TWT/ TWTA

Handbook
The information contained in this handbook/disk is considered to be published
information generally accessible or available to the public. It contains basic
TWT/TWTA functions and purposes. It also contains general scientific,
mathematical or engineering principles commonly taught at colleges and
universities. It has been released in the Public Domain through unlimited
distribution at conferences, meetings, seminars, trade shows or exhibitions.

L-3 ETI would like to extend a special thanks to the

engineering staff who contributed a great deal of time and
effort in preparing this handbook for publication.

Thirteenth Edition
Copyright © 2007
L-3 Communications Electron Technologies, Inc.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPIC PAGE
Introduction to the TWT ........................................................................................ 1
The L-3 Communications/TWT Connection ......................................................... 1
General: Microwaves, a High Frequency Range Electromagnetic Radiation ...... 2
Microwave Amplifiers............................................................................................ 3
The Components of a TWT .................................................................................. 4
How It Works ........................................................................................................ 4
Controlling the Beam ............................................................................................ 5
Variations on the Slow-Wave Structure................................................................ 6
Comparison with the Klystron............................................................................... 8
Looking Ahead.................................................................................................... 10
Specific Applications and TWT Design Trade-Offs ............................................ 11
Radar TWTs for Airborne and Sea Level Applications ....................................... 12
ECM TWTs for Airborne and Sea Level Applications......................................... 12
The TWT in Space: Communications TWTs for Space Applications ................. 13
Missile TWTs for Active Seekers........................................................................ 13
References ......................................................................................................... 13
Appendix AGlossary of Terms ........................................................................ 15
Appendix BElectron Gun and Cathode Design Trade-Offs............................. 37
Appendix CSlow-Wave Circuit and Beam Focusing Trade-Offs ..................... 47
Appendix DCollector Design Trade-Offs......................................................... 59
Appendix ETWT Package Design and Cooling Method Trade-Offs ............... 63
Appendix FPower Supply Interfaces............................................................... 67
Appendix GTWT Parameters that Affect System Performance ...................... 71
Appendix HFactors that Affect Power Combined TWTAs............................... 95
Appendix IMillimeter-Wave TWTs................................................................... 99
Appendix JNotes on TWTs for Radar Applications....................................... 101
Appendix KNotes on TWTs for ECM and Missile Applications ..................... 105
Appendix LNotes on TWTs for Space Applications ...................................... 113
Appendix MNotes on the Care and Handling of TWTs ................................. 123
Appendix NEquations and Formulae Commonly Used in TWT Design ........ 125
Index................................................................................................................. 133
Introduction to the TWT
The TWT is an electron tube used for amplification at microwave
frequencies. Microwave frequencies are generally identified as frequencies
above 500 MHz. At microwave frequencies the familiar circuit theory concepts
no longer apply and it is necessary to use electromagnetic theory to describe the
electric and magnetic fields that exist in electromagnetic waves. The operation of
the TWT depends on the interaction of a beam of electrons with an
electromagnetic wave.
The history of microwave technology is a history of progressive advances in
the techniques used to generate, amplify, and process signals at microwave
frequencies. Operation at the threshold of the microwave region was provided by
triodes that employ special geometries to minimize transit time effects. This was
followed by the magnetron and other crossed-field devices, then by the klystron,
and today by the traveling-wave tube (TWT).
It would be difficult to imagine present-day microwave technology without
the TWT and TWT amplifier (TWTA). No other devices can match the TWT’s
unique combination of bandwidth, power output, and gain. From electronic
warfare to space exploration to the relaying of home-video signals, the TWT has
expanded the microwave horizon. L-3 Communications Electron Technologies,
Inc. (L-3 ETI) has been at the forefront of each of these TWT developments.
The purpose of this Handbook is to present an overview of the ever-
changing TWT technology and the L-3 ETI products which can be used to
implement this technology. It is, in a sense, both a history and a prophecy. It will
tell you where we are, and point the way toward new TWT innovations and
applications—at L-3 ETI and in your own development laboratory.

The L-3 Communications/TWT Connection

The TWT is not a new device. Its remarkable capabilities and some of its
potential applications have been known for nearly fifty years. It was invented
during the latter part of World War II by an Austrian refugee, Dr. Rudolf
Kompfner, while working on microwave tubes for the British Admiralty.
The TWT was not utilized during that war and remained an experimental
laboratory device until the first practical tube was developed by J. R. Pierce and
L. M. Field at the Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) in 1945. The first details
were published in the IRE Transactions for February 1947.
From 1945 to 1950, most of the development work was done at BTL and
Stanford University. By present-day standards, these efforts were relatively low
key. BTL, in particular, was interested in the TWT because of its potential
application in the communication field.
Meanwhile, the military services had other potential applications in mind:
radar and electronic countermeasures. The development of radars during World
War II had been rapidly followed by the development of countermeasure
techniques to deceive and jam them. The evolution of new radars has, therefore,
been partially the result of a continuous need to stay ahead of any new
countermeasure tactics which might compromise the radar’s effectiveness (and
vice versa). The trend in search radar, for example, has been toward much
higher powers and toward new techniques which would have the effect of
increasing visibility even while being jammed. A good anti-jamming radar must

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be able to shift frequency over a wide bandwidth quickly to avoid dwelling at the
jammer’s source frequency.
Similarly, the trend in ECM has been toward wide bandwidth system
capabilities where the jammer amplifies wideband noise or may deceptively
retransmit the hostile radar pulse to offset the radar’s ability to determine the
target’s position or track.
Since wide-frequency bandwidths are essential to the employment of all
these tactics, an amplifying device capable of broad operating ranges with
sufficient gain, output power and efficiency was needed. The TWT was found to
be ideally suited for the task and the military deserves credit for funding many of
the early advances in TWT development.
Much of this advanced technology work was done at what was then the
Hughes Aircraft Company. In the late 1950’s, with the future of the TWT as a key
element in a number of application areas assured, a small group of scientists,
engineers and skilled technical support people who had been involved in TWT
research throughout Hughes were brought into one organization. The
organization later became the Electron Dynamics Division (EDD); and with
ownership by L-3 Communications, is now L-3 Communications Electron
Technologies, Inc. or L-3 ETI. L-3 ETI is the established leader in the
development and production of military and commercial TWTs, TWTAs and
related subsystems.
Some of the earliest successes for L-3 ETI TWTs, in addition to radar
applications, were in the area of space applications. L-3 ETI space TWTs and
TWTAs have been used in scientific experiments, manned missions, and
communication applications by both military and commercial customers. Early
programs included Syncom, the ATS series, the Intelsat series, and, more
recently, domestic communication satellites both in the U.S. and abroad. To
meet the requirements for future space programs, these devices continue to be
developed and refined. This work is advancing the state-of-the-art in areas of
longer life, lighter weight, higher efficiencies, lower distortion, higher frequencies,
and smaller size.
L-3 ETI TWTs are also meeting the expanding customer requirements in
other application areas, such as radar, electronic counter-measures, ground
terminals and microwave instrumentation. In all of these fields, on-going
programs for further product refinement and basic research continue to produce
devices and subsystems of the most advanced designs.

General: Microwaves, a High Frequency Range

Electromagnetic Radiation
Microwaves exhibit several properties of visible light: 1) they travel in
straight lines at the speed of light and are only minimally refracted by the earth’s
atmosphere; and 2) they can be focused into narrow beams which are subject to
complete reflection when they impinge upon a conducting surface. These
properties make microwaves especially useful for radar and telecommunications
systems.

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Figure 1—The electromagnetic frequency spectrum.

Microwave Amplifiers
Within the frequency range of interest, two technologies (vacuum tube and
solid-state electronics) are used to generate and amplify microwaves. Each
offers advantages for specific applications within the performance domain of
radio frequency (RF) systems (see Figure 2). Microwave power tubes (the
principal product derived from RF vacuum electronics) are preferred for
applications requiring both higher frequency and higher power. Electron
transport in a vacuum conveys as advantages to microwave power tubes such
features as wide band performance, efficiency, high gain, thermal robustness,
and radiation hardness. Alternatively, solid-state power amplifiers combine the
power from many transistors. The advantages of charge transport in a solid-state
media yield compact devices, and competitive efficiency and bandwidth at lower
frequency and power. Figure 3 shows the various vacuum devices in the
industry within the Microwave Tube general family. This Handbook only
delineates the topics related to the Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) family of
products.

Figure 2—Ranges of applications of microwave TWTs and TWTAs and Solid

State Power Amplifiers (SSPA).

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Figure 3—The summary of various types of microwave tube families.

The Components of a TWT

All TWTs possess four major subassemblies:
• An electron gun that products a high density electron beam.
• A microwave slow-wave circuit that supports a traveling wave of
electromagnetic energy with which the electron beam can interact.
• The collector that collects the spent electron beam emerging from the
slow-wave circuit.
• The TWT package, which provides points for attachment to the using
system, provides cooling for power dissipated within the TWT, and, in
some cases, includes all or part of the beam focusing structure. Other
functions may also be included as required.

How It Works
The basic form of the TWT has changed very little since its invention by R.
Kompfner in 1944, although the performance of these devices today is at least
an order of magnitude better in all attributes.
Amplification in a TWT is attained by causing an electromagnetic RF wave
to travel along a propagating structure in close proximity to an electron beam, as
indicated in Figure 4.
At the left of this simplified diagram is an electron gun assembly. The
cathode, when heated, emits a continuous stream of electrons. These electrons
are drawn through an aperture in the anode and are then focused into a well-
defined cylindrical beam by a magnetic field. The beam is thereby caused
totravel inside the slow-wave circuit for the length of the tube. The electrons are
finally collected and their kinetic energy is dissipated in the form of heat in the
collector.

4
Figure 4—Simplified TWT schematic.
At the same time that the cylindrical electron beam is moving along the
length of the tube axis, the RF signal to be amplified is fed into the slow-wave
structure consisting, in this case, of a coiled wire called a helix. The RF energy
travels along the helix wire at the velocity of light. However, because of the
helical path, the energy progresses along the axial length of the tube at a
considerably lower axial velocity, determined primarily by the pitch and diameter
of the helix.
The phase velocity of the RF wave (the speed at which the phase fronts of
the energy appear to move along the length of the tube) is made slightly slower
than the velocity of the electron beam. This near-synchronism results in a
continuous interaction between the electron beam and the RF signal. Some of
the electrons in the beam are slowed by the RF field, while others are
accelerated.
As the “velocity-modulated” electrons move down through the helix they
form bunches. These bunches, in turn, overtake and interact with the slower
helix RF wave, surrendering kinetic energy to the wave on the helix. The result is
a cumulative amplification of the RF signal. Single TWTs have been built with
power gains of more than 10,000,000 (70 dB).

Controlling the Beam

The electron gun functions somewhat like the lens in a projector. The object
is to get as much electron current as possible flowing within a concentrated
beam without distortion. Good gun design is extremely important since the gun is
the source of electrons for the beam. A wide variety of gun designs have been
developed by L-3 ETI in an effort to provide well-behaved electron beams that
can be readily adapted to new TWT types.

5
 Many TWT guns also include control grids or control electrodes that make it
possible to turn the electron beam on and off rapidly. This approach to beam
modulation uses a much smaller voltage swing than would be required if only the
cathode voltage were modulated.
The typical grid-controlled gun has six main elements:
• The gun shell or support structure, which is usually ceramic or a brazed
metal-ceramic assembly
• The heater
• The cathode or electron emitter
• A control grid
• A focus electrode to aid in proper formation of the electron beam
• An anode which effectively
provides the accelerating field
for the electrons.
Figure 5 shows a typical gun in
cross-section.
Life and reliability of the end
product are largely dependent upon
the design and type of cathode
material used. Many different types
of cathode materials have been used
as electron emitters, but two have
generally become standard. The first
is an oxide type with a nickel base
and a barium/ strontium coating. The
second is a dispenser type which Figure 5—A typical grid-controlled
has a body consisting of porous electron gun includes a support
tungsten material that is impregnated structure, heater, cathode grid, focus
with a mixture of barium, calcium, electrode and anode.
and aluminum compounds. The
impregnants migrate to the emitting surface, dispensing barium and other active
materials to replenish material lost through evaporation. A variation of this type
of cathode, known as M-type cathode, is coated with a porous layer of osmium
to lower the work function and allow a lower operating temperature. Another
variation is the scandate cathode, which has a layer of scandium oxide to
provide an even lower operating temperature.
Another type of dispenser cathode is the coated particle cathode (CPC)
which, as the name suggests, is a structure made up of specially coated
particles bonded to a nickel support.
A choice of a specific cathode type is dependent upon the required beam
power (current density) and is a function of individual tube design.

Variations on the Slow-Wave Structure

Although there are many types of slow-wave structures, most are based
upon Kompfner’s original helix design. The helix is still the widest bandwidth
structure available.

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 Figure 6 illustrates the principal component parts of a typical metal-ceramic
helix TWT. In the illustration, the metal ceramic envelope and PPM focusing
structure can be seen in the central portion of the figure. The final assembly,
incorporating the balance of the package parts, can be seen in Figure 7.

Figure 6—The principal component parts of a typical metal-ceramic helix TWT.

Figure 7—Assembled helix TWT.

Figure 8 demonstrates the kind of performance characteristics that can be
achieved with this type of slow-wave circuit. The extremely broadband
performance is ensured by the highly accurate tolerances held during the helix-
winding process. This accuracy is essential to the process of interaction
between the electron beam and the superimposed RF wave.
One reason for limitations on the peak-power capability of helix tubes is that
their circuit characteristics are susceptible to “backward-wave” oscillations when
the operating voltage exceeds about 10 kV.
In its basic form, the helix is generally restricted to devices having power
outputs of less than 3,000 watts. A number of configurations derived from the
basic helix structure have been explored at L-3 ETI, extending its properties to
provide even higher output powers. Early among these were schemes that
involve using two helices wound in opposite directions (the contra-wound helix,
as seen in Figure 9a) or in the same direction (the bifilar or folded helix). These
devices extend the useful range of operating voltages up to the 20 to 70 kV
range and allow larger transverse dimensions at a given frequency range.

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Figure 8—Output power, 658H.
Another solution to this problem is the ring-bar tube (Figure 9a), which has
distinctly different circuit properties and is not subject to backward-wave
oscillations. Ring-bar TWTs are generally designed for voltages in the 12 kV to
30 kV range, with peak-power levels in the order of 10 kW to 20 kW. With
sufficiently high voltages, peak-power output levels can be in excess of 100 kW.
The coupled-cavity structure, shown in Figure 9b, employs coupled
resonant cavities to effectively slow the RF energy. The original coupled-cavity
structures provided frequency bandwidths on the order of 10 to 15 percent.
Methods have been developed for increasing the bandwidth to 40 percent and
more. Tubes utilizing this circuit have been built to produce several hundred
kilowatts of peak power at S- through Ku-bands with up to 60 dB gain.
The inter-digital line is also a version of the coupled-cavity circuit and has
found extensive use in low and medium power amplifiers ranging up to one kW
peak-power output with gains of about 30 dB.

Comparison with the Klystron

At the input of the TWT circuit, the RF signal level is quite low and the
resulting modulation of the electron beam is similar to that of the input cavity of a
klystron. In the case of the TWT, however, the circuit is nonresonant in the case
of a helix tube and has a low Q resonance in the case of a coupled-cavity
structure. The wave actually propagates at a speed close to that of the electrons
in the beam.
The initial effect on the beam is the introduction of a small amount of
velocity modulation that later translates to current modulation. The current
modulation then induces an RF current in the circuit. If the proper phase
relationships are maintained, this results in an amplification of the signal.
The major difference between this mechanism and that of a klystron is that
the TWT interaction is continuous over the entire length of the circuit rather than
occurring at the gaps of a few resonant cavities. This continuous interaction is
the result of a propagating wave, whereas in the klystron the wave does not
propagate. In fact, in the klystron there is generally no coupling between any of
the cavities except that afforded by the modulation on the electron stream.

8
9a—Helix-derived circuits.

9b—Cross-section of a coupled-cavity TWT circuit and the assembly method.

Figure 9—Various alternative traveling-wave circuits are used, each optimized

for a particular application.

The question can be asked, however, whether any real difference exists
between a very narrowband TWT and a broadband klystron, both of which can
indeed possess the same bandwidth performance. The answer is that in a true
klystron, the wave does not propagate. Each cavity operates independently and
in complete isolation from all other cavities. There are exceptions to this rule in
the form of hybrid configurations in which the pure klystron concept is

9
significantly modified. But these cases do not alter the basic distinctions
between the two devices.
Obviously, then, the single most powerful attribute of the TWT is bandwidth.
Although there are applications for TWTs where the bandwidth requirement is
very small, by and large the primary impetus for their continued development
has been applications where the bandwidth is 10 percent or more of the center
frequency.
Another advantage intrinsic in the TWT amplification process is that
extremely large gains in the neighborhood of 60 dB can be realized with little
sacrifice in bandwidth or any of the other desirable properties of the TWT
design.
Because the gain-bandwidth product is not the result of an unpleasant
tradeoff, as is often the case in other microwave amplifiers, there is no reason to
be limited by any such figure of merit. Instead, the gain of a TWT is an
exponential function of the interaction length. Each incremental increase in
length produces the same incremental increase in decibels of gain. The fact that
TWT gain in decibels is directly proportional to length gives the TWT a distinct
advantage over crossed-field amplifiers where the gain dependence on length is
much less favorable.

Looking Ahead
The TWT is now a mature device, being developed and manufactured by a
mature industry, geared to the hard economics of the marketplace. There is,
therefore, no reason to look forward to dramatic breakthroughs in the major
characteristics of the TWT device.
There will be, however, a steady and significant improvement in its
performance, reliability, adaptability, and cost. Moreover, it would only be fair to
state that the ultimate capabilities of the TWT in terms of bandwidth, power
output, efficiency, size, and signal fidelity have not yet been fully exploited by
present-day systems. In particular, the efficiency continues to be improved with
the latest devices achieving levels of 70 percent and greater (see Figure 10).
This situation will undoubtedly change as the systems of the future are
pushed toward better performance—without corresponding increases in size or
complexity. Even though new classes of TWTs are not likely to appear in the
foreseeable future, the current effort to improve efficiency, linearity and power-
handling capability will cause a measure of excitement in the industry. The mix
of devices will also change as advanced systems replace some of the more
obsolete equipment.
At the lower power levels, there will be ever increasing competition from
solid-state devices.
More emphasis will be given to making TWTs more adaptable to the modern
airborne environment, which requires compactness and high operating
temperatures.

10
Figure 10—Space TWT efficiency since 1981.
Life and reliability will also be given a great deal more attention in the future.
The real advances in this area will come as a result of conservative and skillful
designs, not as a consequence of legislation and specification writing.
Improved cathodes will permit TWTs to be designed for longer life and for
higher output power at the higher frequencies.
Improved and analytical techniques have resulted in TWTs having higher
efficiency and improved linearity (reduced distortion), primarily through the use
of improved velocity tapers at the output end of the slow-wave circuit. TWTs
having 70 percent efficiency are now in production, and many of these TWTs
offer less than 30 degrees of phase shift as the RF drive level is varied from
small signal to saturation.
The next few years will lead to additional improvements in power output,
bandwidth, and efficiency, causing the state-of-the-art curves to move up by a
half an order of magnitude.

Specific Applications and TWT Design Trade-Offs

The design of a TWT originates with the requirements to provide certain
amounts of gain and power over a certain frequency band. The final design of
the TWT usually results from a trade-off study that includes considerations
involving the power supply (sometimes called the EPC, the electronic power
conditioner) and interfaces between the TWT and the using system. These
considerations lead to trade-offs that affect each of the major subassemblies of
the TWT. Those considerations include:
• The type of slow-wave circuit to be used in meeting the power and
bandwidth requirements, including the selection of cathode voltage and
current to be used in meeting those requirements. It is important to note
that the higher thermal dissipation capability in coupled-cavity TWT
circuits can provide two orders of magnitude greater power output
capability than available from TWTs having helix circuits, at the penalty of
increased size and weight.
• The method to be employed for focusing the electron beam.

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 • The method to be used for varying the beam current, including the
method used for turning the TWT on and off as well as any modulation
required during TWT operation.
• The operating life requirements.
• The environmental conditions under which the TWT will operate (ambient
pressure, ambient temperature, shock and vibration levels, etc.).
• The type of cooling available.
• Size and weight limitations.
• Cost.
The final design of the TWT can be affected as much by the priorities
assigned to the design considerations as by the considerations themselves. It is
not uncommon to find that TWTs designed for similar frequencies and power
levels may differ widely in design. For example, consider a TWT designed for
use in an aircraft where dielectric cooling fluid is available. The TWT might well
use that fluid both for cooling and as a dielectric around high voltage regions.
Alternatively, that same design could not be used in an application where the
cooling fluid is not available or is not a good dielectric.
The major applications for TWTs include:
• Radar TWTs for airborne and sea level applications.
• ECM TWTs for airborne and sea level applications.
• Missile TWTs for terminal seekers.
• TWTs for space applications, especially for communications satellites but
also for radar and space probe applications.
• Instrumentation TWTs for laboratory and test equipment.
The design approaches relevant to each application will be discussed.

Radar TWTs for Airborne and Sea Level Applications

The features that influence the design of these TWTs include:
• High peak power with moderate average power.
• Moderate bandwidth
• Cooling can usually be conduction, forced air, or circulating liquid.
• Operation at altitude usually requires that high voltage leads are
encapsulated or enclosed in dielectric fluid.
• Operation in extreme environments requires rugged construction.
These requirements are usually met by using TWTs that have either helix or
coupled-cavity slow-wave structures and solenoid focusing, although the latest
available magnet materials are allowing some of these devices to utilize
periodic-permanent-magnet (PPM) focusing structures.

ECM TWTs for Airborne and Sea Level Applications

ECM TWTs tend to fall into two categories, those that require high peak
power and those that require high CW (continuous wave) or average power. In
most cases, the bandwidth must be wider than for radar TWTs because the
exact frequency of operation is not defined until the threat is identified. Helix or
helix-derived circuits are essential for those applications requiring octave or

multiple octave bandwidths. Coupled-cavity circuits are required when the power
requirement exceeds the capability of helix-type circuits and the reduced

12
bandwidth can be tolerated. Permanent magnet focusing is widely used in these
devices.

The TWT in Space: Communications TWTs for Space Applications

Features that influence the design of these TWTs include:
• Long life and high reliability
• High efficiency
• Moderate power output (usually less than 300 W)
• Moderate bandwidth (1 percent to 5 percent)
• Low phase and gain distortion (high linearity)
• Well-controlled manufacturing facility and manufacturing documentation
These features usually dictate that the TWTs have helix slow-wave circuits
(usually with a velocity taper to improve both linearity and efficiency), high area
compression ungridded electron guns, PPM focusing, multiple stage depressed
collectors, and conduction cooling (in some applications, the collector is cooled
by direct radiation into free space). The use of a linearizer is often dictated by
the linearity requirements. Linearized TWTAs (LTWTAs) provided by L-3 ETI
represent an integrated design wherein the designs of the TWT, EPC and
linearizer are closely coordinated.

Missile TWTs for Active Seekers

Features that influence the design of these TWTs include:
• Minimal size and weight
• Narrow to moderate bandwidth
• Off to fully operational turn-on times of 1 second or less
• High efficiency
• High reliability after long inactive storage periods
These TWTs are normally of the periodic-permanent-magnet (PPM) focused
helix variety. They normally utilize unique cathode-heater designs to provide the
very fast warm-up required. They typically have multiple stage depressed
collectors with conduction cooling.

References
1. Theory and Design of Electron Beams, J. R. Pierce, D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., 1954.
2. Traveling-Wave Tubes, J. R. Pierce, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1950.
3. Electron Optics, O. Klemperer, Cambridge at the University Press, 1953.
4. Fundamentals of Microwave Electronics, M. Chodorow and C. Susskind,
McGraw-Hill, 1964.
5. Microwave Tubes, A. S. Gilmour, Jr., Artech House, 1986.
6. “US TWTs from 1 to 100 GHz,” Microwave Journal, 1989 State of the Art
Reference.
7. Principles of Traveling Wave Tubes, A.S. Gilmour, Jr., Artech House 1994.

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 APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
AM near-carrier noise
AM noise and spurious outputs at frequencies close to the carrier frequency,
usually 100 Hz to 500 KHz relative to the carrier. Components not related to the
presence of the carrier (signal) are usually caused by ripple on power supply
voltages.
Interactions in the TWT are usually responsible for components that exist
only when a carrier (signal) is present. (See also, Near-carrier noise.)

Amplitude pulling factor

The amount gain change experienced when the VSWR of the input source
or the load is changed.

Amplitude pushing factor

The amount of gain change experienced as the voltage on a particular tube
element is varied, usually expressed in dB per Volt.

AM/AM conversion
An abbreviated form of the phrase “amplitude modulation-to-amplitude
modulation conversion,” used to describe a type of distortion in microwave
amplifiers. It is the change in the output RF voltage produced by variations in
input signal level, usually expressed in dB/dB. An ideal amplifier has an AM/AM
conversion of 1 dB per dB. As the amplifier approaches its saturated output
power (the power output at the peak of the RF output versus RF input curve) the
amplification process becomes nonlinear and gain compression occurs. At
saturation, the AM/AM conversion is 0 dB per dB. (See Figure A-1.)

Figure A-1—Typical power output and phase shift as a function of RF input

power for a communications-type TWT.

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AM/PM conversion
An abbreviated form of the phrase “amplitude modulation-to-phase
modulation conversion,” used to describe a type of distortion in microwave
amplifiers. It is the change in phase angle of the output RF voltage produced by
variations in input signal level, usually expressed in degrees/dB. An ideal
amplifier has an AM/PM conversion of 0 degrees per dB. (See Figures A-1 and
A-2.)

Figure A-2—For a single carrier condition, AM/PM conversion rises sharply as

drive is increased.

AM/PM transfer
An abbreviated form of the phrase “amplitude modulation-to-phase
modulation transfer,” used to describe a type of distortion in microwave
amplifiers. It is the change in phase angle of the output RF voltage on one signal
produced by variations in input signal level on a signal at another frequency,
usually expressed in degrees/dB. An ideal amplifier has an AM/PM transfer of 0
degrees per dB.

Anode
1. In a klystron or a TWT, a positively charged electrode; the stream of
electrons that leaves the cathode flows toward the anode.
2. In a gridded vacuum tube (such as a triode, tetrode or pentode), it is
called a plate.

17
 3. In a cathode-ray tube, the anodes are connected to a positive potential
source. The anodes concentrate and accelerate the electron beam for focusing.

Average Power
1. A value of power equal to the time integral of the instantaneous power
over one period, divided by the period. The period is the time for one cycle; for
pulsed signals, the period is the reciprocal of the pulse repetition frequency. In
other words, the average is obtained by finding the area under a plot of power
versus time and dividing the result by the time for one cycle. For pulsed signals,
average power is equal to the peak power times the duty cycle, where the duty
cycle is the ratio of the “on” time to the period.
2. In circuits containing reactance and resistance, the current and voltage
values may have different phase angles and must be represented by vector
quantities. The average power is the result obtained when the vector quantity E
is multiplied by the in-phase component of the vector quantity I.

Backstreaming
A condition in which a portion of the electron beam is reflected from the
collector and travels “backward” toward the electron gun. This is an undesirable
effect, distorting the primary electron beam and any modulation that may be
present.

Backward wave oscillator

Abbreviated BWO. A wideband voltage tunable oscillator related to a
traveling-wave tube in somewhat the same way that a klystron oscillator is
related to a klystron amplifier. It uses a broadband circuit similar to a TWT.
Regeneration exists because the backward wave mode on the circuit propagates
RF energy in a direction opposite to that of the electron stream, oscillation
occurs when the loop gain is equal to or greater than unity. Higher power TWTs
can experience undesired backward wave oscillations when the backward wave
mode has sufficient regeneration.

Beam efficiency
The RF output power divided by the beam power (cathode current times
cathode voltage).

Body/helix protection
A combination of circuit elements in the TWT power supply, ranging from a
simple resistive network to a complex “crowbar” device. The circuitry is designed
to prevent damage to the TWT slow-wave structure as the result of arcing or
unusually high intercept current.

Brillouin field
See Brillouin flow.

Brillouin flow
A magnetic focusing scheme for electron beams in klystrons and TWTs in
which the magnetic field that provides focusing is parallel to the direction of
electron flow and the electron gun is shielded from magnetic field. The amount of

18
magnetic field to focus a non-thermal beam is called the Brillouin field (a non-
thermal beam is a beam that contains none of the random components of
velocity that result from emission from a hot cathode). In practice, the presence
of thermal velocities requires that the actual field be somewhat greater than the
Brillouin value. (See also, Confined flow, PPM.)

Cathode
A negatively charged electrode which emits electrons. In a TWT this is a
thermionic emitter where electron emission results from operation of
temperatures in the vicinity of 1000° C.

Cathode loading
The current density at the emitting surface of the cathode—usually
expressed in amperes per square centimeter. (See also, Current density.)

Charge density
The amount of electric charge contained in a unit of volume, usually
expressed in Coulombs per cubic meter. Charge density can be calculated from
current density divided by the velocity of the electrons.

Cold match
The input or output match of a TWT obtained when the TWT is not
operating (the TWT is electrically “cold”).

Collector
1. In a TWT or a klystron, the collector is the element that collects the
electrons after they have been used to provide microwave amplification or
oscillation. The unconverted kinetic energy in the electron beam is converted to
thermal energy (heat) in the collector.
2. In a transistor, the element which “collects” the current that passes
through the base region. The collector is the output element in a transistor and
performs a function similar to that of the plate in a vacuum tube.

Confined flow
A type of beam focusing similar to Brillouin flow except that a small amount
of magnetic flux is caused to thread the cathode. More field is required than for
Brillouin flow, but the beam is less affected by RF bunching (less scalloping is
introduced when RF is applied to the tube, body current is affected less by the
application of RF drive). (See also, Brillouin flow, PPM.)

Contrawound helix
A helix slow-wave structure where two helices, wound in opposite
directions, are superimposed into a single structure. This circuit offers
substantially higher power than a conventional helix with some sacrifice of
bandwidth.

Control grid
An electrode mounted between the cathode and the anode of a tube to
control the flow of electrons. An appropriate negative voltage (with respect to the

19
cathode) reduces the electron flow (beam current) to zero or cut-off and an
appropriate positive (or, in some cases, less negative) voltage allows current to
flow. This electrode is usually some sort of mesh structure.

Coupled-cavity tube
A TWT with a slow-wave structure made up of a number of “cavities”
electrically coupled by means of coupling holes or slots. This circuit is capable of
very high-power operation.

Crossed-field device
A high-vacuum electron tube in which a direct, alternating or pulsed voltage
is applied to produce an electric field perpendicular to a static magnetic field.
The values of the magnetic field and the electric field are selected to cause the
electrons emitted from the cathode to travel in a direction that is nearly
perpendicular to both the electric and magnetic fields and parallel to the direction
of propagation of energy on a nearby microwave frequency delay line (slow-
wave circuit). The electron beam interacts synchronously with a slow wave on
the delay line.

Current density
The current per unit area. For electrons in an electron beam, the current
density is the beam current divided by the cross-sectional area of the beam. The
current density at the cathode surface (cathode loading) is equal to the current
divided by the surface area of the cathode and is usually expressed in amperes
per square centimeter. Charge density can be calculated from current density
divided by the velocity of the electrons.

CW
An abbreviation of Continuous Wave. A TWT in CW operation is provided
DC voltages and the electron beam operates continuously, as opposed to
pulsed operation where at least one of the voltages applied to the TWT is a
pulsed voltage and the electron beam operates intermittently. In some
applications, the TWT operates in the CW mode and the RF signal is pulsed.

dB
See Decibel.

dBc
The level of a spurious output relative to the main signal (carrier). The dBc
is defined as 10 times the log to the base 10 of the ratio of the power in the
carrier to the power in the spurious output. (See also, Decibel.)

dBm
Power expressed on a decibel scale. The dBm is defined as 10 times the
log to the base 10 of the power in milliwatts. (See also, Decibel.)

dBw
Power expressed on a decibel scale. The dBw is defined as 10 times the log
to the base 10 of the power in Watts. (See also, Decibel.)

20
Decibel
The Bel is a logarithmic scale for expressing gain, power, and loss, based
on logarithms to the base 10 (common logarithms). The decibel is defined as
one tenth of a Bel and is abbreviated as dB. Usually based on power ratios,
such as:
Gain in dB = 10 x log (power output/power input)
Loss in dB = 10 x log (power input/power output).
If the input and output impedances of an amplifier are the same, gain can be
calculated from the voltages of the input and output signals:
Gain in dB = 20 x log (output voltage/input voltage).

Depressed collector
Collector depression is the process of applying a negative potential (with
respect to the tube body or “ground”) to the collector of a TWT or klystron to
reduce the electron beam velocity as the electrons enter the collector. This
reduces the kinetic energy in the electron beam, causing less energy to be
converted to heat when the beam impinges on the internal surfaces of the
collector. The result is that the conversion efficiency of the device is greatly
improved (less waste heat is generated). A collector designed to operate in this
mode is called a “depressed collector.” Depressed collectors can have one or
more depressed stages. Multiple-stage depressed collectors employ velocity-
sorting techniques to direct the high velocity electrons to the stages having the
greatest depression (the greatest amount of retarding field) and the slow
electrons to the stages having the least depression. Four-stage collectors are
common today with five-stage units starting to be applied.

Dispenser cathode
A cathode that has a body made of porous tungsten. The pores contain the
active materials that enhance electron emission. When the cathode is heated to
its operating temperature, the material in the pores reacts with the tungsten
freeing up barium which migrates toward the emitting surface, continuously
replenishing the supply of active material (barium) at the emitting surface.

Dispersion
A term used to describe changes in phase velocity of an RF wave with
respect to frequency. A non-dispersive circuit propagates RF energy at a phase
velocity that is constant as frequency is varied.

Drift tube
A section of metal tubing held at a fixed potential to form a drift space where
the electron beam is unaffected by external forces.

Drive
A term to indicate the RF input or RF signal to an electronic device.

21
Dual-mode
Any device having more than one set of operating parameters, i.e., a TWT
operating in both a low-power CW mode and a high-power pulse mode.

DVT (Dynamic velocity taper)

A technique for changing the pitch of the helix as a function of distance
along the helix to improve efficiency and linearity. (See also, Tapered velocity.)

Dynamic range for linear operation

The range covered by the input drive level that produces 1 dB or less of
gain compression and the input drive level at which the signal input is equal to
the noise input (kTB) in dBm plus the noise figure in dB. Usually expressed in
dB. (See Figure A-3.)

Figure A-3—Dynamic characteristics of a typical traveling-wave tube.

Earth station
A surface-mounted transmitter or receiver designed to communicate to or
via a satellite. Mobile earth stations can be vehicle mounted—land or sea.

ECCM (Electronic counter-counter-measures)

That sector of electronic warfare dealing with the neutralization of unfriendly
jamming or deception devices.

22
ECM (Electronic counter-measures)
That sector of electronic warfare dealing with the neutralization or deception
of unfriendly detection devices.

Efficiency
The RF output power divided by the sum of all power provided by the power
supply. The RF input power is usually ignored when calculating the efficiency of
a TWT because the TWT has high gain.

Electron
The smallest known negatively-charged stable particle. It has a charge of
1.602 x 10-19 coulombs; all electric charges are presumed to be integral
multiples of this number. Electrons constitute the extra-nuclear structure of
atoms, and hence are present in all matter. High speed electrons emitted during
radioactive decay are called beta rays. Electrons released from a negatively-
charged electrode by the action of heat, light, ions or intense electrical fields
constitute electron emission (sometimes called cathode rays). Electrons
released from an electrode because of electron or ion bombardment are called
secondary electrons. Electrons scattered from near the surface of an electrode
because of the presence of other charged particles are called reflected primary
electrons.

Equalizers
A passive device providing selective loss over an operating band such that
the net gain of the equalized amplifier matches a required profile.

EPC (Electronic power conditioner)

A sophisticated power supply/modulator usually associated with space-
qualified TWTAs. In addition to providing power, EPCs commonly include
protection circuits, circuits for receiving commands and circuits for providing
telemetry data.

ESM (Electronic support measures)

That division of EW involving actions to search for, intercept, locate and
identify radiated electromagnetic energy for the purpose of threat recognition.

Focus electrode
An element in the electron gun that is used to focus the electrons into a
well-defined beam. Sometimes called the beam-forming electrode (BFE).
German manufacturers usually call this electrode the Wehnelt.

Folded-helix circuit
A helix slow-wave structure where two helices, wound in the same direction,
are superimposed into a single structure. This circuit is sometimes called a bifilar
helix and offers substantially higher power than a conventional helix with some
sacrifice of bandwidth.

Folded-waveguide circuit
Another name for coupled-cavity circuits.

23
Frequency designations
An “officially” (FCC, DOD, etc.) approved alphabetic designation for a range
of frequencies.

Gain
The ratio of output voltage, current or power to the input voltage, current or
power, respectively, in an amplifier stage, receiver or system. Power gain is
usually expressed in decibels (ten times the log of the ratio of output power to
input power).

Getter
A device which, when activated, absorbs gasses within an electron tube.
The operation of a getter does not depend upon the continuous application of
power.

Grid
An electrode mounted between the cathode and the anode of a radio or
electronic tube to control the flow of electrons from cathode to anode, to serve
as an electrostatic shield between the cathode and the anode, or to suppress
secondary emission from the anode. When used to control the amount of
electron current in a TWT or klystron, the grid is called a control grid. The grid
electrode may be a cylindrical-shaped ring, a section of wire screen or mesh, or
a spiral of wire through which electrons can readily move.

Group delay
The distortion that results when the time delay of a signal being processed
through a device is not constant as a function of frequency. Areas of interest are
linear delay, parabolic delay and the ripple component. The linear component is
the difference in nanoseconds of delay between two frequencies within the
specified bandwidth. Parabolic delay is determined by fitting an algebraic
equation of the form y = ax + bx2 + c to a plot of delay versus frequency. Ripple
is the maximum peak-to-peak variation in nanoseconds of the ripple on the test
data, relative to a plot of the smoothed curve.

Group velocity
The velocity at which energy advances along the axial direction for a signal
that is propagated along the RF circuit. For a coaxial transmission line with no
dielectric, the group velocity is the speed of light. For waveguide, the group
velocity is less than the speed of light. Einstein’s theory of relativity requires that
the group velocity cannot be greater than the speed of light. (See also, Phase
velocity.)

Harmonic drive
The inclusion of phase-conditioned harmonic power in the input RF signal to
reduce harmonic capture and improve efficiency at the low end of the operating
band of a TWT.

24
Harmonic interaction
The effect of the harmonic content of the RF input signal on the beam
modulation. This is generally undesirable and usually reduces the fundamental
power output.

Heat pipe
A passive device used to transfer heat from a hot region where the thermal
density is high to a cooler region at lower thermal density. A fluid is caused to
boil at the hot end of the heat pipe and condensed at the cool end. A wick
transports the condensate back to the hot end, no external pump or power
source is needed.

Heater
The heater is used to raise the cathode to its operating temperature. The
most common type of heater consists of a coil of tungsten wire adjacent to or
embedded within the cathode body. The heater is connected to a DC or AC
power supply. The use of AC on the heater sometimes induces a low level of
phase modulation on the signal being amplified.

Hot match
The match at the input or output of a TWT, obtained when the TWT is
operating (electrically “hot”).

HPA (High Power Amplifier)

Usually refers to a subsystem used in Satellite Ground Terminal
applications.

Insertion loss
The reduction in signal strength obtained when a passive device is installed
(inserted) into an RF transmission line. Insertion loss is caused by power being
absorbed in the device and by reflections from discontinuities at the interfaces
between the device and the transmission line. Usually expressed in dB. (See
also, Decibel.)

Intercepting grid
A control grid that is not mechanically shielded from electrons emitted by the
cathode. The grid intercepts some electrons, especially when a positive potential
is applied.

Inter-digital line
A slow-wave structure composed of a comb-like structure with alternate
segments being connected together at one end, remaining segments connected
together at the opposite end.

25
Intercept point
On a plot of intermodulation distortion data as a function of RF input drive,
the carrier data at small signal drive
levels has a slope of 1:1, third-order
intermodulation products have a
slope of 3:1 and fifth-order
intermodulation products have a
slope of 5:1. Extrapolating the slopes
for the carriers and the third-order
products produces an intercept point.
The output power at this point is
called the third-order intercept point,
as shown in Figure A-4. Similarly, the
fifth-order intercept point is the point
at which the carrier slope intercepts
the fifth-order product slope. (See
also, Intermodulation distortion.)

Interfering mode
A higher order mode which,
when excited, detracts from or
distorts the signal in a transmission
system.

Intermodulation distortion
1. Impairment of fidelity resulting
from the production of frequencies
that are the sum of, and the
difference between, frequencies Figure A-4—Typical third-order inter-
contained in the applied waveform. modulation data for a helix TWT.
2. When a signal containing two
or more frequencies is applied to the
input of a nonlinear device, the output
consists of waves having the original frequencies plus additional new
frequencies, as shown in Figure A-4. These new frequencies are the result of
intermodulation distortion in the nonlinear device. Intermodulation is undesirable
in audio amplifiers and microwave tubes such as klystrons and traveling-wave
tubes. The most troublesome intermodulation products in a TWT are the third-
order intermodulation products at frequencies of 2f1–f2 and 2f2–f1. Typical data
are taken on a plot where RF input level is shown on the abscissa (X-axis) and
RF output levels are shown on the ordinate (Y-axis). Three curves for output
levels are usually plotted: output with one drive signal (one carrier), signal output
with two drive signals (two carriers), and intermodulation products when two
signals (carriers) are present. In the small signal region (carrier outputs 10 dB or
more below saturated output), the plots for carrier outputs have a slope of 1 dB
per dB, the plots for third-order intermodulation products have a slope of 3 dB
per dB and plots for fifth-order intermodulation products have a slope of 5 dB per
dB (the fifth-order intermodulation products are at frequencies of 3f1–2f2 and
3f2–2f1). (See also, Intercept point.)

26
Intrinsic efficiency
Efficiency calculated by dividing the RF output power by the sum of all
power provided by the power supply with the exception of the power provided to
the heater for the cathode. When permanent-magnet-focused TWT designs are
scaled by less than a factor of two in power output level, the intrinsic efficiency is
usually constant.

Isolation filters
A passive device or network which isolates a circuit or device from the
effects of connected or surrounding circuits or devices.

Isolator
A passive device that has nonreciprocal propagation characteristics that
result in low insertion loss for energy traveling in one direction and high insertion
loss for energy traveling in the other direction. The most common usage is to
isolate active devices from power reflected at discontinuities in RF transmission
systems.

Jammer
An active electronic counter-measures (ECM) device designed to deny
intelligence to unfriendly detectors or to disrupt communications.

Klystron
A microwave tube which uses the interaction between an electron beam and
the RF energy on microwave cavities to provide signal amplification. The
klystron operates on principles of velocity modulation very similar to those in a
TWT except that klystron interaction takes place at discrete locations along the
electron beam. Common types of klystrons are the reflex klystron (an oscillator
having only one cavity), two-cavity klystron amplifiers and oscillators, and
multi-cavity klystron amplifiers.

Linearizer
A device that improves the linearity of the AM/AM conversion curve of an
amplifier (causing the slope of power output versus power input to be 1 dB per
dB over a wide range of drive levels). Linearizers are usually designed to also
reduce the AM/PM conversion (causing the phase shift to remain nearly constant
over a wide range of drive levels). The use of a linearizer reduces the
intermodulation distortion. (See also, Intermodulation distortion.)

Loss buttons
In coupled-cavity TWTs, a patented method for inserting frequency-selective
loss in order to inhibit the excitation of higher-order modes.

Magnetron
A crossed-field microwave oscillator tube containing concentric cylinders;
the inner cylinder is the cathode and the outer cylinder is an anode that contains
embedded resonant cavities. A strong axial magnetic field causes a cloud of
electrons to orbit between the cathode and the anode. The RF voltages across
gaps in the resonators modulate the velocities of the electrons. This causes the

27
orbiting electrons to form into “spokes” that rotate around the tube axis. As the
spokes of electrons rotate past the resonator gaps, they induce currents that
shock excite the cavities. The RF voltages build up to large levels. High power
output is obtained at moderately high efficiency.

Match
A measure of the quality of the impedance match between the device input
or output port and the transmission line to which the device is connected. (See
also, Percentage reflection, Reflection coefficient, Return loss, and VSWR.)

Metal-ceramic
A term applied to tube assemblies that employ no glass as a part of their
vacuum walls. Insulation between elements operating at different voltages is
achieved by using ceramic insulators. The assembly is integrated by using braze
joints between ceramic structures and metal structures.

Mode interference
See Interfering mode.

Multi-mode
Having the capability of operating with more than a single set of parameters.
(See also, Dual mode.)

Multi-octave
Capable of operating satisfactorily over a frequency range of 2 or more
octaves.

Multipactor or Multipaction
A term to denote an electron-RF field interaction in which the electrons take
energy from the RF fields and give up this energy to the surface on which the
electrons are collected. The initial electrons are supplied by field emission,
electrons that stray from the electron beam, or cosmic radiation, but the number
of electrons is increased by secondary emission. In microwave tubes,
multipactor is generally considered to be an undesirable effect and can occur
across cavity or drift tube gaps, in output waveguides, or can involve the ceramic
output window. It is detected by observing the output power as the signal level is
increased. The onset of multipactor is indicated by the presence of a hysteresis
loop as a function of signal level. Increasing the signal level produces a sudden
drop in the RF power output followed by low output even when the drive to the
amplifier is decreased below the point of initial onset. On high power tubes, there
will be heating of the surface or surfaces involved.

Multi-stage collector
A collector with several segments, each successive segment being
“depressed” more than the preceding segment. This further enhances the
collection efficiency, thus, the overall efficiency of the device. (See also,
Depressed collector.)

28
Near-carrier noise
AM noise, PM noise and spurious outputs at frequencies close to the carrier
frequency, usually 100 Hz to 500 KHz relative to the carrier. Components not
related to the presence of the carrier (signal) are usually caused by ripple on
power supply voltages. Interactions in the TWT are usually responsible for
components that exist only when a carrier (signal) is present. Special
measurement techniques are usually required to measure near-carrier noise
because the resolution bandwidth (IF amplifier bandwidth) and local oscillator
stability of standard spectrum analyzers are not adequate to provide accurate
test data. Noise measurement test sets (NMTS) are often developed for the
specific application. (See also, Noise measurement test sets.)

Noise figure
The ratio of the signal-to-noise on the input of a device to the signal-to-noise
on the output. It is important because it indicates the amount of noise the
amplifier contributes to the signal and it is an absolute indicator of the sensitivity
of the device. The noise figure is usually expressed in dB, and is abbreviated NF
or F.

Noise measurement test sets (NMTS)

Special test sets developed to measure AM noise and PM noise at
frequencies close to the carrier frequency, usually 100 Hz to 500 KHz relative to
the carrier. Components not related to the presence of the carrier (signal) are
usually caused by ripple on power supply voltages. Interactions in the TWT are
usually responsible for components that exist only when a carrier (signal) is
present. Special measurement techniques are usually required to measure near-
carrier noise because the resolution bandwidth (IF amplifier bandwidth) and local
oscillator stability of standard spectrum analyzers are not adequate to provide
accurate test data. Also, standard spectrum analyzers usually cannot distinguish
between AM (amplitude modulation) noise and PM (phase modulation) noise.
Noise measurement test sets (NMTS) are often developed for the specific
application. Two major types exist. In one type, the signal is passed through a
mixer (down-converter) that has a highly stable local oscillator, feeding into a
very narrow band IF amplifier, and detected by either an AM or a PM detector.
The video output from the detector is analyzed by a wave analyzer or video
spectrum analyzer. The AM detector is a simple crystal detector, the PM
detector employs two detectors and a delay line or a resonant cavity to provide a
discriminator characteristic. An important component of either type of test set is
a calibrator that provides a reference signal and a known level of either type of
modulation.

Noise power
The noise generated by a device or amplifier when measured at the output
port when the input port is terminated and no RF drive is applied. Usually
symbolized as NPO and measured in milliwatts or dBm. Noise power output in
dBm can be estimated from:

NPO (in dBm) = -114 + NF + G + 10 x log(BW)

29
 Where NF is the measured noise figure of the device, G is the small signal
gain in dB (assuming that the noise power does not drive the amplifier near its
saturated output level) and BW is the bandwidth in MHz.

Noise power ratio (NPR)

A measure of intermodulation when an infinite number of carriers is being
amplified. The input to the amplifier is a well-defined bandwidth of random noise
with a deep notch in the center. Intermodulation in the amplifier produces
intermodulation products that partially fill the notch. The ratio of noise power in
the passband to the noise power in the notch, measured at the output of the
amplifier, is the NPR.

Non-intercepting grid
A control grid that is mechanically shielded from the cathode by a “shadow
grid” in such a way that no electrons are intercepted by the control grid, even
when a positive voltage is applied to the control grid (with respect to cathode).

Octave
A term borrowed from music to designate a range of frequencies where the
highest frequency is twice the lowest frequency.

Outgassing
A term used to describe the emission of various gasses from internal
surfaces during the processing and testing of thermionic devices.

Overdrive
An input signal level greater than that required for saturation, resulting in
decreasing output power and increasing distortion.

Peak power
1. The power at the maximum of a pulse of power, excluding spikes.
2. The output power at the maximum amplitude that can occur with any
combination of signals to be transmitted.

Percentage reflection
A measure of the quality of the impedance match between the device input
or output port and the transmission line to which the device is connected.
Expressed as 100 times the voltage in the reflected wave divided by the voltage
in the incident wave. (See also, Match, Reflection coefficient, Return loss, and
VSWR.)

Perveance
1. A numerical constant for an electron gun design, determined by the size,
spacing and geometry of the electrodes in the electron gun. This value is often
called the “gun design perveance.” The measured perveance for the gun
depends on the tolerances on the geometry and the condition of the cathode.
2. A quantity based on the measurement of beam current and voltage
defined as the current divided by the voltage to the three-halves power. When
the voltage is the cathode-to-anode voltage in the electron gun, the perveance is

30
called the “gun perveance.” When the voltage is the cathode-to-circuit voltage,
the perveance is called the “beam perveance.”

Phase linearity
A term referring to the degree of deviation from a straight line of the phase
versus frequency characteristic of a device.

Phase pulling factor

The amount by which a change in input or output VSWR changes the phase
shift in the TWT.

Phase pushing factor

The amount by which a change in the voltage on an electrode changes the
phase shift in the TWT, usually expressed in degrees per Volt.

Phase tracking
The closeness or similarity of the phase characteristics of a number of
devices. This is an important consideration when power combining the outputs
from two or more devices.

Phase velocity
The velocity at which phase fronts advance along the axial direction for a
signal that is propagated along the RF circuit. For a coaxial transmission line
with no dielectric, the phase velocity is the speed of light. For waveguide, the
phase velocity is greater than the speed of light. Slow wave circuits are
designed to provide a phase velocity that is much less than the speed of light.
(See also, Group velocity.)

PM near-carrier noise
PM (phase modulation) noise and spurious outputs at frequencies close to
the carrier frequency, usually 100 Hz to 500 KHz relative to the carrier.
Components not related to the presence of the carrier (signal) are usually
caused by ripple on power supply voltages. Interactions in the TWT are usually
responsible for components that exist only when a carrier (signal) is present.
(See also, Near-carrier noise.)

Power combining
A scheme whereby the outputs from two or more amplifiers are combined to
provide a greater output power than available from a single amplifier.

Power curve
A plot of output power versus input drive or input frequency. (For power
curve versus input drive, see also, AM/AM conversion.)

PPM (Periodic-Permanent-Magnet)
A method of focusing a TWT where permanent magnets of opposite polarity
are placed side by side along the length of the tube.

31
Pulse compression
A matched filter technique used to discriminate against signals which do not
correspond to the transmitted signal. Used in radar systems for improved
detection capability.

Pulse-up ratio
The ratio, usually expressed in dB, between the CW power level and the
pulse-power level in a dual-mode device.

Radar
Acronym for radio detecting and ranging. A system where a relatively high
frequency radio pulse is used to bounce a signal off a distant object. The
direction and time of response give the location of the object.

Redundancy, automatic
In a communications system, a feature which automatically switches to a
standby unit in the event of a failure.

Reflection coefficient
A measure of the quality of the impedance match between the device input
or output port and the transmission line to which the device is connected.
Expressed as the voltage in the reflected wave divided by the voltage in the
incident wave. (See also, Match, Percentage reflection, Return loss, and
VSWR.)

32
Resonant cavity
A short piece of waveguide or other transmission line terminated at both
ends with a metal piston, an iris diaphragm, an open circuit, or some other wave-
reflecting device. It can be used as a component of a slow wave transmission
line (circuit), a filter, a coupler between transmission systems, or as an
impedance transformation (matching) network. Klystrons use resonant cavities
as input and output couplers to couple microwave energy into and out of the
electron beam. Coupled-cavity TWTs use tightly coupled resonant cavities as
slow wave circuits to provide continuous coupling between the waves on the
circuit and the electron beam.

Return loss
A measure of the quality of the impedance match between the device input
or output port and the transmission line to which the device is connected.
Expressed as -20 times the log of the ratio of voltage in the reflected wave
divided by the voltage in the incident wave. (See also, Match, Percentage
reflection, Reflection coefficient, and VSWR.)

Ring-bar tube
A TWT with a slow-wave structure composed of ring-like segments
connected by straps or “bars.” This device is capable of higher power levels than
a conventional helix tube at a significant reduction in bandwidth.

Saturated power output

A term used to describe that point on the RF power output versus RF power
input characteristic where an increase in input power does not produce an
increase in output power.

Screen grid
A grid structure placed between the control grid and anode to reduce the
capacitive coupling between the control grid and the anode. In a multi-mode
electron gun the element used to control beam current from the edge of the
cathode.

Serrodyne
An operating mode for a TWT in which the input signal is translated to a
new frequency at the output. A sawtooth voltage is superimposed on the DC
voltage between the cathode and the slow wave circuit, causing the phase shift
in the TWT to change in a linear fashion as a function of time. The amplitude of
the sawtooth voltage can be adjusted to provide 360 degrees of phase shift
during each cycle, causing the output of the TWT to be offset by the frequency
of the sawtooth waveform (the “flyback” time of the sawtooth must be very short
so the TWT “thinks” that the phase is being offset continuously).

Shadow grid
A grid structure placed between the cathode and control grid and electrically
connected to the cathode. This element shields the control grid from
interception.

33
Single-stage collector
A TWT or klystron collector that has only one element for collecting
electrons. The stage may be operated at ground potential or may be depressed.
(See also, Depressed collector and Multi-stage collector.)

Slow-wave circuit
Any structure which “slows” the effective axial phase velocity of an RF wave
in order to establish synchronism between that wave and an electron beam.

Slow-wave structure
A microwave propagating structure that provides an axial phase velocity that
is less than the speed of light. (See also, Slow-wave circuit.)

Space charge
The electrical charge in electrons that are in a vacuum environment (as
opposed to electrons within the crystal structure of a metal.)

Space charge limited current

The mode of electron gun operation in which the cathode emits a copious
quantity of electrons and the flow of current is limited only by the electric field
introduced by the charge on the electrons in the space near the cathode emitting
surface. (See also, Temperature limited current.)

Space charge emission

See Space charge limited current.

Spherical diode
A two element (cathode and anode) structure built in such a manner as to
duplicate the spherical geometry of the cathode in a typical electron gun. Used
for evaluation and analysis of electron emission, analysis of electron gun
designs and for realistic cathode life testing.

Tapered termination
A gradual increase in the amount of loss applied to a slow-wave structure to
control reflections within a TWT.

Tapered velocity
A change in the pitch of a helix, the height of cavities, or some other axial
dimensions of a slow wave circuit to change the phase velocity of the RF wave.
This is done because the extraction of kinetic energy from the electron beam
causes the beam to slow down near the output of the TWT. The taper helps to
maintain synchronism between the RF wave and the electron beam; this greatly
improves the efficiency of the TWT. (See also, DVT.)

Temperature limited current

The mode of electron gun operation in which the cathode does not emit a
sufficient quantity of electrons to support space charge limited current and the
flow of current is limited by the amount of current emitted from the cathode.
Temperature limited current occurs when a cathode is operated well below its

34
normal operating temperature or when a cathode is depleted. (See also, Space
charge limited current.)

Temperature limited emission

See Temperature limited current.

Tetrode
A thermionic device having four elements, usually a cathode, control grid,
screen grid, and anode. In multi-mode TWTs, a term describing the electron gun
(cathode, shadow grid, control grid and screen grid).

Time-out circuitry
A combination of circuit elements designed to actuate after the lapse of a
certain period of time. Commonly used to apply high voltage to a tube following
an appropriate warm-up time after application of heater voltage.

Transfer curve
1. The family of curves for various values of plate voltage in which plate
current is plotted as a function of control grid voltage.
2. Specifically with regard to microwave tubes, a curve or family of curves in
which output power is plotted as a function of input drive power at a fixed beam
voltage. Sometimes referred to as a gain-curve. (See also, AM/AM transfer.)

Triode
A three element thermionic device composed of a cathode, a control grid
and an anode.

TR limiter (TR switch)

A Transmit/Receive switching device which limits the amount of power
transmitted. Usually employed as a receiver protect device in a radar system.

TWT (Traveling-wave tube)

A microwave tube of special design using a broadband circuit in which a
beam of electrons interacts continuously with a guided electromagnetic field to
amplify microwave frequencies.

TWTA (Traveling-wave-tube amplifier)

A combination of a power supply, a modulator (for pulsed systems), and a
traveling-wave tube, often packaged in a common enclosure.

Uplink/downlink
Uplink refers to the transmission of intelligence to a satellite while downlink
refers to the re-transmission to a ground station.

Vacuum envelope
Any structure containing or capable of containing a high vacuum
environment. Usually refers to the “body” structure of a thermionic tube.

35
Velocity resynchronization
Any method for changing the axial velocity of an RF wave or of an electron
beam to improve the synchronism between that wave and an electron beam.
(See also, Tapered velocity and Velocity jump.)

Velocity jump
A method of maintaining the proper relationship between beam velocity and
circuit phase velocity near the output of a TWT whereby the beam velocity is
caused to increase (as opposed to causing the circuit phase velocity to
decrease). The increase in beam velocity is obtained by operating the output
portion of the slow wave circuit at a voltage that is positive with respect to the
remainder of the circuit.

Velocity step
See Tapered velocity.

Velocity taper
See Tapered velocity.

VSWR
An acronym for Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. A measure of the quality of
the impedance match between the device input or output port and the
transmission line to which the device is connected. Measured by observing the
standing wave pattern produced by the interaction of the incident wave with the
reflected wave. The VSWR is the ratio of the voltage at a peak divided by the
voltage at a minimum point on the standing wave pattern. (See also, Match,
Reflection coefficient, and Return loss.)

Work function
The amount of energy it takes to get an electron out of the cathode’s crystal
structure and into the vacuum environment in front of the cathode, measured in
electron-volts (eV). A cathode having a low work function can operate at a lower
temperature than a cathode having a high work function.

36
 APPENDIX B
ELECTRON GUN AND
CATHODE DESIGN TRADE-OFFS
 With increasing performance demands on TWTs, the quality of the electron
gun design is a key factor. There is, therefore, a specialized group within L-3 ETI
which concentrates in gun design, focusing, and related electron-optical
problems.
Design tools, such as computer programs for analysis and gun analyzers for
experimental evaluation, are continuously upgraded and improved. A file on
previously designed guns of all types is maintained for reference and as a basis
for new designs.
Electron guns used in traveling-wave tubes are generally convergent. This
means that the current density at the cathode, i.e., the cathode loading, is
significantly lower than the current density in the beam and below a specified
maximum value. Cathode loading is related to the cathode life; reduced cathode
loading will usually allow the cathode to be operated at a lower temperature and
will provide a longer cathode life.
The design of high perveance, convergent guns is well established and is
based on Pierce’s “spherical diode” concept in which a conical flow of electrons
converges into a well-defined beam having uniform current density across the
beam cross-sections. The design procedures provide data on cathode and
anode radii of curvature and aperture angles, but do not give sufficient details on
the shape of the beam-focusing electrode and anode.
The design of these electrodes can be determined with a large scale
computer program that enables the designer to evaluate a variety of electrode
shapes and to establish an optimized configuration.

Electron Guns for TWTs Requiring Electron Beam Modulation

In some applications it is necessary to depart from this simpler electron gun
geometry to provide the capability of modulating with smaller voltage swings.
This can be accomplished in any of a number of fashions.
The simplest approach is to isolate all or part of the focus electrode from the
cathode and then provide a separate connection for that TWT gun element.
Another approach involves placing an isolated electrode between the focus
electrode and the anode and designing the shapes of the electrodes to provide
the necessary electric field profile. This is called aperture grid modulation; for
high perveance guns, this usually requires a voltage swing that is a large fraction
of the cathode voltage.
If smaller voltage swings are required, a radial vaned (“target” shaped) grid
can be placed in front of the cathode as shown in Figure B-1. The use of a grid
will allow the cathode current to be modulated by a swing of a few hundred volts,
but some of the current that would normally pass through the anode and enter
the beam hole in the slow wave circuit will be intercepted by the grid (in fact, this
type of grid is called an intercepting grid). The portion of the cathode current that
will be intercepted by the grid is determined by the screening factor of the grid.
As a result, single-gridded guns, such as that shown in Figure B-2, can only be
used for low-average-power tubes because of the thermal power limitations of
the intercepting grid. The modulator must supply the current intercepted by the
grid; it is necessary to verify that the thermal load on the grid due to interception
is within acceptable limits.

38
 High-average-power tubes employ,
therefore, nonintercepting gridded
guns, which use a precisely aligned pair
of grids, with the “shadowing” grid
closest to the cathode electrically
connected to the cathode and either on
or close to the emitting surface of the
cathode. The wires in the shadow grid
suppress emission from those portions
of the cathode that are in close
proximity to the grid wires, eliminating
the current that would be intercepted on
the control grid. The penalties paid are
that the electron gun is more complex
Figure B-1—Grid with radial vanes.
to construct (since the two grids must
be aligned very precisely) and the
quality of the beam focusing is degraded compared to the beam quality obtained
from an equivalent non-gridded design, since we now have non-uniform
emission from the cathode, as shown schematically in Figure B-3. This grid
configuration reduces grid interception of the control grid from about 10 percent
to a very small fraction of one percent, thus making it possible to substantially
increase the average power capability.

Figure B-2—Schematic of intercepting gridded gun.

39
Figure B-3—Schematic of nonintercepting gridded gun.
Figure B-4 shows typical gridded electron gun characteristic curves which
determine the specific point of tube operation, as well as the required negative
voltage for tube cut-off.
Future improvements in the techniques for building gridded electron guns
include the use of cathodes in which non-emitting regions perform the function of
the shadow grid and the use of grids that are bonded directly to the surface of
the cathode.

Oxide Cathodes
The oxide cathode uses a nickel substrate that is coated with oxides of
barium, strontium and (sometimes) other metals. This type of cathode was once
the mainstay of the TWT industry, but has now been replaced by the dispenser
cathode (see below). Oxide cathodes are still used in certain lower frequency
tubes. Although no longer used in ETI TWTs, their description is included here
because the reader may still come across them in certain older devices. Oxide
cathodes will support current densities of 0.5 Amperes per square centimeter in
CW operation and 2 to 10 Amperes per square centimeter in pulsed operation
(usually in applications where the pulse width is 50 microseconds or less). The
temperature at which the cathode must operate depends on the current density
required; the quality of the vacuum inside the TWT, including the partial pressure
of each species of gas; and the duty cycle at which current is being drawn from
the cathode. For example, a high power CW TWT may have internal parts that

liberate gasses because of their high operating temperatures, making it

40
 necessary to operate the cathode
at a temperature in excess of
750 degrees C. In applications where
the RF power level is less than 1000
Watts, the cathode may be
operated at temperatures below 680
degrees C (especially when the
current density is less than 0.25
Amperes per square centimeter).
For most TWTs, the operating
temperature is in the range 680 to
750 degrees C. Oxide cathode life
expectancy as a function of operating
temperature is shown in Figure B-5.
The abscissa in the figure is true
temperature in degrees C, since the
temperature of oxide cathodes is
usually calibrated by building special
diodes in which a thermocouple is
used to determine true temperature
as a function of heater power. As
seen in Figure B-5, in many
applications the life expectancy was
greater than 20 years. The model
used to generate the data in Figure
B-5 is based on the performance of
Figure B-4—Focusing characteristics on-orbit space TWTs and life test
of a typical gridded gun. TWTs having demonstrated lives of
142,600 hours (16.3 years).

Dispenser Cathodes
Dispenser cathodes consist of a porous tungsten matrix that is filled with
compounds of barium, calcium and aluminum. In this simplest form, the cathode
is called a B-type or an S-type cathode, depending on the ratio of the
compounds in the matrix. These cathodes will support current densities of 5
Amperes per square centimeter and higher, and are less susceptible to gassy
environments than the oxide cathode. In pulsed applications they are less
dependent upon the duty cycle than the oxide cathode. Operating temperatures
for B-type and S-type cathodes are usually in the range 1000 to 1200 degrees C.
Operating temperatures can be reduced to the range 900 to 1100 degrees C by
coating the emitting surface with a thin layer of osmium and other metals. Such a
cathode is designated an M-type cathode. This type of cathode is the current
standard cathode for virtually all ETI TWTs. It’s combination of long life and
resistance to less-than-ideal environmental conditions have it the industry
standard for high reliability TWTs. The scandate cathode, which is in
development, has a coating of scandium compounds and offers promise of
operation at even lower temperatures.

41
Figure B-5—Life prediction for oxide cathodes operating under ideal conditions.

A life expectancy of greater than 30 years can be obtained when the

dispenser cathode is operated at temperatures below 1000 degrees C; this
requires that the cathode be operated at a relatively low current density and that
the vacuum environment in the TWT is quite good. The life expectancy
prediction for dispenser cathodes operating under these conditions is shown in
Figure B-6. The abscissa in Figure B-6 is brightness temperature in degrees C,
since the temperature usually is calibrated by building special diodes that
contain a viewing window. An optical pyrometer is used to determine brightness
temperature as a function of heater power (brightness temperature is lower than
true temperature by 40 to 60 degrees, depending on the emissivity of the surface
being observed). The ordinate is the time at which the cathode current has
degraded to 90 percent of its beginning-of-life value (this corresponds to a 0.6
dB reduction in saturated output power). In practice, this RF output power drop
is avoided in modern TWTA/HPA systems by incorporating an anode or grid
voltage control loop that senses cathode current and adjusts the anode or grid
voltage as necessary to keep the cathode current at a constant level. With
these TWTA control loops, constant RF output power can be maintained for the
full duration of the spacecraft lifetime.
Additional comments upon TWTA life are discussed in Appendix L.

42
Figure B-6—Life prediction for state-of-the-art dispenser cathodes operating
under ideal conditions.

Gun Design Trade-Offs

The voltage-current relationship in a TWT electron gun is defined by the
perveance, as follows:

cathode current
gun perveance =
(cathodeto anode voltage)1 .5

or
1 × 106 × cathode current
gun microperveance =
(cathodeto anode voltage)1.5

Typical values of gun perveance range from 0.01 to 1.5 micropervs (the unit
for perveance is the perv and the unit for microperveance is the microperv when
voltage is in volts and current is in amperes). This is an important electron gun
design parameter that affects the design of the entire TWT, not just the electron
gun. The efficiency at which electron beam power (cathode voltage times
cathode current) is converted to microwave power is called the “basic” efficiency
or the “beam” efficiency or the “circuit” efficiency and depends strongly on the
perveance of the electron beam. Basic efficiency usually lies in the range 5
percent to 40 percent. The lower values of basic efficiency are usually
encountered in designs that have low values of perveance, as would be the case
for low power, high frequency TWTs. At a particular power level, the range of

43
basic efficiencies will usually fall within a relatively narrow range. For example,
the basic efficiency for a 12 GHz 50 Watt TWT may lie in the range 15 percent to
30 percent. This implies that the power in the electron basic must be in the range
167 Watts to 333 Watts. This power level can be achieved by using low,
moderate or high values of perveance. The design of the TWT would be different
for each set of conditions.

Low Voltage, High Perveance, Electron Gun Design

Selecting low voltage, high current operation means that the gun perveance
must be high, and this presents several practical limitations.
High perveance electron guns are more difficult to design and construct
than low perveance electron guns; the quality of the electron beam generated is
more sensitive to spacing and alignments than for low perveance designs.
High perveance operation implies that the current density in the electron
beam is high. This results from the fact that the electron beam diameter required
for a particular design depends on the frequency of operation and the operating
voltage. The combination of high frequency operation and high perveance (low
voltage) implies that dimensions are small and current levels are high, resulting
in high current density.
Reasonable performance in the slow-wave circuit usually requires that the
electron beam have a current density in the range 2 Amperes per square
centimeter to 250 Amperes per square centimeter. These current densities are
often much higher than can be supported by the cathode emitting surface,
requiring that the cathode emitting surface be designed as a concave spherical
cap. The surface area of the cathode is then much larger than the cross-
sectional area of the electron beam. The ratio of these two areas is called the
“area compression” or the “compression ratio” of the electron gun. An electron
gun having a large area compression can provide and electron beam having a
high current density while maintaining a low current density at the cathode.
However, thermal velocity effects and the effect of slight misalignments make it
more difficult to focus beams that emanate from an electron gun having high
area compression. Area compression ratios of from 10:1 to 50:1 are quite
common. Ratios of up to 100:1 or so are used when necessary. However,
beyond about 120:1, tolerance control gets extremely difficult, tolerances of the
order of 0.0005 to 0.001 inch are common for these designs. Area compressions
greater than this are generally avoided.
At the other extreme, low area compression can result in high current
density at the cathode surface and require that the cathode be operated at a
high temperature.

High Voltage, Low Perveance Electron Gun Design

Cathode current density and gun perveance considerations can be removed
by designing the TWT for high voltage, low current (low perveance) operation.
Low perveance operation also offers the advantages that the electrons in the
spent electron beam contain a smaller percentage velocity spread than is the

case in high perveance designs (making it easier to design a highly efficient

collector and obtain high overall efficiency) and the helix in a helix TWT is larger

44
(making it easier to fabricate and providing greater thermal capacity). However,
low perveance design can introduce a whole new set of problems:
• High voltage operation requires larger spacings between electrodes within
the TWT; geometries must be chosen to keep the value of electric field
across vacuum gaps at less than 200 kV/cm. If the surfaces are not
smooth, the field is limited to lower values.
• TWTs operating at higher voltages tend to be less stable than TWTs
operating at lower voltages. For example, unless special precautions are
implemented, undesirable backward-wave oscillations can occur when a
TWT having a helix type slow-wave structure is operated at voltages
greater than 8 to 15 kV, depending on the frequency.

A Practical Electron Gun Design for a Basic TWT

An electron gun for a practical TWT will operate at an intermediate
perveance, based on a trade-off study in which the factors shown in Table B-1
are considered.

Table B-1—Factors Considered in Selecting the Gun Perveance for a TWT

Factors that Favor Factors that Favor

High Perveance Low Perveance

1. Operating voltage is low, 1. Less magnetic field required for beam

usually avoids high voltage focusing.
breakdown problems.

2. RF performance is better, 2. It is easier to design an electron gun

especially when broadband for the area compression that is
operation is needed. needed for low cathode loading (for
long cathode life).

3. Gain per unit length is 3. Slow-wave circuit design is simplified

higher, therefore the because of the larger dimensions,
structure is shorter. and the design is tolerant to
manufacturing variations.

The electron gun must be designed for the proper perveance while drawing
uniform current density from across the cathode surface and producing an
electron beam that has the proper diameter. The profiles of the anode and the
focus electrode are selected to provide the electric field patterns that are needed
to meet these requirements and to cause the electrons to converge into a well-
defined electron beam. TWTs having guns of this geometry are modulated by
varying the cathode voltage or the anode voltage, requiring power supplies
capable of providing large voltage swings (complete turn-off of the amplification
usually dictates that the voltage swing is as great as the operating cathode
voltage). Modulating the cathode voltage is called cathode modulation operation
and requires switching the entire cathode current as well as the cathode voltage.

45
Modulating the anode voltage is called “mod-anode” operation and requires
switching only the anode current, a small fraction of the cathode current. Mod-
anode design requires that the spacings and insulators between the anode and
ground must be sufficient to isolate the large negative voltage that must be
applied to the anode when the TWT is turned off as well as the spacings to
isolate the positive anode from the cathode when the TWT is turned on.
An electron gun designed for a given TWT will incorporate only the design
features required for its particular application.

46
 APPENDIX C
SLOW-WAVE CIRCUIT AND
BEAM FOCUSING TRADE-OFFS
Slow-Wave Structures
TWT amplification takes place when the velocity of the electron beam is
close to (in synchronism with) the velocity of the signal on the slow-wave circuit.
Maximum amplification occurs when the electron beam velocity is somewhat
greater than the velocity of the signal on the slow-wave circuit. The amplification
process causes energy in the electron beam to be converted into microwave
energy; this causes the electrons to slow down as they approach the output end
of the TWT. The slow-wave circuit must meet several requirements, including:
• The velocity of propagation on the slow-wave circuit must be nearly
synchronous with the velocity of electrons that have been accelerated
through the potential between the cathode and the circuit. This condition
must be maintained over the entire operating frequency range. For
highest efficiency, the velocity of propagation is tapered toward the output
end (to account for the slowing of the electrons).
• The circuit must provide a strong axial RF electric field in close proximity
to the electron beam.
• The circuit must provide good thermal paths to dissipate heat generated
by RF losses and by interception of electrons.
The most common circuits used to meet these requirements are the helix
circuit and the coupled-cavity circuit. These circuit options are shown in Figure
C-1a and Figure C-1b.
Historically, the simple helix was the first circuit to be investigated by R.
Kompfner in 1944. Obviously this circuit must possess some outstanding
advantages to have persisted so long in such a commanding position. Probably
its simplicity appealed to Kompfner and led him to utilize it in his broadband
modulation experiments, since at that time the available techniques for
fabrication and assembly of vacuum components were crude and primitive
compared to those of the present art.
The early investigators of this elegant circuit probably did not fully realize
that almost all of the theoretical measurement standards would show that the
helix was far superior to hundreds of other propagating structures which were to
be investigated during the formative years of TWT development. In retrospect it
is easy to appreciate the basic physical reasons which have given the helix its
unchallenged position of leadership, but in the beginning, many hoped that the
very first circuit candidate could be superseded by something much better.
Simple first-order considerations of the interaction process between an
electron stream and a propagating electromagnetic wave suggest that the
following properties determine a figure of merit for the particular circuit being
evaluated:
• Minimum stored energy in the propagating wave
• Maximum axial electric field in the region of the electron beam
• Constant phase velocity (no dispersion) over frequency
• No interfering modes
The last property is one which must be qualified since it is highly dependent
upon the specific design under consideration, but in general the helix possesses
a very manageable mode structure that is indeed superior to almost all other
substitutes.

48
Figure C-1a—Helix slow wave structure and the support rods.

Figure C-1b—In the L-3 ETI patented coupled-cavity slow-wave circuit, lossy
ceramic buttons are used to produce a gradually tapering loss pattern to reduce
mismatch between internal terminations and the input and output RF waveguide
couplers.

The dispersion characteristic of the helix is probably the single most

significant property that has caused this circuit to find such acceptance for
broadband application. ECM systems and broadband test equipment demand an
octave or more of good performance from a TWT to provide maximum coverage
in a single amplifier.

49
Widest Bandwidth
No circuit has ever rivaled the helix in bandwidth capability, and most do not
come close in this department. It behaves very much like a single wire above a
ground plane, propagating a TEM mode. Such a circuit is, of course, completely
nondispersive. Since the helix is much more complicated than a single wire over
a ground plane, it does not provide infinite bandwidth and does exhibit mode
interference—at a very well-defined point where the circumference is exactly
one-half the wavelength of the propagating frequency.
Since the helix geometry does not involve large opposed metallic surfaces,
the stored energy for a given power level is naturally quite low. Almost any
conceivable alternative to the helix employs more massive metal surfaces, which
provide an equivalent capacitance for the storage of energy and a lowering of
this figure of merit.
The helix also provides a very convenient electric-field configuration. Inside
the structure the field is somewhat constant (it does vary) over the cross section
of the pencil beam which is generally utilized as the energy source. It is difficult
to imagine another geometry with the same natural uniformity in this regard.
Most alternative circuits do not provide, therefore, as strong an interaction
between the electric field and the beam.
Analytically, the ratio between the axial electric field (squared) in the beam
region to the total power flow in the helix circuit is referred to as the circuit
interaction impedance. It is referred to as impedance even though it is related to
the electric field which is available for interaction with the electron beam and is,
therefore, not the same impedance as is generally employed in ordinary
microwave circuit investigations. The excellent interaction impedance of a helix
has resulted in TWTs with efficiencies that exceed 70%.

Mechanical Advantages
Aside from purely electrical considerations, the helix is almost ideal from a
mechanical viewpoint. It lends itself to simple fabrication techniques which are
highly precise and it can be accurately assembled in structures which fit well
with the rest of the TWT package. Circuit symmetry is essential if an elegant
design is desired at a reasonably low cost. Because of the precise
manufacturing capability and the inherent nature of the helix circuit, internal rf
wave mismatches are quite small, and this results in low gain and power ripple
characteristics across frequency.
The first helix TWTs constructed in the late 1940’s were characterized by
their fragility and very low thermal capacity. As a consequence, their early
development was directed primarily towards low-power applications where the
signal power was a few watts or less. These devices were temperamental and
short-lived because of the unsophisticated techniques used in their design and
construction.
Today, by contrast, helix-type TWTs are quite capable of delivering several
kilowatts of CW power at S-band and C-band over an octave of frequency
coverage. For space communications, the helix TWT has matured to the point
where 100 watt TWTs with efficiencies reaching towards 70% are common place
at frequencies as high as K-band. Even at V-band, 50 watt space-qualifiable
TWTs have been demonstrated since the late-1990’s. The lifetime and reliability
of many helix TWTs (satellite applications typically require at least 15 years of

50
component life) exceed most other types of active microwave sources. In short,
this generic device has advanced in capability by orders of magnitude as a result
of sustained development efforts by the major TWT manufacturers.

Helix-derived TWTs
To create suitable high-power beams for the generation of more than 5 kW
of peak RF power, it is almost mandatory to utilize beam voltages in excess of
10 kV when a conventional TWT design approach is to be employed.
At beam voltages greater than 8 to 15 kV, however, the pure helix suffers
from the nature of its mode structure, especially the backward-wave mode.
Historically, therefore, investigators have proceeded in two separate directions,
both of which have proved successful in their efforts to develop suitable TWT
circuits for use at higher voltages.
The first attempts concentrated on a modification of the simple helix circuit
by employing another helix coincident with the first, but wound with a reversed
pitch. This came to be known as the contra-wound helix, and later versions were
designated as the ring-bar circuit and the ring-loop circuit. Figure C-2 illustrates
these geometries.

Figure C-2—Helix-derived circuits.

It can be shown from simple circuit considerations that the phase velocity of
these two configurations is going to be much higher than a simple helix, and
consequently, synchronous beam voltages far in excess of 10 kV should be
realizable. This is, in fact, the case. Many successful TWTs have been
developed using this structure.
The basic assembly is almost identical to that of a conventional helix tube in
that the RF structure is supported on ceramic rods inside a long tubular barrel.
Unfortunately, the thermal capacity of such a circuit is not much different from
that of the simple helix, so the ultimate average power capability is restricted to
roughly the same numbers as for a helix TWT at the same frequency and size.

Ring-bar TWTs
Ring-bar TWTs can conceptually be considered as structures derived from
multiple helix circuits, in particular, the twin crosswound helix (Figure C-2).

51
 The ring-bar circuit has, however, significantly higher interaction impedance
than a helix, and is thus capable of more efficient beam power conversion and
larger gain per wavelength.
Such tubes also exhibit superior RF-stability with respect to backward-wave
oscillations (BWO) compared to helix tubes and are, therefore, capable of
operating at higher voltages, as well as of producing higher peak-power levels.
They are also capable of handling larger average RF power loads and, thus,
they frequently use nonintercepting gridded guns rather than intercepting
(single) gridded guns characteristic of high-power helix tubes.
Unlike most helix tubes, the bandwidth of a ring-bar tube is generally limited
to about 10 percent to 20 percent. As a result, the ring-bar design finds its most
frequent application in radar systems. Typical is the L-3 ETI 8729H prototype
ring-bar TWT, with performance characteristics summarized in Figures C-3 and
C-4.

Coupled-cavity TWTs
The second basic approach to high-power circuits, other than variations on
the helix, has been far more popular because of its many distinct advantages
and tremendous flexibility. It represents a complete departure from the helix
concept both in its electrical behavior and mechanical configurations.
The best generic description is a high-power filter circuit with bandpass
characteristics, a form of traveling-wave circuitry which was first considered at
the very beginnings of the technology in the 1940’s.
Any repetitive series of lumped LC elements constitutes a propagating filter-
type circuit and the techniques for synthesizing these circuits are well
established in the art. Almost any phase characteristic desired can be realized if
the proper LC elements are selected. The real test comes when one tries to
transform these choices into a practical mechanical structure that can be
fabricated and assembled in accordance with accepted vacuum-tube
techniques.
The early attempts at this task resulted in some very interesting museum
pieces, which probably consumed thousands of man-hours of fruitless labor.
These were rejected because they lacked simplicity and symmetry, attributes
that would be required to make them practical from the viewpoint of cost and
flexibility. Probably as a result of these frustrating endeavors, the real objectives
were properly identified and the main thrust proceeded in a direction which
satisfied the basic requirements of a good universal filter-type circuit.

52
Figure C-3—Peak output power of ring-bar tube 8729H.

Figure C-4—Saturated gain for ring-bar tube 8729H.

All of this early work culminated in the discovery and development of the
coupled-cavity circuit, which now constitutes the fundamental building block of
an extremely important class of high-power TWTs. Its remarkable acceptance is
clear testimony to its inherent superior qualities, which can be summarized as
follows:
• Excellent electrical characteristics in terms of impedance, bandwidth, and
mode structure
• Mechanical simplicity, circular symmetry for easy machining and
assembly
• Form factor ideally suited to PPM focusing
• Rugged from both a mechanical and thermal viewpoint

53
 • Very versatile; simple procedures for scaling frequency, power, and
bandwidth.
The versatility of the coupled-cavity circuit is demonstrated by the fact that it
is widely used from L-band to millimeter waves and for power levels from 1 to
500 kW. Probably 90 percent of all high-power TWTs employ this basic type of
filter structure.
The term “coupled cavity” stems from the striking similarity of the individual
unit cells to an ordinary klystron resonant cavity. In the latter case, of course,
there is no coupling, so each cavity is completely closed. In the case of the TWT
circuit, coupling is provided by a long slot in the wall of each cavity, as illustrated
in Figure C-5.

Figure C-5—Basic coupled-cavity circuit.

This slot strongly couples the magnetic component of the field in adjacent
cavities in such a manner that the passband of the circuit is primarily a function
of this one variable. For very small slots, or coupling holes, the passband is quite
narrow. When the slot angle (0) is somewhat larger than 180 degrees, the
passband is close to its practical limits.
The drift tube is formed by the re-entrant part of the cavity, just as is the
case with a klystron. Its length is determined by beam-interaction considerations,
but the optimum design for a given bandwidth is not a critical function of the gap
length. In fact, all of the important cavity dimensions can be adjusted over a
rather broad range to accommodate trade-offs between thermal requirements
and electrical performance without seriously degrading circuit capability.
Once the design is made, however, the tolerances of the circuit dimensions
must be very closely maintained. Each half-cavity section can be fabricated in
laminated form, which is ideal for the assembly and brazing operations. The
individual parts are almost self-jigging, which assures very accurate alignment
and spacing between cavities.

54
 Liquid cooling of the circuit can be provided by properly channeling the
outer diameter such that the coolant flows around the massive copper walls of
the individual sections. In extreme cases, the coolant can be channeled around
the drift tubes to absorb beam interception healing directly, at the price of
greater fabrication complexity.

Beam Focusing Schemes

All TWTs require some means of holding the cylindrical electron beam in
shape as it travels along the inner diameter of the interaction structure. Without
a focusing structure, the beam tends to disperse or spread out as a result of the
mutual repulsive electrical forces between electrons (these forces are often
referred to as “space-charge” forces).
A magnetic field in varied forms is used for this purpose. Such a field of
proper magnitude will confine the electron beam to the pencil-like cylindrical
shape it must maintain. The two principal types of magnetic focusing discussed
here are illustrated in Figure C-6.

Figure C-6—Two principal methods of magnetic focusing.

Of these, the solenoid is still regarded as one of the best magnetic focusing
structures. Its magnetic lines are parallel to the direction of travel of the electrons
and it can be accurately aligned with the beam. It provides excellent beam
collimation and will continue to be used in applications where the last bit of
average power is required from a tube—so long as tube size and weight are not
critical factors.
Most of the very-high-power TWTs to date have utilized solenoids. In fact,
L-3 ETI has pioneered a technique for wrapping the solenoid directly onto the
tube barrel. This optimizes the alignment between the tube axis and the
magnetic axis. It also brings the solenoid windings as close to the tube axis as
possible, providing the required magnetic field with the very minimum size and
weight. A secondary benefit is that less DC power is required to provide the
magnetic field.
In certain structures, however, where the intraction structure is short
enough, permanent-magnet focusing is often utilized in lieu of the bulky

55
solenoid. Because of the length limitations, this type of focusing is generally
restricted to low-gain or low-power tubes.
At the lower power levels it is possible to use permanent magnets, even in
long TWTs. The most conservative use of magnetic material is encountered in
designs that use a periodic-permanent-magnet (PPM) focusing arrangement as
shown in Figures C-6 and C-7.
This PPM structure provides a
nearly sinusoidal magnetic field on
the electron beam axis and very low
external field. The RMS value of the
PPM field is roughly equivalent to the
value of field required in a uniform
field design (such as a solenoid
focused design or a permanent-
magnet design using a single, large
magnet). A carefully designed PPM
focusing structure using samarium-
cobalt magnets can provide an RMS
focusing field in excess of 6000
Gauss.
Perhaps the most outstanding
advantage of the coupled-cavity
circuit from the user’s viewpoint is its
natural adaptability to lightweight Figure C-7—PPM focusing structure.
PPM focusing. In many airborne
systems, the weight and bulk of a
separate focusing solenoid, along
with its sizable power supply, are
unacceptable. In these situations, a
TWT would be rejected if it were not
possible to simplify the focusing
requirements with a PPM structure.
Space satellite communications
TWTs virtually require PPM focusing
structures due to the weight and
power savings. L-3 ETI space TWTs
commonly weigh less than 1 kg.
Figure C-8 illustrates the manner
in which the PPM focusing system
and the RF circuit are combined
together to bring the magnetic field
down to the beam periphery. The Figure C-8—Coupled-cavity circuit
individual cavity walls are fabricated with integral periodic-permanent-
from high purity iron, subsequently magnet (PPM) focusing.
plated with copper to reduce RF
losses. The iron channels the
magnetic field in a very efficient way to the beam region where its effectiveness
is maximized.
If such a geometry were not available for this purpose, it is highly unlikely
that the typical high-powered TWT could even be focused with available

56
permanent-magnet materials. Generally these beams are very dense and
require powerful magnetic forces to hold them together.
On the outside of the vacuum envelope, the iron pieces (extensions of the
cavity walls) are made large enough to contain most of the magnetic material
utilized in the focusing cells. Such a configuration improves the accuracy of
alignment of the magnetic field and also gives good mechanical support to the
entire assembly.
From Figure C-8, it is apparent that some degree of circular symmetry is lost
in the PPM geometry due to the presence of the coupling holes and the cooling
channels. With the iron pole pieces, it is generally desirable to provide liquid-
cooling lines close to the cavity walls to minimize the temperature drop from the
internal sections of the tube to the outside environment. The presence of the
coupling holes tends to introduce undesirable transverse components of
magnetic field. The effect of these transverse fields is diminished by the use of
double-period, periodic-permanent-magnet (PPM) focusing. Previous to L-3
ETI’s patented developments in this field, the fundamental limitations of the PPM
design were thought to be so restrictive that it could only be utilized in low-power
TWTs where the beam power density is typically quite low. Yet one of the
greatest needs for this lightweight focusing method has been at the high-power
levels required for many airborne and space applications where tubes with
focusing solenoids have been too large and heavy. PPM focusing has not been
successfully utilized in TWTs having high average and peak power.
It should be emphasized that iron is not a good thermal conductor when
compared to copper and, furthermore, the presence of the permanent magnets
creates some difficulty in accommodating simple cooling schemes. For low-to-
moderate average-power applications these considerations are not important
and less complex geometries are then possible.
Figure C-9 shows a cross-section view of the L-3 ETI 18714H, a high-power
pulsed helix TWT, complete with the focusing structure and external package.
The tube is of metal-ceramic construction having a total weight of only five
pounds. The PPM focusing structure is composed of round magnet discs shown
in the cross-section.

Figure C-9—The L-3 ETI 18714H X-band high-powered helix TWT weighs only
five pounds and is rated at 1.25 kW minimum peak power output with a 0.04
duty cycle.

57
 APPENDIX D

COLLECTOR DESIGN TRADE-OFFS

The Collector
The primary function of the collector is to collect the spent electron beam
after it has interacted with the signal on the slow-wave circuit. If operated at the
same potential as the body of the TWT, the thermal dissipation in the collector
would be extremely high and the overall efficiency of the TWT (where the overall
efficiency is defined as the RF power output divided by the DC input power)
would be very low, essentially the same as the beam efficiency. Fortunately, the
RF interaction removes only a fraction of the kinetic energy from the electrons
and most of the remaining energy can be recovered by decelerating the
electrons prior to collecting them. This is accomplished by operating the collector
at a negative voltage relative to the slow-wave circuit. This mode of operation is
called depressed collector operation and
is illustrated in Figure D-1. The slow-wave
circuit and the beam focusing magnets
are to the left of the region being
illustrated; the curved lines represent
electron trajectories into the collector.
Space-charge forces between the
electrons cause the beam to spread after
it has left the focusing region; this has the
advantage of causing the dissipated
energy to be spread over a surface that is Figure D-1—Schematic of single-
much larger than the cross-sectional area stage collector.
of the beam.
The electron beam leaving the slow-wave circuit does not possess a single
velocity. The RF interaction creates a scrambled electron beam that contains
electrons having a wide range of velocities. Because of this “velocity spread,”
there will be some slow electrons that must be collected at relatively small
amounts of depressed voltage (high voltages relative to the cathode). Operating
the collector with too much depression will cause some electrons to be returned
to the circuit region where they can cause heating and RF regeneration to occur.
Even with this limitation, the efficiency of a TWT can usually be doubled or even
tripled when collector depression is employed. Additional improvements in
efficiency (and the corresponding reduction in thermal dissipation) can be
achieved by using collector designs in which velocity sorting takes place,
causing the slower electrons to be collected on stages that are less depressed
and the faster electrons to be collected on stages that are more depressed.
Designs having two and three depressed stages are shown in Figures D-2
and D-3. The overall efficiency of a TWT having a collector with four depressed
stages is usually in the range 35 percent to 70 percent, the higher efficiencies
being found only in narrowband (< 20% bandwidth) applications such as space
communications in which efficiency is of foremost priority. In each case, the
complexity introduced by the use of multiple depressed stages must be weighed
against the performance improvements and any constraints imposed by the
using system, especially in view of the fact that the “law of diminishing returns”
sets in very quickly when the number of depressed collector stages is
considered. The following numbers are typical for a high efficiency
communications TWT:

60
Figure D-2—Schematic of two-stage Figure D-3—Schematic of three-
collector. stage collector.
• Efficiency with one depressed collector stage: 50 percent
• Efficiency with two depressed collector stages: 58 percent
• Efficiency with three depressed collector stages: 64 percent
• Efficiency with four depressed collector stages: 66 percent
Space satellite TWTs commonly use 4 depressed stages. Such high
efficiencies also partially result from using special low secondary emission ratio
surface treatments or materials (such as carbon or graphite) for the elements
that serve as collector stages, in lieu of the copper that is normally used in this
application.

Dissipating the Beam

The collector dissipates the
electrons in the form of heat as they
emerge from the slow-wave structure.
This is usually accomplished by thermal
conduction to a colder outside surface
where the heat is absorbed by
circulated air or liquid. The heat is even
radiated away by white metallic fins in
certain space satellite applications (the
TWT is said to be “radiation cooled”).
The specific collector design to be
employed is determined by the method
of cooling used and the amount of
energy that must be dissipated.
It has long been recognized that
significant power savings could be Figure D-4—Multi-stage collectors
obtained in a TWT by decelerating the offer substantial power savings
spent electron beam and collecting it at during small-signal operation or
a reduced potential. Depressed without RF drive resulting in a near
collector operation will, therefore, constant thermal load.
improve the tube efficiency, as well as
reduce the thermal load of the collector and simplify its cooling requirements.
Multi-stage collectors also offer the advantage of substantial power savings
during small signal operation or without RF drive. This, in turn, offers a near
constant thermal load, as shown in Figure D-4, for a 10-watt device.

61
 APPENDIX E

TWT PACKAGE DESIGN AND

COOLING METHOD TRADE-OFFS
The TWT Package
Typical packaged TWTs are illustrated in Figures E-1 and E-2. The TWT in
Figure E-1 is a millimeter-wave TWT for radar applications. The package serves
as a mechanical support structure for the TWT and the RF input and output
connectors, a thermal path for the conduction of waste heat, an EMI shield, and
as a protective cover over the high voltage connections and focusing magnets.
The TWT in Figure E-2 is a high power coupled-cavity TWT for ground based or
airborne applications. Since the structure of a coupled-cavity TWT is more
massive than for helix TWTs, the package parts are basically added to the TWT
assembly (as opposed to placing the TWT assembly inside a package). The
package provides ports for cooling fluid as well as paths for conduction cooling.

Figure E-1—L-3 ETI Model 8907H 130 watt, 35 GHz helix TWT is suitable for
radar applications.

Figure E-2—L-3 ETI Model 18702H 50 kW peak coupled-cavity TWT with PPM
focusing provides high average power RF at X-band. It is suitable for surface
and airborne applications.

64
The Vacuum Envelope
One of the major disadvantages of early helix circuit tubes was the fragile
glass vacuum envelope that was used to enclose the tube parts. Long ago,
however, microwave tube manufacturers switched to all metal-ceramic
construction. Tubes fabricated this was can not only withstand higher G loads,
but can be vacuum processed at higher temperatures—typically 550 to 600
degrees C as opposed to 450 degrees C in the case of glass structures. This
ensures considerably more complete “bake-out” of undesirable gasses
entrapped in the tube, providing improved reliability at higher tube operating
temperatures.
In a practical TWT, attenuators (lossy sections) are placed along the slow-
wave structure to provide stability by absorbing internal and external mismatch
reflections. The attenuators also isolate external system components on the
output arm from those on the input arm. A typical high-gain TWT will provide up
to 80 dB or more isolation or “cold” insertion loss. Without this “loss” added to
the internal structure, it would be possible for reflected RF power to travel back
to the input, causing regeneration. In a high-gain device this would, in turn,
cause regeneration or even a self-induced oscillation. The TWT package must
be designed to prevent coupling between the TWT input and output. Sources of
signals that contribute to this coupling include the signals that are radiated from
output RF connections, the collector, and the collector leads. These signals can
couple into the input RF connections, the electron gun structure, and the gun
leads.
Since that portion of the slow-wave structure dedicated to attenuation does
not contribute to the gain of the tube, the effect of adding attenuation increases
the length of the device.
The higher the gain, the more attenuator sections will be required. A rule-of-
thumb is about 30 dB per section, so a tube with greater than 60 dB of gain
would probably have three active sections and two attenuator sections.

TWT Cooling Methods Depend on the Application

Cooling methods employed in TWTs are as diverse as the applications.
TWTs used in spacecraft are nearly always conduction cooled; the spacecraft
structure then transfers the heat to surfaces that radiate the energy into space.
The TWT package is designed to limit the peak thermal flux density to values in
the range 5 to 15 Watts per square inch at the interface between the TWT
baseplate and the spacecraft panel. This peak value is usually encountered at
the collector end of the TWT. In some instances, the TWT is designed so the
collector itself radiates thermal energy into space.
TWTs for other applications can be cooled by using forced liquid or forced
air cooling, usually as a supplement to the conduction cooling that takes place
through the TWT baseplate. Liquid cooling systems usually employ flow rates in
the range 2 to 20 gallons per minute; this cooling technique is usually used when
the power dissipated is in the range 1 kilowatt to 50 kilowatts. Air cooling
systems usually employ air flow rates of 20 to 200 cubic feet per minute, at
pressures ranging from 0.5 to 3 inches of water, and can handle dissipated
powers in the range 100 Watts to 5 kilowatts.

65
 APPENDIX F

POWER SUPPLY INTERFACES

Power Supply Interface
The TWT and the power supply are the key elements in any power
amplifier. Equally important are the interfaces between these elements to insure
optimum performance and maximum life of the resultant traveling-wave tube
amplifier (TWTA) or high-power amplifier (HPA).
There must be a continuing interaction between the TWT and power supply
designers since the design of both elements must go far beyond “voltage and
current” requirements. Cooling, protection of both the TWT and the power
supply, mechanical and control interfaces require detailed attention.
As a result, today’s high performance TWTAs and HPAs are not a power
supply designed around a TWT, but rather the TWT and power supplies are
designed as integrated elements (Figure F-1) to meet performance and reliability
criteria.

Figure F-1—Schematic of TWT and power supplies.

The following are some of the interface considerations used in the design
and implementation of L-3 ETI HPAs and TWTAs for commercial, military,
space, satellite earth stations, radar, ECM, and instrumentation applications.
Power supply regulation need be only as tight as required to meet RF
performance characteristics and to prevent defocusing of the TWT electron
beam as a function of line, load, and environmental changes. For example, in
many cases the TWT collector supply need not be highly regulated and can
often be left unregulated to vary with line fluctuations. In this case, a highly
regulated power supply may be overly complicated and reduce reliability.
Ripple from the power supply and the TWT pushing factors will determine
the amount of signal distortion contributed by the TWTA in the areas of
amplitude, phase, and frequency modulation. Less sensitive electrodes require
less power supply filtering. (See Appendix G.)
Conversely, more sensitive electrodes (higher pushing factors) require more
power supply filtering to meet sophisticated systems requirements.

68
 On/off control of the TWT is not only important as an operational
consideration, but also from a protection viewpoint. L-3 ETI HPA/TWTA circuitry
can rapidly detect high helix or body current, arcs, high reflected power and
other abnormal conditions. But unless the TWT beam power can be removed
equally rapidly, the value of this protection feature is compromised.
Time-out circuitry must be designed to provide a reasonable TWT warm-up
time from a cold start and the minimum down time in the event of a momentary
power outage. Both direct and proportional type heater timing circuits must
assure that the TWT cathode is at the proper operating temperature before the
beam power is turned on. Improper timing can cause TWT outgassing and
possible failure.
Body/helix current overload protection is a critical consideration in the
design of any high-power amplifier. Abnormal TWT defocusing can occur as a
result of improper power supply voltages, RF overdrive, output high reflected
power, and other conditions. The object of a body/helix protection circuit is to
limit the amount of time that defocused electrons can intercept the slow-wave
structure to prevent TWT failures. This protection circuitry must be fast-acting
and tolerant of normal intercept currents due to TWT aging and turn-on/turn-off
characteristics.
Other interfaces such as mounting, cooling, thermal protection, and fail-safe
power supply circuitry must be considered to prevent damage to the power
supply and TWT in the event of a failure of one of these elements. RF input and
output interfaces must not place unnecessary stress on the TWT RF connection
and vacuum windows. In summary, both the TWT and power supply should be
designed together “from the ground up” to insure proper interfaces and a high-
quality amplifier for a specific application.

69
 APPENDIX G

TWT PARAMETERS THAT

AFFECT SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Evaluating TWTs
The basic considerations in selecting a TWT for a specific application are
center frequency, bandwidth, and power output. A number of other parameters
must be considered, however, in the specification process.

Power versus Frequency

When discussing the power capability of pulsed TWTs, it is important to
make a clear distinction between the peak and average power since these two
numbers are limited by totally different considerations. The considerations that
relate to average power of pulsed TWTs are essentially the same as the
considerations relating to CW (continuous wave) operation; the power at a given
frequency is almost always limited by thermal considerations relative to the RF
propagating circuit. The electron-beam focusing is never perfect, and a sizable
fraction of the total beam power is intercepted by the RF circuit.
At some point amenable to calculation, the circuit temperature approaches
the melting point of the metal used in the slow-wave circuit structure (or the
Curie temperature of iron in the case of PPM-focused coupled-cavity TWT
designs in which the cavity walls are made of iron). In both cases the tube is
close to destruction, and this condition defines the average power or CW
capability of that device. Peak RF power capability is closely dependent upon
the voltage for which the tube can be designed. The beam current is determined
by the gun perveance:
3/2
Ibeam = KVk-a
where:
Vk-a is the cathode-to-anode voltage
K is the electron-gun perveance
The beam power is the product of the beam current and the beam voltage:
3/2
Beam power = IbeamVbeam = KVk-a × Vbeam
where:
Vbeam is the beam voltage (the cathode-to-circuit voltage)

With the available techniques for the design of solid-beam electron guns
with good optics, the perveance is generally limited to a value not much greater
-6
than 2 × 10 (MKS units) and most existing power tubes utilize a value between
-6
1 and 2 × 10 . Once the perveance is fixed, the required voltage for a given
peak beam power is then uniquely determined. This, in combination with
practical efficiency values, fixes the peak power which the design will support. In
turn, the voltage uniquely establishes the circuit parameters. For this reason, it
can be seen that a TWT can only operate at the design voltage.
Theoretically and practically, these limits for coupled-cavity TWTs should be
very close to those values which apply to high-power klystrons, since the basic
considerations are identical in the two cases. Historically, high-power klystrons
came first and, consequently, most of the early multi-megawatt radars were
designed with klystrons as the output amplifiers.

72
 There are a few notable exceptions today, but, in general, high-power TWTs
are available at power levels up to 500 kW and voltages up to 80 kV. If a
requirement should develop for a particular system, there is no reason why a
multi-megawatt TWT should not be considered.
To give an abbreviated picture of some of the more popular current TWT
designs, Figures G-1 and G-2 illustrate the difference between peak and
average power capability and the difference between PPM- and solenoid-
focused coupled cavity TWT designs.
The curves follow the general characteristic defined by
Power × frequency = constant
which is different from the popular precept of power varying as the inverse
square of the frequency.
Which rule is correct? Both are, but one must be careful how they are
applied. If a given design is scaled over a limited frequency range and the
thermal stress is to be maintained at a constant within the circuit, the linear
relationship applies. If one desires to scale a particular device to its ultimate limit
in terms of power and frequency such that all of the key parameters are pushed
to the state-of-the-art (that is, beam density, cathode loading, magnetic field,
voltage, etc.), then the quadratic dependency is more appropriate.
It will be noted that if the voltage is increased, the peak and average power
capabilities increase considerably. This variation is a direct consequence of the
way in which the circuit dimensions and the peak beam power increase with
voltage. The larger circuit will accommodate a greater amount of thermal
dissipation and the higher beam power will permit more peak RF power.
At some point the peak RF power will be limited by waveguide arcing
problems and voltage breakdown in the electron-gun region. The curves shown
go up to 65 kV, which is certainly not the limit, but encompass the great majority
of TWTs in field operation.
The CW curve is shown for 20 kV, which is a voltage region representing a
good compromise between voltage insulation problems in the power supply and
circuit size for reasonable thermal stress levels. The upper boundary of the
curve is a conservative design boundary and can easily be exceeded by a factor
of two for special applications requiring more average power. Here again, the
same rule that the power-frequency product is a constant is maintained for the
same reasons previously stated. The curve shown does not indicate bandwidth
capability, even though this parameter affects average power capability. In
general, for very large percentage bandwidths, the average power capability
may have to be reduced as much as 50 percent.

Efficiency
During the early years of TWT development, when the emphasis was on
bandwidth, gain, and noise figure, most TWTs were regarded as low-
efficiency

73
Figure G-1—Peak-and-average-power capability of typical TWTs in field use.
amplifiers compared to the more conventional microwave sources such as
klystrons and magnetrons.
Industry was initially slow to change this viewpoint, believing that inherent in
the energy transfer process between the electron beam and the RF wave were
physical constraints causing the low efficiency. Certainly the experimental
evidence from a large number of designs indicated a typical efficiency of 10
percent or even less. Klystrons at comparable frequencies and power levels
gave more than 30 percent conversion efficiency during the same period in time.
The price for large bandwidth capability was thought to be a poor-to-modest
efficiency.

74
Figure G-2—CW power capability of TWTs operating at nearly 20 kV.
Only slowly did researchers discover the key parameters which had to be
carefully controlled to significantly improve upon this picture. Improved control of
the electron beam trajectories contributed a great deal in changing the situation
since the efficiency enhancement achievable with simple depressed collectors
was very encouraging. The age of the desktop computer has had a significant
impact on TWT efficiency improvement. Computer controlled machining and
manufacturing have resulted in TWTs being built with more precision than ever
before. Experimental measurements have improved in accuracy. In addition, as
available desktop computing power has steadily increased, roughly following
Moore’s Law, theoretical TWT design models which predict TWT performance

75
have been able to incorporate more design detail and fewer assumptions, and
the predictive capability of the modeling has steadily improved. The 50 percent
efficiency barrier, once thought of as an upper limit dictated by nature, has, like
the 4-minute mile, long been broken. The new millenium is seeing space
communications customers routinely asking for TWT efficiencies higher than 65
percent, and TWT designers, competing for customer dollars, are edging the bar
ever higher.
There are two fundamental mechanisms whereby increased efficiency can
be realized in a TWT amplifier. The first mechanism is collector depression,
using a series of collectors which can be depressed well below the circuit
potential so that unused energy can be recovered from the spent electron beam.
Such a collector must be carefully designed optically so that a minimum number
of electrons are turned around and collected on the circuit. The optics of such a
system are quite complicated and depend not only upon the geometry of the
collector segments, but also upon the degree of RF modulation, the magnetic
field used to focus the beam, the yield of secondary electrons at the collecting
surfaces, and the relative potential of the circuit and all segments of the
collector. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional computer simulations of the
electron beam inside the collector greatly aid the life of a collector designer
today, but the design is still quite challenging.
The main advantage of working with the collector to enhance the overall
efficiency is that such an alteration does not affect the circuit of the TWT and
can, therefore, be accomplished independently of the RF design of the tube. The
power supply, of course, must be properly designed to take advantage of the
energy recovered by the depressed segments of the collector. In a TWT having
a well-designed multiple-stage depressed collector, the power dissipated by the
TWT is nearly constant as RF input drive is varied. The power consumed by a
TWT having a multistage depressed collector, as a function of RF output power
level, can be approximated by an expression of the form:
power consumed by TWT = A + B x RF power output
where:
A is the power consumed by the TWT with no RF drive, B is a constant
with a value of 0.8 to 0.9, depending on the design of the TWT.
The second mechanism of efficiency enhancement is sometimes referred to
as velocity resynchronization. It is well known that the electron beam slows
down in velocity when it gives up energy to the amplified RF wave on the circuit.
As a result, the propagating wave and the electron beam progressively lose
synchronism, with the wave moving far ahead of the beam. When this occurs,
the electron bunches are no longer favorably phased to give up energy to the
moving wave and the amplification process ceases before maximum signal level
is achieved. Early models of TWTs almost always gave disappointing
efficiencies because of this unfavorable condition within the tube’s interaction
region.

76
 First-order corrections for a lack of synchronism between the beam and the
wave can be done with a mere increase in the operating voltage. Unfortunately,
this step causes the amplification process to suffer in the small-signal region
(near the input) of the circuit and it also causes the linearity of the output versus
input curve to degrade. It would appear that an easy solution to this problem
would be to make the RF wave velocity on the circuit such that synchronism
could be maintained everywhere.
This simple concept resulted in the “tapered velocity”-type circuit, which is
one of the basic tools that the TWT designer now virtually always employs. In
practice, there are an infinite variety of tapers that differ in the degree of velocity
change and the variation of velocity as a function of distance along the slow-
wave structure. Modern desktop computers, by simulating a nonlinear
interaction process between a stream of highly bunched electrons and a growing
electromagnetic (RF) wave propagating along the TWT circuit, can quickly
analyze thousands of tapers and find a velocity taper which optimizes TWT
performance.
Any velocity taper choice must be a result of a series of compromises which
trade one desirable effect for another. For example, in ECM systems, octave
bandwidths are quite common. Over such an extreme bandwidth, the important
electrical parameters, which are proportional to wavelength, change by a factor
of two or more. It is not surprising that optimum conditions within the velocity
taper region are impossible to maintain.
In spite of this problem, results
from efficiency enhancement
schemes for ECM power amplifiers
are indeed impressive. Figure G-3
illustrates the efficiency of a kilowatt
helix-type high-gain ECM TWT. It
should be noted that the frequency
coverage is 1.5 octaves with an
efficiency above 45 percent.

Harmonic Injection
Another method of efficiency
enhancement, unique to broadband
helix devices, does not involve any
alterations of the internal parts of the
TWT.
It is generally referred to as
“harmonic drive” because it is
associated with special adjustments
made to the second-harmonic
content of the input RF signal. The
solid portion of the curve of Figure
G-3 shows the additional
enhancement which is afforded with
“harmonic drive.” Figure G-3—Broadband high-efficiency
The phenomenon was TWT.
discovered quite some time ago

77
when it was observed that the wrong type of second-harmonic input would
seriously degrade the power output at the fundamental frequency. On the other
hand, the correct amount of second harmonic, properly phased, will increase the
fundamental power output and suppress the second harmonic at the output of
the amplifier.
The process is one of cancellation, whereby the injected second-harmonic
signal is such that it is 180 degrees out of phase with the second-harmonic
signal generated by the nonlinear processes inherent in the interaction
mechanism. With careful design of the input circuit, this cancellation can be
made reasonably non-critical and quite broadband.
The effect is only important at the low end of the tube’s amplification band
since the second harmonic of these frequencies still lies within the amplification
band of the TWT. Above midband, there is no appreciable amplification of the
second-harmonic signals and, consequently, the enhancement scheme is not
effective above this point.
To provide the correct harmonic input signal, a simple circuit consisting of a
phase shifter and a microwave diode can be utilized to transform a pure drive
signal to one with a significant second-harmonic component. If the drive signal
emanates from an overdriven TWT (one operating well into saturation), it is quite
likely that the second-harmonic portion is large to begin with and of the wrong
phase. It is difficult to compensate for such a drive signal since the adjustments
will be generally quite critical and subject to change as the drive level changes.

Harmonics
Due to the wide bandwidth and high gain of the TWT—plus the fact that in
saturation, the tube acts as a non-linear device—there will be harmonics in the
RF output spectrum. Typically, at saturation for a narrowband TWT such as a
space communications helix TWT, the second harmonic will be 15 to 25 dB
below the fundamental signal. However, very broadband devices will have a
higher second-harmonic content, and this number can vary widely among TWT
designs. Other higher-order harmonics will also be present to a lesser degree.
The harmonic magnitude is a function of the fundamental frequency and
bandwidth range, with the lower band edge signals having the greater effect.

Gamma-a (γa)
A commonly computed TWT value called “gamma-a”, or γa, is a measure of
how much the radial profile of the rf field varies, and it is one indicator of how
well a TWT will perform. This quantity can be estimated as follows:

f (GHz) × H.M.D. (in)

γa = 4.25 ,
EK (kV)
where γa is dimensionless, f is the TWT operating frequency in GHz, H.M.D.
is the helix mean diameter or coupled cavity beam hole diameter in inches, and
EK is the cathode voltage in kV. A typical value of γa for an efficient TWT is
0.8 – 1.0. For higher frequencies, due to mechanical constraints, γa typically
increases to values above 1.0. For γa values above 1.5, the TWT performance
(both efficiency and linearity) will start to significantly degrade. For values too

78
low (less then 0.8), harmonic signal content may be too high and therefore affect
the TWT efficiency.

Intermodulation Distortion
When more than one carrier is introduced at the TWT input, a mixing, or
intermodulation (IM) process, takes place via the TWT interaction. This results in
intermodulation products which are displaced from the carriers at multiples of the
difference frequency.
The power levels of these intermodulation products are dependent on the
relative power levels of the carriers and the linearity of the TWT. In the case of
two balanced carriers, Figure G-4 shows the variation of carrier and IM product
power level with total drive power. The single carrier power curve is also plotted
for comparison. As in the case with AM/PM conversion (see below), the IM
distortion is significantly reduced in the small-signal (linear) region of the RF
drive range. In the small-signal
region, the third-order IM output
power decreases by 3 dB for
every 1 dB decrease in input
signal drive power. For this
reason, commu-nications TWTs
are often operated well below
their saturation power level.

Transfer Curves
The drive characteristics of a
typical TWT are shown in Figure
G-4. The threshold input signal
level for useful operation is
determined by the bandwidth and
noise figure of the tube. The
dynamic range is that region
between the threshold input level
and the input at which there is
departure from small-signal or
linear gain. The gain continues to
decrease as the input level is
increased and is decreased by
approximately 5 to 8 dB at the
point of saturated power output.
The overdrive capability of a
TWT indicates the range over
which the output power will
remain in the saturation region as
input is increased. When
Figure G-4—Typical third-order inter-
additional input is applied, output
modulation data for a helix TWT.
power decreases. For certain
applications, it is desirable to
maintain full or saturated power output over a broad range of input signal

79
conditions. Limiter actions to achieve this objective are implemented in the
design of the RF structure, by using multiple attenuators, and by cascading two
TWTs with additional equalizers and isolation filters. In other applications, the
TWT simply must not be damaged even if overdriven by an input signal 20 dB
higher than the saturating input signal. While this is not an inherent difficulty, it
must be considered when desiging and packaging the TWT.

AM/PM Conversion
Amplitude modulation/phase modulation (AM/PM conversion) is defined as
the change in phase angle between input and output signal as the input signal
varies. This factor is expressed in degrees per dB at a specified value of power
output. AM/PM conversion in a TWT is caused by the reduction in beam velocity
that occurs as the input signal level is increased and greater amounts of energy
are taken from the beam and transferred to the input RF wave. At a level 20 dB
below the input required for saturation, AM/PM conversion is negligible. Beyond
this point, AM/PM conversion increases sharply.
Typical power output and relative phase shift characteristics are shown in
Figure G-5 for a communications TWT. Here it is seen that phase shift is
relatively insensitive to drive in the small signal (“linear”) portion of the RF output
power characteristics. As the TWT is driven toward and beyond saturation, the
rate of phase change increases. The slope of the phase curve, or AM/PM
conversion, is plotted against RF drive in Figure G-6.

Figure G-5—Typical power output and phase shift as a function of RF input

power for a communications-type TWT.

80
Figure G-6—For a single carrier condition, AM/PM conversion rises sharply as
drive is increased.
The peak AM/PM generally occurs at the saturated drive level, though in
certain TWT designs it may occur at a drive level from 3 to 10 dB below
saturation. The values of AM/PM conversion and phase change generally both
increase with frequency over the passband of the TWT. The curves from
Figures G5 and G6 show typical performance at the high end of the band, which
is the worst case.

AM/PM Transfer
AM/PM conversion applies to the case of a single carrier. For two or more
carriers, transfer takes place, giving PM at the output on one carrier due to AM
at the input on the other. The general trend with drive is similar to that for AM/PM
conversion, but the specific values are different and are also a complicated
function of the relative carrier amplitudes. A common (usually worst case)
approximation for the AM/PM transfer value is to use twice the AM/PM
conversion value.

Phase Sensitivity
Any factor which affects the velocity of the electron beam will give rise to
phase changes in the RF output signal. If the distributing factor varies with time,
then the result will be phase modulation of the input RF signal. The primary
factor affecting the velocity of the beam is the cathode voltage. The other
voltages, the magnetic fields and cathode temperature have secondary effects.
The power supply designer must take into consideration these phase-
pushing factors when designing the power supplies for a TWT, since the system

81
noise requirements will dictate the power supply ripple and stabilities that must
be maintained. Typical pushing values for TWTs are:
• 35 degrees per 1 percent change in cathode voltage
• 5 degrees per 1 percent change in grid drive
• 2 degrees per 1 percent change in anode voltage
• 0.01 degrees per 1 percent change in filament voltage.
These values should be considered as order of magnitude since the actual
value for any specific tube will be a function of many factors such as type of
circuit, gain, perveance, etc. A more exact formula for the phase pushing value
of a TWT is listed later in this appendix (under the section on interaction
between TWTs and EPCs).

GAIN FLATNESS, PHASE LINEARITY, AND GROUP DELAY

Broadband Variations
TWTAs which are required to operate over a broad range of frequencies are
often required to produce a fairly flat RF output signal over that same frequency
range. However, imposing a tight specification on the flatness will often force the
TWT designer to take measures which will result in a reduction in the efficiency
of the TWTA. Meeting a tight specification on RF output flatness usually requires
that the cathode voltage be somewhat lower than the voltage which would
produce the greatest efficiency. Operating a TWT in this way is often referred to
as “under-voltaging” the TWT. Communications TWTs are also sometimes
under-voltaged in order to reduce the AM/PM at the expense of efficiency.
In addition to the restriction on the cathode voltage, the TWT designer must
select a slow-wave structure design which is consistent with the flatness
requirement. For a helix-type TWT, this means that the diameter of the metal
wall which surrounds the helix is reduced to “load” the slow-wave on the helix
and thereby flatten its frequency response. For a coupled-cavity TWT, the
designer must select a passband characteristic which is sufficiently broad to
produce a flat frequency response across the band of interest. In either case, the
interaction impedance and, therefore, the efficiency of the TWT is compromised.
Combining the effect of the restriction on cathode voltage and the effect of the
broadband requirement upon the slow-wave structure design will result in a
reduction in TWTA efficiency of 2 to 10 percentage points. The TWTA efficiency
achievable depends upon the severity of the bandwidth and RF output flatness
requirements which are required of the TWTA.

Narrowband Variation
Within narrow bandwidths the dominant effect upon RF output flatness is
gain ripple. Gain ripple is nearly always caused by some feedback path within or
around the TWT. The effect of the signal traversing the feedback path can be
regenerative or degenerative, depending upon the closed loop phase shift. Since
a TWT is electrically “long” (a typical TWT has a phase shift of about 10,000
degrees, or about 28 wavelengths), a small change in frequency can cause the
closed loop phase shift to change by 360 degrees. In most TWTAs, the
frequency periodicity (the frequency range resulting in closed loop phase change
of 360 degrees) is 100 to 200 MHz, as seen in Figure G-7.

82
 Some of the feedback paths which can contribute to TWTA gain ripple are:
• Feedback outside the TWTA, from RF output port to RF input port. This
effect is usually negligible if proper care is taken to insure that RF energy
will not “leak” out of the RF connectors and components (such as
isolators) used at the RF ports of the TWTA.
• Returning electrons within the TWT electron beam. This effect is
negligible if proper care is taken in the design of the TWT collector, the
electron beam is carefully focused to insure that all electrons are
collected at the collector surfaces, and the proper voltages are applied to
the various stages of the collector.
• Reflections at the attenuator within the TWT at the end of the input
section of the slow-wave structure. The path for this feedback loop is
completed by reflections at the RF input port of the TWTA. This effect is
usually kept within limits by careful design of the attenuator within the
TWT and by using an isolator at the TWTA RF input port.
• Some TWTs have two severs. The center section of slow-wave structure
has an internal attenuator at each end. Reflections from these attenuators
can create a feedback loop. This effect is usually kept within limits by
careful design of the attenuators used within the TWT.

Figure G-7—Gain ripple versus frequency for a typical helix TWT.

• Reflections at the RF output port of the TWTA. The path for this feedback
loop is completed by reflections from the attenuator at the beginning of
the output section of the slow-wave structure. Again, careful design of the
internal attenuator will reduce the resulting gain ripple. This feedback path
is usually the dominant path because the gain in the output section is

83
 higher than the gain in the input section, since high gain in the output
section is needed to produce high efficiency. Using an isolator at the
TWTA RF output port will help to control the amount of signal reflected
from components beyond the TWTA RF output port.
• Reflections between imperfections along the slow-wave structure. This
effect is usually controlled by exercising proper care in the selection of the
components which make up the slow-wave structure. Periodically
repeating imperfections (i.e., a pitch variation every 10th turn of a helix)
are particularly detrimental in this respect.
Analysis of gain ripple periodicity is often an important diagnostic tool in
localizing the cause of gain ripple. For example, a frequency periodicity which is
consistent with the length of slow-wave structure between the TWT attenuator
and the TWTA RF output port would localize the problem. Improvement would
result if the reflection coefficients at the attenuator and at the RF output port
were reduced. Round-trip signal time is directly equal to the inverse of the ripple
period. If the group velocity of the TWT, which can be approximated from the
operating voltage, is also known, then the distance between mismatches
(corresponding to half the round-trip time) can be estimated:
v group (in/µs) E (kV)
K
Mismatch distance (in) = ≈ 369 ,
2 ⋅ ∆f (MHz) ∆f (MHz)
where vgroup is the TWT group velocity in inches per micro-second, ∆f is the
ripple period in MHz, and Ek is the cathode voltage in kV.
The primary trade-off against gain ripple is the cost of implementing the
necessary controls and screening over the parts used in the slow-wave
structure. If these controls are implemented and the using system presents a low
reflection coefficient to the TWT RF output port, it is possible to achieve a small
signal gain ripple having a peak-to-peak amplitude of less than 0.5 decibel. The
amplitude of ripple on the saturated gain or saturated power output would be
even less of the limiting effects which take place at saturation.
Lowering the gain of the individual TWT sections also reduces gain ripple.
For each 6 dB reduction of gain in the primary feedback loop, the gain ripple
amplitude is cut in half.

Phase Non-linearity or Time Delay Distortion

The same mechanisms which can cause gain variations as a function of
frequency will also cause phase non-linearities. Time (or group) delay is the
derivative of the curve of phase versus frequency. Since time delay and phase
are so closely related, the mechanisms which cause phase non-linearity are
responsible for time delay distortion.
Phase non-linearity and time delay distortion effects are usually resolved
into broadband and narrowband effects, just as was the case for gain variations.
The curves shown in Figure G-8 show both the phase versus frequency and time
delay versus frequency for a hypothetical TWT. The frequency band of interest
is also shown in the figure to illustrate the fact that, for many applications, the
narrowband effects dominate over the broadband effects. This is true when the
TWT is specified for operation over only a small portion of the pass-band of the

84
slow-wave structure, causing band-edge effects to be far removed from the
frequency range of interest.

Figure G-8—Phase non-linearity and time delay distortion versus frequency.

Ripple in the phase and time delay curves, as illustrated in Figure G-8,
results from the same feedback paths that cause gain ripple. A simple theory
can be used to predict ripple on the phase and time delay curves from
measurements of TWT small signal gain ripple. This is illustrated in Figure G-9,
which demonstrates the relationship between small signal gain ripple amplitude
and small signal phase ripple amplitude for a small interfering signal (less than 2
dB ripple amplitude). A more exact relationship between small signal phase
ripple amplitude and small signal gain ripple amplitude is as follows:

85
 360 10 ∆G (dB)/20 − 1
∆ϕ (deg) = ×  ≈ 6.60 × ∆G (dB) ,
π ∆ G (dB)/20
10 + 1

where ∆ϕ is the small signal phase ripple amplitude (or peak-to-peak) in

degrees, and ∆G is the small signal gain ripple amplitude (or peak-to-peak) in
dB. The relationship to group delay is then:

π ∆ϕ (deg) 115 × ∆G (dB)

∆t (ns) = × ≈ ,
0.18 ∆f (MHz) ∆f (MHz)

Figure G-9—Relationship between gain ripple and phase ripple.

where ∆t is the group delay ripple amplitude (or peak-to-peak) in ns and ∆f
is the ripple period in MHz. If the ripples are assumed to be purely sinusoidal (a
good assumption), then the worst-case slopes for gain ripple, phase ripple, and
time delay can all be computed from the gain ripple amplitude (for small
interfering signals):

86
 π × ∆G (dB)
pk - pk
gain ripple slope (dB/MHz) ≈ ,
∆f (MHz)

20.7 × ∆G (dB)
pk - pk
phase ripple slope (deg/MHz) ≈ , and
∆f (MHz)

361 × ∆G (dB)
pk - pk
time delay slope (ns/MHz) ≈ ,
[∆f (MHz)] 2
where here, ∆Gpk-pk must be the peak-to-peak gain ripple (twice the gain
ripple amplitude). Finally, when the bandwidth of interest is less than half of the
gain ripple period:

 ∆G (dB) 
360
10 20 − 1
∆ϕ (deg) = ×  × sin(π × B/∆f ) , and
π  ∆G (dB) 
10 20 + 1
 ∆G (dB) 
10 20 − 1 sin(π × B/∆f )
∆t (ns) = 2000 ×  ×
 ∆G (dB)  ∆f (MHz)
10 20 + 1
where B is the bandwidth (same units as ∆f).

Phase Tracking
In many systems, a requirement exists to operate TWTs in parallel. In this
type of operation it is important that the phase variations of those tubes operated
in parallel are as close as possible to being identical.
It is not so important that the total phase shift through the tubes be the
same, since a phase shifter can be employed to adjust the phase delay through
the tubes at any particular frequency. It is important, however, that the variation
over the frequency band of interest be similar.
Helix TWTs can be designed to have tube-to-tube phase tracking of five
degrees or less, provided care is taken to minimize reflection effects and fine
grain variations. It is more difficult to maintain close phase tracking in a couple-
cavity tube and variations of between 10 and 15 degrees are to be expected.

Noise Figure
The noise figure (F) of an amplifier is a measure of the degradation in
signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio with passage of the signal through the amplifier and
can be expressed as follows:

87
  S /N   N a + G a Ni 
F (dB) = 10 × log  i i  = 10 × log  ,
10 S /N 10 G N
 o o   a i 

where Si and Ni are the input signal and noise levels, respectively, So and
No are the output signal and noise levels, respectively, Na is the noise added by
the amplifier, and Ga is the gain of the amplifier. The IRE (forerunner of the
IEEE) adopted 290 K as the standard temperature for determining noise figure,
and since the input noise level is usually thermal noise, it is often referred to by
Ni = kToB, where k is Boltzmann’s constant, To is 290 K, and B is the bandwidth
(Hz). The value of kTo at 290 K is −174 dBm/Hz.
The primary source of noise in a TWT is related to the density and electron
velocity variations within the electron beam. The level of the noise power is
related to the number of electrodes in the gun, the size of the electron gun, and
its beam optics. Unfortunately, noise figure is one of the most difficult TWT
parameters to accurately predict, even with modern numerical simulations. For
medium power tubes, the noise figure is typically 30 to 35 dB and increases with
power and frequency. A simple formula from Pierce’s “Traveling Wave Tubes”
(2/3)
predicts that noise figure (in absolute units, not in dB) scales roughly as Ek
(1/3)
and Ik , where Ek and Ik are cathode voltage and current, respectively.

Noise Power Output and Carrier-to-Noise Ratio

For some applications, the noise power output (NPO) is of prime importance
and may be measured by terminating the input and measuring the NPO at the
output of the TWT. The NPO can be estimated from the following equation with
all parameters stated in dB:

NPO (in dBm) = –114 + 10 log (BW) + (GSS) + (F),

where -114 dBm/MHz is the thermal noise caused by a room temperature

termination at the input, BW is the bandwidth in MHz over which the NPO is to
be estimated, GSS is the average small signal gain in dB across the bandwidth,
and F is the average noise figure in dB across the bandwidth

Since the gain and noise figure are not constant across a wide bandwidth, a
more accurate estimate could be obtained by integrating the noise figure-gain
product across the total bandwidth. Unless a filter is used to provide a well-
defined output bandwidth, the noise figure-gain product should be integrated
across the entire range of frequencies where the TWT has appreciable gain.
The carrier-to-noise ratio is also a TWT parameter of common interest. This
value is exactly what it says: the ratio of the TWT output (carrier) power at some
defined operating point (commonly saturation) to the surrounding TWT noise
power density:

[
C/N (dB ⋅ Hz) = P (dBm) − − 174 dBm/Hz + G
out noise
( dB ) + F ( dB ) ],

88
 where C/N is the carrier-to-noise ratio in dB-Hz, Pout is the single carrier
output power in dBm, F is the TWT noise figure in dB, and Gnoise is the gain of
the noise in the TWT in the presence of a strong single carrier. Typically, in the
presence of a single carrier, the gain of the noise is suppressed. It can be as
much as 10 dB below small signal gain (depending on the carrier strength), but it
is safest to use Gnoise = Gss as a worst case condition.

Dynamic Range for Linear Operation

The linear region is sometimes defined as the range for linear operation up
to the point where increasing the RF input signal results in a gain compression
of 1 dB. (See Figure G-10.) This point is called the 1 dB compression point.
Therefore, the dynamic range for linear operation may be defined as the ratio of
this maximum input signal to the reference noise level of the TWT.

Figure G-10—One dB gain compression point.

Spurious Outputs and Stability

Spurious outputs are minimized and stability is assured through proper
designs of the electron beam optics and magnetic focusing. In addition, the
processing and fabrication of the TWTs must be carefully controlled. Spurious
oscillation is eliminated or minimized by oscillation suppression techniques, such
as special attenuation patterns on the support rods of helix TWTs and loss
buttons (L-3 ETI patented technique) in coupled-cavity TWTs. These techniques
effectively suppress the tendency to oscillate at the circuit mode edge and
render a given TWT completely stable over a wide range of operating voltages,
source impedances and load impedances.

89
 Relative to the stability of a complete amplifier (TWTA), the beam (cathode)
power supply is of great importance. This supply determines the velocity of the
electron beam, which affects the stability of the TWT.
Reliability/life
Traveling-wave tubes have, over the years, have gained a reputation for
high reliability and long life. There are many factors that affect these parameters,
such as the basic design, the interface, protective measures, handling,
installation/operation and storage.
Basic Design
The most important factor relative to life is the type of cathode and the
cathode loading factor. In addition, special attention must be paid to electrode
size, shape and spacing. The method of packaging must meet the vibration and
shock requirements for the application. And to meet wide temperature ranges
and high altitude (space) requirements, consideration must be given to the
cooling technique; i.e., conduction, radiation, liquid, air, heat pipes, etc.
Encapsulation, conformal coating, and, in some cases, the use of dielectric liquid
will ensure an arc-free and nearly corona-free device.
Interfaces
The operation of TWTs must be confined to the limitations of the operating
and environmental parameters for which the tube was intended. Some of these
parameters can be eliminated and the interface effort minimized by taking
advantage of the “black box” concept; i.e., TWT and power supply are built by
L-3 ETI and supplied as an integrated unit. This approach limits the interface to
the drive signal, RF input and output loads, and input voltage.
Protective Measures
Steps must be taken to provide protective measures so that the TWT is not
exposed to abnormal extremes, such as voltage surges, temperatures, load
mismatches, system arcs, and loss of cooling. All TWTs and TWTAs are
supplied with operating instructions and test performance data. Special attention
should be given to the recommended precautions and operating instructions.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN TWTs AND EPCs THAT CAN AFFECT

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Several important interactions can occur between the TWT and the EPC,
many of which are dependent upon the nature of the RF signal being amplified
by the TWT.

90
Interactions Which Occur When the RF Signal is Pulsed or Contains
Amplitude Variations
As mentioned previously, the division of electron current among the various
stages of a multi-stage collector is dependent upon the level of the RF signal
being amplified, as is the electron current (Iw) intercepted by the slow-wave
structure. These changes can cause the voltages at the TWT elements to
fluctuate. Fluctuations in the cathode voltage can induce spurious phase
modulation on the RF output signal.
The fluctuations in the current loading on the various EPC voltages will be
reflected back to the primary bus which delivers power to the EPC. These signal-
induced variations are especially important if the TWTA is handling signals with
large amplitude variations and if other TWTAs are connected to the same
primary bus. Modulation on the signal being handled by one TWTA can feed into
the EPC voltages of the other TWTAs and cause the RF signals on those other
TWTAs to experience spurious modulation. EPCs used in applications where
large amounts of amplitude variation are to be accommodated must be designed
with the proper amount of regulation and filtering on the primary bus voltage and
on the cathode voltage supply.

Effect of AC Components on EPC Voltages

The use of AC voltage on the heater can introduce a small amount of
spurious modulation on the RF signal being amplified by the TWTA. If this
spurious modulation is critical, the TWT heater can be operated from a DC
voltage. The small amount of AC ripple that would be present on a DC voltage
provided to the heater usually produces very small amounts of spurious
modulation.
Ripple and spurious AC components on the DC voltages provided to the
collector (or collectors) of the TWT usually produce very little spurious
modulation on the RF signal. As a result, the filtering for the collector voltages is
accomplished by inductors and capacitors having small values. Active filtering is
not required.
Ripple and AC components on the voltage of the anode which controls the
beam current (the only anode in TWTs having a single anode; the anode nearest
the cathode on multiple anode TWTs) can introduce spurious modulation.
Fortunately, the anode draws very little current from the EPC. This makes it
possible to achieve adequate filtering using passive components (inductors and
capacitors having moderate values).
However, the cathode voltage must be well filtered and that filtering usually
requires the use of active filter circuits. Ripple and AC components can cause
both amplitude modulation (AM) and phase modulation (PM) on the RF signal
being amplified by the TWTA. It nearly always turns out that the spurious phase
modulation produces the greater effect and we shall concentrate our discussion
upon that effect.
Most TWT EPCs employ DC-to-DC inverters in which the DC input bus
voltage or a DC voltage obtained from an AC input bus voltage is chopped or
modulated in a converter operating at a moderately high frequency (typically,
5 kHz to 30 kHz). The output of this converter is stepped up in voltage by
transformers, then rectified and filtered to provide the high DC voltages required

91
by the TWT. This scheme results in high efficiency and produces ripple voltages
which are easily filtered by small value inductors and capacitors.
The AC components on the high voltages result from at least two effects.
First, the filtering is never perfect and the DC voltages will contain a small AC
frequency component at the fundamental and harmonics of the converter
frequency. Second, any AC ripple or transients on the input bus voltage will be
stepped up in amplitude by the transformers within the converter circuits and will
be impressed upon the TWT voltages unless rejected by the input filter or the
EPC regulator circuits. To be thorough, we should understand that there really
are other effects, such as noise within the regulator circuitry, stray pick-up from
nearby equipment, etc. However, these other effects are usually small compared
to the two effects which have been described.
Fortunately, it is relatively simple to calculate the phase modulation
produced by AC components on the TWT cathode voltage. The TWT produces
several thousand degrees of phase shift between the RF input signal and the RF
output signal, the approximate value of which is given by the following equation:

L (in) × f (GHz)
ϕ (degrees) = 488 ×
E (kV)
K

where ϕ is the total TWT phase shift in degrees, L is the pin-to-pin length of
the TWT in inches, f is the frequency of operation in GHz, and Ek is the cathode
voltage in kV. The pushing factor of a TWT is a measure of the sensitivity of the
phase shift of the TWT to changes in electrode voltages. This pushing factor is
approximated from the following equation:

df L (in) × f (GHz)
(deg/volt) = −0.163 ×
dE E (kV)3/2
K K

where dϕ/dEk is the TWT phase pushing factor in degrees per volt and the rest
of the variables are as in the previous equation. Note that taking the derivative
of the total phase shift equation above to get the phase pushing factor is not
quite correct due to the approximations involved in that equation.
Using the TWT pushing factor and the measured (or predicted) amplitude of
AC voltage on the TWT cathode, it is possible to predict the spurious phase
modulation (PM) from:

Phase modulation = pushing factor × peak AC voltage

92
 If several frequency components are evident on the AC voltages on the
TWT cathode voltage, it becomes necessary to calculate the spurious PM
generated by each frequency component individually. Switching regulators use
waveforms that are rich in harmonic content, and significant frequency
components often extend to 100 MHz. Each frequency component will generate
a pair of PM sidebands around the RF signal (carrier) frequency. In the strictest
sense, each frequency component generates an infinite set of PM sidebands
separated by the same frequency spacing as the frequency of the AC
component being considered. Fortunately, in a well-designed EPC, the
amplitude of the AC voltage is sufficiently small that the higher order sidebands
can be ignored and we need to concern ourselves only with the first sideband
pair, one of which is above the carrier by a frequency spacing equal to the
frequency of the AC component and the other is below the carrier by the same
amount. For example, if the AC component is at a frequency of 5 kHz, one
sideband will be 5 kHz above the carrier frequency and the other sideband will
be 5 kHz below the carrier frequency.
The strength of these PM sidebands, relative to the carrier level, can be
calculated using modulation theory and is given by:

J1 (peak phase shift in radians)

dBc = 20 log
J 0 (peak phase shift in radians)

where dBc is the ratio of the level of each sideband relative to the carrier
level expressed in decibels (dB), the log is the logarithm to base 10, J1 is the
Bessel Function of the first kind to the first order, and J0 is the Bessel Function
of the first kind to the zero order.

Since the peak phase shift values are (if the EPC is designed properly), the
Bessel Functions can be approximated by using the first term in the series
expansions of the Bessel Functions. The resulting equation is:

dBc = 20 log (peak phase shift in radians/2)

where the symbols have the same definition as before. Typical TWTAs
produce PM sidebands which are 30 to 100 decibels below the carrier (the
values for dBc are –30 to –100 decibels).
AM sidebands are nearly always at least 10 decibels lower than the PM
sidebands. AM sideband levels are calculated from:

 10peak var iation in RF output / 20

− 1
dBc = 20 log  ,
 2 

93
 where the peak variation in RF output is the variation in RF output
(measured in dB) caused by AC on the TWT voltages.

If the TWT is operated at saturation, reasonably small changes (< 10-20%)

in power output can be approximated from changes in cathode current by using
the following:

∆P ∆I
out (Watt/Watt) = 4 × K ( Amp / Amp) ,
P 3 I
out K

where ∆Pout is the change in output power in Watts, Pout is the nominal
output power in Watts, ∆Ik is the change in cathode current in Amps, and Ik is the
nominal cathode current in Amps. If the TWT is operated in the small signal
region (at an RF output power level that is 10 dB or more below the saturated
level), the change in gain will also relate to changes in cathode current:

∆G ∆I
SS (dB/dB) = 1 × K ( Amp / Amp) ,
G 3 I
E K

where GE is the electronic gain, given by

GE (dB) = GSS (dB) + launching loss (dB) + sever loss (dB) ,

where GSS is the small signal gain in dB. The launching loss is a result of
the fact that the input signal produces three waves on the slow-wave circuit: a
fast space-charge wave that is not amplified, a slow space-charge wave that is
amplified, and a slow wave that is not amplified. The launching loss is usually
about 9 dB. The sever loss occurs at the attenuator because the wave on the
slow-wave circuit is dissipated in the attenuator (amplification continues beyond
the attenuator because modulation on the electron beam re-establishes the
wave on the slow-wave circuit). The sever loss is about 6 dB for each sever.
Most TWTs have one sever (i.e. they an input slow-wave circuit, a sever, and an
output slow-wave circuit) and the electronic gain is about 15 dB greater than the
small signal gain. In some cases, high gain is required and the TWT has three
active sections (two severs). For TWTs having two severs, the electronic gain is
about 21 dB greater than the small signal gain.

94
 APPENDIX H

FACTORS THAT AFFECT

POWER COMBINED TWTAs
 The output power from a power combiner having no resistive losses is given
by:

[ ]
P = 0.5 P1 + P2 + 2(P1 × P2 )0.5 × cos(a)

where:

P is the output from the combiner in Watts

P1 is the output from TWTA #1 in Watts
P2 is the output from TWTA #2 in Watts
a is the phase difference between the outputs from the two TWTAs

The output power is further reduced by the resistive losses in the combiner
and the associated transmission line components. For Ku-band applications, the
total combining loss could be less than 0.2 dB.
The effects of phase and amplitude imbalance are illustrated in the attached
figures. The graph in Figure H-1 shows the effect of phase imbalance between
output P1 and output P2. The graph in Figure H-2 shows the effect of power
imbalance between output P1 and output P2.. The data in these two graphs show
how the combining loss is affected by phase and power imbalances at initial
setup. As environmental conditions change and the TWTAs age, the phase and
power balance will change. The graph in Figure H-1 may be used to determine
the additional combining loss as the phase balance changes. If the power
outputs of the two TWTAs (output P1 and output P2) change by the same
number of dB, the combined output will change by that same amount. If the
power output from only one of the TWTAs should degrade, the degradation at
the combined output may be determined from Figure H-3. Note that the
degradation in the combined output is less than half the degradation of the one
TWT.
A dual EPC may be used for the paralleled TWT approach. TWTs can be
selected to operate with common cathode and collector voltages. The dual EPC
design approach is based on the following basic features:
• Common cathode and collector voltages. The EPC will operate and
regulate while being loaded by the power requirement of either or both of
the paralleled TWTs.
• A common regulator/converter and common portions of the logic circuits
for reduced size and weight relative to two independent EPCs.
• Independent heater supplies. Each TWT is provided with a heater voltage
that is optimum for that TWT.

96
Figure H-1—Loss caused by phase imbalance.

Figure H-2—Loss caused by initial power imbalance.

97
Figure H-3—Degradation as one TWT degrades.

98
 APPENDIX I

MILLIMETER-WAVE TWTs
Millimeter-wave Tubes
The work which has been done in the development of very high-power
millimeter-wave tubes has been largely influenced by the needs of actual
systems operating in this frequency band.
In general, millimeter-wave tubes utilize very low perveance electron guns,
which create some unusual electron-beam focusing problems associated with
the proper containment of the “thermal” electrons. Proper focusing of these
thermal electron beams is the primary challenge of millimeter-wave TWT
fabrication. Thus improvements in these tubes is often related to improvements
in high energy product magnetic materials since these TWTs are invariably PPM
focused.
Aside from the focusing structure, the major challenge in the manufacture of
millimeter-wave tubes is the precision and tight tolerances required for the
extremely small circuit parts. To illustrate this problem, Figure I-1 is a
photograph of an OFHC copper circuit part in relationship to the head of a
regular straight pin. From this picture, one can appreciate the small size and the
assembly difficulties involved in the fabrication of circuits utilizing these parts.

Figure I-1—Photograph of copper

circuit part for a millimeter-wave tube.

100
 APPENDIX J
NOTES ON TWTs FOR
RADAR APPLICATIONS
Radar Applications
Although a German scientist, C. Hulsmeyer, patented the first primitive radar
as early as 1904, it wasn’t until the mid-1930’s that practical systems evolved.
Early systems employed smooth-bore and, at a later date, cavity magnetrons.
Today, a wide variety of microwave tubes are employed, including magnetrons,
crossed-field devices, klystrons, twystrons—and TWTs.

Increasing the Range

As radar systems have evolved and grown more sophisticated, the need
has developed for higher average power devices to detect targets at greater
ranges—even in the presence of ECM interference. And because tracking
capabilities have often been equally important, or duty cycles have had to be
limited, peak-power requirements have also increased.
The coupled-cavity TWT has proven to be an ideal device for many high-
power radar systems. Such tubes are used in mobile, naval and airborne radars.
The coupled-activity tube can provide peak powers in the order of hundreds of
kilowatts at Ku-band and megawatts at S-band. With solenoid focusing, average
powers of as much as 10 to 20 kWs are achievable at Ku-band and as much as
60 to 80 kW at S-band.
Bandwidths of 10 percent are common for coupled-cavity tubes (bandwidths
up to 30 percent are achievable, employing special designs). This bandwidth is
sufficient for most systems employing frequency-hopping or frequency scanning
modulation techniques.

Pulse Compression
Pulse compression systems require that the phase linearity of the
transmitter be extremely good. Although good phase linearity can generally be
achieved in helix TWTs, a coupled-cavity tube must be carefully designed to
achieve flat phase performance. To accomplish this, L-3 ETI employs a patented
technique to introduce in-band loss. Deviations from phase linearity of only a few
tenths of a degree in bandwidths of 40 to 50 megahertz have been achieved.
Phase linearity, if held to reasonable limits, will also enable the tube
manufacturer to offer TWTs which closely track in phase between tubes. This is
of primary importance when tubes are to be operated in parallel. Many systems
are being configured using two to four tubes—both helix and coupled-cavity—in
parallel. L-3 ETI has an excellent understanding of the tube design constraints
which must be employed to achieve good phase tracking in both types of tubes,
and for this reason the company is in a position to work closely with the radar
designer to achieve the system requirements.
For airborne radar applications, L-3 ETI has employed a solenoid wrapped
directly on the tube body. This technique minimizes the size and weight of the
TWT and also reduces the solenoid power. The technique, although first
employed for airborne tubes, is now standard practice at L-3 ETI for all new
solenoid-focused TWTs.

Higher Average Power

In a system operating with a high pulse repetition frequency, the total
average power can be limited by grid heating. Early TWTs were equipped with a

102
single grid, and the intercepted current could cause the grid temperature to rise
to the point at which the grid would start to emit or ultimately fail. L-3 ETI
pioneered the use of the “shadow grid” for applications requiring a high average
power.
There are actually two grids in these tubes. The grid closest to the cathode
is very carefully placed directly in alignment with the second or control grid and
is held at cathode potential. Electrons are not attracted to this shadow grid, but
its presence in front of the control grid reduces the current intercepted on the
control grid by an order of magnitude. This provides the capability of operating at
much higher average power levels without excessive grid heating.
Shadow grids are employed in virtually all gridded tubes at L-3 ETI, and
even more effective techniques are currently in the development phase. The
new techniques promise even further improved tube life and performance.

An Optimum Design
TWTs have many peculiarities which must be understood to be certain that
system performance will not be compromised. It is important, therefore, that the
radar system designer work closely with the tube engineer so that the radar
performance is optimized. Among the potential problems:
• Because the tube turns on in a nonlinear manner, some DC pulse
compression occurs. This could create a range error.
• The RF saturation characteristics of a TWT are not the same across the
frequency band of the tube. This could also create a range error.
• An inductance in the grid lead can result in a triode-type oscillation, which
might take months to resolve.
• Long pulses can result in ion-oscillations. Extra tube processing could
alleviate this effect.
Other problem areas could be listed. The important point, however, is that
the L-3 ETI technical staff, which has designed and built more TWTs for radar
than any other group in the world, can help to anticipate difficulties before they
occur, shortening the design cycle and increasing the chances for ultimate
success.
Data on a typical helix TWT for radar applications are shown in Figure J-1.

103
Figure J-1—L-3 ETI Model 18703H TWT output power versus frequency—
intercepting grid.

104
 APPENDIX K

NOTES ON TWTs FOR

ECM AND MISSILE APPLICATIONS
Electronic Countermeasures
Electronic warfare has been defined as a military action to take advantage
of the enemy’s use of the electromagnetic spectrum or deny its use to him. It is
usually categorized into:

ESM (Electronic Support Measures)

Actions taken to search for, intercept, locate and identify enemy emitters.

ECM (Electronic Counter Measures)

Deliberate jamming or deception of an enemy emitter or receiver.

ECCM (Electronic Counter Counter Measures)

Action to ensure effective use of our equipment despite enemy jamming.
The earliest use of RF jamming was in World War I by the German Navy.
However, these primitive tactics were not really developed until the military
began using radar just prior to World War II.
The development of radar was rapidly followed by the introduction of ECM
techniques to deceive and jam them. In turn, the evolution of new radars has
been partially the result of a continual need to stay ahead of any new
countermeasure tactics which might compromise the radar’s effectiveness.
The trend in search radar, for example, has historically been toward much
higher powers and techniques that will increase target visibility, even while being
jammed. A good anti-jamming radar necessarily must be able to shift frequency
over a wide bandwidth quickly to avoid the jammer’s source frequency.
ECM trends have also been toward wide bandwidth system capabilities. The
jammer on the target may be designed to amplify wideband noise, or to
deceptively retransmit the hostile radar pulse to offset the radar’s ability to
determine the target’s position.
Because wide frequency bandwidths are essential to the employment of
such ECM tactics, an amplifying device capable of broad operating ranges with
sufficient output power and efficiency has been needed.
The TWT has proven to be ideally suited for this task. Unfortunately,
however, airborne ECM is usually not designed as an integral part of the
airframe, but rather adapted internally or mounted in pods externally, depending
on the military service tactics. As a consequence, TWTs are not standardized
with respect to interface parameters and require close liaison between the TWT
supplier and the ECM system engineer.

Pulsed TWTs
L-3 Communications Electron Technologies, Inc. (ETI) has been a leading
supplier of broadband, kilowatt-level, helix TWTs for many ECM systems.
Proven production capability has been established with tubes in all the major
frequency bands.
Currently, pulsed kilowatt TWTs cover the ECM spectrum up to 18 GHz.
The tubes feature a rugged metal-ceramic construction suitable for airborne or
missile environments, and typically use a single-gridded electron gun, PPM-
focusing and coaxial couplers.

106
 L-3 ETI broadband helix TWTs have proven to be reliable building blocks for
many ECM applications. Some typical examples of helix TWTs can be seen in
Figures K-1 and K-2.

Figure K-1—L-3 ETI Model 8790H helix TWT typical performance.

Figure K-2—L-3 ETI Model 18714H pulsed helix TWT typical performance.

Parallel Pulsed TWTs

Figure K-3 is a schematic of a technique to combine several conventional
one kilowatt pulsed TWTs to attain higher pulsed power output over a broad
bandwidth.
In such a combiner system, accurate phase tracking for all components over
the frequency range is a critical requirement for satisfactory performance. The
input dividers are 3 dB hybrids while the output combiners (hybrid or “magic T”)
have to be capable of handling higher peak and average power levels over large
bandwidths.

107
Figure K-3—When combining several kilowatt-pulsed TWTs to attain higher
output, accurate phase tracking is critical.
Phase compensation is required for each tube pair to ensure the correct
phase relationship in each combiner. Each of the tubes also requires an
amplitude and phase equalizer so phase tracking can be kept within +20
degrees over an octave bandwidth, provided that their grid and cathode voltages
are also individually optimized.
With all these provisions, the combiner losses are still in the order of 1.5 dB
over the band. Four tubes at the 2.5 kW level would, therefore, provide a
combined peak output power of 7.0 kW.
In some applications, coupled-cavity TWTs are needed to provide the RF
performance and several L-3 ETI types have been utilized. One example is rated
at 10 kilowatts peak, 2 percent duty over the band 7.5-10 GHz, and another
provides over 1500 watts CW over the same bandwidth, as shown in Figure K-4.

Continuous-wave TWTs
In addition to these pulsed types, high-power CW TWTs are used in
broadband airborne jammer applications (see Figure K-5). An integral solenoid
provides a compact, rugged device for tactical environments.

A Shift to CW Radar
Recent changes in airborne tactics have shifted interest to the advantages
of CW radar over the earlier pushed techniques. Pulsed radars transmit short
bursts of energy and then turn on the receiver between bursts. CW radar,
however, uses antenna isolation and frequency resolution to detect the return
signal.

108
Figure K-4—Power output with constant drive, coupled-cavity TWT.

Figure K-5—Output power with constant RF drive, coupled-cavity TWT.

109
 The countermeasures to these radars are:
• Deception jamming which uses transmitted signals to confuse the radar’s
data processing system.
• Noise jamming which uses high-power density RF to obscure the radar
return.
Each approach has strong advantages in varied tactical situations, but they
are most effective when used together. One way to achieve this objective is to
use two TWTs, operating in parallel from a single power supply. One is a pulsed
TWT for deceptive schemes; the other, a high power CW TWT used for barrage
jamming modes.
This approach is based on the available single-mode TWTs previously
described, and recent improvements have been made in both pulsed and CW
single-mode TWTs in regard to higher power output, extended bandwidth and
improved duty cycle.
However, new system concepts utilize a single multi-mode TWT to provide
both the pulsed or CW output. This approach has obvious simplicity as well as
inherent savings in size and weight.

Multi-Mode TWTs
Key design features of these new multi-mode devices include a shadow
gridded tetrode electron gun to provide the varied beam operating parameters.
In addition, nondispersive circuit techniques are used to achieve wider
bandwidths. Unique attenuators and velocity step tapering are also used to
inhibit backward-wave oscillations and enhance tube stability. Integral barrel
PPM-focusing provides excellent RF performances as well as a reliable rugged
device which meets the stringent requirements of modern airborne
environments.
Figure K-6 shows typical performance for a multi-mode TWT. Flexibility in
providing for intermediate modes allows the designer to adapt the system to a
wide range of output power requirements. Specific applications for such multi-
mode performance should be discussed with L-3 ETI at the time of system
design to benefit from the latest developments in this area.
Missile TWTs embody the same features as radar TWTs except that they
require high efficiency and usually require rapid warm-up time. The high
efficiency is achieved by using multi-stage depressed collectors and fast warm-
up is achieved by using a special cathode and heater design having low thermal
mass.

110
Figure K-6—Multi-mode performance of a L-3 ETI multi-mode TWT offers the
systems designer flexibility in output power requirements.

111
 APPENDIX L

NOTES ON TWTs FOR

SPACE APPLICATIONS
The TWT in Space
Just how long can a TWT/TWTA be expected to perform in a space
application? Both ground tests and in-orbit data demonstrate that lifetimes in
excess of 15 years are conservative estimates for L-3 ETI space hardware.
Shown in Figure L-1 is a typical TWTA for space communications. These
highly sophisticated microwave amplifiers provide high efficiency RF power with
the high gain that is required for downlink transmission.

Figure L-1—C-band space TWTA.

L-3 ETI space TWT experience began in 1963 with the launch of the
Syncom Satellite series. These Boeing/NASA satellites were the first attempt at
placing satellites in synchronous orbit. Since the successful flight of Syncom, a
continuing line of L-3 ETI space TWTs has achieved a total in-orbit operating
time approaching 250,000,000 hours for M-cathode TWTs alone. This is in
addition to over 150,000,000 in-orbit operating hours from earlier TWTs with
oxide cathodes and ground life test experience of over 30,000,000 hours. The
in-orbit TWT experience has been accumulated on hundreds of major space
programs, including Apollo, Mariner, Surveyor, Pioneer, Intelsat series, Skylab,
Westar, TDRSS, DSCS-II, DSCS-III, Anik series, Palapa, ATS, Aussat, Galaxy
series, Telsat, JCS, JCSAT series Telecom, Arabsat, Spacenet, SBS, Astra
series, Eutelsat, Marisat, Moreles, Marcopolo, G-Star, Superbird series, Skynet
series, Panamsat series, INSAT series, Apstar series, KoreaSat series,
Solidaridad, Morelos series, ICO, and Sirius Satellite Radio.
In the case of TWTAs, L-3 ETI experience began in the mid-60’s with the
Lunar Orbiter program. Since that time, L-3 ETI TWTAs have been developed
and delivered for military, NASA, commercial and international space

applications. The RF-power capabilities of these units range from 200 mW to

200 W of CW operation.

114
The Space TWT
The L-3 ETI design philosophy for space TWTs and EPCs relies on
conservative designs with strong heritage, and extensive analysis and testing to
provide hardware that is rugged, reliable, lightweight, and with a long service life.
L-3 ETI has developed and implemented the most up-to-date state-of-the-art
technology in the areas of computer modeling and simulation, metal-ceramics
assembly and processing and mechanical and electrical design. This
combination of philosophy and technology has produced hardware that has
consistently proven itself in on-orbit operation. L-3 ETI has on-going research
and development programs to improve RF performance, efficiency, linearity and
reliability and to reduce size and mass.

Keys to a Long-Life TWT

The life-determining design feature of a TWTA is the cathode of the tube.
As discussed in the appendix B on electron guns and cathodes, the M-type
dispenser cathode is the L-3 ETI standard for high reliability space tubes. The
physics of dispenser cathode aging have been exhaustively studied at L-3 ETI
and a very well-accepted cathode life model has been developed, validated and
published. TWT life predictions are made using this model.
There are basically three factors which determine the potential life of an
M-type dispenser cathode:
• The temperature at which the cathode is operated.
• The initial thickness of the M-coating on the cathode surface.
• The cathode current loading for which the electron gun is designed.
These factors along with other data are incorporated into the L-3 ETI cathode life
model and the predicted life of the TWT determined. Life expectancy for space
TWTs with dispenser cathodes is shown in Figure L-3. The reader is also
referred to the discussion of cathode and electron guns in the earlier
Appendix B.
Electron gun optics are selected for conservative space charge, limited
emission density, and low cathode temperature at a perveance, voltage, and
beam size appropriate to the tube design.
The electron gun designs in the L-3 ETI space TWTs use a control voltage
on an isolated anode to achieve a constant cathode current throughout the
operating life. This feature maintains the optimum beam focusing and RF
interaction that were established at beginning of life.
Other factors which must be taken into account to insure long life are the
heater which heats the cathode, the metal-ceramic seals which must maintain a
near-perfect vacuum, and the focusing structure which must assure maximum
beam transmission.

115
Figure L-2—Life prediction for state-of- Figure L-3—Life prediction for state-of-
the-art oxide cathodes operating in the-art dispenser cathodes operating in
space TWTs. space TWTs.

Cathode-Knee Temperature
An idealized curve of cathode
current versus cathode temperature
is shown in Figure L-4. The region to
the left of the knee is known as the
temperature-limited-emission region.
The region to the right, the area
where tubes are normally operated,
is the space-charge-limited-emission
region. Typically, in long-life TWTs,
some finite margin should exist
Figure L-4—The region to the left of
between operating temperature and
the knee is the temperature-limited-
knee temperature.
emission region, to the right is the
Another characteristic of long-life
space-charge-limited emission region.
TWTs is that the cathode-knee
temperature is relatively low and is
stable as a function of time after initial processing. Two methods are used for
measuring this parameter, cathode activity test and the time-to-knee test. L-3
ETI TWTs with dispenser cathodes are tested by plotting cathode current as a
function of heater power and relating heater power to cathode temperature.

Long-life Heaters
The heater, which is the hottest element in the TWT, must provide the
necessary energy to maintain the correct cathode temperature. For this reason
the selection of reliable high-temperature materials and the limiting of the
maximum heater temperature through optimum thermal design are necessary
factors in obtaining a reliable, long-life heater design.

116
 It should also be noted that during turn-on and turn-off cycles, the heater
must go through a change in mechanical dimensions. The design must provide
for this expansion and contraction without over-stressing the heater wire or the
insulation between the heater and the cathode.

The Vacuum Envelope

The required vacuum environment for the cathode can be degraded in
several ways, all of which tend to increase the pressure and impair cathode
operation. Among these are a leak in the vacuum envelope, internal outgassing
due to overheating, or arcing with attendant poisoning and/or ion bombardment
of the cathode.
The incidence of vacuum envelope leaks is kept extremely low by the use of
good design, proven reliable metal-ceramic joining techniques, very high quality
materials and monitoring of the vacuum throughout the assembly and testing of
the TWT.
Careful analysis, together with thorough thermal design and testing, leads to
conservatively low operating temperatures within the TWT. Under these
circumstances, the TWT bakeout temperature is never approached (except at
the cathode) in normal specified tube operation. Hence, the cleaning and
outgassing function of bakeout is not sacrificed. A getter provides internal
pumping capacity over extended life.
Screening and storage tests are performed during the manufacturing cycle
to eliminate any possible leaks.

Beam Focusing
Space TWTs make exclusive use of PPM focusing that is described in
Appendix C. The magnets are almost exclusively fabricated from high
temperature stabilized samarium-cobalt materials. These materials have been
chosen so that the desired magnetic field is achieved with the minimum mass.
During TWT processing, the magnetic field is generally adjusted for best
focusing by placing small magnetic shunts on the outside diameter of the
magnetic stack.

Critical Design Parameters

The primary design parameters which differ according to the application
requirements are frequency, power level, gain, bandwidth and life. Secondary
considerations which must be taken into account to achieve the best design for a
specific application are efficiency, linearity, size and weight.
TWT size is determined by the physical laws which determine the frequency
response, linearity, and efficiency. The weight depends on the size, materials
used, and the structural techniques employed for the necessary strength to
survive the thermal stresses, pyrotechnic shock and vibrations encountered
during launch and operations.

The Space EPC

L-3 ETI has developed and manufactured EPCs for TWTs capable of 200
mW to 400 W of CW RF power. These units are designed to supply cathode
voltages from 1.2 to 14 kV and will operate from a regulated or unregulated bus.

117
In addition, EPCs have been developed for pulsed applications with cathode
voltages in excess of 18 kV.
The EPC converts the regulated or unregulated spacecraft bus voltage to dc
voltages at the proper levels and with the necessary regulation to operate a
given TWT. A simplified block diagram of a typical EPC is shown in Figure L-5.

Figure L-5—The heart of the EPC is the new approach to voltage conversion
and regulation knows as the “Regulating Converter.” Also shown is the optional
power supply that is used when the TWT is linearized.
The heart of the EPC is the system used for voltage conversion and
regulation, L-3 ETI has been granted patents on circuit configurations that
perform these functions with high efficiency and low parts counts. The converter
utilizes a circuit configuration that achieves such desirable features as higher
efficiency, a single circuit for regulation and conversion, minimized output filter
requirements, and simplified control system applications.
The size and weight of the EPC is dependent on the thermal interface, RFI
and telemetry requirement, spacecraft power bus, allowable ripple current that
the TWTA can inject on the power bus, residual AM and PM noise, and shock
and vibration levels to be experience in the launch environment.
L-3 ETI has on-going programs exploring EPC efficiency improvements,
longer life and reliability electronics, improved packaging techniques, the effects
of radiation, multi-stage collector operation, and system interface as it relates to
both thermal factors and the power bus of the spacecraft.

118
Space TWTA Reliability
As the largest producer of commercial satellites over the years, Boeing
Satellite Systems has accumulated the most extensive statistics on reliability of
space TWTAs and space SSPAs in the industry. The Boeing fleet has logged
nearly 1500 years in space , and has 104 of the 248 communications satellites
currently in geosynchronous orbit.
Through April 2004, Boeing satellites have accumulated 30.5 million on-
orbit hours with 944 SSPAs since the mid 1980’s. Boeing satellites have
accumulated a total of 80.5 million on-orbit hours with 1783 TWTAs since the
1980’s. The data base contains the performance of over 2500 satellite downlink
amplifiers with over 100 million operating hours.
The amplifier failure rate is evaluated on Figure 6 which shows the
percentage of satellites that have 0, 1, 2 or more amplifier failures. Remarkably,
eighty-three percent of satellites with TWTA amplifiers record zero failures and
eighty percent of satellites record zero SSPA amplifier failures. However, only
SSPAs had failure occurrences of greater than 2 per satellite and this occurred
on nine percent of satellites.

90

80
PERCENTAGE OF SATEL LITES

SSPAs
WITH AMPLIFIER FAILURES

70

60 TWTAs

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 >2
FAILURE INCIDENCE PER SATELLITE

Figure L-6—Amplifier Reliability Performance on BSS Satellite Fleet.

The failure rate is usually expressed as the FIT rate (failures in one billion
operating hours). The exact FIT rates are proprietary to Boeing, and are
remarkably low for both technologies. However , the TWTAs FIT rate is the
lowest, at least 297 FITS lower than for SSPAs. This is a significant difference.
The RF power at frequency provided by SSPAs also is not comparable to
that provided by TWTAs. Therefore the downlink capability available to the user
is not equivalent. For the more technically challenging, higher power, higher
frequency requirements, SSPA technology with comparable weight and
efficiency is not available. At high RF power levels, maintaining safe material
operating temperatures becomes an important reliability issue for both amplifier
technologies. A capability metric of Watts per Rate of Failure or FITS, shown in

119
Figure 7 shows the space TWTAs provide nearly six times more performance
than SSPAs.

0.6

0.5
WATT/FAILURES IN 109 HOURS
0.458

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1 0.078

0.0
TWTAs SSPAs

Figure L-7—Watt per FIT Delivered on Boeing Satellite Fleet.

Future Trends
The future trends being dictated by systems requirements are toward higher
frequency, greater efficiency, increased reliability, longer life, smaller size, lighter
weight, and, in many cases, higher power.
The migration to higher frequency, from the standpoint of the TWT, will
result in smaller and lighter-weight devices. However, as the frequency
increases, cathode voltages increase, causing the EPC to grow in both size and
weight. This, in turn, will force the investigation, qualification, and, in some
instances, development of new materials and processes.
Future improvements in efficiency will evolve as computer design tools are
developed and as TWT and EPC technologies continue to mature. Efforts will
continue in resynchronization and multi-stage collector techniques for
improvement of TWT efficiency and linearity. New EPC circuit techniques will be
developed and new components evaluated for higher voltage operation and
efficiency improvements.
Higher reliability can be achieved as new cathodes are developed by the
use of improved thermal and mechanical designs and by additional screening,
testing and burn-in. This is usually a trade-off of time and cost. Longer life may
be brought about by lower cathode loading, incorporating into future designs the
experience gained through life testing, actual system usage, and a continuous
program of cathode material improvement and evaluation.
The smaller size and lighter weight will result from the use of new materials,
more efficient ways to package the EPC, improved techniques of heat removal
and weight reduction.
Higher power TWTs/TWTAs continue to be developed and manufactured for
other applications and that technology is continuously transferred to space-

120
qualified hardware. This is accomplished while maintaining and assuring the
stringent requirements needed for space hardware.

121
 APPENDIX M

NOTES ON THE CARE AND

HANDLING OF TWTs
Interfaces
The operation of TWTs must be confined to the limitations of the operating
and environmental parameters for which the tube was intended. Some of these
parameters can be eliminated and the interface effort minimized by taking
advantage of the “black box” concept; i.e., TWT and power supply are built by
L-3 ETI and supplied as an integrated unit. This approach limits the interface to
the drive signal, RF input and output loads, and input voltage.

Protective Measures
Steps must be taken to provide protective measures so that the TWT is not
exposed to abnormal extremes, such as voltage surges, temperatures, load
mismatches, system arcs, and loss of cooling. All TWTs and TWTAs are
supplied with operating instructions and test performance data. Special attention
should be given to the recommended precautions and operating instructions.

Handling
Careful handling of the TWTs during shipment and installation is advisable
so that the exposed high-voltage connections, ceramic seals and RF connectors
are not damaged.

Installation/Operation
Care must be taken during installation that no strain is put on the RF
connectors. On TWTs with SMA connectors, precautions should be exercised as
to the amount of torque applied to the connectors. The waveguide mating
flanges should be clean, smooth and flat so that a good mechanical, as well as
RF, connection can be made. Polarity of the applied voltages and the direction
of cooling liquid or air flow require cautious observation.

Storage
If at all possible, the original shipping container should be retained and used
for storing the TWT and for any future handling or moving which may be
required. Liquid-cooled TWTs must be free of coolant prior to storage. In
addition, the specified storage temperature limits must not be exceeded.

124
 APPENDIX N

EQUATIONS AND FORMULAE

COMMONLY USED IN TWT DESIGN

125
PIERCE GAIN PARAMETER:
C = [KI0 / 4E0 ]
1/ 3

where:

K = circuit beam impedance

I0 = beam current
E0 = circuit voltage for b = 0

PERVEANCE:

Ik
beam perveance =
Ek1 .5

Ik
gun perveance (positive anode) =
(E k + Ea )1.5

Ik
gun perveance (negative anode) =
(Ek − Ea )1 .5

EFFICIENCY:

Beam (electronic) efficiency = Pout /(Ek × Ik )

Pout
Overall efficiency (positive anode) =
Ef × If + (E k + Ea ) Ia + Ek ×I w + (Ekbn × I bn)

Pout
Overall efficiency (negative anode) =
E f × I f + (Ek − Ea )I a + Ek × Iw + (Ekbn ×I bn )

126
 Pout
Intrinsic efficiency (positive anode) =
(Ek + Ea )I a + Ek × I w + (E kbn × Ibn )

Pout
Intrinsic efficiency (negative anode) =
(Ek − E a ) Ia + Ek × I w + (Ekbn × Ibn )

CONSTANT PERVEANCE SCALING: (P = Power Output in Watts)

8/3
P2 / P1 = (Ek 2 /E k1)

0 .375
Ek2 /Ek 1 = (P2 / P1)

0 .5625
Ik 2 /I k1 = (P2 / P1)

CONSTANT GAMMA-A (γa) SCALING:

a2 f × Ek 20 .5
= 1
a1 f2 × Ek 10 .5

FOR CONSTANT AREA COMPRESSION:

J C2 I × EK1 × f2 2
= K2
J C1 IK1 × EK 2 × f12

LENGTH VERSUS VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY FOR CONSTANT

PERVEANCE:

L2 E 21 / 3 × f1
=
L1 E11/ 3 × f2

127
SURFACE AREA OF CATHODE:

2 
[ ]
2 0.5 
A = 2 × π × R  1 − 1 − (d / 2R) 
 

where:

R = Spherical Radius of Cathode

d = Outer Diameter of Cathode

CHANGE IN CATHODE CURRENT AS A RESULT OF A CHANGE IN

CATHODE VOLTAGE:

change in current 1.5 × change in cathode voltage

=
nomin al current no minal cathode voltage

CHANGE IN GAIN AS A RESULT OF A SMALL CHANGE IN

CATHODE CURRENT:

change in gain change in cathode current

=
BCN 3 × no min al cathode current

where:

GAIN = Small signal gain in dB

BCN = Electronic gain, approximately = Gain + 15 dB for TWTs with
one sever, approximately = Gain + 21 dB for TWTs with two
severs
1/3
C = Pierce gain parameter = [Kl0/4E0]

CHANGE IN SATURATED POWER OUTPUT AS A RESULT OF A

SMALL CHANGE IN CATHODE CURRENT:

change in power output 4 × change in cathode current

=
nomin al power output 3 × nominal cathode current

(power output in watts, at saturation)

128
CHANGE IN PHASE AS A RESULT OF A SMALL CHANGE IN
CATHODE VOLTAGE (PHASE PUSHING FACTOR):

change in phase no minal phase length

=
change in cathode voltage 3 × nominal cathode voltage

1060 × f × L
= (Radians per volt)(approximate)
c × E3 / 2

where:
10
c = speed of light = 1.18 x 10 inches/second,
L = input to output length

BRILLOUIN FIELD:

0.3268 × [E k × beam microperveance]

0.5

B (GAUSS) =
r

(r = beam radius in inches)

PLASMA WAVELENGTH:

35.92 × 10 −3 × E3 / 4 × r
λp =
I0.5

(λ p in inches, r = beam radiusin inches)

BEAM VELOCITY (u) AS A FUNCTION OF CIRCUIT VELOCITY (v)

AND THE VELOCITY PARAMETER (b):

u (1 + bC) v
=
c c

(c = speed of light)

129
GAIN RIPPLE, PHASE RIPPLE, AND GROUP DELAY RIPPLE:

RIPPLE PERIOD (fr):

fr = v/2L (approximately equal to: u/2L)

L = Distance between discontinuities, measured in
axial direction along TWT circuit
c × [Ek ]
0.5

u =
506
10
c = speed of light = 1.18 × 10 inches per second

PHASE RIPPLE FROM GAIN RIPPLE:

gain ripple/20
Phase Ripple = (10 – 1)
Phase Ripple = peak-to-peak phase ripple in radians,
Gain Ripple = peak-to-peak gain ripple in dB

PHASE RIPPLE IN A BANDWIDTH (B) where B < fr / 2:

gain ripple/20
Phase Ripple (Radians) = (10 – 1) SIN(π × B/fr)

WORST-CASE SLOPE OF PHASE RIPPLE:

π × (10 gain ripple / 20 − 1)

Phase Slope (Radians per Hz) =
fr

Gain Ripple = peak-to-peak gain ripple in dB

TIME DELAY (GROUP DELAY) RIPPLE:

(10 gain ripple / 20 − 1)

Group Delay Ripple =
fr

Peak-to-peak time delay ripple in seconds

Gain Ripple = peak-to-peak gain ripple in dB

130
TIME DELAY RIPPLE IN A BANDWIDTH (B) where B < fr / 2:

(10 gain ripple / 20 − 1)

Group Delay Ripple = × sin (π × B / fr )
fr

Peak-to-peak time delay ripple in seconds

Gain Ripple = peak-to-peak gain ripple in dB

WORST-CASE TIME DELAY SLOPE:

dt π × (10 gain ripple / 20 − 1)

= (sec onds per Hz)
df fr 2

dt π × (10 gain ripple / 20 − 1) 15

= × 10 (n sec/ MHz)
df fr 2

NOISE POWER FROM MATCHED LOAD:

kTB = –114 dBm in 1 MHz bandwidth

kTB = –114 + 10 × log(B) in bandwidth B

(where B is in MHz)

NOISE POWER OUTPUT FROM AMPLIFIER WITH MATCHED INPUT:

NPO (in dBm) = kTB + F + G

(kTB in dBm calculated for bandwidth = B)
F = noise figure in dB
G = gain in dB

THIRD ORDER INTERCEPT POINT (IP3):

On a plot where abscissa is power input per signal and ordinate is power
output per signal (in dBm);
• Starting in the small signal region, extrapolate single carrier output with a
slope of 1:1
• Starting in the small signal region, extrapolate curve for output of each of
two 3IM outputs with slope of 3:1
The output level at which the curves intersect is the third order intercept
point (IP3).

131
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AS A RESULT OF RIPPLE ON
VOLTAGES APPLIED TO THE TWT:

10 £P / 20 − 1
dBc = 20 log
2

where

dBc is the carrier-to-sideband ratio in dB.

£P is the peak variation in output power caused by each sinusoidal

component of the voltage ripple.

£P can be calculated from:

£P = A a × £E

where:

Aa is the amplitude pushing factor for the TWT element, in dB per volt.
£E is the peak value of each sinusoidal component of the voltage ripple.

PHASE MODULATION AS A RESULT OF RIPPLE ON VOLTAGES

APPLIED TO THE TWT:

£θ
dBc = 20 log
2

where:

dBc is the carrier-to-sideband ratio in dB.

£θ is the peak phase shift caused by each sinusoidal component of

the voltage ripple.

£θ can be calculated from:

£θ = A p × £E

where:

Ap is the phase pushing factor for the TWT element, in radians per volt.
£E is the peak value of each sinusoidal component of the voltage ripple.

132
INDEX
TOPIC PAGE
AM near-carrier noise ......................................................................................... 16
AM/AM conversion ................................................................................. 16, 27, 32
AM/PM conversion ............................................................................ 17, 28, 78-81
AM/PM transfer............................................................................................. 17, 80
amplitude pulling factor....................................................................................... 16
amplitude pushing factor ............................................................................ 16, 130
arcing.................................................................................................... 18, 73, 117
area compression ........................................................................... 13, 44, 45, 125
B cathode, B-type cathode ................................................................................. 41
backstreaming .................................................................................................... 18
backward-wave, backward-wave mode........................................ 7, 8, 45, 51, 110
backward-wave oscillator, backward-wave oscillations.................... 8, 45, 51, 110
beam current ................................................................ 12, 20, 31, 33, 72, 89, 124
beam efficiency....................................................................................... 18, 44, 60
beam perveance................................................................................................. 31
beam power................................................................ 6, 18, 43, 51, 57, 69, 72, 73
beam velocity.................................................................................. 21, 36, 79, 127
BFE, beam-forming electrode, focus electrode, Wehnelt ................... 6, 24, 38, 45
Bifilar, bifilar helix ........................................................................................... 7, 24
Brillouin, Brillouin field, Brillouin flow .................................................... 18, 19, 127
BTL, Bell Telephone Laboratories ........................................................................ 1
BWO ............................................................................................................. 18, 51
cathode...................... 4, 6, 13, 17-21, 23-28, 30-31, 33-34, 45-46, 48, 60, 69, 72,
73, 80-82, 88-93, 96, 103, 108, 110, 115-119, 126-127
cathode loading ............................................................. 19-20, 38, 45, 73, 88, 119
charge density ............................................................................................... 19-20
cold match .......................................................................................................... 19
collector ................................ 4-5, 13, 18-19, 21, 29, 33, 45, 60-61, 65, 68, 75-76,
82, 88-89, 96, 110, 118, 119
collector depression ............................................................................... 21, 60. 76
combined ................................................................................... 32, 56, 95-96, 108
combiner.............................................................................................. 96, 107-108
combining loss.................................................................................................... 94
confined flow....................................................................................................... 19
contra-wound.................................................................................................. 7, 51
contrawound helix............................................................................................... 19
control grid.......................................................... 6, 19, 24, 26, 30, 33, 35, 39, 101
coupled-cavity ....................... 8-9, 12-13, 20, 24, 28, 33, 48-49, 53-56, 64, 72-73,
82, 88, 102, 108, 109
crossed-field ............................................................................... 1, 10, 20, 28, 102
crossed-field device................................................................................ 1, 20, 102
depressed collector ............................................13, 21, 29, 33, 60-61, 75-76, 110
dielectric fluid...................................................................................................... 12
direct radiation .................................................................................................... 13
dispenser cathode ................................................................6, 21, 41-43, 115-116

134
TOPIC PAGE
dispersion ............................................................................................... 21, 48, 49
drive..............................11, 17, 19, 22, 25-30, 32, 35, 61, 69, 76-81, 88, 109, 122
dual-mode..................................................................................................... 22, 32
duty cycle .......................................................................... 18, 40-41, 57, 102, 110
dynamic range for linear operation ............................................................... 22, 87
electron beam velocity........................................................................................ 21
electron emission...................................................................... 19, 21, 23, 34, 115
electron gun design ..................................................................... 31, 34, 43, 44-46
electron-volts ...................................................................................................... 36
electronic gain ............................................................................................ 92, 126
electronic power conditioner......................................................................... 11, 23
EPC ................................................................11, 13, 23, 88-91, 96, 115, 117-119
eV ....................................................................................................................... 36
F .............................................................................................................. 29, 86-87
field emission...................................................................................................... 28
focus electrode ......................................................................................... 6, 38, 45
focusing ...................................... 4, 7, 12-13, 18-19, 32, 38-39, 45, 53-57, 60, 64,
68-69, 72, 87, 100, 102
folded helix ........................................................................................................... 7
folded-waveguide circuit ..................................................................................... 24
gain compression ................................................................................... 16, 22, 87
gain flatness .................................................................................................. 81-84
gain ripple ...................................................................................................... 82-85
gain-bandwidth product ...................................................................................... 10
Gauss ................................................................................................................. 55
getter .......................................................................................................... 24, 117
glossary .............................................................................................................. 15
grid................6, 19, 24, 26, 30, 33, 35, 38-40, 42, 52, 81, 103-104, 106, 108, 110
grid-controlled gun................................................................................................ 6
gridded....................................................................... 17, 38-41, 52, 103, 106, 110
gridded vacuum tube .......................................................................................... 17
group delay..................................................................................... 24, 81, 84, 128
group velocity ............................................................................................... 25, 31
harmonic content ............................................................................... 25, 77-78, 93
harmonic power .................................................................................................. 25
heat pipes ........................................................................................................... 88
heater .............................................. 6, 13, 25, 27, 35, 41, 48, 63, 89, 96, 115-117
impedance match .............................................................................. 28, 31-33, 36
insertion loss .......................................................................................... 25, 27, 65
intercept point .......................................................................................... 26-27, 65
intercepting grid .............................................................................. 26, 30, 38, 104
interfaces ............................................................................. 11, 26, 67-69, 88, 122
intermodulation distortion ....................................................................... 26, 28, 78
intermodulation products ................................................................... 26-27, 30, 78
IP3, third order intercept point .......................................................................... 129

135
TOPIC PAGE
kinetic energy ............................................................................... 5, 19, 21, 34, 60
klystron .........................................................1, 8-10, 17-19, 21, 24, 27, 35, 53, 54
klystron amplifier................................................................................................. 18
Kompfner ................................................................................................ 1, 4, 6, 48
kTB ............................................................................................................. 22, 129
kTB in dBm ................................................................................................. 22, 129
launching loss..................................................................................................... 92
linearity .....................10-11, 13, 22, 27, 31, 76, 78, 81, 84-85, 102, 115, 117, 119
linearizer ................................................................................................. 13, 27, 28
loop gain ............................................................................................................. 18
loss .................... 21, 23, 25, 27-28, 31-34, 36, 49, 65, 87-88, 92, 96-97, 102, 122
loss buttons .................................................................................................. 28, 87
M-type cathode............................................................................................... 6, 41
magnet....................................................................................12-13, 27, 32, 55-57
magnetic field .......................................................4, 18-19, 45, 54-57, 73, 76, 117
magnetic flux ...................................................................................................... 19
magnetic focusing scheme ................................................................................. 18
magnetron ...................................................................................................... 1, 28
noise figure ........................................................................22 29-30, 73, 79, 86-87
phase pushing factor .......................................................................... 31, 127, 130
phase velocity............................................................. 5, 21, 25, 31, 34, 36, 48, 51
Pierce gain parameter, C.......................................................................... 124, 126
PM near-carrier noise ......................................................................................... 32
third order intercept point.................................................................................. 127
velocity resynchronization ............................................................................ 36, 76
velocity sorting.................................................................................................... 60
velocity spread ............................................................................................. 45, 60
velocity step................................................................................................ 36, 110
velocity taper .................................................................................... 13, 22, 36, 77
voltage tunable oscillator.................................................................................... 18
VSWR, Voltage Standing Wave Ratio......................................... 16, 28, 31-33, 36
warm-up.......................................................................................... 13, 35, 69, 110
warm-up time ........................................................................................ 35, 69, 110
Wehnelt .............................................................................................................. 24
work function .................................................................................................. 6, 36

136