid Flow”, in Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4 th edition, p. 251, Cebu City.
Sample Problem 2 [2]
• Solution:
oil
• Since the fluid is incompressible: s.g. = 0.82

• 𝑄1 = 𝑄2
π 100 mm dia.
2 3
• 𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 0.1 0.06 = 0.00047 𝑚 /𝑠
4
v = 0.06 m/s
• 𝑊 = γ𝑄 = 9810 𝑥 0.82 0.00047
• 𝑾 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟖 𝑵/𝒔

30 mm dia.

hole

Figure 8.2. Illustration for Sample

Problem 2.
Sample Problem 3 [1]
• Determine the kinetic energy flux of 0.02 cu.m/s of oil (s.g. = 0.85)
discharging through a 50-mm diameter nozzle.
• Ans: 882 Watts

• Source: Gillesania, D. I. T. (2015), “Problem 5-8, Chapter Five Fundamentals of Fluid Flow”, in Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4 th edition, p. 253, Cebu City.
Sample Problem 3 [2]
• Solution:
• Kinetic energy flux = Kinetic energy per second = Power
• Power, 𝑃 = 𝑄γ𝐸
• 𝑄 = 0.02𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑣2
•𝐸= 2𝑔
• 𝑣 = 𝑄Τ𝐴 = 0.02Τ πΤ4 ((0.05)2 ) = 10.186 𝑚/𝑠
(10.186)2
• So, 𝐸 = = 5.288 𝑚
2 𝑥 9.81
• 𝑃 = 0.02 𝑥 9810 𝑥 0.85 𝑥 5.288 = 𝟖𝟖𝟐 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
Sample Problem 4 [1]

• Source: Besavilla, V. I. (1983), Solutions to Problems in Hydraulics (SI Version) Volume 3, pp. 225-226, Cebu City.
 Sample
Problem 4 [2]

Figure 8.3. Solution for Sample

Problem 4.
Sample Problem 4 [3]
• Important points to consider:
1. When the reservoir is too large, the velocity head is too small and
may be taken as zero.
2. When the reservoir is exposed to the atmosphere, the pressure
head is assumed to be zero.
3. When the point considered coincides with the datum or reference
line, the elevation head is zero.
Sample Problem 5 [1]
• Water flows freely from the reservoir shown through a 50-mm
diameter pipe at the rate of 6.31 L/s. If the head lost in the system is
11.58 Joule/N, determine the elevation of the water surface in the
reservoir if the discharge end is at elevation 4 m.
• Ans: 16.11 m

• Source: Gillesania, D. I. T. (2015), “Problem 5-26, Chapter Five Fundamentals of Fluid Flow”, in Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4 th edition, p. 270, Cebu City.
Sample Problem 5 [2] vent
1
El = ?
• Solution:
water
𝐿 𝑚3
• 𝑄 = 6.31 𝑠 = 0.00631 𝑠
𝑚
• 𝐻𝐿 = 11.58 𝑁 𝑁 = 11.58 𝑚 50 mm dia.
pipe
• Energy equation between 1 and 2:
• 𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐿 = 𝐸2
𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
• 2𝑔
+ γ
+ 𝑧1 − 𝐻𝐿 = 2𝑔
+ γ
+ 𝑧2
8 0.00631 2
• 0 + 0 + 𝑧1 − 11.58 = +0+4 El. 4m 2
π2 𝑔 0.05 4
• 𝒛𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟏𝟏 𝒎 : Elevation of water surface in the tank
Figure 8.4. Solution for Sample Problem 5.
Thank you.
• Source:
1. Gillesania, D. I. T. (2015), “Chapter Five Fundamentals of Fluid
Flow”, in Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th edition, pp. 241- 276,
Cebu City.
2. Besavilla, V. I. (1983), Solutions to Problems in Hydraulics (SI
Version) Volume 3, pp. 225-226, Cebu City.