VIBRATION

FUNDAMENTALS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ICP® AND CHARGE ACCELEROMETERS....................................................... 4 - 5

ELECTRONICS FOR ICP® & CHARGE ACCELEROMETERS.................................. 6 - 7

MOUNTING CONSIDERATIONS & AMPLITUDE RANGE..................................... 8 - 9

FREQUENCY RESPONSE & RANGE OF ICP® & CHARGE ACCELEROMETERS........ 10 - 11

SEISMIC ACCELEROMETERS................................................................ 12 - 13

MEMS ACCELEROMETERS................................................................... 14 - 15
 ICP® & CHARGE
ACCELEROMETERS

Seismic Mass (m) Preload Ring

THEORY OF OPERATION F=mxa

Piezoelectric accelerometers measure vibration and shock for

a wide variety of applications. They incorporate a piezoelectric
sensing element with a crystalline atomic structure which Piezoelectric
outputs an electrical charge when subjected to a load with near Crystal
zero deflection. The charge output occurs instantaneously,
(making them ideal for dynamic applications) but is subject
to decay and therefore not capable of static measurements.

PCB® accelerometers typically utilize a shear configuration

Center Post
where the sensing element and seismic mass are mechanically
Base
preloaded around a center post/base via a preload ring as
shown in the below graphic. This produces a stiff structure
with good frequency response and minimizes influence from Applied Acceleration (a)
the mounting surface (strain and thermal).

TWO MAIN TYPES OF PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETERS

■ ICP ® - Identifies PCB ® sensors that incorporate built-in ■ Charge mode - The output of a charge mode accelerometer
microelectronics. The ICP ® electronics convert a high- is a high impedance signal which is dependent on electrical
impedance charge signal generated by a piezoelectric insulation for low loss / low noise transmission. It should
sensing element into a usable low-impedance voltage signal be converted to a low impedance signal prior to the data
when powered with constant current. The modified signal acquisition system or readout device. It is important to
can be readily transmitted over two-wire or coaxial cables to use low noise cables and avoid using cables with insulation
data acquisition systems or readout devices. damage or contamination.

ICP ® ADVANTAGES CHARGE MODE ADVANTAGES

■ Simple to operate ■ Operating temperature up to +1,200 °F (+650 °C) for UHT-12TM
element with hardline cable
■ Able to operate in dirty environments over long cable runs
■ Flexibility in adjusting accelerometer output characteristics
■ Uses integral power from all manufacturers’ data acquisition
systems (may require specific module) ■ Extended low frequency response with long time constant
charge amps

ICP ® DISADVANTAGES CHARGE MODE DISADVANTAGES

■ Maximum operating temperature of 356 °F (180 °C) ■ Additional cost of required charge amplifier or charge converter

■ Sensitivity and low frequency response are not adjustable ■ Sensor and cable connections must be kept clean and dry for
best performance
■ Requires ICP ® fixed-current power
■ Requires more costly, low noise cable

4
TYPICAL PCB® ACCELEROMETER

ICP ® MICROELECTRONICS
Converts high impedance output from the
piezoelectric crystal to a low impedance HOUSING
voltage output
Encloses internal
components of the sensor

SEISMIC MASS
Stresses piezoelectric
PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL crystal
Generates electrical charge
when stressed

LEAD WIRE
Connects the output PRELOAD RING
of the crystal or ICP ®
microelectronics to the
electrical connector
BASE
Mounting surface
of the sensor

ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR

5
 ELECTRONICS FOR ICP®
& CHARGE ACCELEROMETERS

ICP® ACCELEROMETER INSTRUMENTATION

ICP® accelerometers must be powered from a constant- PCB offers multiple ICP® signal conditioners from 1 to 16
current DC voltage source (see specific sensor datasheet for channels with current adjustment within 2 - 20 mA at +18
turn-on voltage). Once powered, the electronics within an to +30 volts DC. Refer to PCB Tech Note TN-32 for more
ICP ® sensor convert piezoelectric charge to a low impedance information on signal conditioners and impedance. Do not
signal with power and output on the same channel. ICP ® attempt to power ICP ® sensors with commercially available
signal conditioners or ICP® configured readout devices will power supplies as unregulated current will damage the
remove the power portion of the signal, resulting in full scale sensors' internal electronics.
output of ± 5 volts.

Signal Conditioner for ICP ® Power

ICP ® Accelerometer General Purpose Cable
(Conditioned output to Oscilloscope or DAQ)

When a data acquisition system includes ICP ® power,

a separate signal conditioner is not required.

ICP ® Accelerometer General Purpose Cable Digital Oscilloscope or DAQ

(External module for ICP ® Power not shown)

6
CHARGE ACCELEROMETER
INSTRUMENTATION

Charge mode accelerometers' high impedance signal requires

conversion to a low impedance voltage signal prior to being
processed by data acquisition or readout devices. The
conversion can be done in two ways:

Dual Mode Charge Amplifier

Charge Mode Accelerometer Low Noise Cable (Low impedance output to Oscilloscope or DAQ)

Low Noise In-line Charge Converter General Purpose

Cable Cable

Charge Mode
Accelerometer ICP ® Signal Conditioner - Powers Charge Converter
(Low impedance output to Oscilloscope or DAQ)

7
 MOUNTING CONSIDERATIONS
& AMPLITUDE RANGE

PROPER CABLE MOUNTING & MOUNTING TECHNIQUES

STRAIN RELIEF

Install cables to minimize connector strain using tape or There are a variety of mounting techniques for
clamps with service loops. This will maximize cable life and accelerometers. Each method influences the achievable
may also reduce cable-born, triboelectric noise. high frequency measurement range.

STUD MOUNT

Stud mounting (integral or tapped hole) preferred for

greatest rigidity.
■ This method provides excellent high frequency response

ADHESIVE MOUNT

Adhesive mounting bases can be used when other techniques

are not practical.
■ Some adhesives have limited use in higher temperature
applications

MAGNET MOUNT

Used for temporary mounting or on curved surfaces.

■ Magnets can limit the useable frequency range of
the accelerometer

8
AMPLITUDE RANGE OF PCB® ACCELEROMETERS

Most ICP® accelerometers have a full scale output voltage of ±5 volts DC. Charge accelerometers are not limited to a maximum
5 volt DC full scale output range, they can operate anywhere within the linear measurement range listed on the specification
sheet. The charge output (pC/g) can then be converted by a charge amplifier or charge converter (mV/pC). Laboratory amplifiers
typically have the ability to adjust gain (mV/pC) and measurement range. In-line charge converters typically have a fixed gain and
measurement range.

ICP ® Measurement Output Charge Measurement Range Charge Gain Conversion

Accelerometer Sensitivity (AS): 10 mV/g The max acceleration measurable with Accelerometer Sensitivity (AS): 10 pC/g
this sensor & converter combination
Peak Measurement (Gmax): ± 500 g Measurement Input (GIn): 14 g
Accelerometer Sensitivity (AS): 10 pC/g
Output (VDC) = AS x Gmax Charge Conversion (CC): 10 mV/pC
= 10 mV/g x 500 g Converter Input Range (CI): ± 500 pC
Output (VDC) = AS x GIn x CC
Output = 5,000 mV = 5.0 VDC Range (± g) = AS ÷ CI = 10 pC/g x 14 g x 10 mV/pC
= ± 500 pC ÷ 10 pC/g
Output = 1,400 mV = 1.4 VDC
Range = ± 50 g

9
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE
& RANGE OF ICP® & CHARGE
ACCELEROMETERS

DISCHARGE TIME CONSTANT

■ Discharge Time Constant (DTC) is the time (usually in seconds) The graphic below shows the relationship between sensitivity
required for an AC coupled device or measuring system to and frequency:
discharge its signal to 37% of the original value from a step
change of measurand. fL = Lower Frequency Limit fr = Resonant Frequency
fL = .053/DTC f+5% = 0.2 x fr
■ Follows RC circuit principles where an instantaneous charge f-5% = fL/9.2 = 0.5/DTC f+3 dB = 0.5 x fr
f-3dB = fL/3 = 0.16/DTC

Sensitivity
immediately begins dissipating at an exponential rate.
± 3 dB Response Range
■ ICP ® sensors have fixed DTC based on the values of ± 5% Response – Typical Useful Range
0 dB
the internal RC network. When used in AC coupled systems, -5%
(sensor, cable, and ICP ® signal conditioner) the sensor will -3 dB

take on the DTC characteristics of the ICP ® sensor or signal

conditioner (whichever is shortest). In charge mode sensors,
the DTC is dictated by choice of charge amplifier or in-line fL 3fL 9fL 0.2fr 0.5fr fr Log Scale
Frequency (Hz)
charge converter and system resistance/capacitance.
Instantaneous Charge (q)

100%

q = Qe-t/RC
Where: q = instantaneous charge (pC) C
37%
R
Q = initial quantity of charge (pC) Input Output

R = bias (or feedback) resistor value (ohms) 0

1 3 5 (A)
C = total (or feedback) capacitance (pF)
Time Constant (RC)
t = any time after t 0 (sec)
e = base of natural log (2.718)
HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Accelerometers generally exhibit increased sensitivity when
LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE
internal elements are excited by vibratory loads at higher
In ICP® sensors, the low frequency response is dictated by frequencies, peaking at the resonant frequency. This results
the sensor electronics. Charge mode sensors do not include from the coupled stiffness of relatively small components in
low frequency response or DTC in their specifications accelerometer assemblies. Sensitivity rises rapidly as the
because they are dependent on the specific charge converter resonant frequency is approached, which can result in signal
or amplifier used. When using charge mode sensors, refer saturation. Measurement error from resonance is avoided
to the specifications of the specific signal converter for low by setting a measurement frequency limit - commonly set at
frequency and time constant information. 20% of the resonant frequency.

ICP ® sensors have internal microelectronics that perform the Filtering is implemented in some ICP ® accelerometers to
conversion from a high impedance charge to a low impedance attenuate the effects of resonance for operation closer
voltage signal. The low frequency roll off characteristics are to resonant frequency. Both upper and lower frequency
included on ICP ® sensor datasheets. Example specifications limits must be taken into account to determine appropriate
are included in the table on the next page. measurement limits for any test (ex: ± 5% or ± 3dB).

10
TYPICAL PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

ICP® Accelerometer Model 352C22 Charge Accelerometer Model 357C10

Sensitivity (±20 %) 10 mV/g 1.0 mV/(m/s²) Sensitivity (±20 %) 1.7 pC/g 0.17 pC/(m/s²)
Measurement Range ±500 g pk ±4900 m/s² pk Measurement Range ±500 g pk ±4900 m/s² pk
Frequency at -5 % 1.0 Hz
Low frequency response is
Frequency at +5 % 10,000 Hz Frequency at -5 % determined by external signal
Frequency at -3 dB 0.3 Hz conditioning electronics.
Frequency at +3 dB 20,000 Hz Frequency at +5 % 10,000 Hz
Resonant Frequency ≥50 kHz
Environmental Low frequency response is
Frequency at -3 dB determined by external signal
Temperature Range
-65 to +250 °F -54 to +121 °C conditioning electronics.
(Operating)
Electrical Frequency at +3 dB 20,000 Hz
Excitation Voltage 18 to 30 VDC Resonant Frequency ≥50 kHz
Output Bias Voltage 7 to 12 VDC Environmental
Discharge Time Constant 1.0 to 3.5 sec Temperature Range (Operating) -100 to +350 °F -73 to +177 °C

EFFECT OF EXCITATION VOLTAGE ON THE

DYNAMIC RANGE OF ICP® SENSORS

The specified excitation voltage for all standard ICP® sensors

and amplifiers is generally within the range of +18 to +30 volts.
The effect of this range is shown in the chart at right.

To explain the chart, the following values will be assumed:

VB = Sensor Bias Voltage = 10 VDC

VS1 = Supply Voltage 1 = 24 VDC
V E1 = Excitation Voltage 1 = VS1 -1 = 23 VDC
VS2 = Supply Voltage 2 = 18 VDC
V E2 = Excitation Voltage 2 = VS2 -1 = 17 VDC

Note that an approximate 1 volt drop across the current

limiting diode (or equivalent circuit) must be maintained for
correct current regulation.

11
 SEISMIC ACCELEROMETERS

2-conductor, shielded 2-pin MIL connectors used Protective Mounting Block

twisted pair cable inside of with case isolated seismic Thermal Jacket
polyurethane jacket accelerometers

HIGH SENSITIVITY ICP® ACCELEROMETERS FOR SEISMIC APPLICATIONS

High sensitivity ICP ® accelerometers are used to detect recommendations for remedial construction or further
ultra-low amplitude, low-frequency vibrations associated monitoring. Please note that high sensitivity accelerometers
with very large structures, foundations, and earth tremors. must be handled with care. They contain larger than typical
These sensors possess exceptional measurement resolution seismic masses that may be damaged if dropped as little as
due to their comparatively large size, which provides a higher a few inches.
output signal and a lower noise floor.

High sensitivity accelerometers generate signals in response

to a variety of vibration sources including: traffic, wind,
and programmatic impulse. When analyzed, these signals
provide insight for determining the condition and safety
of the structure. This investigative analysis can lead to

12
SENSOR ISOLATION &
GROUND LOOP PREVENTION

Instrumentation of electrical devices (circuits, motors, 50/60 Hz noise. Sensors are available with Case Isolation
solenoids, etc.) or devices that can generate electrical or Ground Isolation (via integral isolation or through special
charge (generators, devices containing conductive media, mounting bases). Some isolation is provided by adhesive
etc.) require special consideration. Ground loops can occur mounting but it varies on the thickness, parallelism, and on
when the instrumentation cable shield is grounded at two the type of adhesive used.
points of differing electrical potential. The shield conveys
the electrical potential as AC current which can show up as

CASE ISOLATION GROUND ISOLATION

The sensing element is isolated from the sensor housing. Sensor is isolated from mounting surface with an electrically
non-conductive material with high insulation resistance.
■ Since the signal and signal ground are internally isolated, the
cable shield is floated at the sensor end to prevent ground loops

■ The shield is grounded only at the readout device

■ Integral Isolation – Incorporate a
■ Sensor can be placed directly on the device under test, non-conductive layer isolating the
no additional base isolation needed inner sensor from the outer housing
Titanium Isolation Housing
■ A two-conductor cable must be used for power and
signal transmission ■ Anodized Aluminum Isolation -
Sensor models that are black in color
1 2
use anodized aluminum housings
for isolation, but potentially degrade
1. Signal Ground with coating wear Anodized Aluminum
Isolation
2. Output Signal & Power (+)
3 ■ Base Isolation – Some
3. Capacitor provides ESD
accelerometers incorporate an
protection and RFI filtering
integral isolation mount or models
4. Faraday cage shields against with female threads can add an
environmental noise isolation base – both shown below
Isolation Base
5. Case Ground, thru mounting base
■ The above isolation methods
6. Coated pad electrically isolates require a cable with at least 1
sensing element from outer case conductor per channel plus the
shield. Use of 2-conductor cables
4 6 with 1 conductor for signal ground
5 is best practice (shielding optional)
Integral Base Isolation

13
 MEMS ACCELEROMETERS

THEORY OF OPERATION
MEMS applies to Micro-Electro-Mechanical System; where micro-fabrication methods are used to construct mechanical sensing
elements at the microscopic level from silicon materials. Unlike Charge & ICP® accelerometers, MEMS accelerometers can measure
frequencies down to 0 Hz (static or DC acceleration).

PCB® offers two types of MEMS accelerometers: Variable Capacitive (VC) & Piezoresistive (PR). VC MEMS accelerometers are lower
range, high sensitivity devices used for structural monitoring and constant acceleration measurements. PR MEMS accelerometers
have measurement ranges for the higher 'G' levels used in shock and blast applications, with lower sensitivity and damping.

MEMS VC SENSING ELEMENT MEMS VC ACCELEROMETER FUNCTION

■ A micro-machined proof mass is suspended between two AND OPERATION
parallel plates forming upper and lower air gaps. An electrical ■ To take advantage of the DC response of VC MEMS
charge is applied across the gaps, making them pseudo-
accelerometers, the signal conditioner readout device must be
capacitors. Motion excites the proof mass, causing a change
DC coupled.
in gap height and a corresponding change in capacitance. The
capacitance change is scaled into a DC output proportional to ■ The DC offset voltage will be affected by the positional
the acceleration. alignment relative to the Earth’s gravity due to the VC MEMS
accelerometers ability to measure static (constant) acceleration.
HOUSING ■ When the sensitive axis of the accelerometer is perpendicular
■ Provides to gravity, the output will equal the zero-G offset voltage on the
hermetic sealing PCB® calibration certificate.
of sensors
■ When the sensitive axis of the accelerometer is aligned with
gravity, the output will be equal to the bias voltage +1g of output.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

■ For voltage regulation, protection, ELECTRICAL
and temperature compensation CONNECTOR
■ Conditioning circuitry provides a ■ Connects to mating
high sensitivity output cable for signal
transmission
■ Compensates for zero bias and and power
sensitivity errors over temperature

MEMS VC ACCELEROMETER VERIFICATION

■ An accurate static calibration can be performed using the Earth’s ■ Invert the sensor by flipping it 180°, placing the model number
gravity as the acceleration reference. Place the accelerometer face down on the mounting surface. The sensor should output
in a +1g orientation so that the base is resting on the mounting -1g acceleration.
surface and the model number is facing up.

14
MEMS PR SENSING ELEMENT

■ The sensing elements and seismic mass are comprised of

Lid
flexures on a middle layer sandwiched between upper and
lower layers.

■ The bending of these flexures causes a measurable change in

resistance that is proportional to the
applied acceleration.

■ Different measurement ranges are achieved by using different

flexures, changing the stiffness of the sandwich.

■ Gas damping lowers resonant amplification and reduces the

response to high frequency energy.
Base
Core

MEMS PR ACCELEROMETER FUNCTION

AND OPERATION MEMS PR ACCELEROMETER VERIFICATION
■ To take advantage of the DC response of MEMS ■ To check the output offset voltage connect the +Exc and –Exc
accelerometers, the signal conditioner and readout device leads to an appropriate power supply. Connect the +Sig and
must be in a DC coupled state. –Sig leads to a volt meter that is set to read VDC.

■ PR accelerometers should be powered with a regulated voltage ■ Mount the sensor in a +1g orientation so that it is resting
source because sensitivity is proportional to excitation voltage. securely on a flat, level and stable surface. Measure the
The recommendation is to use the excitation voltage listed on the differential voltage output of the sensor. Check the calibration
calibration certificate to obtain the calibrated sensitivity value. certificate for verification of the measured offset voltage.

■ The sensing elements + B ■ To check the bridge resistance use an ohmmeter or set a digital
Rst Rsc multimeter to measure resistance in ohms. Rest the sensor on
are arranged in a fully
active Wheatstone bridge R1 R2 a flat and level surface. There is no need to apply an excitation
A D
configuration. The bridge eout voltage for this test. The input resistance is measured between
uses variable resistors, two R4 R3 the +Exc and –Exc wires. The output resistance is measured
that increase with the input between the +Sig and –Sig wires. Check the calibration
acceleration or force, and _ certificate for verification of the measured resistance values.
C
two that decrease.
ein _
+

15
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