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Unit-1 Elasto-dynamics
Unit-1
m
o
.c
a
Elasto-dynamics
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Syllabus:
Simple Harmonic Motion, Electric Flux, displacement vector, Columb law,
Gradient, Divergence, Curl, Gauss Theorem, Stokes theorem, Gauss law in
dielectrics, Maxwell’s equation: Integral & Differential form in free space,
isotropic dielectric medium.
Page 1
Periodic motion:
If an object repeats its motion on a definite path after a regular time interval then such type of motion is
called periodic motion.
1) Vibratory motion or oscillatory motion
2) Uniform circular motion
3) Simple harmonic motion
Vibratory motion:
If a body in periodic motion moves to and fro about a definite point on a single path, the motion of the body
is said to be vibratory or oscillatory motion.
m
Mean or equilibrium position:
o
The point on either side of which the body vibrates is called the mean position or equilibrium position of the
.c
motion.
a
Time period:
The definite time after which the object repeats its motion, is called time period and it is denoted by .
m
a
Frequency:
n
The number of complete oscillation in one second is called the frequency of that body, it is represented by
y
the letter or or � its unit is .
Uniform circular motion:

d
u
t
S
Figure(1): Uniform circular motion
Let an object is moving on a circular path of radius with uniform angular velocity � = .
Page 2
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In right angle triangle Δ
∠ = � +� �
= cos � +� �
= cos � +� �
= .� cos � +� �
But � =
so = .� cos� � +� �
Similarly
= sin � +� �
m
= sin � +� � o
= .� sin � +� � .c
= r.� sin� a
� +� �
m
Both equation (1) and (2) represents the uniform circular motion.
a:
Simple (armonic Motion S(M
n
y
d
When a body moves periodically on a straight line on either side of a point, the motion is called the simple
u
harmonic motion.
t
S
Page 3
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Graphical representation of SHM
m
o
.c
Figure(2): Graphical representation of SHM
a
m
Displacement in SHM:
Let a particle is moving on a circular path with uniform angular velocity " " and the radius of the circular
a
path is " "; then movement of the point on their axis i.e. and is the SHM about the mean position
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure(3): SHM
Let at time � =� the particle is on point and after time the position of the particle is then
In Δ
= sin
Page 4
= .� sin …………………………………………… (1)
= .� sin�
This equation represents the displacement of foot dropped from the position of particle on � −� .
Velocity in SHM:
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to we get-
= .� sin�
= rω cos� …………….
= √ � −� sin
m
= √ −� sin
o
= √ −�
.c Using (1)
(i) In equilibrium condition � =� a

So
= m
a
√ −�
n
=
y
d
(ii) In the position of maximum displacement i.e. � =�
So
u = √ −�
t
Acceleration:
S =
Again differentiating equation (2) we get-

�
=
= rω cos�
= −rω sin�
Page 5
= − ………………………………………………………… (3)
+� =
This is a second order differential equation which denotes the equation of SHM in the differential form
Again by equation (3)
= −
Multiplying by i.e. the mass of the particle executing SHM then
= −
= −
m
Here negative sing shows that the direction of displacement and acceleration are opposite to one another
∝ − o
.c
So
� =�
Time period and frequency:
a
=
m
⇒
= a
√
�
n
y
�
= √
d = √
�
u
t
�
= √
And S = √�
Question: A uniform circular motion is given by the equation � =� � sin � , +�

find .
1) Amplitude
2) Angular frequency
3) Time period
4) Phase
Sol: Given: � =� � sin� +� .
Comparing the given equation with the standard equation of uniform circular motion i.e. � =
� sin � +� �
Page 6
We get
� =�
�
� =�
� = = =� .
� = = =� .
Question: A particle is moving with SHM in a straight line. When the displacement of the particle from
equilibrium position has values and , the corresponding position has valocities and
show that the time period of oscillation is given by
−�
� =� √
−�
Sol: In the SHM the velocity is given by-
m
= √ −� o
…………………………………… (1)
At velocity is
.c
a
m
So
= √ −�
a
Squaring both sides
n
y
d = −� …………………………. (2)
Again at the velocity is

u
t
So
S = −� …………………………. (3)
By equation (2) and (3)
−� = −� � −� −�
−� = −�
−�
=
−�
Page 7
−�
=
−�
−�
= √ …………………………. (4)
−�
Now � =
So −�
= √
−�
Question: If the earth were a homogeneous sphere and a straight hole was bored in it through
the centre, then a body dropped in the hole, execute SHM. Calculate the time period
6 −
of its vibration. Radius of the earth is . � ×� and � =� .
Solution: The time period of oscillation executed by the body dropped in the hole along the
diameter of earth m
o
.c
. � ×� 6
� =� √
=� √ =� .
.
Energy of a particle executing SHM: a

A particle executing SHM possess potential energy
m on the account of its position and kinetic energy
on account of motion.
a
Potential energy:
n
y
We know that the acceleration in a simple harmonic motion is directly proportional to the displacement
d
and its direction is towards the mean position
u −
t
=
Let
S
is the mass of particle executing SHM then the force acting on the particle will be-
= .�
= −
If the particle undergoes an infinitesimal displacement against the restoring force, then the small amount of
work done against the restoring force is given by
= − .�
Here negative sign shows that the restoring force is acting the displacement than
Page 8
So the total amount of work done
= ∫�
This work done is equal to the potential energy of the particle at displacement
i.e. =
Kinetic energy:
If is the velocity of the particle executing SHM, when the displacement is then kinetic energy
= m
o
.c
But for SHM � =� √ −�
Where is the amplitude of SHM
a
m
So
= � √ −�
⇒ a = −� …………………………….
n
(2)
Total energy:
y
Now the total energy
d
u = � +�
t
⇒
S = + −�
⇒ = + −
⇒ =
Thus we find that the total energy:

1) � ∝�
2) � ∝� of SHM
3) � ∝� of SHM
Graphical representation of total energy of SHM
Page 9
Figure(4): Total energy of SHM
Position vector:
m
o
A position vector expresses the position of a point P in space in terms of a displacement from an arbitrary
.c
reference point O (typically the origin of a coordinate system). Namely, it indicates both the distance and
direction of an imaginary motion along a straight line from the reference position to the actual position of
the point.
Displacement Vector:
a
m
a
n
A displacement is the shortest distance from the
y
initial to the final position of a point P. Thus, it is
d
the length of an imaginary straight path, typically
distinct from the path actually travelled by
u
t
particle or object. A displacement vector
S
represents the length and direction of this
imaginary straight path. Figure(5): Displacement vector
Area Vector:
Page 10
In many problems the area is treated as a vector,
an area element is represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗ , such
that the area representing the area vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is

perpendicular to the area element. The length of
the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ represents the magnitude of the

area element
Figure(6): Area vector
Coulomb’s Law:
m
o
.c
According to it the force of attraction or repulsion
between the two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the
a
m
charges and inversely proportional to the square of
a
the distance between them.
If two charges and are separated at a distance Figure(7): Two electric charges separated a distance r
form one another then the force between thesen
charges will be- y
d
i)
u
Force is proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges i.e. � ∝� .�
ii) t
The force is inversely proportional to the distance between the charges i.e. � ∝
So S .�
� ∝
.�
� =�
Where is a proportionality called electrostatic force constant, its value depends on the nature of the
medium in which the two charges are located and also the system of units adopted to measure ,� and .
So
.�
� =� .
Page 11
Case 1:(when the medium between the charges is air or vacuum )

As we know that the force between the charges is given as-
.�
� =� .
If we put =� =� and � =� then

� =�
So is the force feels by two charges of placed apart from one another in vacuum or free space.
Its value is � =� � 9×� � ×� ×�
Case 2:(When the medium between the charges is other than the vacuum)
If the changes are located in any other medium then
� = . =� � ×�9 .
Where is the dielectric constant of relative permittivity. m

Putting this value in equation (1) we get o
.c
′
.�
= .
Where ′ is the force in the medium a

′
=
m .
.�
Where � =� a
is called the relative permittivity of the medium.
n
Vector form of the Coulomb’s Law y
d
u
Consider two like charges and present at and in vacuum at a distance apart. The two charges
t
will exert equal repulsive force on each other,
S
Let be the force on charge due to the charge and be the force on charge due to charge .
According to the Coulo s’ la , the ag itude of fo e o ha ge and is given by
.
| |. | | = ………………………… (1)
Let ̂ and ̂ are the unit vectors in the direction from to and vice versa.
So the force is along the direction of unit vector ̂ , we have

.�
⃗ = . ̂
Page 12
And
.�
⃗ = . ̂
These two equations show the Coulo s’ la i e to fo .
Electric flux:
Number of electric lines of forces passing normally through the surface, when held in the electric field. It is
denoted by � . There are two types of electric flux-
1. Positive electric flux: When electric lines of forces leave any body through its surface it is considered
as positive electric flux.
m
2. Negative electric flux: When lines of forces enter through any surface, it is considered as the
o
negative electric flux.
.c
Measurement: Let us consider a small area ⃗⃗⃗⃗ of a
closed surface . The electric field ⃗ produced

due to the charge will be radially outwards
a
which will be along ̂. Now the normal to the
m
surface area is ⃗⃗⃗⃗ as shown in the figure,
a
hence the angle between ⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ̂ is �
n
y
So the electric lines of forces from the surface
d
area will be given as- Figure(8): Electric flux
� = ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u
� =
t
� cos� �………….
S
Where � cos� is �the component of electric field ⃗ along ⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
Hence the electric flux through a small elementary surface area is equal to the product of the small area and
normal component of ⃗ along the direction of the elementary area⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
Over the hole surface,
� = ∮ � cos� �
� = ∮ ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ………………………… (2)
Page 13
Gradient of a scalar field:
The gradient of a scalar function � is a vector whose magnitude

is equal to maximum rate of chcnge of scalar function � with
⃗ and has direction along that
respect to the space variable ∇
change.
�
�� = ̂
In the scalar field let there be two level surfaces and close
together characterised by the scalar function � and �� +� �
respectively. Consider point and on the level surfaces and
⃗⃗⃗⃗ be the position vector of
and � +�
m
respectively. Let and
. Then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =� ̂ � +� ̂ ̂ � +�

o
Figure(9): Gradient of a scalar field
Now as � is a function of ,� ,� i.e.
�� =� � ,� ,�
.c
Then the total differentiation of this function can be given as
� � a �
m
� = � + � +
� = (̂
�
a +�
�
̂ +� ̂
�
)� .� ( ̂ � +� ̂̂ � ) +�
� = n ⃗∇� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ …………………………………………………… (1)
y
d
Agian if represents the distance along the normal from point to the surface to point , then
=
In the ∆ u
t
S
= cos� �
= cos� �
Now if we consider a unit vector along as ̂

then
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗ .� ̂ …………………………………………………… (2)
If we proceed form to then value of scalar function � increases by an amount �
�
� =
�
� = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ .� ̂ [Usi g ……………………………. (3)
�
Page 14

�
⃗ .� )�.� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(∇ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ .� ̂
�
�
⃗ .� )� =
(∇ ̂
�
�
� = ̂
�
Note: ⃗ =�
∇ ̂ +� ̂ +� ̂ is called del or Nabla operator.
Note: � = ⃗ .� �
∇
� = (̂ +� ̂ +� ̂ )� .� �
� � �
� = (̂ +� ̂ +� ̂ )
m
o
Note: The gradient of a scalar field has great significant in physics. The negative gradient of
.c
electric potential of electric field at a point represents the electric field at that point. i.e.
⃗ =� −
Note: The gradient of a scalar field is a vector quantity.
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 15
Divergence of a vector field:
The divergence of a vector field at a

certain point ,� ,� is defined as the
outward flux of the vector field per unit

volume enclosed through an infinitesimal
closed surface surrounding the point " ".
.� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
=� lim
�→ �
�
=� lim
�→ �
m
Consider a infinitesimal rectangular box with
o
.c
sides Δ ,� Δ ,� and
Δ one corner at the point
,� ,� in the region of any vector
function with rectangular faces a

perpendicular to co-ordinates axis.
m
a Figure(10): divergence of a vector field
n
The flux emerging outwards from
= ∬ ̅ .�
y
surface i.� e.� surface
, �
d (̂ ̅ +� ̂ ̅ ).�
� = ∬ +� ̅̂ Δ
̂ ,� Δ
u
Where ̅̅̅ is the average of the vector function over the surface i.e. surface
t = ∬ ̅̅̅̅̅.� Δ .� Δ ………………………………………….
S
� (1)
Similarly
The flux emerging out from the
= ∬ ̅ .�
surface i.e. surface ,� �
� = ∬ (̂ ̅ +� ̅̂ +� ̂ ̅ ).� −Δ
̂ ,� Δ
� = ∬ − ̅ .� Δ .� Δ ………………………………………. (2)
Thus net outwards flux of vector through the two faces perpendicular to � −
axis,
Page 16
� = � +� �
� = ∬ ̅ −� ̅ Δ .� Δ ……………….. (3)
But ̅̅̅̅̅ −� ̅̅̅̅̅ = � +� Δ ,� −�,� ,� ,�
̅̅̅̅̅ −� ̅̅̅̅̅ = Δ …………………………………………………… (4)
��
Where is the variation of with distance along � −
axis by equation (2) and (3)
Thus net outward flux of vector function through the two faces perpendicular to � a−xis
��
� = Δ Δ ,� Δ [ Using equation (3)
Similarly perpendicular to � a−xis
� = Δ Δ Δ m
o
Similarly perpendicular to � a−xis
.c
� = Δ Δ Δ a
Therefore whole outward flux through infinitesimal box
m
a
� =
n� +� �+� �
�
y
= + + Δ Δ Δ
d
u
Now at any point, which is the flux enclosed per unit infinitesimal volume surrounding that point is
t
given by-
�
S = lim
Δ Δ Δ → Δ Δ Δ
( + + )� Δ Δ Δ
=
lim
Δ Δ Δ → Δ Δ Δ
= + +
= (̂ +� ̂ +� ̂ )( ̂ +� ̂ +� ̂ )
⃗ .�
= ∇
Note: Divergence of a vector field is a scalar quantity.
Note: If =� +
Page 17
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it indicates the existence of the source of fluid at that point.

Note: If =� −
It means fluid is flowing towards the point and thus there exist a sink for the fluid.
Note: If =�
It means the fluid is flowing continuously from that point. In other words this means that the flux of
the vector function entering and leaving this region is equal. This condition is called solenoidal
vector.
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 18
Curl of a vector field:
If is any vector field at any point and an

infinitesimal test area at point then
∮ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
=� lim ̂
→
Let us consider an infinitesimal rectangular area

with sides Δ and Δ parallel to � −�
plane in the region of vector function ⃗ .
Let the coordinate of be ,� ,� . If

Figure(11): Curl of a vector field
,� ,� are the Cartesian components of
at then
m
⃗ =� ̂ +� ̂ +� ̂
o
.c
Now the line integral of vector field
= ∫� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
a
along the path
= (̂ ̅ +� ̂ ̅ +� ̂ ̅ ).� ̂Δ
=
m
̅ Δ
Where ̅ is the average value of � −
a
component of the vector function over the path
Similarly for the Path
n
y = ∫� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d
u = (̂ ̅ +� ̂ ̅ +� ̂ ̅ ).� − ̂Δ
t = − ̅ Δ
Where ̅
S
is the average value of � −
component of vector function over the path
Hence the contribution to line integral ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ form two path and
.
parallel to � −
axis is
= −
= − − Δ
As the rectangle is infinitesimal the difference between the average of .� ̅. −̅ along these two
paths may be approximated to the difference between the values of at and
Thus-
̅ − ̅ = −�
̅ − ̅ = ,� � +� Δ−�,� ,� ,�
Page 19
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̅ − ̅ = Δ
Hence the contribution to the line integral ∮ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ from the path and
= Δ Δ …………………………………………… (2)
Similarly by the path and
= Δ Δ …………………………………………… (3)
Therefore the line integral along the whole rectangular form (2) and (3) is given by-
= ∮� +� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
m
o
= − Δ Δ ……………………………… (4)
Now = lim
Δ Δ →
.c
=
lim
( a− )� Δ Δ
m
Δ Δ → Δ Δ
=
a − ……………………………………. (5)
Similarly n
y =
( − ) …………………………………….
d
(6)
and
u = − ……………………………………. (7)
t
S
Summing up the results given in (5), (6) and (7) we get
= ̂ +� ̂ +� ̂
= ̂� ( − )� +� ̂� −
( )� +�̂ ( − )
̂ ̂ ̂
[ ]
= ⃗ ×�
∇
Note: The curl of a vector field is sometime called circulation or rotation or simply .
Page 20
Note: If =� then vector field is called Lamellar field.
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 21
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Gauss’ Divergence Theorem:
According to this theorem the volume integral of
divergence of a vector field over a volume is

equal to the surface integral of that vector field
taken over the surface which enclosed that

volume . i.e.
∭( ) � =� ∬�.� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
�
Consider a volume enclosed by a surface this

volume can be divided into small elements of
volumes ,� …� …�� which are enclosed by the
m
elementary surface ,� …� …� …� � …�
o
Figure(12): Gauss’ Di e ge e tho e
.c
respectively. By definition the flux of a vector
ℎ
field diverging out of the element is
( )� = �
.� ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗� a
�
m
( )� .� � = ∬�
a .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ………………………………………………… (1)
n �
y
On LHS of equation we add the quantity ( )� .� � for each element ,� …� …��
d
�
∑( )� .� � = ∭( )
�=
u �
t
On RHS of equation (1) if we add the quantity
�
.� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ for each ,� …� …� …� � we
…� get the terms only on
the outer surface

S
Sum comes out to be
�
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑� ∬� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗� = ∬� .�
�= �
So putting these values in equation (1) we get
∭( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
So ) = ∬� .�
�
This is the Gauss’ di e ge e theo e .
Page 22
Stokes theorem:
According to this theorem, the line integral of a vector field along the boundary of a closed curve is
equal to the surface integral of curl of that vector field when the surface integration is done over a surface
enclosed by the boundary i.e.
∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗ =� ∬� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
m
o
.c
a
m
Figure(13): Stokes theorem
Consider a vector a
which is a function of position. We are to find the line integral
n
∮ .� ⃗⃗⃗ along the boundary of a closed curve . If we divide the area enclosed by the curve in two parts by
a line , we get two closed curve y

and . The line integral of vector along the boundary of will be
equal to the sum of integral of d along and
u
t
S ∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗ = ∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗ +� ∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗
Similarly if we divide the area enclosed by the curve in small element of area …� …� …�by …
the
curve ,� …� …� …�As….
shown in the figure. Then the sum of line integrals along the boundary of these
curves ,� …� …� (taken
…� .. anticlockwise) will be
∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗ = ∑� ∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗
By the definition of curl, we have
Page 23
∮ .� ⃗⃗⃗
=
�
.� � ∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗
=
∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗ = ∑� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗� =� ∬� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮� .� ⃗⃗⃗ = ∬� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Gauss Law
According to this law, the net electric flux through any closed surface is m
times of the total charge
present inside it. o

� =
.c ………………………… (1)
But by the definition of electric flux

a
⇒ m⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
� = ∬� .� …� …� …� …� …� …� …� (2)…� …� …
a
n
So by equation (1) and (2)
so
y
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
This is the i teg al fo d

of Gauss’ la .
u
t
Proof:
S
Case1:
When the charge lies inside the arbitrary
closed surface.
Let charge lies inside the arbitrary surface at
point
Now let us consider an infinitesimal area ⃗⃗⃗⃗ Figure(14): Gauss Law

on this surface which contain the point , the
direction of the area vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is

perpendicular to the surface and electric field
Page 24
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⃗ makes an angle � with ⃗⃗⃗⃗ then electric field
will be given as-
⃗ = ……………………………………. (3)
Now the flux emerging out of the surface area ⃗⃗⃗⃗ will be
� = ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⇒ � = � cos� �
Where � is the angle between ⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
So putting the value of ⃗ we get

m
� = � cos� �
o
⇒ � =
.c
� cos� �
� cos� �
=�
a
But i.e. solid angle
m
a
n � =
y
d
Now total flux
u
t � = ∫
⇒
S � = ∫�
But � =�
� =
⇒ � =
Case 2:
When the charge lies outside the closed surface then the flux entering and leaving the surface
Page 25
area will be equal and opposite then �� =�
Gauss law in the differential form (Poisson’s equation and Laplace’s equation
If the charge is continuous distributed over the volume and charge density is
then = ∭�
�
Now by Gauss theorem the flux emerging out of this surface which enclosed volume
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∭� …� …� …� …� …� …� …�
(1) …� …� …
�
m
o
By Gauss divergence theorem
.c
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∭�
⃗ …� …� …� …� …� …� …�
(2) …� …� …
�

a
⇒ ∭� ⃗
=m ∭�
�
a �
⇒ ∭� ( ⃗ −
n) =
�
y
d
But as we know that � ≠�
So
u ⃗ − =
t
⇒ S ⃗ = …� …� …� …� …� …� …�(3) …� …� …
This is the diffe e tial fo of Gauss’ la a d also k o as Poisso ’s e uatio

Now if we consider the charge less volume then � =�
So ⃗ = …� …� …� …� …� …�(4)…� …� …� …
This equation is Laplace equation.

Again by equation (3)
Page 26
⃗ =
We know that ⃗ =� −
So
− =
⇒
⃗ .� ⃗ ∇
−∇ =
⇒
∇ = −
⇒
+ + = −
Gauss law in Presence of dielectrics :

m
The Gauss’ la elates the ele t i flu a d ha ge. The theo e o
states that the et ele t i flu a oss a
arbitrary closed surface drown in an electric field is equal to

.c
times the total charge enclosed by the
a
surface. Now we want to extend this theorem for a region containing free charge embedded in dielectric.
m
In figure the dotted surface in an imaginary closed surface drown in a dielectric medium. There is certain
a
amount of free charge in the volume bounded by surface. Let us assume that free charge exists on the
surface of three conductors in amount ,� ,� …� ..In a dielectric there also exits certain amount of
polarisation (bound) charge . n
He e Gauss’ theo e y
d
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′ ……………….
u
= ( +� )
Where � =� +�
t
+� is the total free charge and is the polarisation (bound) charge by
S = ∬
+ +
⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ +� ∭ −
�
……………….
Here is the volume of the dielectric enclosed by . As there is no boundary of the dielectric at ,
therefore the surface integral in equation (2) does not contain a contribution from . If we transform
volume integral in (2) into surface integral by means of Gauss divergence theorem, we must include
contribution from all surface bounding , namely ,� ,� and i..e.
∫ − = [ ∬ ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ +� ∭ − ]
� + + �
Page 27
Using above equation, we note that
∬ ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ……………….
+ +
Substituting this value in (1)

We get
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = � − ∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗
∬ ⃗ + .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
Multiplying through by
∬( ⃗ +� ⃗ ).� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ……………….

=
This equation states that the flux of the vector m

⃗ +� ⃗ through a closed surface is equal to the total
free charge enclosed by the surface. This vector quantity is named as electric displacement ⃗ i.e. o
.c
⃗ = ⃗ +� ⃗
Evidently electric displacement ⃗ has the same unit as ⃗ . i.e. charge per unit area.
a ……………………..
In terms of electric displacement vector ⃗ , equation (4) becomes m

∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ a
n
= ……………………..
y
i.e. the flux of electric displacement vector across an arbitrary closed surface is equal to the total free
charge enclosed by the surface.
d
This esult is usuall
u
efe ed to as Gauss’ theo e i diele t i .
If e o side
t
i to a la ge u e of i fi itesi al olu e ele e ts, the Gauss’ theo e a
expressed as
S ∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∭� ……………………..
�
Where is the charge density at a point within volume element such that � →� .
∭� ⃗ .�
= ∭�
� �
∭ ⃗ −� .� =
�
Volume is arbitrary, therefor we get

⃗ −� =
Page 28
⃗ =
This result is called differential fo of Gauss’ theo e i a diele t i .
The main advantage of this method is that the total electrostatic field at each point in the dielectric
medium may be expressed as the sum of parts
,� ,� = ⃗ ,� ,� − ,� ,� …………………..….
Where the first term ⃗ is related to free charge density through the divergence and the second
⃗
theorem is proportional to the polarisation of the medium. In vacuum � =� so ⃗ =
Electric Polarization �
m
When a dielectric is placed in any external electric field then the dielectric gets polarized and
o
induced electric dipole moment is produced which is proportional to the external applied electric
.c
field. Now if there are number of dipoles induced in per unit volume of dielectric then total
polarization will be-
⃗ =
a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗�� …� …� …� …� …� …� …�(1)…� …� …
m
But
a ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗�� ∝
So n
y ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗�� = �� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d
u
Putting this value in equation (1) we get
⇒ t ⃗ �� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
S
=
It is clear from the above equation that the direction of polarization is in the direction of the
applied external electric field. And the unit is /
Electric displacement
We know that the value of electric field depends on the nature of the material, so to study the
dielectric we need such a quantity which does not depends on the nature of the material and this
quantity is known as electric displacement vector ⃗ .
Page 29
Both ⃗ and ⃗ are same except that we define ⃗ by a force in a charge placed at a point while the
displacement vector is measure by the displacement flux per unit area at that point.
=
∭� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Or
=
⇒ = �
Where � is the surface charge density.

m
Relation between ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗
o
We know that the Gauss law is given as-
.c
a
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
m =
a
Where is the permittivity of the dielectric medium
n
y
⇒
d ⃗ = .
⃗u
But
�
=�
t = ⃗ ⇒� ⃗ =�
so we have ⃗
S ⇒� ⃗ =� ⃗
� � =�
Where is the permittivity of the free space
Current:
Current for study current
� =
Page 30
If the charge passing per unit time is not constant, then the current at any instant will be given as
� =
Current density:
=
⃗⃗⃗⃗
= .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ∫� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
From the above equation we can see that the current is the flux of current density as
�� =� ⃗ ∫�⃗⃗⃗⃗
Its SI unit is
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 31
Equation of continuity:
The law of conservation of charge is called the equation of the continuity.
� =� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∬�
For steady current charge does not stay at any

place, so the current will be constant for all the
places.
m
o
Figure(17): Flux of current
.c
⇒ = ∬� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =�
By divergence theorem
∬� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
a
m
⇒ = ∭� .�
�
So ∭� .� = a
�
n
On differentiating we get
y
d
=
u
This is the equation of continuity for study current.
t
Now if current is not stationary i.e. if the current is the function of the time and position
then
S = ∬� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =� −
Here negative sign shows that the charge is reduced with respect to time.
But if is the charge per unit volume then-
= ∭� .�
�
So ∬� .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∭� .�
�
⇒ ∭� .� = − ∭� .�
� �
Page 32
⇒ ∭� ( + )� =
�
⇒ = −
This is the equation of continuity for time varying current.
Maxwell’s equations
James Clerk Maxwell took a set of known experimental laws (Faraday's Law, Ampere's Law) and
unified them into a symmetric coherent set of Equations known as Maxwell's Equations. These
equations are nothing but the relation between electric field and magnetic field in terms of
divergence and curl.
S.N. Name Integral form

m
Differential form
Gauss’ La fo
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = o
⃗ =
.c
1 ∭�
electricity �
2
Gauss’ la fo
magnetism
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =�
a ⃗ =�
Fa ada ’s La of m ⃗
3
induction
∮� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗ =
a
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ =� −
n ⃗
y
4 A pe e’s la ∮� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗ =� ⃗⃗⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ +
∬� ∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ =� � +�
d
u
Maxwell’s first equation Gauss’ law in electric):
Let us consider a volume
t which is enclosed in a surface , the Gauss’ la the ele t i flu is
given as
S
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = � …� …� …� …� …� …� (1)
…� …� …� …
Where is the totat charge enclosed in the volume

Now if is the volume charge density then
(2)
= ∭� …� …� …� …� …� …� …� …� …� …
�
Page 33
⇒ ∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∭�
�
This is the i teg al fo of Ma ell’s e uatio .

B Gauss’ di e ge e theo e
⇒ ∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∭� ⃗
�
So by applying this on above equation we get
∭� ⃗ ∭�
⇒ =
� �
∭� ( ⃗ − )�
⇒ =
m
�
� ≠� so
o
But
.c
⇒ ⃗ − =
⇒ ⃗ =
a
⇒ ⃗ =
m
⇒ ⃗ a
= [ � ⃗ =� ⃗
n
y
Maxwell’s second equation Gauss’ law in magnetism :
d
Since the magnetic lines of forces are closed curves so the magnetic flux entering any orbitri
u
surface should be equal to leaving it
mathematically
t
⇒ S ∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = � …� …� …� …� …� (1)…� …� …� …�
This is i teg al fo of Ma ell’s se o d e uatio .

No Gauss’ di e ge e theo e
⇒ ∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∭� ⃗
�
So equation (1) can be written as-
⇒ ∭� ⃗ =
�
Page 34
As � ≠� so
⇒ ⃗ =
Maxwell’s third equation Faraday’s law :

A o di g to Fa ada ’s la of ele t o ag eti i du tio if the ag eti flu li ked ith a losed
circuit changes with time then a is induced in the close circuit which is known as induced
the direction of the induced will be such as it oppose the change in the magnetic flux.
It is given as
�
⇒ = − …� …� …� …� …� …� (1)
…� …� …� …
But Gauss’ theo e e k o that

m
∬� ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ o
.c
⇒ � =
So = −
a ∬� ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
m
Now if ⃗ is the electric field produced due to the change in the magnetic flux then the induced
a
will be equal to the line integral of ⃗ along the circuit. i.e.
n
y ∮ ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗
d
⇒ = …� …� …� …� …� …� (2)…� …� …� …
u
t
S
⇒ ∮� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗ = − ∬� ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗
⇒ ∮� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗ = −� ∬ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ …� …� …� …� …� …� (3)…� …� …� …
No Stokes’ theo e
⇒ ∮� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗ = ∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Page 35
Applying this to the above equation, we get
⃗
∬� ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ −� ∬ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
=
⃗
⇒ ∬� ⃗ + � ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
As ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ≠�
So ⃗
⃗ + =
⃗
⇒ ⃗ = −
Maxwell’s fourth equation Maxwell’s correction in Ampere’s law m

A pe e’s La is gi e as o
.c
⇒ ⃗ =
a
m
This equation is true only for time independent electric field and to correct this equation for time
varying field a term must be added
a
⇒
n ⃗ = ( +� ) …� …� …� …� …� …� …�(1)…� …� …
Taking
y
of both side and for simplicity writing as
d
⇒ u ( ⃗) = ( +� )
t ⃗ )�
S
But divergence of curl of any quantity is always zero so ( =�
Then ( +� ) = ………………………………………. (2)
⇒ = − …� …� …� …� …� …� (3)
…� …� …� …
But by the equation of continuity
⇒ = − …� …� …� …� …� …� …�(4)…� …� …
A d Ma ell’s fi st e uatio
Page 36
⃗ =
⇒ = ⃗ …� …� …� …� …� …� …�(5)…� …� …
By (4) and (5)
⇒ = − ( ⃗)
⇒ = − ( ⃗ ) …� …� …� …� …� …� (6)
…� …� …� …
Again by (3) and (6)
⇒ − = − ( ⃗)
m
⇒ = ( ⃗)
⇒ = � ( ⃗) o
⇒ =
⃗
.c
Putti g this alue i A pe e’s la e get
a
m ⃗
⃗ =�
a +
This is Ma ell’s fou th e uatio . n

For vacuum ⃗ =� and � =� y
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t
So ⃗
⃗ = +�
⇒
S ⃗ = +�
⃗
Page 37
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Page 38
Unit-II (LASER)
Unit-2
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LASER
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Syllabus:
Properties of lasers, types of lasers, derivation of Einstein A & B
Coefficients, Working He-Ne and Ruby lasers.
Unit-II (LASER)
LASER:
The word LASER is acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser source produces
coherent, monochromatic, least divergent, unidirectional and high intense beam. Einstein gave the theoretical
description of stimulated emission in 1917. In 1954 G.H. Towne developed microwave amplifier MASER using
Einstein’s theo y a d put forward to light and first Laser was developed.
Characteristics of Laser beam:
i) Coherent: The Laser light is coherent. A Laser emits the light waves of same wavelength and in
same phase.
ii) Monochromatic: If the light coming from a source has only one frequency or single wavelength is
called monochromatic source and the light is called monochromatic light. In case of Laser beam it
has the wavelength confirmed to very narrow range of a few angstroms.
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iii) Divergence: Divergence is the measure of its spread with distance. The angular spread in ordinary
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light is very high because of its propagation in the form of a spherical wave front. The divergence
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in the Laser beam is negligible. A very small divergence is due to the diffraction of Laser light when
it emerges out from the partially silvered mirror.
iv)
a
Directionality: An ordinary source of light emits light in all directions. In case of Laser the photons
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of a particular direction are only allowed to escape. Thus the Laser beam is highly directional.
v) Intensity: The intensity of ordinary light decreases as it travels in the space. This is because of its
a
spreading. The Laser does not spread with distance. It propagates in the space in the form of
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narrow beam and its intensity remains almost constant over long distance.
Three Quantum Process: y

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1. Induced absorption: When an atom gains some energy by any mean in the ground state, the electrons of
t
the atoms absorbs some energy and are excited to high energy level.
S
Let us consider two energy levels � and � of an atom. Suppose this atom is expose to light radiation it can
excite the atom from ground state � to the high energy state � by absorbing a photon of frequency �. The
frequency � is given as
� − �
� =
ℎ
This process is called the induced absorption.
Pictorially it is represented as in figure(1)
Unit-II (LASER)
Figure(1):Induced absorption
This may also be shown by the equation
∗
+ ℎ� ⟶
[* represents the exited state ]
The probability of absorption transition is given by
∝ �
= �
m
Where � is the energy state density
o
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And the number of absorption transition in material is equal to the product of number of atoms at � and
absoption transition is given as
= a
=
m �
a
Where is the number of atoms in ground state �
n
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2. Spontaneous Emission: When an atom at lower energy level is exited to the high energy level, it cannot stay
−8
in the exited state for relatively longer time. In a time of about ��, the atom reverts to the lower energy
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state by releasing a photon of energy ℎ� = � − . This
� emission of photon by an atom without any external
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input is called spontaneous emission.
t
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Figure(2): Spontaneous emission

We may write the transition as
∗
⟶ + ℎ�
Probability of spontaneous emission depends only on the properties of energy states and is depends on the
Unit-II (LASER)
photon density. It is equal to the life time of �

=
is Ei stei ’s oeffi ie t fo spo te ious e issio .
Number of spontaneous transition depends only on number of atoms in the excited state � . Thus
=
Process of spontaneous emission cannot be controlled from outside and photon are emitted in random order
so light is non-directional, non-monochromatic, incoherent and no amplification of light takes place.
3. Stimulated Emission: In 1916 Einstein predicted the existence of stimulated emission. A photon of
appropriate energy when incidents to an atom which is in the exited state, then it may causes the de-
excitation by the emission of an additional photon of same frequency as that of incident one, now the two
photons of same frequency moves together. This process is called the stimulated or induced emission. The
emitted photon have same direction, phase, energy and state of polarization as that of incident photon we
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can rewrite the transition as
o
∗
+ ℎ� ⟶ + ℎ�
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The probability of stimulated emission is given by
� ∝ �
is Ei stei ’s oeffi ie t of sti ulated e issio .

� =
a �
The number of stimulated transition in a material is given bym

� a = �
Where
n
is the number of atoms in excited state �
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The light produced by this process is essentially directional, monochromatic, and coherent, the outstanding
d
feature of this process is the multiplication of photons i.e. if there are exited atoms, photons will be
produced.
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Figure (3): Multiplication of stimulated photons into an avalanche
Population Inversion:
In the thermal equilibrium number of atoms in higher energy levels is less than population of lower energy
Unit-II (LASER)
level . Then if � and � are two energy levels with population and then by Boltzmann relatin.
� − �
= × ( )
Since � > �⟹ < . In this situation the system absorbes electromagnetic radiation incident on it for
laser action to take place, the higher energy level should be more populated as compared to the lower energy
state i.e. > .
Thus the process by which the population of a particular high energy state is made more than that of a
specified lower energy state is called population inversion.
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Figure(4): Population inversion
Meta stable States:

a
m
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An atom in the exited state has very short life time which is of the order of ��. Therefore even if
a
continuous energy is given to the atoms in ground state to transfer them to exited state they immediately
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comes back to the ground state. Thus population inversion cannot be achieved. To achieve population
inversion, we
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Figure(5):
− −
must have energy states which has a longer lifetime. The life time of meta stable state is to ��
which is time of exited states thus allows accumulation of large number of excited atoms and
result in population inversion.
Components of Laser
the essential components of Laser are-
Unit-II (LASER)
Active Medium:
The active medium is the material in which the laser action takes place. It may be solid, liquid, or gas. The
medium determines the wavelength of the laser radiation. Atoms are characterized by the large number of
the energy levels, but all types of atoms are not suitable for Laser operation. Even in a medium consisting of
different species of atoms, only a fraction of atoms of particular type have energy level system suitable for
achieving population inversion. Such atoms can produce more stimulated emission than spontaneous
emission causes amplification of light. These atoms are called active center. The rest of the medium acts as
the host medium and supports the active medium. Thus the active medium is the one which when excites,
reaches the state of population inversion and promotes stimulated emission leading to light amplification.
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Optical Resonator:
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It is specially designed cylindrical tube having two opposite optically plane mirrors with active medium filled
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between them, one mirror is fully silvered and other is partially silvered and are normal to the light intensity
S
by multiple reflection. Science active medium is maintained in population inversion state photon produced
through spontaneous emission produces the stimulated emission in every direction. The photons having
parallel to the axis of the resonators are only augmented while other are reflected trough the walls of
resonator. If these unidirectional photons reach fully reflecting mirror they reflects and while transverse
through the medium they produce the stimulated emission in other atoms thus increased stimulated photons
reaches partially silvered mirror. At this end some photons are transmitted and other are reflects back in the
medium. This process repeats itself again and again.
Working of optical resonator:
a) Non-exited medium before pumping.
b) Optical pumping.
Unit-II (LASER)
c) Spontaneous/stimulated emission.
d) Optical feedback.
e) Light amplification.
f) Light oscillation and laser output.
Pumping:
The process by which we can achieve the population inversion is called the pumping.
Pumping Schemes:
Pumping
Scheme
Two Level
Pumping
Three Level
Pumping m
Four Level
Pumping
Scheme Scheme
o
Scheme
Figure(7): Pumping scheme

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Two level pumping scheme:
a
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A two level pumping scheme is not suitable for obtaining population inversion. The time span ∆ , for which
atom has to stay at upper level � , must be longer for achieving population inversion condition.
As according to the Heise a
e g’s uncertainty principle
n ℏ
y
∆�. ∆ ≥
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Figure (8): Two level pumping scheme.

∆ will be longer if ∆� is smaller i.e. � is narrow. If ∆� is smaller, the pumping efficiency is smaller as a
consequence of which less number of atoms are exited and population inversion is not achieved.
Three level pumping:

Let an atomic system has three energy levels, the state � is the ground state, � is the metastable state and
� is the energy excited state. When light is incident, the atom are rapidly exited to upper most state � . They
Unit-II (LASER)
comes back in the lower energy level.

The atom does not stay at the � level for long time. The probability of spontaneous transition � ⟶ �is
comparable to � ⟶ �, � is the metastable state. Science probability of � ⟶ � transition is extremely
small when the medium is expose to a large number of photons a large number of atoms will be exited to the
higher energy level � . Some of these atoms make spontaneous transition to the � state trough the radiative
transition.
As the spontaneous transition from � to � occurs rarely. The atoms get trapped into the state � . This
process continues when more than half of the ground state atoms accumulate at � , the population inversion
is achieved between � and � .
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Figure(9): Three Level Pumping
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In this scheme a very useful-pumping process is required because to achieve population inversion more than
a
half of ground state atoms must be pumped to the upper state.
n
Four Level Pumping:
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In four level pumping process the active medium are pumped from ground state � to the uppermost level �
from where they rapidly fall to intermediate � level i.e. meta stable state, leaving level � empty. Now � is
d
populated inversely with respect to � .
u
If a triggering incident beam has frequency � the transition � ⟶ �is the stimulated transition. It could be
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the atom from � may go to � sponteniously. This transition � ⟶ �is non radiative transition.
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Unit-II (LASER)
Figure(10): Four level pumping
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Unit-II (LASER)
Einstein’s coefficient:
Let there is a lasering medium in which the number of atoms in the ground state are and number of atoms
in the excited state are , � is the energy density of radiation for frequency �.
The rate of self-emission
∝
=
And the rate of stimulated emission
∝
And ∝ �
∴ ∝ �
= �
m
The rate of absorption
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∝
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And ∝ �
= �
Here, coefficient and and
a
are respectively called the Ei stei ’s and coefficients. It is clear that
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the rate of stimulated emission and rate of absorption determined by the same coefficient . This is why
simulated emission is also called the inverse absorption.
a
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Relation between Einstein’s and coefficient:
atoms in thermal equilibrium at temperature T with radiation frequency �.
y
Let there be an assembly of
Since the rate of absoption of radiation i.e. transition from state � ⟶ �is proportional to the energy desity
of radiation d
� . The number of transition per unit time per unit volume from � → �is given by
u = �
Where t
is the number of atoms in energy state � and is the probability of the transition from � → �
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Similarly the number of transition per unit time per unit volume from state � →
= { + � }
�may be given as
Where is the number of atpms in energy state � and is the probability of the transition from � → �
In equilibrium state
=
� = { + � }
� = + �
� − � =
[ − ] � =
�
� = � −�
Unit-II (LASER)
�
� = [ � ]
� −�
�
� = [� � � ]
−
� � �
� = [� � ]
−
� �
By Boltzmann distribution law

= �− � / �
= �− � / �
Where is the total number of atoms

� � −� / �
= �
�
Then
� = [ ]
m
� −�
�
{ �� } −
�
But � − �= ℎ�
o
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So
� = [ ℎ� ]
a
�
{ �� } −
�
But a o di g to the Pla k’s the e e gy de sity of the adiatio of f e ue y � at temperature T is given by
m� =
8�ℎ�
.[ ]
a ( ℎ�/�� )−
n
On comparing
�ℎ�
=
y �
and =
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Unit-II (LASER)
Ruby Laser:
Solid state laser is the first laser operated successfully. It was fabricated by Mainman in 1960. Ruby is the
lasing medium consist of the crystal of mixture and the . Here some aluminum atoms are
replaced by the . % cromiume atoms.
Construction:
Chromium atoms doped into the aluminum atoms. The active medium in ruby with which main laser action
+
takes place is ions.
Length of the cylindrical rod lies in between 2 to 20cm and the diameter of the rod is about 0.1 to 2cm. The
end faces of the rod are polished flat and parallel. In this one face is partially silvered and other face is fully
silvered.
Ruby rod is surrounded by the helical Xenon photo flash lamp which provides the pump energy to rise the
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chromium atom to higher energy level. The parallel ends rod forms an optical cavity so that the photon
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traveling along the axis of the optical cavity gets reflects back and fro the end surfaces.
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Working:
+
The energy level of ions on the crystal lattice. Consists of three level systems. Upper energy level is short
lived state.
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Figure(12)
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When a flash light falls upon the ruby rod, the Å radiation photon are absorbed by ions which are
Unit-II (LASER)
pumped to the exited state � . The transition from � to � is the optical pumping transition.
+
Now the ions in the exited state give a part of their energy to the crystal lattice and decay to the meta
stable state � . Hence the transition from � to � is radiation less transition. Metastable state � is long lived
+
state; hence the number of ions goes on increasing, while due to pumping the number in the ground
state � goes on decreasing.
+
Population inversion is established between the � and � . The spontaneous photon emitted by ion at
� level is of the wave length of about Å.
Drawbacks :
1) Efficiency of ruby Laser is very low.
2) The Laser Output is not continuous occurs in the form of pulse of microseconds duration.
3) The Laser requires the high pumping power.
4) The defects due to crystalline impurities are also presents in the laser.
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Figure(13): Ruby Laser output
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Unit-II (LASER)
Gas Laser:
Gas Lasers are most widely used Lasers. The ranges from low power Lasers like Helium-Neon Laser to high
power Laser like laser. These lasers operate with rarified gases as the active medium and are excited by
and electrical discharge.
In gases the energy levels of the atoms involves the lasing process are narrow and as such require sources
with sharp wavelength to excite atoms. Most common method to excite gas molecules is by passing an
electric discharge through the gas electrons present in the discharge through the gas electrons presents in the
discharge transfer energy to atoms of laser gas by collision.
He-Ne Laser:
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Helium-Neon Laser was first gas Laser to be invented by Ali-Jawan in 1961. The pumping method employed in
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He-Ne Laser is electrical pumping method and is based on four level pumping scheme. Since He-Ne laser is a
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gas laser so He-Ne laser have sharp energy levels.
Construction:
a
It consists of a long discharge tube made up of fused quartz which is − �in the length and
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in the diameter. The tube is filled with �� and � gases under the pressure of Hg and
. : :. Neon is the active center and
a
of Hg respectively. And are filled in the ratio ranging from
have energy levels suitable for laser transition. While He atoms help in exiting Neon atom. The electrodes are
n
provided in the discharge tube to provided discharge in the gas which are connected to a high power supply.
y
The optical cavity of laser consists plane and highly reflecting mirror at one end of the laser tube and a Plano-
d
concave output mirror of an approximately % transmission at the other end.
u
To minimize reflection Laser the discharge tube edges are cut at the angle. This arrangement causes the laser
t
output to be linearly polarized.
Working:
S
A high voltage is applied across the gas mixture produces electrical breakdown of the gas into ions and
electrons. Fast moving electrons are collide with Helium and Neon atoms and exit them to high energy level.
�� atom are more easily excitable than Ne atoms as they are lighter.
The life time of the energy levels � and � of He is more therefore these levels of He becomes densely
populated. As the � energy levels � and � are close to the exited levels � and � of He. The probability of
the atoms transferring their energy to Ne atom by inelastic collision is greater than the probability of coming
ground state � by spontaneous emission. Since the pressure of the He is 10 times greater than the pressure
of Neon, the levels � and � of Neon are densely populated than any other energy levels.
Photons with the energy ℎ� stimulate the transition from � to � , � to � and � to � . During these
Unit-II (LASER)
transition radiation are emitted with the wavelength of . � , Å and . � respectivly.
Figure(16): He-Ne Laser
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From the energy levels � spontaneous emission occurs in the energy level � . Since the energy level � is the
S
lower Metastable state then the possibility of atom in the level � getting de-exited to the level � may occur,
if it happened then number of atoms in ground state will go on diminishing and the laser ceases to function.
This can be protected by reducing the diameter of the tube so that atoms in � follows direct transition to the
level � through collision with the walls of tube.
The He-Ne Laser operate in continuous wave mode.
Application of Laser:
1) The laser beam is used to vaporize unwanted materials during the manufacturing of electronic circuits
on semiconductors chips.
2) Laser is used to detect and destroy the enemy missiles during war.
3) Metallic rod can be melted and joined by means of laser beam.
Unit-II (LASER)
4) Low price semiconductor lasers are used in CD players, laser printers.

5) High power lasers are used to leasing thermo nuclear reactions which would become the ultimate
exhaust little power source for human civilization.
6) Laser is also being employed for separating the various isotopes of an element.
7) Laser beam are also been used to the internal confinement of plasma.
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Unit-3 (Fiber Optics)
Unit-3
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Fibre Optics
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Syllabus:
Fibre Optics: Light guidance through optical fibre, types of fibre, numerical
aperture, V-Number, Fibre dispersion (through ray theory in step index
fibre), block diagram of fibre optic communication system
Fibre Optics:
Fiber optics is the technology in which signals are converted from electrical into optical signals transmitted
through a thin glass-fiber and re-converted into electrical signals.
Definition:
An optical fiber is a transparent medium as thin as human hair, made of glass or clear plastic designed to guide
light waves along its length.
Total Internal Reflection:
When light waves goes into denser medium through
rare medium then they goes away from the normal. If
the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle then
the refracted ray comes back in to the same medium,
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this phenomenon is called the total internal
o
reflection.
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Figure(1):Total internal reflection
Principle of optical fiber cable:
m
The propagation of light in the optical fiber from one end to another end is based on the principal of total
a
internal reflection (TIR). When light enters through one end it suffers successive TIR from side walls and
n
travels along the fiber length in a zigzag path.
Construction:
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An optical fiber is cylindrical in shape and has three co-axial regions. The inner most region is the light guiding
u
region known as core, whose diameter is of the order of . It is surrounded by a co-axial middle region
t
known as cladding. The diameter of cladding is of the order of , the refractive index of cladding is
S
always lower than that of the core. The purpose of the cladding is to make the light to be confined to the core.
Light launched into the core and striking the core cladding interface at an angle greater than critical angle will
be reflected back into the core. The outermost region is called sheath or jacket, which is made up of plastic or
polymer. The sheath protects the cladding and core from abrasion and the harmful contamination of moisture
and also increases the mechanical strength of the fiber. Optical fiber is used to transmit light signal over long
distance. Optical fiber requires a light source for launching light into the fiber at its input and a photo detector
to receive light at its output end
. As the diameter of the optical fiber is very small,

LEDs and laser diodes are used as light source. At the
receiver end semiconductor photodiodes are used for
detection of light pulses and convert the optical
signals into electrical form.
Figure(2):Optical fiber cable
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Light Propagation in the Fibber:

Let us consider the light propagation in the optical fiber. The end at which the light enters the fiber is called
the launching end. Let the refractive index of the core is and that of cladding is as < . Let the
outside medium from which the light is launched have the refractive index . Let the light ray enters the
fiber at an angle �� with the axis and strikes core-cladding interface at an angle �. If � > the
� ray will suffer
total internal reflection and remains within the fiber.
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Figure (3): Propagation of light through optical fiber cable.
Fractional Refractive Index: a

n
It is the ratio of the difference of the refractive index of core and cladding to refractive index of core. It is
y
denoted by ∆ and is expressed as
−
d ∆=
Where
u
= refractive index of the core
t
= refractive index of cladding
S
It has no dimension and its order is .
light effectively through the fiber ∆≪
this parameter is always positive because
typically of the order of 0.01
> . In order to guide
Acceptance Angle:
Applying Snell’s law at the laun hing end
si ��
si ��
=
sin �� = sin �� …………………………………………………………………... (1)
Now In Δ � + ��+ =
⟹ �� = − �
So putting in equation (1)
sin �� sin − �
=
sin �� = cos � …………………………………………………………………... (2)
Now �� = �� when � = �

Applying Snell’s law
sin � = �
sin
sin � = ∵ sin =
But cos � = √ − sin

�
cos � = √ − ()
cos � = √ −
cos � = √ −
m
………………………………………………………… (3)
o
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Therefore, putting the value in equation (2) we get
sin �� √ −
= ×
sin �� =
√ − a
= m
a
Let air be the medium at launching end so
Then sin �� = √ −
� �� = sin− √ − n
The angle � ��
y
is called the acceptance angle of the fiber. Acceptance is the maximum angle that are light
d
rays can have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagate down the fiber.
u
In 3D the light rays contained within the cone having a fall angle � �� are accepted and transmitted along
t
the fiber. Therefore the cone is called the acceptance cone.
Figure(4): Acceptance cone= � ��

Numerical Aperture:
Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the fiber. This is defined as the � of the angle
of acceptance angle.
� = sin ��
But sin �� = √ − , so

� = √ −
Relation between �� and ��

We know that numerical aperture is given as
� = √ −
� = √ + −
� = √ + − ×
+ − m
o
� = √
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+ −
But ≈ and = ∆
anumber
so � = √ ∆
� = √ ∆
Normalized frequency V- m
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Optical fiber is characterized by a parameter caused V-number or normalized frequency. Normalized
y
frequency is the relation between refractive indices and wavelength, and is given by
d
��
� = √ −
Where =
radius of core
u
=
t
free space wavelength
But we know that
S √ − = � = √ ∆
��
so � = �
��
� = √ ∆
� Where =
� = √ ∆
V- number helps in determining the number of modes that can propagates through a fiber from above relation
number of modes that can propagates through a fiber increase with increase in � .
�
Maximum number of modes in multi-mode step index fiber is given by � = maximum number of mode in
multi-mode graded index fiber is given by

�
� =
Also
For single mode fiber, � < .
For multi-mode fiber, � > .
The corresponding wavelength is called cut-off wavelength.
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Mode of Propagation:
Figure(5): Mode of Propagation

The total possible number allowed path in an optical fiber is known as modes.
m
When light propagates at an angle close to the critical angle are high order modes and when modes
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propagates with angles longer than critical angle are low order mode. The zero order rays travels along the
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axis are known as axial ray. On the basis of modes of light propagation optical fiber are of two types:
a
1) Single mode fiber: - It supports only one mode of propagation.
2) Multi-mode fiber: - It supports number of modes for propagation.
m
a
Refractive Index Profile:
It is a plot of refractive index drawn on one of the axis (say-X) and the distance from axis of the core other axis
n
(say-Y). On the basis of refractive index profile, there are two types of fibers-
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1) Steps index fiber: In this refractive index of the core is constant throughout the core.
d
2) Graded Index Fiber: In this the refractive index of core varies smoothly over the diameter of the core.
u fiber:
Types of the optical
t
S
Based on the profile and modes of propagation optical fiber are of three types-
1) Single mode step index fiber: The diameter of typical SMSIF is about − which is of the order
of wavelength of light used. SMSIF has a very thin fiber, the refractive index changes abruptly at the
core-cladding interface for which it is called step index fiber. In this fiber light travels along the axis of
the fiber. The � (i.e. numerical aperture) and ∆ (i.e. fractional refractive index) have very small
values for single mode fiber and thus have very low acceptance. Therefore the light occupying in fiber
becomes difficult. Costly laser diodes are used to launch the light into the fiber. A single mode fiber
has very small value of ∆ and allows only one mode to propagates through them therefore intermodal
dispersion does not exists in single mode fiber and thus have high data transfer rate.
2) Multi-mode step index fiber: This fiber is similar to single mode fiber only it has a large diameter of
the order of − . Large compared to the wavelength of light. In multi mode fiber the light
follows a zigzag path. It allows more than one but finite number of modes to propagate through them.
The NA is larger because of large core diameter the signal having path length along the axis of the
fiber is shorter while the other zigzag path longer resulting in higher intermodal dispersion which
means lower data rate and less efficient transmission. LEDs or laser source can be used for launching
of light in this kind of fiber. This kind of fiber. This kind of fiber is used for short range communication.
3) Multi-mode Graded Index fiber: Multimode fiber have a core having refractive index at the center is
very high and decreases as we move towards the cladding, such profile causes a periodic focusing of
light propagation to the fiber. It allows more than one mode to propagate through them and the core
diameter ranges from − the acceptance angle and � decreases with distance from the
axis. The number of modes in this fiber is half that of multimode step index fiber. Therefore gives
lower dispersion. Since the � of this fiber is less than multimode step index fiber, it makes coupling
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fiber to the source more difficult. Hence LEDs or laser light source can be used for launching the light
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in them; these are used in medium range communication.
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Refractive index profile:
Index profile is the refractive index distribution across the core and cladding of fibre. Some fibre has a step
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index profile, in which the core has one uniformly distributed index. Other optical fibre has a graded index
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profile, in which refractive index varies gradually as a function of radial distance from the axis of the fibre.
Multimode Step Index

a
Multimode Graded Index Single mode Step Index
n
(MMSI OFC) (MMGI OFC) (SMSI OFC)
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Fibre cross-
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section
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� Large Gradually decreases with Very small
distance from axis
∆ Large Very small
Acceptance Large acceptance angle Gradually decreases with Low acceptance angle
angle � distance from axis
Number of Allow finite number of Number of mode are half of Only single mode is possible
modes modes � = /� MMSI OFC i.e.
� = /�
Range Short range Medium range Long range communication
communication communication
Data rate Lower data rate Lower data rate Higher data rate
Efficiency Lower efficient Lower efficient Highly efficient
Light source LED LED Costly LASER diode

Coupling Comparatively easy Very difficult difficult
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Pulse Dispersion:
High pulse launched into a fiber decrease in amplitudes as it travels along the fiber decrease in amplitude as it
travels along the fiber due to laser. It also spreads during travel so its output pulse become wider than input
pulse these are of three types:
1) Intermodal Dispersion: It is due to difference in propagation time in different modes.
2) Intramodal Dispersion: It results due to difference in wavelength, since fiber light consists of groups of
waves.
3) Wave guided dispersion: It happens due to wave guiding properties of fiber.
Fiber Losses:
The losses in optical fiber may be due to following causes:
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1. Rayleigh scattering losses: The glass in optical fiber is an amorphous solid that is formed by allowing
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the glass to cool from its molten state at high temperature, until it freezes. During the forming
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process, some defects are causes in fiber which allows scattering a small portion of light passing
through the glass, creating losses. It affects each wavelength differently.
2. Absorption Losses:
a
The ultraviolet absorption, infrared absorption and ion resonance absorption
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these three mechanisms contribute to absorption losses in glass fiber. The oxygen ions in pure silica
a
have very tightly bounded and only the ultraviolet light photons have enough energy to be observe.
Infrared absorption takes place because photons of light energy are absorbers by the atoms within the
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glass molecules and converted to the random vibration.
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3. Micro bend Losses: Due to small irregularities in the cladding, causes light to be reflected at angle
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where there is no further reflection.
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4. Macro bend Losses: It is a bend in the entire cable which causes certain modes not to be reflect and
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therefore causes losses to the cladding.
Figure (6): Macro and micro band losses in optical fiber cable.
5. Temperature Changes: A temperature change from 0 to ℃ could add as much as to the cable
losses. Stress (Strain and tension) could add another .
6. Attenuation Losses: Attenuation losses of an optical fiber is defined as the ratio of optical output
power � from a fiber of length � to the output power �� . In symbol � is expressed attenuation in
� / .
��
� = log [ ]
� �
In case a fiber is an ideal when �� = � , therefore � = which means that there will no
attenuation loss. In actual practice, a low loss fiber may have � = /.
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Calculation of dispersion for step indeed fiber:
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Figure(7): Propagation of light through the optical fiber cable
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is the time taken by ray to travel + by velocity � then
+
= ………………………………………… (1)
If a
be the refractive index of core and is speed of light in vacuum, then
=
� m
� a
n
y
From the figure in ∆ �
� d sec ��
⟹
u � sec� �
and
t sec ��
⟹ S �
� sec� �
Putting the values in equation (1) we get
� sec� +� � sec
� �
=
� + �sec ��
sec
� ………….. 2
As the ray in the fiber propagates by a series of total internal reflection at the interface, the time taken by the
ray in traversing an axial length of the fiber will be
� = ………………………………… (3)
.c s ��
Time taken by rays making zero angle with fiber axis will be minimum i.e.
� = = …………………… (4)
� . cos
The maximum time is given by
� = .c s ��
………………………………… (5)
��
Now y Snell’s law

si �� =
si ��
But �� = for �� = � (i.e. critical angle)
sin � =
sin
sin � = m
……………………………….......... (6)
From the figure is clear that o

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a
� + ��+ =
� = −� �
So by equation (8)
m
sin −� � =
a
cos �� = n ………………………………... (7)
y
d
Putting the value of cos ��in equation (5)
u
� = �
.
�
t � =
.
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Fibre Optics communication System:
The optical fibers are widely used for communication purpose. The fiber optics communication system is almost
similar to ordinary communication system. Simply the systems consist of transmitter, information channel and
recover.
Transmitter:
The transmitter converts electrical signals (Information signal) into optical signals. Mainly transmitter consists of
1) Transducer: If input signal is other than the electrical signals, we use a transducer which consists a non-
electrical message into electrical signal.
2) Modulator: The output of transducer is connected as the input of modulator, with the help of
modulator electrical messages are converted into the desired form. There are two kinds of modulators;
digital and analog.
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3) Light source: The function of light source is to generate carrier waves on which the information signal is
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impressed and transmitted. The light sources used are light emitting diodes (LEDs) or LASER diodes.
These are known as optical oscillators.
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4) Input channel coupler: It transfers the signals to information channel i.e. optical fiber in a proper
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manner.
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5) Information Channel: It is a link between transmitter and receiver.
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Figure(8): The optical fiber communication system
Receiver:
Receiver converts the signals into electrical signals; it consists of-
1) Output channel coupler: its main function is to direct the light emerging from optical fiber into the
photodetector.
2) Photodetector: The photodetector converts the light wave into an electric current. The detector output
includes the message, which is separated from the carrier in next step.
3) Signal processor: the information from the carrier wave is separated by signal processor includes
amplifiers and filters. The optical signal, if needed, amplified and undesired frequencies are filtered by
the processor.
4) Signal restorer: while traveling through the optical fiber the signal progressively attenuated and
distorted due to various laser and dispersion occurring in the fiber. Thus the signal should be amplified
and restorers are used for this purpose.
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Unit IV- Quantum Mechanics
Unit-4
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Quantumam
Mechanics
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Syllabus:
Black body radiation, ultraviolet catastrophe, Crompton effect, plates
theory of radiation, phase and group velocity, particle in a box, uncertainty
principle, well-behaved wave equation, Schrodinger equation, application
to particle in a box.
Page 1
Black body:
A black body is one which absorbs all types of heat radiation
incident on it when radiations are permitted to fall on black body
they are neither reflected nor transmitted.
A black body is known as black body due to the fact that whatever
may the colour of the incident radiation the body appears black by
absorbing all kind of radiations incident on it.
A perfect black does not exists thus a body representing close
proximity to perfect black body so it can be considered as a black
body.
A hollow sphere is taken with fine hole and a point projection in
front of the hole and is coated with lamp black on its inner surface
shows the close proximity to the black body, when the radiation
enter through hole, they suffer multiple reflection and are totally Figure(1): Black body
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absorbed.
Black Body radiation:
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A body which completely absorbs radiation of all
radiations of all wavelength/frequencies incident
on it and emits all of them when heated at higher
temperature is called black body. The radiation a
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emitted by such a body is called black body
radiation. So the radiation emitted form a black
body is a continuous spectrum i.e. it contains
radiation of all the frequencies. a
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Distributions of the radiant energy over different
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wavelength in the black body radiation at a given
temperature are shown in the figure.
d
Black body radiation is a common synonym for Figure(2): Black body radiation
u
thermal radiation.
t
Radiation:
Radiation is a process which the surface of an object radiates its thermal energy in the form of the
S
electromagnetic waves.
Radiation
Ionising Non-ionising
radiation radiation
Radiations are of two types
Page 2
Emissivity:
The emissivity of a material is the irradiative power of its surface to emit heat by radiation, usually it is shown
by or . It is the ratio of energy radiated by a material to the energy radiated by the black body.
True black body has maximum emissivity � =� (highly polished silver has an emissivity for about . at
least.)
Plank’s Quantum Hypothesis:

Plank assumes that the atoms of the wall of blackbody behave as an oscillator and each has a characteristic
frequency of oscillation. He made the following assumption-
1) An oscillator can have any arbitrary value of energy but can have only discrete energies as per the
following relation
� =� ℎ�
Where � =� …� � ..and ℎ a e k o as f e ue
, , , � and a d Pla k’s o sta t.
2) The oscillator can absorb or emit energy only in the form of packets of energy ℎ� but not
continuously.
� =� ℎ�
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Average energy of Plank’s Oscillators:
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If be the total number of oscillations and as the total energy of these oscillators, then average energy will
be given by the relation.
̅ =
a
……………………………………………………………………………. (1)
Now consider
,� ℎ�,� ℎ�� …� espe
.� .� tiℎ�
el . The m
,� ,� …� …� …� …� as.� .�the number of oscillators having the energy values
the Ma ell’s dist i utio fo ula
a
n
= +� +� +� ⋯� …� …� …� …� ..
y
d = � +�−�� +�
ℎ�
−
ℎ�
+� ⋯� …� …� .�
u
��
t = ℎ�
S
.............................................................. (2)
( � −�−�� )
And the total energy
= ×� + ×� ℎ�+ ×� ℎ�+� ⋯� ….
ℎ� ℎ�
−
= ×� +� ( �� ×� ℎ�)� +� − ��
( � ×� ℎ�)� +� ⋯
ℎ� ℎ� ℎ�
− − −
= �� ×� [ℎ�� +� �� +� �� +� ⋯� …�
] .� .
−
ℎ� ℎ�
��
= ℎ� ………………………………………….. (3)
( � −�−�� )
Page 3
Putting the value of and from above equations in equation (1) we get-
̅ =
ℎ�
−
ℎ� ��
̅ = ℎ�
( � −�−�� )
ℎ�
̅ = ℎ� …………………………………………..………. (4)
( �� −� )
This is the e p essio fo the a e age e e g i Pla k’s os illato s.
Plank’s radiation formula:

The average density of radiation � in the frequency range � and �� +� depending
� upon the average of an
oscillator is given by-
m
��
� � = �� ×�̅ …………………………………………..……… (5)
�� ℎ� o
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�
� � = ℎ�
( �� −� )
� � =
�ℎ
(
ℎ�
��
�
−�
a )
� …………………………………………..……… (6)
The a o e elatio is k o m
as the Pla k’s adiatio fo ula i te s of the f e ue . This la a also e
a
expressed in terms of wavelength � of the radiation. Since �� =� for electromagnetic radiation, �� =
n
− �. Further we know that the frequency is reciprocal of wavelength or in other words an increase in
�
y
frequency corresponds to a decrease in wavelength. therefore
d � � = − � �
u �ℎ � − �
t − �
� � = ℎ
S
( �� −� )
�ℎ
�
� � = � ℎ …………………………………………..… (7)
( �� −� )
The a o e elatio is k o as the Pla k’s la i te s of a ele gth �
Wien’s law and Rayleigh-Jeans law:

With the help of Pla k’s adiatio Wie ’s la a d Ra leigh-Jens law can be derive. When the wavelength �
ℎ�
and temperature � are very small, then �� ≫� . Therefore, can be neglected in the denominator of
equation (7).
�ℎ −
ℎ
� � = ��
�
Page 4
ℎ
By substituting �ℎ � =� and
�
=� , we get
−
� � = �� …………………………………………..………. (8)
�
This is k o as Wie ’s la , hi h is alid at lo te pe atu e � and small wavelength �.
ℎ�
ℎ
For higher temperature � and large wavelength �, �� can be approximated to � +
��
. Then we have from
equation (7)
�ℎ
� � = �
ℎ
� � + −�
� �
� �
� � = � ………………….…………………………………………..… (9)
�
This is known as Rayleigh-Jeans law.
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Ultraviolet Catastrophe:
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One of the nagging questions at the time concerned the spectrum of radiation emitted by a so-called black
body. A perfect black body is an object that absorbs all radiation that is incident on it. Perfect absorbers are
also perfect emitters of radiation, in the sense that heating the black body to a particular temperature causes
a
the black body to emit radiation with a spectrum that is characteristic of that temperature. Examples of black
bodies include the Sun and other stars, light bulb filaments, and the element in a toaster. The colours of
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these objects correspond to the temperature of the object. Examples of the spectra emitted by objects at
a
particular temperatures are shown in Figure 3
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Figure 3: The spectra of electromagnetic radiation emitted by hot objects. Each spectrum corresponds to a
particular temperature. The black curve(dotted line) represents the predicted spectrum of a 5000 K black
body, according to the classical theory of black bodies
Page 5
At the end of the 19th century, the puzzle regarding blackbody radiation was that the theory regarding how
hot objects radiate energy predicted that an infinite amount of energy is emitted at small wavelengths, which
clearly makes no sense from the perspective of energy conservation. Because small wavelengths correspond
to the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, this puzzle was known as the ultraviolet catastrophe. Figure 27.1
shows the issue, comparing the theoretical predictions to the actual spectrum for an object at a temperature
of 5000 K. There is clearly a substantial disagreement between the curves
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Matter wave:
According to Louis de-Broglie every moving matter particle is surrounded by a wave whose wavelength
depends up on the mass of the particle and its velocity. These waves are known as matter wave or de-
Broglie waves.
Wavelength of the de-Broglie wave:

ℎ
Consider a photon whose energy is given by � =� ℎ�� = [ � � =�………………………………………
�� (1)
�
−
Where ℎ is Pla k’s o sta . t � ×� , � is the frequency and � is the wavelength of photon.
No Ei stei ’s ass e e g elatio
= ……………………………………… (2)
m
ℎ
= �
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ℎ
� =
� = a ℎ
Where � =�
In place of the photon a material particle of mass

m is moving with velocity then
a � =
ℎ
…………………………….…… (3)
(i) n
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Now we know that the kinetic energy of the material particle of mass moving with velocity � is given by-
d =
u = �
t
S = [ � � =� ]
= √
So by equation (3)
ℎ
� =
√
(ii)
According to kinetic theory of gasses the average kinetic energy of the material particle is given by � =
� where � =� . � −×� / i.e. Boltzmann constant
Page 7
= �
= �
= � � � =
= √ �
So by equation (3)
ℎ
� = ……………………………… (4)
√ �
Group or Envelope of the wave:

When a mass particle moves with some velocity than it emits the matter waves, those waves interacts each
other and where there they interfere constructively they form an envelope around the particle which is
known as wave group or simply envelope.
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Figure(2): Formation of the wave packet
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Group velocity:
d
Group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the overall shape of the a e’s amplitudes (modulation
u
or envelope) of the wave propagates through space. It is denoted by �.
t
S
Phase velocity:
The phase velocity of a wave is the rate at which the phase or the wave propagates in the space. It is
denoted by �.
Expression for Group velocity and phase velocity:

Let us suppose that the wave group arises from the combination of two waves that have some amplitude
but differ by an amount ∆ in angular frequency and an mount ∆ in wave number.
= � cos � −� ………………………………
= [
� cos � +� ∆ � − � +� ∆ ] ………………………………
By the principle of superposition
Page 8
= +� …………….…………………………… (3)
= [cos � −� +� cos{ � +� ∆ � − � +� ∆ }]
Using the identity

� +� � −�
cos� � +� cos� � =� � )� cos�
cos� ( ( )
And cos −� =� cos� �
� −� +� { � +� ∆ � −� � −� ∆ } � −� −� { � +� ∆ � −� � −� ∆
� +� � = � −� � =
� −� � +� ∆ � −� ∆ � −� � −� � −� ∆ � +� � +
� +� � = � −� � =
�+∆ �− � −∆� −∆ � +� ∆
� +� � = � −� � =
m
� +� �
+∆
=
�− �+∆�
� −� � =� −o
∆ � −� ∆
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� =�
� +� ∆ � − � +� ∆
� [{� cos } .� cos
{
∆
a � −� ∆
}]
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Let � +� ∆ � =�and � +� ∆ � =�
a
So we have
n
y = [cos� (
� −� ∆ � −� ∆
) .� cos� ( )]
⟹ d � −� .� cos�
∆
� −
∆�
u
= [cos ]…………………… (4)
t
This is the resultant wave equation of superposition of two waves having the amplitude
S
∆ ∆�
� cos� � − and phase cos � −� where and are mean values of angular frequency and
prapogation constant of the wave.
Phase velocity:
Since phase � −� =
Differentiating with respect to we get
� −� =
⟹ But � =
�
= � phase
�
velocity
Page 9
⟹ = = ...................................................... (5)
� � �
Group Velocity:
⟹ ∆ ∆� =
� −
⟹ ∆ = ∆�
⟹ ∆ =
∆� �
So the group velocity
� = = ........................................................ (6)
� �
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Relation between Group velocity and phase velocity

1. For dispersive and non-dispersive medium:
But by equation (5) i.e. � = ⟹� � =��

�
Putting into equation (6) we get

⟹ ( �)
� =
⟹ �
� = � .� � +�
⟹ � �
= � � +� ()
� � �
�
�
⟹
� = �
�
� +� ()
� �
�
�− m
⟹ o
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�
� = � � +� )(
� −�− .� �
⟹
a
�
� = � −� �
�
m
Different cases:
��
a
1) If =� i.e. if the phase velocity does not depends on the wavelength then � =� �, such a medium is
�
n
called the non dispersive medium.
��
2) If �
≠�
y
i.e. if it has positive values then � <� �, then such a medium is called the dispersive
medium.
d
2. Relativisticu
particle:
t
Let us consider a de-Broglie wave associated with a moving particle of rest mass and velocity , then the
and
⟹
Swill be given by
= ��
⟹ =
�
� �� =
ℎ ℎ
�
.
⟹ = ℎ ……………………………….. (8)
√ � −
And
⟹ �
= �
⟹ � ℎ
= ℎ � �� =
�
�
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⟹ � �
...................................................(9) � � =
= ℎ√ −
� √ −�
� �
Now phase velocity � =

�
So
��
.
ℎ
√ −�
( � )
� =
� �
�
ℎ√ −
( � )
�
� ℎ√ −
�
� = . � ×�
ℎ � �
√ −�
�
= ………………………………………………………………… (10)
m
�
�
o
Now group velocity � =
�
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The expression can be written as
� =
a
……………………………………………………………… (11)
In order to find the value of �

m
we have to solve the following terms-
⟹
a �
n
=
ℎ
. [By equation (8)]
y
√ � −
[ ]
⟹
d �
−
u
= √ � −
ℎ
t
S
⟹ −
= �
(− ) � − .� (− )
ℎ
⟹ −
= � ……………………………………… (12)
� −
ℎ
Again
�
⟹ =
√
[ℎ � − ]
�
⟹ =
ℎ
√ � −
[ ]
Page 12
−
√ � − .� � −� ( .� − ) .� −
�
⟹ = .
ℎ
( � − )
[ ]
√ � − � +� .
� √ � −
⟹ = .
ℎ
( � − )
[ ]
� � − +
⟹ = .
ℎ � −�
[( )� √. � − ]
⟹ = [
� � −�
−
] m
……………………………
o
(13)
ℎ
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Putting the value from (13) and (14) into (11) we get
a
−
�
{ � ( � −) }
ℎ
⟹ � =
m �
−
a
[
{
ℎ
( � − ) }
]
Group velocity n
= ………………………………………………………………………… (14)
y
�
By equation (10) we have
d � .� =
By equation (14) i.e.
u
� =�
So t � .� � =
S
3. Non-Relativistic free Particle:
According to the de-Broglie hypothesis
ℎ
� = ��
= � ……………………………………………………………………… (1)
And = ℎ� ……………………………………………………………………… (2)

ℎ� = �
Page 13
��
ℎ� =
ℎ
And phase velocity � =� ��

So we have
�� ℎ
� = ×
ℎ ��
��
� =
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a
m
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Uncertainty Principle:
It is impossible to determine the exact position and momentum of a particle simultaneously.
Let us consider a particle surrounded by a wave group of de-Broglie wave as shown in the figure
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a
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Figure(3): particle surrounded by a wave packet
a
Let us consider two such waves of angular frequency and and prapogation constant and
n
traviling along the same direction are-
= � sin � −� …………………………………………… (1)
y = � sin � −� …………………………………………… (2)
d
According to the principal of superposition
= +�
u
=
t � sin � −� � +� � sin� −�
S= [sin � −�
� −�
+� sin
� +� � −�
� −� ]
� −� � −� � +�
= [ � sin� ( )� .� cos� ( )]
� +� � −�
� sin� � +� sin� � =� )� � .�sin�cos�( ( )
+� +� −� −�
= [sin� ( � − )� .� cos� ( � − )]
Page 15
+�
Let � =
+�
And � = …………………………………….........................
(3)
And ∆ � =� −�
And ∆ � =� −�
So we have
∆ ∆�
= [sin � −� .� cos� � − ] ………………………………………………………… (4)
The resultant wave is plotted in the figure (4). The position of the particle cannot be given with certainty it is
somewhere between the one node and the next node. So the error in the measurement of the position of
the particle is therefore equal to the distance between these two nodes.
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
Figure(4): The envelope created by the superposition of two waves.
The node is formed when
d
cos�
∆
� −
∆�
� =�
u � cos� � =� � � ⟹�+�
�
� =
⟹ t ∆ ∆
= � +�
�
S
� −
Thus and represents the positions of two successive nodes, then at any instant , we get-
∆ ∆� �
� − = � +� ………………………………………………… (5)
∆ ∆� �
� − = � +� ………………………………………………… (6)
Now on subtracting (5) from (6) we get

∆ ∆� ∆ ∆� � � � �
� − − � + = . + −� .−
∆�
−� = �
∆ = � ………………………………………………… (7)
�
But � =
�
Page 16
�
∆� � = �
�
ℎ ℎ
Again � =
�
=
�
So � { ℎ } = �
�
.� .� = 1
ℎ
.� = ℎ
Where ℏ� =
.� ℏ
ℎ/ �
Energy and time uncertainty principle:

Let ∆ be the width of the wave packet moving along the x-axis, let � be the group velocity of the wave
packet and is the particle velocity along x-axis. Now if the wave packet moves through ∆ in ∆ time.
m
Since ∆ is the uncertainty in the x-coordinates of the particle and ∆ is the uncertainty in the time i.e. given
o
.c
by
∆
∆ =
∆ =
�
� .� ∆
a……………………………………………………………… (1)
If the rest mass of the particle is m
then the kinetic energy is given by
= a
n .�
y
=
d = .�
u = .�
t =
�� ....................................................................... (2)
If ∆ S
and ∆ are the uncetainity in the momentum and energy respectively, then differentiating (2) we get
�� .∆��
∆ =
∆ �� .∆��
=
∆ ∆�
= ��
But =�
So ∆ = ∆ .................................................................. (3)
��
Now by(1) and (3)
∆ .� ∆ = � .� ∆ . ∆
��
Page 17
But � =� so we have
= ∆ .� ∆ .................................................................. (4)
We know that
∆ ∆ ℏ ................................................................................ (5)
So by (4) and (5)
∆ .� ∆ ℏ
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 18
Application of uncertainty Principle:

Determination of the position of a particle with the help of a microscope:
Let us consider the case of the measurement of the position of an electron is determined. For this the
electron is illuminated with light (photon). Now the smallest distance between the two points that can be
resolved by microscope is given by
�
∆ = .................................................................. (1)
� sin� �
From the above equation it is clear that for exactness of position determination improves with a decrease in
the wavelength � of liaght. Let us imagine that we are using a � −� microscope of angular
aperture �.
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
Figure(5): microscope
d
In order to observe the electron, it is necessary that at least one photon must strike the electron and
u
scattered inside the microscope. The scattered photon can enter in the field of view +� to –� �as shown in
t
the figure.
S
Rough
� =� ℎ�
�� =�
So
ℎ
� = …� …� …� …� …� …� …� .� .�
�
And
� =� …� …� …� …� …� …� …�
So
ℎ�
=
�
ℎ
� =�
�
Figure(6): Scattering of an photon by an electron
Page 19
ℎ
The momentum of the scattered photon is �
then the momentum along the x-axis is –� � sin�and�
+ � sin� . �But when the photon of wavelength �′ collied to the electron then this photon recoile the
electron by giving some momentum to it.
Now the uncertainty in the momentum transfer to the electron will be � =[ � +� ] − [ � −� ]
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
= + sin� � � −�′ − sin� �
�′ � � �
ℎ
= sin� � ................................................................. (2)
�

� ℎ� si � �
.� = ×
� si � � �
.� = ℎ
.�
ℏ
m Where ℏ� =
ℎ
�
Diffraction of electron beam by a single slit:

o
.c
Suppose a narrow beam of electron passes through a narrow single slit and produces a diffraction on the
screen as shown in figure.
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure(7): Diffraction pattern of electron beam by single slit

But the theo of F au hofe ’s diffraction at a single slit � sin� �� =� the
± first
� minima is given by
� sin� �= � …………………………………….……………………………………… (1)
In producing the diffraction pattern on the screen, all the electrons have passed through the slits but we
Page 20
can-not say definitely at what place of the slit. Hence the uncertainty in determining the position of electron
is equal to the width of the slit then by equation (1)
�
= …………………………………………….…………………… (2)
� si � �
Initially the electrons are moving x-axis and hence they have no component of momentum along y-axis.
After diffraction on the slit, they are deviated from their initial path to form the pattern. Now they have a
component � sin� As�. y component of momentum may be anywhere between � sin� and
� –� � sin�. �
Hance the uncertainty in component is
= � sin� �� −� − � sin� �
= � sin� �
ℎ ℎ
= � � sin� � [ � �
�
=
] .............................. (3)
�
m
� ℎ
.�
o
y = × sin� �
� si � � �
.c
.� y ℎ
ℏ
.�
a
y
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 21
Compton Scattering:
When a beam of monochromatic radiation of sharply define frequency incident on materials of low atomic
number, the rays suffers a change in frequency on scattering. This scattered beam contains two beams one
having lower frequency or greater wavelength other having the same frequency or wavelength.
The radiation of unchanged frequency in the scattered beam is known as unmodified radiation while the
radiation of lower frequency or slightly higher wavelength is called a modified radiation. This phenomenon is
known as Compton effect.
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u Figure(8): Compton Scattering
t
The energy and momentum
S.N.
S Quantity
ℎ�
Before collision
(Where � is the frequency of ℎ� ′

After collision
1. Momentum of radiation
radiation)
E� =� (Where
hϑ � is the frequency of
′
2. Energy of radiation E� =� hϑ
radiation)
3. Momentum of electron
� =� (Where is the rest mass of � =� (Where is the

4. Energy of electron
the electron) moving mass of the electron)
By the principle of the conservation of momentum along and perpendicular to the direction of the incidence,
Page 22
we get
In x-direction
� � = � �
ℎ�′
ℎ�� +� = cos� �� +� � cos�………………………………….
� (1)
In y-direction
ℎ�′
� +� = sin� �� −� � sin�………………………………….
� (2)
By equation (1)
� cos� �= ℎ�� −� ′ ℎ�
cos� � …………………………………. (3)
By equation (2)
� sin� �= ℎ� ′ sin� � …………………………………. (4)
Squaring equation (3) and (4) then adding we get
sin �� +� cos
� = ℎ�� −� ′ ℎ�
cos� � + ℎ� ′ sin� � m
= ℎ � +� ℎ� ′ cos �� −� ℎ ′ cos� ��
�� o +�� ′ ℎsin �
= ℎ � +� ℎ� ′ cos ��
.c
+� sin
� −� ℎ�� ′ cos� �
a
= ℎ � +� ℎ� ′ −� ℎ�� ′ cos� �
ℎ � +� ℎ� ′ −� ℎ�� ′ cos� � = …………………………………. (5)
Now by conservation of energy m
� � = a � �
ℎ�� +� = ℎ
n′
+� …………………………………. (6)
ℎ�� +� −� ℎ′ =
y
ℎ�� −� ′ ℎ�
+�
d =
Squaring both side
u
t [ℎ�� −� ′ ℎ�
+� ] =
S
As we know that
so
� +�
� −�
� +�=�
� +�=�
+�
+�
+�
+�
+�
−�
� +�
� −�
� +�
� +�
ℎ � +� ℎ� ′ +� −� ℎ�� ′ −� ℎ� ′ +� ℎ� =
ℎ � +� ℎ� ′ −� ℎ�� ′ +� +� ℎ�� −� ′ .�� = …………………………………. (7)

Subtracting equation (5) from (7) we get
ℎ � +� ℎ� ′ −� ℎ�� ′ +� +� ℎ�� −� ′ .�� −� {ℎ� +� ℎ� ′ −
= −�
ℎ �� ′ cos� �}
ℎ � +� ℎ� ′ −� ℎ�� ′ +� +� ℎ�� −� ′ .�� −� ℎ� −� ℎ� ′
= −�
+� ℎ�� ′ cos� �
′
−ℎ .� �� −� cos�+� � ℎ�� −� ′ � +� = −�
Page 23
But � =
√ −�
�
So = �
−
�
=
−�
So
′
−ℎ .� �� −� cos�+� � ℎ�� −� ′ � +� = −�
−�
− ℎ �� ′ � −� cos�+� � ℎ�� −� ′ � +� =
− ℎ �� ′ � −� cos�+� � ℎ�� −� ′ � =
ℎ �� −� ′ � = ℎ �� ′ � −� cos� �
ℎ ��′
�� −� ′ � =
m
� −� cos� �
ℎ
o
(�−�′ ) ℎ
= � −� cos� �
��′
.c
� �′ ℎ
− = � −� cos� �
��′ ��′
a
ℎ
− = � −� cos� �………………………….. (8)
�′ �
Multiplying by both side

m
a
ℎ
− = � −� cos� �
�′ �
n
ℎ
�′ −� � = � −� cos� � ………………………….. (9)
y � =
ℎ
� −� cos� �
d � =
ℎ
� sin
�
u
t
ℎ �
� = sin ………………………… (10)
S
Where � is the change in the wavelength
Equation (10) shows that
1) If �� =� � ⟹� �� there
i.e. =� is no scattering along the direction of incidence.
� ℎ . × −
2) If �� = ⟹� �� = = × − × × 8 =� . Å, this wavelength is known as Compton
wavelength and it is a constant quantity.

ℎ
3) If �� =� �� ⟹� ��=� = . Å
so the change in the wavelength waries in accordance to the
scattering angle � and this is shown in figure.
Page 24
Figure(9): Graph between angle of incidence and wavelength

Importance of Compton effect:
1) It provides the evidence of particle nature of the electromagnetic radiation.
2) This verifies the Pla k’s ua tu h pothesis.
3) This provides an indirect verification of the following relation � =
m
√ −�
and � =�
o
�
.c
Direction of the recoil electron:
We know that
� cos� �= ℎ�� −� ′ ℎ�
cos� �
ℎ� ′ sin� �
a …………………………………………… (3)
…………………………………………… (4)
m
� sin� �=
a
Dividing (4) by (3) we get
ℎ� ′ sin� �
n
tan� � =
ℎ�� −� ′ ℎ�cos� �
y
′
� sin� �
tan� � =
�� −� ′ cos�
� �
d
Again by equation (8) i.e.
u ℎ
t ′
− = � −� cos� �
� �
S �′
=
�
+
ℎ �
sin ( )
Multiplying by � we get
� ℎ� �
= � + sin ( )
�′
ℎ� �
� + sin
=
�′
�
�
�′ = ℎ� �
� + sin
Then by equation (11) and (12) we have
Page 25
�
[ ] .� sin� �
ℎ� �
� + sin
tan� � =
�
�� −
[ ] .� cos� �
ℎ� �
� + sin
ℎ�
Let =� �
then
�� sin� �
[ � ]
� +� �� sin
tan� � =
�� cos� �
�� −
[ � ]
� +� �� sin
m
o
�� sin� �
[ � ]
� +� �� sin
.c
tan� � =
cos� �
a
�[ � − � ]
� +� �� sin
m [
sin� �
� ]
a
tan� � =
� +� �� sin
n
�
� +� �� sin� −� cos� �
[ ]
y
�
� +� �� sin
d
u
sin� �
tan� � = �
t
� +� �� sin� −� cos� �
S sin� �
tan� � = �
� −� cos� � � +� �� sin
� �
.� sin� � .� cos�
tan� � =
� �
.� sin � +� �� sin
Page 26
� �
.� sin� � .� cos�
tan� � =
�
.� sin � � +� �
�
cot�
tan� � =
[ � +� ] �
�
cot�
tan� � = ℎ�
[ � + ]
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 27
Wave function and its properties:

We know that height of the water surface varies periodically in water waves, the pressure of gas varies
periodically in sound waves and the electric field and magnetic field varies periodically in light waves,
similarly the quantities which varies periodically in case of matter waves is called the wave function. The
quantity whose variations make up the matter waves. This is represented by . This has no direct physical
significance and is not an observed quantity. However the value of wave function is related to the probability
of finding the particle at a given place at a given time, wave function is a complex quantity i.e.
� =� � +� �
Conjugate of is
∗
=� � −� �
m
And
o
∗
= | | =� +�
| | at a time at a particular place is the probability of finding the particle there at that time and is known as
probability density | | =� ∗
.c
a
�
−� �−
Let the wave function is specified in direction by the wave equation � =� �
Where � =� ��
and =� ��
m
a
So
�
n
= − �� −
��
y
�
= − �� −
� ……………………………… (1)
d
As � =� ℎ� ℎ
And �� =
�
ℎ
u �.
ℎ
t
� = .� �� = �
� �
S
�ℏ
�� =
� =� �ℏ� �
�
=
� �ℏ
Putting these values in (1) we get
� �
= − �� −
�ℏ �ℏ
�
= − ��−�
ℏ ……………………………… (2)
This is the wave equation for a free particle.
Properties of wave function:

1) It must be finite everywhere: if is infinite at a particular point, then it would mean an infinitely
Page 28
large probability of finding the particle at that point, which is impossible. Hence must have a finite
or zero values at any point.
2) It must be single valued: if has more than one value at any point, it means that there is more than
one values of probability of finding the particle at that point, which is impossible.
3) It must be continuous: For Schrodinger equation must be finite everywhere. This is possible only
where has no discontinuity at any boundary where potential changes. This implies that too
must be continuous across a boundary.

4) must be normalised: must be normalised, which means that must to be zero as � ⟶� ±∞
,
� ⟶� ±∞
, � ⟶� in order that ∫| |
±∞ over all space be finite constant.
+∞
If ∫−∞ | | � =� � ⟹
the particle does not exists but | | over all space must be finite i.e. the body
m
exits somewhere it
o
∫ | | � =� ,� ∞,�, complex
− are not possible.
.c
+∞
5) Normalization: ∫−∞ | | � =�
∗
As | | =� =� ��
6) Probability between the limits and a
: This is given by
m
+∞
= ∫−∞ | | � �
a
7) Expected values: To correlate experiment and theory we define the expectation values of any
parameter
n
y
+∞ +∞ ∗
∫−∞ . | | ∫−∞
= +∞ = +∞
d
∫−∞ | | ∫−∞ ∗
u
If is a normalised wave function then
t
+∞
∫ | | � =�
S
−∞
So
+∞
=� ∫ | | � =�
−∞
Orthonormal and Orthogonal wave function:

∗
For two wave function and if the condition ∫ � =� exists then they are said to
∗
be orthogonal wave function. Here is the complex conjugate of .
The normalized wave function are defined by
∗
∫� � =�
Page 29
The wave function satisfying both the conditions of normalisation and orthogonally said to be orthonormal.
These two conditions simultaneously can be written as
=� for � =�
∗
∫� � =� =
=� for � ≠�
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 30
Operator:
Operator ̂ is a mathematical rule which may applied to a function which changes the function in to an
other function .
So an operator is a rule by means of which from a given function, we can find another function for example:
=�
So an operator tells us that what operation to carry out on the quantity that follows it.
Energy Operator:
We know that the wave function is given as-
�
= − ��−�
ℏ
Differentiating partially with respect to we get

m
o
� −
�
��−�
= − ℏ
� ℏ
.c
�
= −
� ℏ
= −
ℏ
�
a
Hence energy operator m
̂ a
= �ℏ
n
Momentum Operator:
y
d
Again by wave function i.e.
u
�
= −
ℏ
��−�
t
Differentiating equation with respect to we get
S =
�
ℏ
�
− ��−�
ℏ
�
=
ℏ
ℏ
=
�
−�ℏ
̂ −�ℏ
ℏ
Note: � =�
Here is called an eigan function of the operator −�ℏ and are called the corresponding energy eigan
values.
Page 31
Schrodinger’s wave equation:

S h odi ge ’s a e e uatio s a e the fu da e tal e uatio s of ua tu e ha i s i the sa e sense as
the Ne to ’s se o d e uatio of otio of lassi al e ha i s.
It is the differential form of de-Broglie wave associated with a particle and describes the motion of particle.
(i) One Dimensional

ℏ
�ℏ = +� �
Time dependent (ii) Two Dimensional

Schrodinger wave ℏ
�ℏ = + +� �
equation
(iii) Three Dimensional

ℏ
m
�ℏ = + + +� �
Schrodinger
wave
equation (i) One Dimensional o
.c −
ℏ
� −� �� =�
Time dependent a
(ii) Two Dimensional
m
Schrodinger wave
equation + + − � −� �� =�
ℏ
a (ii) Three Dimensional
n + + −
ℏ
� −� �� =�
y
d Figure(10): Schrodinger wave equations
udependent wave equation in 1-dimentional form:

t
Schrodinger’s time
Let us assume that the for a particle moving freely in the positive x-direction is
S =
�
− ��−�
ℏ ………………………. (1)

= � +� � � …..………………… (2)
�
And we know that the kinetic energy is related with the momentum as � =
So the equation (2) in terms of wave function , can be written as

�
= � � +� � …………………… (3)
ℏ
As we know that the energy and momentum operators are given by � =� �ℏand � =
� �
Putting the values in equation (3) we get
Page 32
ℏ
�ℏ = ( ) � +� �
�
ℏ
�ℏ = − +� � ………..…………………….………… (4)
S h odi ge ’s ti e i depe de t a e e uatio i 3-dimentional form:

ℏ
�ℏ = + + � � +� �
�
But the Laplacian operator is given as ∇ =� + +
So the above equation can be written as-

ℏ
�ℏ = ∇ � +� � ………………………….…………… (5)
�
Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation in 1-dimention:
m
Again from wave function-
�
o
= − ��−�
ℏ
.c
� �
− ��
= ℏ .� ℏ
� �
� − ��
a
= ℏ .� ℏ
� �
− ��
= ℏ Where =� ℏ
Now differentiating partially with respect to we get m

a
= −
�� − ��
�
…………………………………………… (7)
n
ℏ
� ℏ
y
Now differentiating partially with respect to we get
�
− ��
d = ℏ
u
�
−
Again = ℏ …………………………………………… (8)
t
Putting the value from (7) and (8) into equation (5) we get i.e. �ℏ � =
ℏ
∇ � +� �
S �ℏ [ − ℏ
� −
�
ℏ ] = −
ℏ
[ −
�
ℏ ] +� � −
�
ℏ
� �
− − �� ℏ
ℏ = ℏ [ +� � ]
ℏ
= +� �
ℏ
−� =
ℏ
� −
� =
ℏ
� −
� =
− � −
� = ………………………………………………………. (10)
ℏ
Page 33
S h odi ge ’s ti e i depe de t a e e uatio i 3-dimention form:

+ + � − � −� � =
ℏ
∇ − � −
� =
ℏ
Where ∇ = + +
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 34
Application of Schrodinger’s wave equation:

Energy level and wave function of a particle enclosed in one dimensional box of infinite height:
Let us consider the case of a particle of mass moving along x-axis between two rigid walls A and B at � =
and � =� . The potential energy � of the particle is given as
� <� � <�
�� =
∞ � � � �
Within the box, the Schrodinger wave equation is given by
− = [ � �� =�……………………………………. (1)
ℏ
Let = (2)
m
ℏ
o
−� = ………………………………………………. (3)
.c
This is a second order differential equation and its solution is given by
= � sin� � +� � cos�……………………… (4)
a
Where A and B are constants, the value of these constants can be calculated by the boundary conditions. By
first boundary condition if � =� � ⟹� �
m
=�
Then by equation (4) we get
a
n
= � sin� � +� � cos�
y
⟹ =
d
For second boundary condition � =� at � =� then by equation (4)
= � sin� � +� .� cos�
u
t
⟹ � sin� =
S
But � ≠� so sin� � =� � ⟹� � =� � � =� , , , � …� …� …�
�
As we know that = ........................................................ (5)

� �
ℏ
=
�
�ℎ
For representing the energy level replacing BY we have
� �
ℏ
=
�
� ℏ
= � ×
�
� ℎ
= � ×
� �
Page 35
ℎ
= ......................................... (6)
�
It is clear from expression (6) that inside an infinitely deep potential well, the particle can have only discrete
set of energy i.e. the energy of the particle is quantised. The discreet energies are given by
ℎ
=
�
ℎ
= =�
�
ℎ
= =�
�
ℎ
= =�
�
.. = .. .. ..
.. = .. .. ..
m
The constant A of equation (4) can be obtained by applying the normalization condition i.e.
=�
∫= | |
o
=
�
.c
∫ | � sin� | =
�
∫ sin � =
∫
� −c s� �
� = a
∫
�
� −� cos� =m
[{ }� − {
si � � �
} ] a
n
� =
[ � −� � −sin�
y � −� sin�
] =
d � � −� sin�
� � =
�
u
[ � − sin ] =
t [ � − � −� ] = � sin� �� =�
S =
= √ …………………........................................... (7)
�
Now the wave function will be given by

�
= √ sin � =� , , ,� …� …� .�
� �
Page 36
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Unit-5
m
o
.c
a
Optics
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Syllabus:
Interference, division of amplitude & division of wave front,
double slit experiment, thin film interference, Newton Ring Experiment.
Diffraction: Difference between interference and diffraction, types of
diffraction, single slit, double slit & n-slit diffraction, Resolving power of
grating.
Page 1
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Interface:
When two waves of approximately same amplitude and frequency going in the same direction in the same
medium, generally coming from the same source, then the intensity of light at different places will be
different. This phenomenon of light is known as interference.
Interference can be obtained by two ways:
Interference may be of two types:
Interfecence
By the division of the wavefront By the division of the amplitude
m
1. Youns double slit experiment 1. Newton's ring
2. Fresenl's biprism 2. micleson's interferometer
o
.c
Figure(1): Interference Hierarchy tree
Interfecence
a
m
a
n
Counstructive interference Distructive interferenc
y
d Figure(2): types of Interference
u
t
Constructive Interference:
Locus of all the points where the crest of one wave falls on the crest or the through of the one wave falls on
S
the through of the other, the resultant amplitude is the sum of the individual waves. So the constructive
interference takes place at those points and the intensity at these points will be maximum.
Figure(3): Constant Phase difference Figure(4): Waves in same phase
Page 2
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Destructive Interference:
Locus of the points where the crest of one wave falls on the through of the other wave the resultant intensity
become the difference of the waves and at these places the intensity become minimum. At these points
destructive interference will take place.
Figure(5): Waves opposite phase
Coherent sources:
m
o
Two sources are said to be the coherent if they emit continuous light waves of the exactly same
.c
frequency/wavelength, nearly same amplitude and having sharply define phase difference that remains
constant with the time.
a
In practice it is impossible to have two independent coherent sources. For experimental purpose virtual
m
sources formed by a single source and acts as coherent sources.
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure(6): You g’s Dou le Slit e peri e t Figure(7): Llo d’s Mirror
Figure(8): Fresnel double mirror Figure(9): Fres el’s i-prism
Page 3
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Figure(10): Mi helso ’s I terfero eter
Relation between phase difference and path difference:

The difference between optical paths of two rays
m
which are in constant phase difference with each
o
.c
other is known as the path difference.
a
Suppose for a path difference the phase
difference is �
So
m
� = � …………………..………..
a
Δ = …………………………….
n
y
by equation (1) and (2)
� �
Δ d
=
u
� = Δ
�
t
S
Figure(11): Phase and path difference
Principal of superposition:
When two or more waves reaches at the same point of a medium then the displacement at that point
becomes the vector sum of displacement produced by the individual waves.
i.e.
= + + … … ….
Page 4
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Mathematical treatment of interference:

Let two waves of amplitude and and angular frequency � super imposes and re-unit at a point after
traveling different path and ,let the phase difference of these two waves is �
If and are two waves then
= sin � …………
= sin � + � ………… (2)
By the principle of superposition of waves , the resultant waves will be
= +
= sin � +sin � + �
sin + = sin cos + cos sin
= sin � +[sin � cos � + cos � sin �]
= sin � +sin �
m cos � cos
+ � sin �
= sin � [+
o
cos �] + cos sin
� �][ ………… (3)
cos �= + cos � .c …………

a
Let
sin �= sin � …………
by the equation , and we get-
m
a
= sin � . cos � + cos � . A sin �
n
= [sin � cos � + cos � sin �]
y
= sin � + � …………
and � are constant and can be given by equation
d
Here and as
+ cos � + sin � = cos � + sin �
+ u
cos � + cos � +sin � = [cos � + sin
�]
t + cos � + sin
� + cos � = [cos � + sin
�]
S + + cos � =
cos� + sin
� =
= + + cos �
Now the resultant intensity at any point is given as � ∝ for simplicity let
� =
So � = + + cos �
Condition for maxima:
For maximum intensity
cos � =
Page 5
Unit 5: Wave Optics
then � = �
This is the condition for constructive interference in terms of phase �
Then by equation by
� = + +
� = +
So the path difference
Δ = × �
�
Δ = × �
�
Δ =
Δ =
I.e. the path difference is the even

m
multiple of , this is the condition of o
constructive interference in terms of
.c
a
path difference ∆
Figure(12): �
Condition for the minima: m

Again the intensity will be minimum when-
a
n cos � = −
y
then � = + �
This is the condition for destructive interference in terms of phase �
d
u
Then by equation
� = + −
t � = −
S
And path difference
Δ = × �
�
Δ = + �
�
Δ = +
i.e. the odd multiple of the half wavelength, this is the condition of destructive interference in terms of path
difference ∆
Now the average Intensity:
Page 6
Unit 5: Wave Optics
�
∫ �
�� = �
∫ �
�
∫ + + cos �
�� = �
∫ �
[ � + � + sin ]� �
�� = [�] �
+ . �
�� =
�
�� = +
�� = � + �
The average intensity is the average of the maximum and minimum intensities. It can be given by-
Now if = = then,
�� =
m
o
The average intensity is equal to the sum of the separate intensities. Whatever the intensity disappears at the
.c
minima is actually appears at the maxima. Thus there is no violation of the law of conservation of energy in
the phenomena of interference.
a
m
Condition for the sustained interference of light.
a
n
1. Two sources of light must be coherent.
y
2. Difference in the amplitudes of the two waves must be small.
3. Sources should be narrow or point source.
d
4. The separation between two sources should as small as possible.
u
5. If the interfering waves are polarised then the plane of polarisation must be same.
t
6. The sources should be monochromatic.
S
7. Interfering waves from two coherent sources of light should travel in the same direction.
Page 7
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Fringe width:
Consider a narrow monochromatic source and two parallel narrow slits and very close together and
equidistance from . Let be the distance between two slits and and be the distance of screen from
coherent source. The path difference between the rays reaching from and to is zero so the point
has maximum intensity.
Considering a point at a distance from . The wave reaches at the point from and hence =
− and = +
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
Figure(13): Measurement of fringe width
− y = [ + ( +
) ] − [+ ( −
) ]
d
+
u − = [ + + + .−{ + + − .}]
t
S
+ − = + + + .− − − + .
+ − =
− = +
Now from the figure
If the point is very close to point
so − = and
Δ ≈ =
Δ =
+
Δ =
Page 8
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Δ =
1. Bright Fringes: For bright fringes the path difference is the integer multiple of the i.e.
= .
=
ℎ
This equation gives the distance of the bright fringes from the point . Hence for the bright fringe
(replacing by )
m
For next bright fringe
o
+
+ =
Therefor the distance between any two consecutive bright fringes

.c
a
+
+ − = −
� = m
a
n
2. Dark Fringes: For dark fringes the path difference is an odd multiple of
So
y = +
d +
u =
Hence the ℎ
t
dark fringe (replacing by )
S =
+
ℎ
And for the + dark fringe
[ + + ]
+ =
+
+ =
Therefore the distance between two consecutive dark fringes
+ +
+ − = −
Page 9
Unit 5: Wave Optics
+ − = [ + − ] −
+ − = .
�′ =
As the distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is same and is called fringe width and denoted
by �.
� =
i. The fringe width is directly proportional to the wavelength of the light used i.e. � ∝
m
ii. The fringe width is directly proportional to the distance of the slits from the screen i.e. � ∝
o
iii. The fringe width is inversely proportional to the distance between the slits i.e. � ∝
.c
Shape of the interference fringes:
Actually these interfering fringes are hyperbolic in shape, but the eccentricity of fringes is quite large and
hence these hyperbolic fringes appear more or less strength lines.
a
m
Angular Fringe Width:
a
The angular fringe width is defined as the angular
n
separation between consecutive or dark fringes and
is denoted by �.
y
d Figure (14): Angular fringe width
u =
t �
S � = � +
+
− �
� = −
+ −
� =
β
� =
But � =
λ
so � =
Page 10
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Fresnel’s Biprism:
The prism is a device to obtain two coherent sources
to produce sustained interference.
Fresnel used a biprism to show the phenomenon of
interference. A biprism is usually a combination of
two prisms placed base to base. In fact – this
combination is obtained from an optically plane glass
plate by proper grinding and polishing. The obtuse
angle of the prism is about 9 and other angles are
about ′ each.
To show the phenomenon of interference a
horizontal section of the apparatus is shown in the
Figure : Fres el’s Bipris
figure.
Measurement of �
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S Figure(16): Measurement of d by displacement of lens
A bi-convex lens of short focal length is mounted between the bi-prism and the eyepiece by moving the
lens along length of bench, two positions and are obtained such as for which the image of sources
formed at the same place.
For position = …………
For position =
= [ = = …………
So on multiplying & we get
Page 11
Unit 5: Wave Optics
= ×
=
= √
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 12
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Determination of the thickness of a thin sheet of

transparent material:
Figure(17): Shift in fringes on introducing the thin film

Distance travelled by the light in air = − (by the velocity c)
Distance travelled by the light in film= (by the velocity )
m
Time taken by the light to cover this distance
o
.c
−
= +
But =
�
ℎ =
a
So we have
m
=a −
+
n
y =
−
+
d
u =
− +
t
S =
+ −
Thus the path to �. . is eqivelent to an air path + −

Now the path difference at
Δ = ℎ � � − ℎ � �
Δ = − [ + − ]
Δ = − − −
�
But − =
�
So we have ∆ = − − … …
Page 13
Unit 5: Wave Optics
ℎ
but for maxima,
Δ = … …
− − =
= [ + − ] … …
ℎ
Where is the position of the maxima
Now in absence of the plate �. . =
ℎ ′ �
The maxima =[ ] (in the absence of ) …………..
1. Displacement of the fringes:

ℎ
If denotes the displacement of the maxima by introducing the mica sheet, then
− ′
= [ + − ]− m
�
+
�
−
�
− ` o
.c
=
= −
This equation is free from so the displacement of each maxima will be same. a
m
a
2. Thickness of mica sheet:
The displacement of any maxima by introducing a mica sheet of thickness is given by
n
y =
×
d
−
u
3. Refractive index of the material of prism:
t
Once if we know the displacement of the fringes and thickness of the film we can calculate the
S
refractive index of the material of the film as-
− =
×
×
= +
Page 14
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Stoke’s treatment of phase change:

When a light wave is reflect from the surface of an optically dens medium, it suffers a phase change of
� �. a. path difference of
Let is an interface separating the denser medium (below i.e. glass) to rare medium (above i.e. air) it. A
ray of light of amplitude " " incident on the interface is partially reflecte along the path and
patially refracted into the denser medium along .Let is the coefficient of reflection and is the
′
coefficient of transmission then the amplitude of reflected and transmitted wave will be ′ and
respectively.
Then in case of no absorption of light
+ =
m
′
Now if the reflected and refracted rays are reversed the resultant should have the same amplitude ′ as that
o
of the incident ray
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
Figure(18): Reflection and refraction through a Figure(19): Ray diagram on reversing the direction of
t surface incidence
When S
is reversed it is partly reflected along
Similarly when the ray
and partially refracted along
is revesed it is partly refracted along
as shown in figure.
and partially reflected along . Now the
content along should be zero and that along should be equal to a �. .
′
+ = … … … . . … … … …
= − ′
′
= −
This equation indicates displacement in the opposite direction so according to Stoke’s la , he a light a e
coming from a rare medium an additional phase � is introduced in it.
Page 15
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Interference in thin film:

Consider a thin film of equal thickness and refractive index > . A monochromatic light ray incident
at angle � is partially reflected and partially transmitted as shown in figure
m
o
.c
a
m
a
Figure(20): Reflation and transmission of light through a thin film
n
y
Reflected system:
In reflected system two waves & are in the position to interfare so the path difference between
&
d
u Δ = ℎ − ℎ
t
� � � ��
Δ = + −
S
Now from figure it is clear that =
Δ = −
But from Δ
= sec
Then = sec
= sec
And from Δ = sin �
Page 16
Unit 5: Wave Optics
= sin �
But = +
= + sin � …….…. (1)

But from Δ and Δ
= tan ⟹ = tan ⟹ = tan
and = tan ⟹ = tan ⟹ = tan
but = tan = tan …….…. (2)

putting the value of and in from so we have
= tan + sintan�
m
= tan � . sin �
o
sin
= . . sin �
cos
Multiplying and dividing by sin we get
.c
= .
sin
cos
.
sin �
sin
. sin a
=
sin
m sin �
a
. .
cos =
sin
n
sin
= .
cos
Therefor ∆ y = −
Putting the value of
d
and , we get
u ∆ = sec −
sin
.
t cos
S
sin
∆ = sec −
cos
sin
∆ = −
cos cos
− sin
∆ =
cos
cos
∆ =
cos
∆ = cos …….…. (3)
Page 17
Unit 5: Wave Optics
A. In Reflected system:
The ray undergoes a reflection from the densor medium so a additional path difference of must be
added, then
∆ = cos +
1. Condition for constructive interference:

For constructive interference ∆=
So
cos +=
cos = −
cos
m
= − (where = , , , … …
o
2. Condition for the destructive interference:
.c
For destructive interference ∆= +
So
cos += + a
cos =
m + −
cos =a (where = , , , … …
n
B. In transmitted system:
y
In the transmitted system there will be no additional path difference so
d ∆ = cos
u
1. Condition for constructive interference: Condition constructive interference is ∆=
then t cos = Where = , , , … …
S
2. Condition for destructive interference: Condition for the destructive interference is
∆ = + Where = , , , … . .
then cos = +
So the reflected and transmitted interference patterns are complimentary.
Colour in thick film:

A thick film do not show the any colour in reflected system when illuminated with an extended source of light.
Page 18
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Wedge shape film:

A wedge shape film is one whose surfaces are inclined at a certain small angle. Figure shows a thin wedge
shape film of refractive index bounded by two plane surfaces and inclined at an angle �. Let a parallel
beam of monochromatic light falls on the upper surface normally and the surface is viewed in the reflected
and refracted system then alternate dark and bright fringes becomes visible.
m
o
Figure(21): Reflection and refraction through a wedge shape film
Let the light is incident nearly normally at a point
.c
on the film, the path difference between the rays reflected
a
at the upper and lower surface is = where is the thisckness of the film at .
m
a
Reflected system:
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure(22): Reflection through a wedge shape film
The condition for the maximum intensity (bright fringes):
In the reflected system according to the Stokes treatment an additional path difference of is introduced in
the ray reflected from the upper surface. Hence the effective path difference between the two rays will be ∆=
+ and the condition for the bright fringes is ∆=
So + =
Page 19
Unit 5: Wave Optics
= −
= −
The condition for the minimum intensity (Dark fringes):
The condition for the destructive interference is Δ = +
+ = +
+ = +
= +−
=
m
o
.c
Transmitted System:
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t Figure(23): Refraction through a wedge shape film
S
In the transmitted system there will be no additional path difference so the effective path difference will be
∆=
The condition for the maximum intensity (bright fringes):
The condition for the maxima is given as ∆=
so =
Page 20
Unit 5: Wave Optics
The condition for the minimum intensity (Dark fringes):
The condition for the minima in interference is ∆= +
So = +
Fringe width:
ℎ
For dark fringe let this fringe observed at a distance from the edge, where the thickness of fringe is
From figure (23-B) it is clear that = �
then = �
So =
So � = ……..
ℎ
Similarly for + fringe Figure(23-B)
+ � = + ……..
m
o
.c
+ � − � = + −
− � = + −
a
+
But + − = �
so �� =
m
� =
a
�
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 21
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Newton’s Ring:
For atio of Newto ’s Ri g:
When a Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed with its convex surface in contact with a
plane glass plate, an air film of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the upper surface of the
plan glass plate and the lower surface of the Plano-convex lens. If a monochromatic beam of light is allow to
fall normally on the upper surface of the film then, alternative bright and dark concentric fringes with their
centre dark are for ed. These fri ges or ri gs are k o as the Ne to ’s ri gs.
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
Figure : For atio of the Ne to ’s ri gs
u
Experimental arrangement:
t
The experimental arrangement is shown in the figure. Light rays reflected upwards form the air film,
S
superimpose each other and interference takes place, due to which the alternative bright and dark
concentric rings are formed those can be seen by the telescope.
Page 22
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Figure(25): Ne to ’s ri g experimental arrangement
m
The fringes are circular because the air film is symmetrical about the point of contact of the lens with the
o
plane glass plate.
Theory: .c
The rings are formed both in reflected and refracted part.
a
Reflected Part:
m
As the films are obtained in the reflected part the effective path difference between the interfering rays is
given by a
n
Δ = cos + ……. (1)
y
d
Where is the refractive index of the film, is the thickness of the film, is the angle of incidence. The
u
factor is account for the phase change of � on reflection from the lower surface of the film. For air =
t
and for normal incidence = then
S Δ = + ……. (2)
Central fringe:
At the centre i.e. at the point of contact =
So Δ =
This is the condition for the minimum intensity, hence the central fringe will be dark.
For Constructive interference (i.e. maxima):

The condition for the constructive interference by thin film is given as
Δ =
Page 23
Unit 5: Wave Optics
+ =
= −
Then = −
It is the condition for constructive interference Where = , , ….
For destructive interference (i.e. minima):
The condition for the destructive interference by the thin film is given as Δ = +
+ = +
m
It is the condition for minima Where = , , … ..
o
Shape of the fringes:
.c
As in air film remains constant along the circle with its center at the point of contact, the fringes are in the
form of the circles, since each film is the locus of the constant thickness of the air film. These fringes are
known as the fringes of equal thickness.
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure : Dia eter of Ne to ’s ri g Figure : Shape of the Ne to ’s ri gs

So the diameter of the bright ring is proportional to the square root of the odd number.
Diameter of Bright ring:

Let is the lens placed in the glass plate the point of contect is shown by . Let is the radius of the
Page 24
Unit 5: Wave Optics
cuvature of the curved surface of the lens. Let e the radius of the Ne to ’s ri g here the fil thi k ess
is
from the right angle Δ
= − +
= + − +
As the air film is very thin so can be neglected
= − +
=
Substituting the value of in the equation for bright ring i.e. = +
So
= m
o
+
.c
ℎ
Radius of brigth ring
a
+
= √
So the diameter of ℎ
bright ring
m
= a
So
n √
+
y
=
d = √ +
u = √ √ +
t ∝ √ +
S
Diameter of the Dark ring:
Condition for dark ring is
=
And
=
So on comparing these two equation we get
Page 25
Unit 5: Wave Optics
=
= √
the diameter of the dark ring
=
= √
= √
= √ √
∝ √
The diameter of dark ring is proportional to the square root of even number.
So, as we go far from the centre the thickness of the ring reduces, this limits the number of rings in any
pattern that means infinite number of ring can-not be seen.
Newton’s Rings in transmitted part: m

o
In case of transmitted light, the effective path difference is
.c
cos
a
m
a
n
y
Figure d
: Ne to ’s ri g refle tio s ste Figure : Ne to ’s ri g i Refra ted s ste
u
t
Transmitted part:
S
Constructive interference:
=
Destructives interference:
= +
Page 26
S.N.
3 2 1
Ne to ’s ri g Wedge shape film Parallel Thin film
Name
S
t
u
d
y
n
Figure
a
m
a
Destructive: Constructive: Destructive: Constructive: Destructive: Constructive:
(Minima) (Maxima) (Minima) (Maxima)
.c (Minima) (Maxima)
o
cos
m
Condition for
Reflected part
= = − = cos =
= − = −
cos =
Condition for
=
transmitted part
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Page 27
= = cos =
= − −
−
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Applications of the Newton’s Ring:

1. Determination of wavelength of light
ℎ ℎ
Let and + respectively the diameters of the and + dark rings where is an integer. Then
by equation
= ……………………………………………………
= �
ℎ
Similarly the diameter of + ring is given by
+ = + ……………………………………………………
So by equation &
+ − = + −
− = + −
m
+
− =
o
+
.c
+
=
−
a
+
=
m
2. Determination of refractive index of any liquid:
a
For air film ( + − )�� = = � … … … … … .
n
�
In liquid ( + − )� = … … … … … … … . .
�

y
(
d
+ − )��
= �
(
u
+ − )
� �
t ( + − )��
S
=
( + − )
� �
Page 28
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Diffraction:
1. Bending of the light form the sharp edges of the obstacle is called the diffraction.
2. The intensity of light outside the geometrical shadow of an obstacle and presence of light within its
geometrical shadow is called the diffraction of light.
3. The deviation of light from the rectilinear path is called the diffraction.
S.N. Fres el’s diffra tio S.N. Frau hofer’s Diffra tio
1. Either the source of light or screen or both 1. Both the screen and source are effectively at
are at finite distance form obstacle or infinite distance from the obstacle or aperture.
aperture.
2. Wavefront may be of any type i.e. plane, 2.
m
The incident wavefront is always a plane
spherical or cylindrical. wavefront.
o
.c
3. No need to use the lenses. 3. Lenses are required.
4. Diffraction pattern is the image of obstacle 4. Diffraction pattern is the image of the source.
or aperture. a
5.
m
Intensity of light at any point is found by the 5. Intensity at any point is measured by the
a
half period zone method which is not mathematical treatment which is more
n
accurate. accurate method.
y
d
Difference between diffraction and interference:
u
t
S.N. Interference Diffraction
S
1. This phenomenon is the result of interaction 1. This phenomenon is the result of interaction of
taking place between two separate wave light between the secondary wavelengths
front originating from two coherent sources. originating from different points of the same
wavefronts.
2. The regions of minimum intensity are usually 2. The regions of minimum intensity are not
almost perfectly dark. completely dark.
3. Interference fringes may or may not be of 3. Diffraction fringes are not of the same width.
same width.
4. All maxima are of same intensity. 4. The maxima are of varying intensities.
Page 29
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Fraunhofer’s diffraction at a single slit:

Let parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength be incident normally upon a narrow slit =.
A ordi g to Hu ge s’s theor a pla e a e fro t is i ide t or all o the slit . Each point of sends
out sencodory wavelets in all directions. The rays proceeding in the same direction as the incident rays are
focused on , while those diffracted through an angle � are focused at .
m
o
.c
a
m
Figure(27 : Frau hofer’s diffra tio
a
To find the intensity at point , we drop a normal on the ray , the optical path from each point of the
plane to point will be equal.
n
Now the path difference between the wavelets reaching the point from point and is
Δ = y
But from Δ
d
u = sin �
t
S =
=
sin �
sin �
Δ = sin �
�
so ℎ � = × Δ
�
ℎ � = × sin � … … (1)
…
Now if we consider n number of infinite point sources of secondary wavelengths on the plane wave front
then this can be divided into equal parts, so phase difference between the waves obtained at the point
from any two consecutive parts
� = � … … …
× . sin �
Page 30
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Now to find the intensity at point there are following two methods are available
1. Phase diagram Method.
2. Integral Method.
Phase diagram method:

In the figure, draw vectors , , … … … such
… that
.. the magnitude of each vector is and angle
between the two consecutive vectors is � . The vector gives the resultant vector. Let the magnitude of
the resultant vector is �. If is the centre of the polygon formed by the vector then by the simple
geometry we can see that each vector substance � at the centre and the angle substaended by the
resultant vector at the centre is �.
Let and are the normal drawn of first vector and resultant vector from centre .
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n Figure(28): Phase diagram
from right angle triangle Δ y

d =
�
sin ()
u
t
�
= sin )(
But S = = [ ]
=
�
= sin )( … … …
Similarly from Δ
�
= sin ( )
�
= sin ()
But
�
=� so
��
=
�
sin … … …
Page 31
Unit 5: Wave Optics
By (3) and (4) ��

sin
�
= �
sin
�
sin
� = �
… … …
sin
Now putting the value of � from the equation no. (2) we get
�
sin sin �
� = �
… … …
sin sin �
� si �
Let =
sin
Then � = sin
is very small so sin ≈ m

o
Now
.c
sin
Then =
�
So
� =
sin
a
m sin
�
a
=
Where =
n
Now the intensity
y
d � ∝ �
u � = [Where is a constant
t
�
S
sin
� = [ ]
�
� = [ ]
sin
� = � [ ] … . … . . Where � =
Conditions for maxima and minima:

si
From the equation � = [� ] it is clear that the resultant intensity � at point on the screen depends on
the angle of diffraction � or on . For maxima, the derivation of � with respect to must be zero. �. .
Page 32
Unit 5: Wave Optics
sin
{� [ ] } =
sin cos − sin

� . . ( ) ( ) = ……
Condition for Minima:

For the minima, the first term in the above equation (8) should be zero i.e.
sin
=
sin =
± �
m
=
Putting the value of we get-
� sin � o
.c
= ± �
sin �= ±
Where = , , , , … … … …. a
m
a
Now the second term of equation (8) will show the condition for maxima-
cos − sin
i.e.
n =
y cos = sin
d =
sin
u
cos
t
= tan
S
The condition for maxima is = tan
To find the value of for which the above condition may hold, we draw two curves
= … … (9)
…
= tan … … (10)
…
On the same graph as shown
Page 33
Unit 5: Wave Optics
m
o
Figure(29): Graph .c
The value of
a
at the points of intersection of these two curves satisfy the equation = tan
At the central maxima: � = ⟹
m =
a
� sin �
So =
So, the intensity at the principle maxima

n
y � = � (
sin
)
d
u
Applying the limits we get
sin
t lim (
→
) =
So
S � = �
So at the principle maxima the intensity will be maxima.
(maximum)
Intensity for subsidiary maxima:

� si �
For subsidiary maxima the value of sin must be maximum, for this the value of = i.e. the value
of sin �must be maximum �. . sin � =

�
� = ± +
� � �
�. . � = , ±± , ± … … …
so at the,
Page 34
Unit 5: Wave Optics
�
sin �
first subsidiary maxima � = � [ � ] =
�
sin �
Second subsidiary maxima � = � [ � ] =
�
sin �
Third subsidiary maxima � = � [ � ] =
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 35
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Fraunhofer’s diffraction at a double slit:

Let a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength be incident normally upon two parallel slit and
′
, each of width ′ separated by opaque space of width d.
m
o
.c
a
Figure (30): diffraction at a double slit.
m
Suppose each slit diffracts the beam in a direction making an angle � with the direction of the incident beam.
a
From the theory of diffraction at a single slit the resultant amplitude is
n =
sin
y
�
� si �
d
Where = and is a constant
u
These two slits can be considered as two coherent source placed at the centre of the slits. Then resultant
intensity at point
t will be the result of interference between these two waves of same amplitude and phase
difference �
S
Now the resultant amplitude at point
= √ + + cos � (interference)
So = √ � + � + � � cos �
= √ � + cos �
�
= �√ . cos
Page 36
Unit 5: Wave Optics
�
= � cos
si
But we know that � =
sin �
So = ( ) cos )( … … (1)
…
Therefore the resultant intensity at point will be

� ∝
� =
Where is a constant
Putting the value of from equation (1)
sin �
� = . ( ) cos ( ) … … …
m
o
Let � =
.c
Hence resultant intensity
sin �
� = � ( ) cos ( ) … … …
Condition for Minima: a

m
From the equation (3) it is clear that the intensity will be minimum when sin = ⇒ = ± �
Where = , , … but
… … ≠… …
a
So putting the value of we get
n
⇒
� sin �
= y �
d
sin �=
Where m= 1, 2, ,…… ut u
≠ m = is the condition for the maxima
t
S
From the equation (3) it is clear that the intensity will be maximum when term
si
will be maximum.
sin =
�
⇒ = −
� sin � �
⇒ = −
⇒ sin �= −
Where n=0,1,2, , …..
Page 37
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Missing order maxima:

The condition for the interference maxima is given as ∆=
But Δ = sin � (from single slit)
So the condition for the interference maxima will be
+ sin= � ………
And the condition for the diffraction minima is given as
sin �= ……….
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
Figure(31): Intensity graph of double slit diffraction
For certain value of
d
certain interference maxima become absent from the pattern. Let for some value of �
u
the following two conditions be satisfied simultaneously
t
S
Dividing the equation by
+
=
Case I: If =
+
Then =
⇒ =
⇒ =
If = , , … … … . . ⇒ = , , … … … … ..
This means that , , … order
etc … of interference maxima will be missed.
Page 38
Unit 5: Wave Optics
If =
Case I: If =
Then +
=
⇒ =
If = , , ,then
… … =…. , , 9 … … ..
This means that , , 9 etc.
… will
…. missed.
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 39
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Fraunhofer’s Diffraction of � Parallel slit:

Diffraction Grating:
It is an arrangement consisting of several parallel and equidistant slits each of equal width.
It is constructed by drawing the several equidistance parallel lines on an optically plane glass plate with a
pointed diamond. The distance between two consecutive slits is + = which is called the grating
element. Genrally the value of for the grating to be used with the visual light is of the order of
−
�. . lines drawn on length of the grating.
m
o
.c
Figure(32): Diffraction Grating a Figure(33): Diffraction Grating
Theory:
m
In figure, is a grating of
a
parallel and equidistance slits , , … … …the…width of each slit is ′ ′ and
n
width of opaque space between the two consecutive slits is ′ ′. �. .the grating element = . +
y
Let a plane wavefront of wavelength is incidents normally on the grating. Then diffracted by it is focused on
d
a screen by means of a convergent lens on screen.
u
Intensity distribution: It is clear from the figure that
t
diffracted waves do not reach a point on the screen in
S
the same phase since their optical paths are not equal.
The path difference between the two consecutive wave
is Δ = sin �
Therefor the phase diff.
�
� = × ∆
Wave diffracted at an angle � from each slit is � =

si � e si �
where =
[by single slits diffraction]
Figure(34): Phase Diagram
Page 40
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Now we can find the resultant amplitude due to the superposition of such waves by phase diagram method.
In figure we draw vector , , … such
.. that magnitude of each vector is � and the angle between
the consecutive vector is �. The vector which joints the initial points of first vector and final point of last
vector is and this vector sustained an angle �. and are the normal plotted from the centre of
polygon on first and resultant vectors.
From the figure in Δ

�
= sin
�
⇒ = sin
��
But = =
� m
o
�
= sin … … … .
.c
Similarly in Δ
�
a
⇒ = sin ( )
�
⇒ =
m sin ()
But = =
a
n �
sin () …………. (2)
y
=
d
Dividing equation (2) by (1)
u
� ��
sin
=
t
��
sin
S �
= [
sin
sin
��
�
]
��
sin
= � [ �
]
sin
On substituting the value of � we get

��
sin sin
= ( )[ �
]
sin
Multiplying and dividing by we get
Page 41
Unit 5: Wave Optics
��
sin sin
= ( )[ �
]
sin
So the resultant intensity will be given as

� ∝
� =
Where is the proportionality constant
Putting the value of from (3) we get
��
sin sin
� = ( ) [ ]
�
sin
��
sin sin
� = � ( ) [ ] … … (3)
…
�
sin
m
o
Where � =
.c
si
In this expression the term represents the intensity due to diffraction due to a single slit, while second
��
a
si
2
term [ � ] represents the intensity due to interference of wave obtained from slits.
� si
2
Condition for Principle Maxima:

m
a
� �
For principal maxima the path difference will be zero so the phase diff then sin = =⇒ ± �where
= , , then
… sin
..
��
n
is also zero and in the limit when sin
�
→ the value of term [
si
��
2
] will be
y
�
si
2
d
. Hence from equation the resultant intensity will be maximum.
i.e.
u
t
��
sin
lim [ ] =
S � �
2
→ sin
sin
So we have � = � ( ) ……..
Which is the intensity at principle maxima i.e. similar to the intensity by a single slit.
Condition for Minima:

��
From the equation (3) it is clear that the intensity will be minimum when sin = but sin ≠
�
i.e. sin ( ) =
⇒ � = ± �
Page 42
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Where = , , , … …
� si �
But � =
� sin �
So = � … … (5)
…
sin �=
This is the condition for the minimum intensity for N-slit diffraction.
Condition for Secondary maxima:
�
Condition for maxima is =
�
So from equation (3)

��
sin sin
[� ( ) { �
} ] =
� sin
m ��
o
� sin sin
( ) { } =
� �
.c
sin
��
a
� sin sin sin . cos − sin .cos
( ) [{ �
} ] =
sin �
{sin }
m� � � �
a
sin () . cos () − sin ( ) . cos) ( =
n
y
� � = sin
��
. cos
�
……… 6)
sin () . cos ()
d
⇒ u �
tan )( =
�
tan ( ) … … …
t
S
again by equation
� � �
tan )( cos () = sin ( )
� � �
⇒ sin ( ) = tan )( cos ()
�
� tan
sin ( ) = ��
sec
�
tan
�
sin ( ) = ��
√ + tan
Page 43
Unit 5: Wave Optics
�
tan
�
sin ( ) = �
By (7)
√ + tan
On squaring both sides we get

�
si
2
� c s
�
sin ( ) = 2
�
+ tan
��
sin
� = � �
sin [ + tan ] . cos
��
sin
� = � � �
sin [cos + tan . cos ]
m
��
sin
�
si 2
o
� = � 2 �
sin cos + � cos
c s2
2
.c
��
sin
= � �
a
� [cos + . sin ]
sin
��
m
sin
� = − sin� �
+ . sin
a
sin
n
��
sin
[ ] = �
+ − sin
y
�
sin
d
��
sin
[ ] = � ……… (7)
+ − sin
u
�
sin
t
S � = � (
sin
) ×
+ −
�
sin
This is the expression for the intensity at the subsidiary maxima in N-slit diffraction.
Page 44
Unit 5: Wave Optics
Resolving Power of Optical Instrument:

To distinguish two close object is called geometrical resolution and the ability of an optical instrument to
distinguish the image of very close object is called the resolving power of that optical instrument.
The ability of instrument to produce the separate diffraction pattern is known as resolving power.
Raleigh’s criterio of resolutio :
According to this criterion two sources are resolved by an optical instrument when the central maxima in the
diffraction pattern is fall over the first minima in the diffraction pattern of the second maxima and vice versa.
In order to illustrate the criterion let us consider the
resolution of two wavelengths and . Figure shows
the intensity curve of the diffraction pattern of two
wavelengths. The diffraction in wavelength is such that
m
their principal maxima are separately visible. There is a
o
distinct point of zero intensity in between the two.
.c
Hence the two wavelengths are resolved.
Figure(35): Two separate maxima
a
In the case when there is small dip between the maxima
of and such that the central maxima of
m wavelength coincide with the first minima of and
a wise versa as shown in the figure (36). The resultant
n intensity curve has a dip in the middle of the two central
y maxima. Thus two wavelengths can be distinguished
d from one another
u
Figure(36): Condition of just resolution
t If the difference between the two wavelength and
S is so small that the maxima corresponding to

wavelength come still closer as shown in the figure (37)
the resultant intensity curve in this case is quit smooth
without any dip, thus wavelengths cannot be resolved.
Figure(37): Maxima that cannot be resolve
Resolving power of Grating:

The resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as the capacity to form separate diffraction maxima of
Page 45
Unit 5: Wave Optics
two wavelengths without which they are very close to each other. This is measured by .
Let is a plane diffraction gratting having grating

element = +
and total numbers of number of
slits. Let a beam of light having two wavelengths and
+ is normally insidented on the gratting. is the
ℎ
primary maxima of spectral line of wavelength at
ℎ
an angle of diffraction � and is the primary
maxima of wavelength + at diffraction angle
� + �
The principal maxima of in � direction will be

+ sin �= …………………………………………..……..
m
Figure(38): Formation of diffraction pattern by a
o
And the equation of minima + sin �=
.c
grating
Where is an integer except , , … ,… .
a
because for these values of the condition for maxima
is satisfies and we obtain diffraction maxima.
m
Now first maxima adjacent to ℎ
a
principle maxima
+ sin � +
n � = + ………… (2)
And first minima
y
d+ sin � + � = + ………… (3)
u
Now multiplying the equation (2) by we have
t + sin � + � = + ………… (4)

By &
S + = +
+ = +
Page 46
Unit 5: Wave Optics
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 47
Unit –V: Semiconductors
Unit-6
m
o
.c
a
Semiconductors
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Syllabus:
Crystalline and Amorphous solids, Band theory of solids, mobility and
carrier concentrations, properties of P-N junction, Energy bands, hall
effect, VI characteristics of photodiode, Zener diode and photovoltaic cell
Page 1
Crystalline and amorphous solids:

Solids can be broadly classified in to following three types-
1) Crystalline solids
2) Amorphous solids or non-crystalline solids
3) Polly crystalline solids
Crystalline solids
If the atoms or the molecules in a solid are arrange in some regular fashion then it is known as crystalline
solids. Hence in a crystalline solid the atoms are arranged in an orderly three dimensional array that is
repeated throughout the structure. This is shown in the figure (1-a). The metallic crystal are , , etc. the
non-metallic crystals are , �, etc.
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
Figure (1)
d
Amorphous solids or non-crystalline solids:
u
t
Amorphous means without form. When the atoms or molecules in a solid are arrange in an irregular fashion
,� � ,
S
then it is known as amorphous solids which is shown in the figure (1-b). The examples are
etc.
Polly crystalline solids
There are some solids which are composed of many small regions of single crystal material and are called
polycrystalline solid. Hence the atoms in polycrystalline solids are so arranged that within certain sections
some short of pattern of the atoms exists but the various sections are randomly arranged with respect to each
other as shown in the figure.
Page 2
Difference between amorphous and crystalline solids:
Amorphous Solids Crystalline Solids

1. Solid those do ’t have defi ite geo 1.
etrical
Crystalline solids have the characteristic
shape. geometrical shape.
2. Amorphous solids do not have particular 2. They have sharp melting point.
melting point. They melt over a wide range of
temperature.
3. Physical properties of amorphous solids are 3. Physical properties of crystalline solids are
same in different direction. i.e. those solids are different in different directions. This
isotropic. phenomenon is known as anisotropy.
4. Amorphous solids are unsymmetrical. 4. When crystalline solids are rotated about an axis
m
there appearance does not changes. This shows
o
that they are symmetrical.
.c
5. Amorphous solids do not beak at fixed cleavage 5. Crystalline solids cleavage along particular
planes. direction at fixed cleavage planes.
a
How does the band forms in the solids:
m
a
n
We know that the atoms are arranges in a periodic manner in a solid and they formed the crystal. In an atom
y
the electron are revolves in different orbits according to their energy. If we take each individual atom and find
the energy of electron then this energy becomes identical for each corresponding atom for every electron. But
d
as in solids the atoms are not free but they interacts one-another so the energy become slightly more or less
u
for some of the electrons and if we plot the energies we get an energy band in solids. There may be a number
t
of energy bands in a solid but two of them are of our interest
S
1) Valance band: The energy band plotted by energy of the electrons those are revolving in the
outermost orbit is called the valance band.
2) Conduction band: The electrons those are revolving in the outermost orbit are loosely bounded and
can be separated by giving some energy to those electrons. Now those electrons are free to move
inside the crystal and they are not concern to any individual atom.
The energy band plotted by the energy levels of the free electrons is called the conduction band. Since these
electrons are free to move inside the crystal and are responsible for conduction of electricity is known as
conduction band. There is a gap in between the upper most energy level of valance band and lowest energy
level of conduction band is known as forbidden energy gap. Because these energy levels cannot be occupy by
Page 3
any electron. On the basis of this band theory we can classify the conductors, insulators and semiconductor.
Types of materials on the basis of the electrical conduction:

Materials can be classified into three different categories on the basis of their electrical conductivity.
Materials
concudutor Semiconductors insulators
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Semiconductor Semiconductors
n-type m p- type
Semiconductors
o
Semiconsuctors
.c
Figure(7): Classification of the materials
Conductors: a
m
Conductors are those materials
a
which have completely or
n
partially filled conduction band
and the forbidden energy gap
y between the conduction band
d and valance band is zero. So the
u electrons those are in valance
t band also available in conduction
S Figure(8): Conductors band to flow the current.
Page 4
Insulator:
The materials which does not allows to flow the
current from them, are called the insulator. In case of
insulator there is a large energy gap between the
conduction band and valance band of about ~ �
so it is impossible to lift the electron from valance
band by giving some energy to the conduction band.
Therefore materials are insulators.
Figure(9): Insulator
m
Semiconductor:
Semiconductors are those materials which has there
electrical
o
conductivity somewhere between
.c
conductors and insulators. It means these materials
a
behave as an insulator at low temperature while at
the elevated temperature they shows some electrical
m conductivity.
a
n The semiconductor has totally empty conduction band
y at absolute zero, but at elevated temperature some of
d
the electrons jumps from the valance band to
Figure(10):
u
conduction band as the forbidden energy gap between the semiconductors is of moderate size of about
. ~ .
t
� and this much amount of energy can be provided easily to the valance band electrons so the
S
current can flow in this type of material.
Semiconductors are of two types:
1) Intrinsic semiconductors
2) Extrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors:
Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductor as and �. These materials have four electrons in their
outermost orbit. To complete the octal an / � atom form the covalent bonds with four other neighbouring
/ � atoms as shown in the figure.
Page 5
Due to this, no electron is available in conduction

band at low temperature and therefor it behave as an
insulator, but at elevated temperature, due to some
thermal agitation some of the covalent bonds in the
semiconductor material breaks, due to which an
electron hole pair creates. The electron is now
available in conduction band even at the room
temperature and hole is available in valance band.
The hole is a vacancy created in the valance band is
filled by the neighbouring electron and thus electron
and hole starts flowing in valance band and due to
Figure(11): Intrinsic semiconductor
both electron and hole the electric conduction in
m
material is now possible.
Extrinsic Semiconductors: o
.c
6
In intrinsic semiconductors only electrons per cubic meter contributes to the conduction of electric
current hence these are of no particular use.
If a small amount ~ �� a
of pentavelent or trivelent impurity is introduce into a pure / � crystal, then
m
the conductivity of the crystal increases appreciably and the crystal becomes an extrinsic semiconductor.
Again, extrinsic semiconductors are of two types
a
n
1) − extrinsic semiconductor
2) � −
y
extrinsic semiconductor
� − ��
Extrinsic semiconductor
d
u
If a pentavalent impurity as , �, is added to / � then four electrons of outermost orbit of these
t
atoms creates covalent bonds while the extra electron which is free in the crystal enhanced the electrical
S
conductivity of the materials.
In this type of the crystal the current flows due to a negatively charge particle i.e. electron so the materials are
known as − semiconductor materials.
The impurity atom introduce discrete energy level for the electron just donates the extra electron in the crystal
therefor these are called donor impurity levels.
Page 6
− m −
o
Figure(12): Semiconductors crystal Figure(13): Donor level in extrinsic
semiconductor
� − ��
Extrinsic semiconductors: .c
When a trivalent , , , atom replaces an
a
/ � atom in a crystal �� , only three valance
m
electrons are available to form covelent bonds with neighboring / � atoms. This result into an empty space
a
or a vacant position called hole. When a voltage is applied to the crystal then an electron bound to a
neighbouring / � atoms occupy the hole position there by creating a new hole. This process continues and
n
holes moves in a crystal lattice. This type of semiconductor is called the � − semiconductor.
y . � above the valance band in case of

d
These are called acceptor impurity level, which are only
and
u
The trivalent impurity atoms introduces vacant discrete energy levels just above the top of the valance band.
. � in case of �.
t
S
Page 7
Figure(14): p − type
semiconductor
m
Figure (15): Acceptor level in extrinsic
o
semiconductors.
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 8
Charge mobility:
When an electric field, ⃗ is applied to a conductor or semiconductor then the electrons (in opposite to ⃗ )
and holes (in the same direction to ⃗ ) starts flowing with drift velocity, . This drift velocity is
proportional to the applied field ⃗ , i.e.
∝ ⃗
= �⃗
Here � is proportionality constant which is known as mobility of charge carriers.
So | |
� =
|⃗ |
m
So mobility relates the drift velocity to electric field.
o
Mobility gauges how easily current carrier can move through a piece of conductor or semiconductor.
.c
Charge concentration:
a
m
Intrinsic semiconductors:
a
1) Electrons in conduction band behave as free particle with effective mass
2) Number of conduction electrons per cubic meter whose energies lies between ⃗ and ⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is
given as - n
y = … .
Where d
is the density of states at bottom of the condution band and it is given as per quantum
mechanics as
u
t =
�
− … .
Here S
is the energy at the bottom of the conduction band.
ℎ
And is the Fermi-Dirac probability function, which is given as-
= �−� … . .
( )
+ ��
Where is the Fermi level, is the absolute temperature and is Boltzmann constant.
Now since electron may have energies between to ∞ in conduction band so total number of electron
will be given by integrating (1)
∞
= ∫
��
Page 9
∞
�
= ∫ − �−�
�� ℎ ( )
+ ��
∞
� −
= ∫ �−�
ℎ �� ( )
+ ��
�−� �−�
As ≫ and − ≫ so + �� ≈ ��
So � ∞
−
= ∫ �−�
ℎ �� ( )
��
∞ � −�
� ( )
= ∫ − ��
ℎ ��
∞ � −�� +�� −�
� ( )
= ∫ − ��
ℎ ��
m
∞ � −��
� −
�−�� ( )
= ∫ − ��
ℎ
o
��
∞
� � −��
.c
�−��
−
= �� ∫ − ��
ℎ ��
a
�−��
Let = so that = .
��
m
Limits:-
As → ⟹ =
And → ∞ ⟹ = ∞ a
so � � −��
( ) n ∞
−�
y
= �� ∫ .
ℎ
d
� −�� ∞
� ( ) −�
= �� ∫
u
ℎ
t
∞ / −� √�
But ∫ =
S =
ℎ
�
�
(
� −��
��
) √�
[ ]
� −��
= � ( ) … . .
( ) ��
ℎ
This is the density or concentration of electron in conduction band in intrinsic semiconductor.
Hole concentration in valance band:

Since holes are created by removal of an electron so Fermi function will be −
So let us calculate the Fermi-Dirac distribution for holes as
Page 10
− = − �−�
( )
+ ��
�−� −
( )
− = − [ + ]
��
�−�
( )
− = − [ −
�� ]
�−�
− = −
(
+
��
)
�−�
− = (
��
) … . .
And for the top of the valance band the density of the states will be given as
�
= ℎ � −
ℎ
m
Here ℎ is the effective mass of the hole near the top of the balance band.
So the hole concentration will be given as
� �−�
o
.c
( )
ℎ = ℎ �−
��
ℎ
On integrating we get
= ∫
��
�
�−
(
�−�
��
) a
m
ℎ ℎ
−∞ ℎ
a
�� −�
� ( )
ℎ = ℎ ∫ � − ��
ℎ
n
−∞
�� −�� +�� −�
� ( )
y
ℎ = ℎ ∫ �−
��
ℎ −∞
d �� −�
� �−��
( )
ℎ = ℎ ∫ �− ��
u
ℎ −∞
t
�� −� ��
� ( ) −
�� −�
ℎ = ℎ
�� ∫ � − ��
ℎ
S
−∞
�� −�
Let = ⟹ − =
��
And limits
As ⟶ −∞ ⟹ ⟶ ∞
And ⟶� ⟹ ⟶
�� −�
� ( ) −�
ℎ = ℎ
�� ∫ −
ℎ ∞
�� −�
� ( ) −�
ℎ = − ℎ
�� ∫
ℎ ∞
Page 11
� �� −�
/ −�
ℎ = − ℎ �� ∫
ℎ ∞
∞
� �� −�
/ −�
ℎ = ℎ �� ∫
ℎ
� �� −�
√�
ℎ = ℎ ��
ℎ
= � ℎ �� −� /�� … …
ℎ ( )
ℎ
This relation gives the density or concentration of holes in the valance band of an intrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic concentration of charge

On combining the equation number (4) and (6) we get the following expression for the product of
electron-hole concentration
m
� −�� −�
ℎ
= � ( ) � ℎ ( )
( ) �� ( ) ��
o
ℎ ℎ
� −�� +�� −�
�
.c
ℎ ( )
= ( ) ℎ
��
ℎ
a
ℎ � �� −��
= ( ) ℎ ��
ℎ
m
�
ℎ = −
��
Where =
��
ℎ and � − = a
−
n
ℎ
(A) Fermi levels in intrinsic semiconductors:

y
d
In an intrinsic semiconductor electron and holes are always generated in pair so = ℎ
u
i.e.
t
� −�� −�
� ( ) = � ℎ ( )
( ) �� ( ) ��
S
ℎ ℎ
�� −� � −��
−( ) ( ) = ℎ
�� . ��
� −�� −�� +�
( ) = ℎ
��
Taking log of both sides

− − � + ℎ
( ) = ln
− − � = ln
ℎ
Page 12
+ � ℎ
= + ln
Now if the effective mass of the electrons and holes are same then
+ �
=
This shows that the Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of the forbidden energy gap as depicted in
figure. The Fermi level can also be defined as the energy level at which there is a . probability of finding
an electron. It depends on the distribution of energy level and number of electron available.
(B) Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor:

(i) n-type extrinsic semiconductor:
At usual temperature all the donor level will be fully activated and the donor atoms will be ionised. It
means the density of electrons will be increase. It means the density of electrons in the conduction band
will be approximately equal to the density of donor atoms, i.e. =
m
(density of donor atoms)
o
� −��
Then � ( )
= = [ ] . ��
.c
ℎ
Let �
a
[ ] = =
ℎ
� −��
m
Then = .
(
��
)
a
� −��
= (
��
)
n = −(
� −��
)
y
��
d
Taking log on both sides
−
u ln [ ] = − ( )
t −
S = − ln
[ ]
= − [ ln ]
It shows that the Fermi level lies below the bottom of the conduction band, as shown in the figure.
In intrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level lies in the middle of the forbidden energy indicating equal
concentrations of free electrons and holes. When a donor type impurity is added to the crystal, then if we
assume that all the donor atoms are ionised, the donor electrons will occupy the states near the bottom
of the conduction band. Hence it will be more difficult for the electrons from the valance band to cross the
energy gap by thermal agitation. Consequently, the number of holes of the valance band is decreased.
Since Fermi level is a measure of the probability of occupancy of the allowed energy states, for n-type
Page 13
semiconductors must move closer to the conduction band, as shown in the figure.
(ii) P-Type extrinsic semiconductor:
When an acceptor type impurity is added it also modifies the energy level diagram of semiconductor and
makes the conduction easier. The presence of impurity creates new energy levels which are in the gap in
the neighbourhood of the top of valence band of energies as shown in figure. Ambient temperature
results in ionisation of most acceptor atoms and thus an apparent movement of holes takes place from
the acceptor level to the valance band. The energies for holes are highest near the valance band decreases
vertically upward in the energy level diagram. Alternatively, one may say that electrons are accepted by
the acceptors and these electrons are supplied form the valance band, thus leaving a preponderance of
holes in the valance band.
If we assume that there are only acceptor atoms present and that these are all ionised, we have
�� −�
= = � ℎ ( )
ℎ [ ] . ��
ℎ
m
o
�� −�
= (
��
)
�
.c
��ℎ �� /
Where � =[ ] =
ℎ
�
= (
�� −�
��
)
a
�
=m −(
�� −�
)
a
��
n
Taking log on both side,
�
y
ln [ ] = − � − /
d = � +
�
[ ln ]
u
t
It shows that the Fermi level lies above the top of the valance band.
Page 14
Hall Effect:
According to Hall when a current carrying metal or semiconductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, a
potential difference is developed across it; the direction of the developed potential difference is
perpendicular to the direction of both applied magnetic field and applied current.
In a P type semiconductor slab the current is given by
� = …..
Where = Concentration of holes
= The charge on the hole
= Area of cross-section
= Drift velocity of the charge carrier
Therefore the current density along the external applied electric field will be given by
= �
=
m …….
When a transverse magnetic field is applied, the hole experience a Lorentz force
o � which deflect them
.c
towards face (in our case). Because of this at face the holes starts gathering at surface and it acquires
a positive polarity. An equivalent negative charge is developed at surface . Due to this potential difference
developed between the faces and an electric filed � a
is produced. This field is called Hall field. This electric
field produces a force �
m
on the hole in opposite to Lorentz force � .
1. Hall Voltage �� : a
n
When a sufficient number of holes accumulates at the surface , the force � balance the Lorentz force i.e.
y � = � ….
d
This equilibrium condition usually reached in −
u
Now the Lorentz force on holes due to magnetic field is given by
t � = sin 9
S � = ….
Substituting the value of from equation (2) we have

⃗⃗⃗�
� =
=
� ….
�
And the electric force on the hole due to Hall voltage
� = �
But � = ��/
=
�� ….
�
Page 15
Where b is the width of the semiconductor slab.

Putting the value of � and � in equation (3) we have
��
=
But = �/
So ��
=
�� =
� ….
If is the thickness of the semiconductor slab then =

∴ �
�� = .
�� =
� ….
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
Figure(17): Hall Effect
2. Hall coefficient �� : d
Hall coefficient �
u
is defined as the Hall field per unit magnetic induction per unit current density.
t
S � =
��
�
=
�� /
�
Putting the value of �� from equation (7)
�
� = × ×
�
�
� = × � = ….
�
Again putting the value of from equation (9) into (8) we get-
�
�� = ×�
Page 16
�� .….(10)
� = �
� = � � …. (11)
3. Hall Angle ��
In the semiconductor the resultant electric field is the vector some of the applied field � and the
developed Hall field � as showm in figure. If �� is the angle between the resultant electric field and the
direction along which the current is flowing as shown in the figure then-
m
o
.c
Figure(18)
� …. (12)
tan �� =
But we know that

�
a
m =
��
= …. (13)
a
�
� …. (14)
And � =
�
where � is conductivity
n
So by (12), (13) and (14)
y
d tan �� = ×�
u �
t tan �� =
�
But = S
� by equation (9) then
tan �� = � �
Now � � = �
tan �� = �
�� = tan− � …. (15)
Page 17
P-N junction Diode:

When P-type and N-type semiconductors are join together by some special techniques. A p-n junction is
formed. P-N junction allows to flow of current in one direction only and this property is called rectifying action.
Figure (19): Symbol of P-N junction diode. Figure(20): Diode
m
There are two operating regions and three possible biasing condition of a P-N junction.
i) o
Zero biasing: When no external potential is applied to the p-n junction the diode is said to be
.c
unbiased. The potential barrier discourages the diffusion of any majority carrier across the
a
junction. However the potential barrier helps minority charier to drift across the junction. Then an
equilibrium will be established.
ii)
m
Forward bias: The P-N junction is said to be forward bias when its p-side is connected to the
a
positive terminal and the N-side to the negative terminal of the battery. If applied voltage become
n
greater than the value to potential barrier, the potential barrier will overcame and current starts
y
flowing. When an applied voltage is increased gradually more and more charge carrier of lower
d
energy gain sufficient energy and current starts increasing.
u
t
S
Figure(21): Forward bias circuit Figure(22): Forward bias characteristic

iii) Reverse bias: When positive voltage is applied to the n-type and negative voltage is applied to the
p-type semiconductor. The diode is said to be reverse biased. The depletion layer grows wide in
this case only a small amount of current flows due to the minority charge carrier. The circuit of
reverse bias P-N junction diode and reverse bias characteristics are shown in the figure.
Page 18
Figure(23): Reverse bias PN junction circuit diagram Figure (24): Reverse bias characteristics curve.
Zener Diode:
Zener diode is a special purpose heavily doped PN-junction diode, designed to operate in the breakdown
region. The symbol of Zener diode is shown bellow
m
o
.c
Figure(25): Symbol Zener Diode
Construction:
a
Zener diodes are like ordinary PN junction diode except that they are fabricated by varying the doping so that
m
sharp and specific breakdown is obtained. Zener diode consists of two and � substrates diffused together
a
and has metallic layer deposited on both sides to connect anode and cathode terminals.
V-I Characteristics: n
y
The graph plotted between voltage taking on x-axis and current on the Y-axis is called the � − charactristics.
d
Forward bias characteristics:
u
The forward bias V-I Characteristics of Zener diode is shown below. It is almost identical to forward bias
t
characteristics of PN junction diode.
Figure(26): Forward bias Zener Diode Figure(27): Forward bias characteristics of Zener
diode
Reverse Bias Characteristics:
The reverse bias characteristic of Zener diode is generally different from that of the PN-junction diode. As we
Page 19
increase the reverse voltage, initially small current starts flowing due to thermally generated minority charge
carriers. At a certain value of reverse voltage the reverse current will increase suddenly. This voltage is called
Zener break down voltage. Once the break down occurs the voltage across Zener diode remains constant.
Figure(28): Zener diode Reverse bias Figure(29): Zener diode reverse bias characteristics
m
The sudden increase in the current may occurs due to the following reasons-
o
i) Avalanche effect: This type of breakdown takes place when both side of junction are lightly doped
.c
in this case the electric field is not so strong to produce Zener break down. Here the minority
carrier accelerates by the field, collides with the atoms of semiconductors due to the collision with
a
valance electrons, covalent bonds are broken and electron hole pair are produced. This is called
avalanche break down. At this point the device damages permanently and cannot be used again by
removing the reverse voltage. m
ii) a
Zener effect: When both side of junction are very heavily doped and small reverse bias voltage is
n
applied, a very strong electric field is set. This field is enough to break the covalent bonds. This is
y
called the Zener effect or Zener break down. Due to which an abrupt increase in the reverse
d
current occurs, and the device stats acting as a conductor. After the removal of reverse voltage the
u
device will be available to use and at Zener voltage the device do not damages.
t
Applications of Zener diode:
i)
ii)
S
As a voltage regulator
Switching operations
iii) Clipping and clamping circuits.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator: A simple voltage regulator use a Zener diode in reverse bias in parallel with
the load � as shown in the figure-
Page 20
Figure(30): Zener Diode as a voltage Regulator

When the voltage in the circuit increases the voltage across Zener diode remains constant which appears
across the load. The Zener diode draws more current and voltage across the diode remains constan.
Photo Diode:
m
The Photo diode is a PN junction semiconductor diode which is always operates in the reverse bias condition
o
Construction: the construction of a photodiode and its circuit and symbol are shown in the figure. The light is
.c
always focused through glass lens on the junction of photodiode. As the photodiode is reverse biased the
a
depletion region is quite wide. The photons incident on the depletion region will impart their energy to the
ions present there and generate electrons hole pair. The number of electrons-hole pair will be depend on the
m
intensity of the light. With increase in the light intensity number of electrons –holes pairs are produced and
the photo current increase.
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure(33): Symbol Photo diode Figure(34):Construction of photo diode

Photo diode Characteristics: V-I characteristics are shown below and the variation of photocurrent with light
intensity is shown below in the figure
Page 21
Figure(35): Photo diode V-I Characteristics Figure(36): Photo diode intensity/current

characteristics
m
Dark Current: It is the current flowing through a photodiode in the absence of light. Dark current flows due to
o
thermally generated minority charge carrier and hence increase with increase in temperature. The reverse
.c
current depends on the intensity of light incident on the junction. It is almost independent of the reverse
a
voltage.
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 22
Solar Cell:
A solar cell is a photovoltaic device designed to convert sunlight (solar energy) in to the electrical energy.
Construction:
The solar cell is made from semiconductor materials like silicon. The p-type layer is made very thin so that the
light radiation may penetrate to fall on junction. The doping level of p-type semiconductor is very high. As the
photon reaches at the junction, here it is absorbed and an electron from valance band jump to conduction
band this creates an electron hole pair.
The electron produced in the p-side and the hole produced at the n-side works as minority carriers. These
minority carriers cross the junction due to the depletion reign electric field cross the junction, even in the
absence of applied voltage. This phenomenon is clearly depicted in figure.
m
o
.c
a
Figure(37): Generation of photo electrons
m Figure(38): Circuit of solar cell
Thus a photo current flows in the circuit
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure(39): Solar cell circuit Figure(40): Symbol of solar cell

Advantages:
1) It is a pollution free energy conversion system.
2) Cheap for solar power aircrafts.
3) Useful in remote areas where no other source of energy can be frequently transferred.
4) It is clean source of energy.
Page 23
Disadvantages:
1) It does not convert all the solar energy in to the electrical energy.
2) Its efficiency depends on the temperature.
3) Requires large area for power applications.
4) The output is DC which cannot be transported through large distance without significant loss.
Applications:
1) In space satellite.
2) In low resistance relay for ON and OFF applications.
Characteristics of solar cell:

1) Voltage v/s intensity of incident light: - The voltage increases linearly with increase in the intensity of
light.
m
o
.c
a
m
Figure(41):Voltage/current intensity
a
2) Current v/s intensity of incident light: The current v/s intensity at a given load resistance are shown in
n
figure below. The current increases linearly first and after a certain point the current stops increasing
y
d
u
t
S
Figure(42): Current/intensity graph
3) Voltage v/s current or V-I characteristics: Voltage current characteristics for fixed load resistance � is
shown in the figure(43).
Page 24
Figure(43): Voltage v/s current or V-I characteristics

The nature of the V-I characteristic of a solar cell is similar to that of a photo diode. Typical V-I characteristics
of a solar cell is shown in the figure. On the vertical axis � the applied voltage � is zero everywhere and
m
therefore the point of intersection represents the short circuit condition. The point of intersection of the
characteristic curve with � axis represents the short circuit current , ,
o… and
.. � , � … ….
are
.c
open circuit current.
a
4) V-I characteristic as a function of load resistance:
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure(44):VI graph
5) Voltage v/s power i.e. V/W characteristics curve: the voltage v/s power characteristic curve as a
function of load resistance � at fix light intensity is shown in figure below-
Figure(45):Voltage/power graph
Page 25
Unit-7 Nuclear Physics
Unit-7
m
o
.c
a
Nuclear
a
mPhysics
n
y
d
u
t
S
Syllabus:
Nuclear composition, mass defect, binding energy, nuclear force, liquid
drop model, elementary idea about nuclear fission and fusion
Page 1
Nuclear constituents:
By particle scattering, Rutherford conclude that the atom of any element consist of central core called
nucleus and electrons moving around it. The entire mass of the atom and positive charge is concentrated
inside the nucleus. The nucleus is supposed to consists of two particles the protons and neutrons. The
protons are positively charged particles while the neutrons are neutral particles. The mass of the protons
and neutrons are almost same and the charge on the proton is equal and opposite to that of electron.
S.N. Name of the particle Mass of the particle Charge on the particle
− −
1 electron . × − . ×
− −
2 proton . × . ×
−
3 neutron . ×
Both the neutrons and protons inside the nucleus together are called the nucleons. The number of
m
protons �. . ℎ is called the �
o and the sum of the
.c
number of protons and neutrons is called the . The stability of the nucleus is depends on
a
the relative number of neutrons and protons.
The conventional symbol of the nuclear species follows the following pattern-
m ��
Where a
=
mass number n
= y
atomic number (i.e. the number of the protons/electrons)
� =
chemical symbol
d
u
t
S
General Properties of the nucleus:
(a) The nuclear mass:
Mass of the nucleus is the sum of the mass of the protons and neutrons combined in a nucleus. This is
usually expressed in terms of � �
ℎ
−
= . × . It is part of the nucleus.
it is assume that the total mass of the nucleus should be the sum of the mass of the neutrons and protons
i.e.
ℎ = ( �) + �
ℎ = ( �) + − �
Page 2
Where
� =
� = ℎ
= �
= �
(b) Nucleus charge:
The charge on the nucleus is due to the protons contained in it. This can be given as
−
ℎ = .× ×
(c) Nucleus radius:
It has been observed that volume of the nucleus of directly proportional to the number of the
nucleons ,
∝
� ∝
m
∝ o
.c
�
∝ /
/
a
�
/
= /
m
�
where is the proportionality constant

= a /
where
n
=
/
y
d
�
= −
. ×
(d) Nuclear density- u
t
The density of the nucleus can be calculated as follows.
S � =
…..
but ℎ = �
ℎ = � . × −
( )
ℎ = −
. ×
ℎ = × ℎ
Page 3
ℎ −
= × . ×
now putting these values in the equation number (1)
�× . × − 7
� = −
�× . ×
� = . × /
Spin and magnetic moment:
Like electron neutrons, protons are also fermions with spin quantum number = therefore spin
angular momentum ⃗ of magnitude of-
= ℎ
√ +
m
�
= ℎ o
.c
√ ( + )
�
= ℎ √ a
m
�
a
In nuclear physics magnetic moments are expressed in nuclear magnetron ��
�� n ℎ
y
= .
� �
Where d
is the mass of the proton
u
�
t
Classification of the nuclei:
S
The atoms of different elements are classified as follows.
(i) Isotopes: Isotopes are the nucleus with same number of atomic number , but different mass
numbers . The nuclei , , , are all isotopes of oxygen. The isotopes of
the element have identical chemical properties but different physical properties.
(ii) Isobars: nuclei with the same mass number but different atomic number the nuclei
, are the examples of the isobars. These elements have the different chemical and
physical properties.
(iii) Isotones: Isotones are the nuclei with equal number of neutron �. . = −
. Examples
Page 4
are , & = .
(iv) Mirror nuclei: Mirror nuclei have the same number of but the number of protons and
neutrons are interchanged.
(v) Examples are: = ,= � = =
Nuclear Liquid Drop Model:

This model was proposed by Neil-Bohr in 1937. This model shows the analogy of the nucleus with the
li uid d op that’s why this odel is k ow as li uid d op odel. A o di g to this odel followi gs a e
the analogies between the liquid drop and the nucleus.
1. Both are spherical in shape.
2. Both liquid drop and nuclei filled with an incompressible substance.
m
3. Short range nuclear forces are analogous to the intermolecular forces in liquid.
o
4. The density of nuclear matter is very large which do not depends on the number of nuclei just as
the density of the liquid drop not depends on the number of molecules.
5. Both nuclear and intermolecular forces are saturated forces.
.c
a
6. Inside the nucleus the nucleons moves as an atom moves in a liquid drop.
7. Nucleons are bound with the nuclear forces just as the atom in a liquid bound together by the
inter-molecular forces. m
a
This is why the nucleus is considered as a small drop of liquid and this model is called the liquid drop
model.
n
y
some other similarities in liquid drop and nucleus:
S.N. Basic
d Liquid drop Nucleus
1. Shape
u Due to surface tension Due to nuclear force.
2. t
Density depends on
Do not depends on the radius
Do not depend on number of the
volume
S Due to the mutual collision the
nucleon.
−
Particles emission takes place
kinetic energy of some molecules
3. Emission of particle due to the collision of nucleons
increases and leaves the liquid
and extent the kinetic energy.
surface.
4. Analogy in the energy Latent heat of vaporisation. Binding energy per nucleons.
Absorption of the Absorption of the particle striking
5. Condensation of the drop.
particle the nucleus.
On the basis of the liquid drop model, the nuclear fission can be explained. This model can also explain
Page 5
radioactive decay , , � � , successfully. Moreover this model can also explain the nuclear
quadruple moment.
Un-success of the liquid drop model:
This model could not explain the reason for most stability of the lighter nuclei such as , , etc.
which have equal number of protons and neutrons. Similarly this model could not be successful to explain
the magic numbers.
Mass Defect:
The actual mass of the nucleus is less than the total
mass of protons and nucleons present inside it,
because some mass is lost in the form the binding
energy. This defect is called the mass defect and
denoted by Δ . m
o
.c
Δ = [ . � +
a
− . �] −
m
Where
= Mass number of nuclei.
= Number of protons. a
−
n
= Number of neutrons
�
y
= Mass of protons.
�
d
= Mass of neutrons.
u
= Measured mass.
t
S
Curve between the mass defect and nuclear number:
Figure shows the variation of mass defect per nucleons with atomic numbers.
Δ�
The mass defect per mass number in the nuclear is known as packing fraction and denoted by =
�
Page 6
Figure(2): Graph between packing fraction and atomic number
m
From the graph, we can say
1. Mass defect is positive for elements having mass number less than 20.3
o
2. Mass defect/ packing fraction is negative for elements having mass number between .
.c
3. The mass defect is again positive for elements having mass number above 200.
a
The significance of packing fraction is that it is directly related to the availability and its stability of
nuclear.
Binding Energy: m
a
n
The energy required to remove any nucleon (neutron or proton) from the nucleus is called binding energy
of nucleus.
y
d
The binding energy is the energy equivalent to the mass defect.
u
We know that the mass defect is given by
t Δ = [ . � + − . �] −
S
Where all the symbols have their usual meaning.
Now the binding energy
= Δ
= { . � + − . � − }
Page 7
m
o
.c
a
Figure(3): Curve plotted between Binding energy per nucleon and mass number
The average binding energy per nucleon is found to be about for all elements.
Some important features from binding energy curves-
m
1. Binding energy of very light nuclei like
a is very small. The curve rise sharply with increase in
mass number
n
and reaches a maximum value of . for . This makes iron most stable.
y
2. Binding energy decreases for element having > . It is found to be decreases to . for
d
uranium.
u
Semi- empirical mass formula:
t
S
The actual mass is slightly less than the calculated mass of the nucleus, because some mass is lost in the
form of the binding energy
This mass defect is given by
Δ =[ . � + − . �] −
Where the symbols have their usual meanings.

Now the binding energy
= Δ
= { . + − . − }
� �
Page 8
=
[ . � + − . �] −
On the basis of the liquid drop model the binding energy is considered to be the sum of independent
different energy terms and is expressed as
= + + + + … … … … .
1. Volume Energy:
For most of the nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon is constant
So
∝
∝
= … … … …
m
�
2. Surface Energy:
∝ −
o
.c
∝ −
= − (
a )
m = − … … … …
a
Negative sign shows that the binding energy decreases due to surface energy.
3. Coulo b’s e ergy:
n
y
The electrical repulsion between each pair of protons in the nucleus also contributes in decreasing its
d
−
binding energy. The coulomb energy is proportional to the number of proton pair [ !
] In the nucleus,
u
]and inversely proportional to the nuclear radius ∝ so the coulomb energy � = − [
−
] the
t
S
coulomb energy is negative, because if arises from an effect that opposes nuclear stability.
4. Asymmetric energy:
We know that the light nuclei having same number of neutron and proton are more stable but as mass
number increases, the number of neutron increases more as compare to the protons, due to which
the stability of nucleus decreases. Thus it is concluded that if the number of neutrons increases as
compare to protons the binding energy will decrease.
= −
= − −
= −
Page 9
−
So = − . …………….
5. Energy due to even odd effect:

The nucleus having even number of neutron and proton are more stable as compared to the nucleus
having odd number of neutron and proton while the nucleon having even number of proton and odd
number of neutrons or even number of protons and odd number of neutrons are found to be either less
stable or more stable. So
= ± �
− / …………… 6
Here (+) sign is for the even number of neutron and protons
(-) sign is for odd number of neutron and protons
And � = for even number of neutron and odd number of protons and vice-versa.
On combining all the above terms we get
m
o
.c
−
= � + − � − [ � − − � − + ]
Isomerism: a
m
a
The existance of the atomic nuclei those have same atomoic number and the same mass numbers but
n
different energy states.
Magic numbers:
y
The nuclei which have number of protons d or number of nutrons equal to
, , , , , u
t
are relatively stable. These numbers are called the magic numbers.
The existence of magic numbers is established by the following facts.
i) S
There is abundance of nuclei in nature which have number of nucleons equal to magic no.
ii) From the binding energy curve it is clear that the nuclei = − and=
= − are =
especially stable.
iii) The nuclei of even atomic number or atomic number more than 28 have isotopic abundance
more than % are only = − , = = − =
and
= − =
iv) There are not more than 5 isotones of all the nuclei except for = and = .
v) = has ten stable isotopes and = has six stable isotopes.
vi) After = the, ∝ − energy shows the discontinious behabiour.
Page 10
vii) − energy is very large when number of protons or neutrons in a radioactive nuclear
is equal to the magic number.
viii) The neutron absorption cross section for = and = nuclei is very small as
compared to the other neighbouring nuclei.
When the average binding energy per nucleon is plotted against mass number. The curve is not smooth,
but several kinks are observed. These kinks correspond to sudden increase in binding energy. Thus
stability is related to higher binding energy.
Nuclear Forces:
We know that the nucleus consists of protons. Due to the positive charges on protons, there will be
repulsive electrostatic force between two protons and the resulting repulsive force between protons will
tend to push the nucleus apart. Therefore, for the nucleus to have a permanent existence there must be
m
some strong attractive forces demand. Moreover, these forces cannot be gravitational forces because
o
they are much smaller than the force required. Moreover these forces cannot be electrical forces in
.c
nature because the strong repulsive forces between protons will lead to disruption of nucleus. Actually,
a
these forces are short range attractive forces known as Nuclear Forces. The nuclear forces have the
following properties:
m
1) These forces are attractive forces between (proton-proton, neutron-neutron or neutron-proton).
a
2) These forces are strongest forces in nature.
3) They are spin dependence.
n
y
4) These fo es a e sho t a g fo es, A g aph of Coulo ’s law of epulsio a d sho t a ge fo es
d
of attraction is shown in figure.
u
t
S
Page 11
m
o
.c
a
m
Figure(4): Comperesion of Colum and nuclear forces.
a
–
5) These forces are independent of charge. i.e. the nuclear forces are same for protons proton,
n
proton-neutron, neutron-neutron.
y
6) In case of the nuclear forces, each nucleon attracts those nucleons which are immediate
neighbouring just like the molecules in a liquid or the gas interacts with the neighbouring
molecules. d
u
t
Yukawa mesons theory:
S
Yukawa in 1935 proposed a theory to explain the binding forces between neutrons and protons known as
meson theory of nuclear forces. Yukawa postulated the existence of a new particle called � meason
having a rest mass greater then that of the mass of electron but less than that of a nucleon. Though this
particle was discover much later, yet Yukawa showed that the interaction produced by mesons between
nucleon were of the correct order of magnitude.
According to this theory, all nucleons (protons and neutrons) consist of identical cores surrounded by a
cloud by one or more � mesons. The mesons may be either neutral or may carry positive or negative
charge. The charge on the mesons is equal to the charge on the electronic charge and according to their
charge they designated as � , +� or � − . The idea of this theory is that it is the mesons cloud which
differentiate between a neutron and a proton. The mesons are supposed to exchange rapidly between
Page 12
nucleons thereby changing their identity equally fast and are responsible for keeping them bound
together.
Thus nuclear force between a proton and a neutron is the result of the exchange of charged mesons (� +
and � − ) between them. When a � + meson jumps from a proton to a neutron, the proton is converted
into a neutron and vice versa.
−+ →
� or ++ →
�
Similarly when a � − meson jumps form a neutron to a proton, it is converted to a proton, and vice versa.
−− →
� or +− �
→
In the same way, the forces between two protons and those between two neutrons arise due to the
exchange of neutral mesons between them. In this way nucleus is an ever-changing structure. It should be
remembered that numbers of protons and neutrons remains the same in the nucleus.
Nuclear Fission:
m
o
The phenomenon of braking of a heavy nucleus in to two or more light nuclei of almost equal masses
.c
together with the release of a huge amount of energy is known as nuclear fission. The process of nuclear
fission was first discovered by the German scientists, Otto Hahn and Strassman, in the year 1939. In this
process, when uranium nucleus (
a
) was bombarded with slow neutrons, this nucleus was found to split
up in to two radioactive nuclei which were identified as isotopes of Barium (
m
) and Krypton ( ). It
is given by the following nuclear reaction-
+ →[ a
]→ + + +
.
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure (5): Liquid drop model for nuclear fission

It is not that Barium and Krypton are only isotopes to be obtained by the fission of . Actually, this is a
Page 13
very complicated phenomenon and more than 100 isotopes of over 20 different elements have been
obtained in it. All the elements fall in the middle 75 to 160 mass number region of the periodic table
Theory (Liquid Drop Model):

The mechanism of the nuclear fission was first explained by Bohr and Wheeler on the basis of the liquid
drop model of the nucleus. According to this model, the nucleus is assumed to be similar to a liquid drop,
which remains in equilibrium by a balance between the short-range, attractive forces between the
nucleons and the repulsive electrostatic forces between the protons. This inter nucleon force gives rise to
surface tension forces to maintain a spherical shape of the nucleus. Thus, there is a similarity in the forces
acting on the nucleus and liquid drop. When nucleus drop captures slow or neutron, oscillations setup
within the drop. These oscillations tend to distort the spherical shape so that the drop becomes ellipsoid
in shape as shown in the figure. The surface tension forces try to make the drop return to its original
m
spherical shape while the excitation energy tends to distort the shape still further. If the excitation energy
o
and hence oscillations are sufficiently large, the drop attains the dumbbell shape. The Columbic repulsive
.c
forces then push the nucleus into similar drops. Then each drop tries to attain the shape for which the
potential energy minimum, for example spherical shape.
Nuclear Reactor: a
m
It is a device that produces a self-sustained and controlled chain reaction in a fissionable material. One
a
type of nuclear reactor is shown in the figure. A modern rector has following important parts.
n
y
d
u
t
S
Figure (6): Nuclear reacter

1) Fuel: The fuels play the key role in the operation of the reactor. The fissionable material is known
as the fuel. Generally, and can be used as fuel.
Page 14
2) Moderator: It is used to slow down neutron to thermal energies by elastic collisions between its
nuclei and the fission neutrons. Heavy water graphite or barium oxides are commonly used for
this purpose. Heavy water is the most suitable moderator.
3) Control Rods: To control the fission rate in the reactor, we use cadmium and boron rods.
Cadmium and boron are good absorber of slow neutrons. These rods are fixed in the reactor-
walls. When they are pushed into the reactor, the fission rate decrease and when they are pulled
out the fission rate gets increased.
4) Shield: the various types of rays, like , , those are radioactive are emitted from the reactor.
These rays may be injurious to the health of people working near the reactor. For protections the
reactor is therefore surrounded by a concrete wall of about 2 meter thick and containing high
protection element like iron.
5) Coolant: The reactor generates heat energy due to the fission reaction which is removed by means
m
of cooling agent. For this purpose, air water, carbon-dioxide etc. are generally used as coolant.
o
Coolant is circulated is circulated though the interior of the reactor by a pumping system.
.c
6) Safety Device: If the reactor begins to go fast, a special set of control rods, known as shut-off rods
a
insert automatically. They absorb all the neutrons so that chain reaction stops immediately.
Working of nuclear reactor: to start the reactor, no external source is required. Even a single neutron is
m
capable of starting fission, although few neutrons are always present there. The reactor is started by
a
pulling out the control rods. Then the neutron strikes the nucleaus and fission it along with the
n
emission of two or three fast neutrons. These neutrons are slow down by moderator (graphite), after
which they induce further fission of
y . The reaction onece starts is controlled with the help of control
d
rods by moving them inside and outside.
u
Applications of Nuclear Reactor:
t
The nuclear reactor are used mainly for the following purpose.
S
1) Generations of energy
2) Production of .
3) Production of neutron beam
4) Production of radioisotopes
Nuclear Fusion:
Nuclear fusion is nothing but the formation of heavier nuclide by the fussing of two light nuclei. In this
process, the mass of the product nuclide is generally less than the sum of masses of the nuclides which are
fused. The efo e, as pe Ei stei ’s ass energy relation
= , an enormous amount of energy
realeased which is called nuclear energy. The first artificial fusion reaction was the hydrogen bomb which
was tested in November 1952. Fusin reactions are thermonuclear reactions which occurs at extremely
Page 15
high temperatures. For example, in order to fuse deuterium ( ) and tritium ( ), the force of repulsion
(called Coulomb potential barrier ) of these two positively charge particles must be overcome.
The following fusion reaction is possible for the fusion of the two heavy hydrogen nucleoids
+ → + + . (energy)
The nucleus of tritium can again fuse with heavy hydrogen nucleus
+ → + + . (energy)
Thus the combine form is
+ + → + + + . (energy)
From the above equation, it is clear that three deuterium nuclei fused together to form a helium nucleus
and liberate 21.6 MeV energy which is obtained in the form of kinetic energy of proton ( ) and neutron
( ).
m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Page 16
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Graphical representation of SHM

= .� sin …………………………………………… (1)

(i) In equilibrium condition � =� a

Again differentiating equation (2) we get-

Multiplying by i.e. the mass of the particle executing SHM then

Question: A uniform circular motion is given by the equation � =� � sin � , +�

Sol: In the SHM the velocity is given by-

Again at the velocity is

By equation (2) and (3)

Energy of a particle executing SHM: a

So the total amount of work done

Thus we find that the total energy:

Graphical representation of total energy of SHM

Figure(4): Total energy of SHM

In many problems the area is treated as a vector,

an area element is represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗ , such

that the area representing the area vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is

the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ represents the magnitude of the

Figure(6): Area vector

Case 1:(when the medium between the charges is air or vacuum )

If we put =� =� and � =� then

Where is the dielectric constant of relative permittivity. m

Where ′ is the force in the medium a

So the force is along the direction of unit vector ̂ , we have

These two equations show the Coulo s’ la i e to fo .

closed surface . The electric field ⃗ produced

� = ∮ ⃗ .� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ………………………… (2)

Gradient of a scalar field:

The gradient of a scalar function � is a vector whose magnitude

. Then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =� ̂ � +� ̂ ̂ � +�

� = n ⃗∇� ⃗⃗⃗⃗ …………………………………………………… (1)

Now if we consider a unit vector along as ̂

By equation (1) and (2)

Divergence of a vector field:

The divergence of a vector field at a

outward flux of the vector field per unit

function with rectangular faces a

But ̅̅̅̅̅ −� ̅̅̅̅̅ = � +� Δ ,� −�,� ,� ,�

̅̅̅̅̅ −� ̅̅̅̅̅ = Δ …………………………………………………… (4)

Similarly perpendicular to � a−xis

Links to Popular Study Material for BDS (Dental) students:

it indicates the existence of the source of fluid at that point.

Curl of a vector field:

If is any vector field at any point and an