Ch02-Zealey PRE 4thpp

2
THE WORLD COMMUNICATES
Waves, Energy and Information Transfer
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P h y s i c s i n C o n t e x t : T h e Fo r c e s o f L i f e
2.1 Waves and Information Transfer

Students learn to:
• describe the energy transformations required in one of the following:
— mobile telephone
— fax/modem
— radio and television
• describe waves as a transfer of energy disturbance that may occur in one, two or three dimensions,
depending on the nature of the wave and the medium
• identify that mechanical waves require a medium for propagation whereas electromagnetic waves
do not
• define and apply the following terms to the wave model: medium, displacement, amplitude, period,
compression, rarefaction, crest, trough, transverse waves, longitudinal waves, frequency, wavelength,
velocity
• describe the relationship between particle motion and the direction of energy propagation in
transverse and longitudinal waves
• quantify the relationship between velocity, frequency and wavelength for a wave: v = f λ
• identify that sound waves are vibrations or oscillations of particles in a medium.
The development of our civilisation would have been impossible without effective
communication. The early development of speech and later the written word allowed
us to evolve a cohesive community that was capable of passing ideas and beliefs from
generation to generation.
The messenger carrying the information has been supplanted by electromagnetic
means of transmission that allow transfer of data at close to the speed of light. To
all intents and purposes, the sending and receiving of data over satellite links is
instantaneous, limited only by the speed of coding and decoding the information into
suitable forms for transmission.
Speech and many modern means of communication utilise waves. There are many
different kinds of waves. The most obvious form of waves are those upon which we surf.
Less obvious are sound waves, and possibly the least obvious are light or electromagnetic
waves. In this section we discuss what waves really are, and their importance in the world
around us.
All waves share one thing in common, they provide a means of transferring energy from
one point to another without the physical movement of particles from one point to another.
Ocean waves are generated thousands of kilometres out to sea by the action of wind on
the surface of the ocean. The energy transferred to the surface of the ocean eventually
reaches land a few days later as a breaking wave. However, the water molecules that were
originally moved by the wind far out at sea do not move far from their original positions.
Figure 2.1 waggle string end of string free to
Energy moves down up and down move up and down
the string, but the
molecules of the
string retain their
original relative
positions.
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T h e Wo r l d C o m m u n i c a t e s : Wa v e s , E n e r g y a n d I n f o r m a t io n Tr a n s f e r
They pass on their energy to neighbouring molecules, which in turn affect their neighbours.
In this way energy is transferred without mass motion.
If you put energy into a string or rope by shaking one end up and down, the other end of the
string will also begin to move up and down. Energy will have been transferred along the string,
but the molecules of the string will not have moved from their original relative positions.
In a similar way electromagnetic radiation (which includes light) can be thought of as
the transfer of energy from one place to another by varying electrostatic and magnetic
fields. If you could take hold of an electron in one corner of the room and shake it up
and down, you would find that other electrons at the other side of the room would begin
to vibrate a split second later. Energy is transferred from one side of the room to the
other by an electromagnetic wave.
If particles and molecules don’t actually move from one place to another when energy
is transferred by a wave, what actually happens to the individual particles? Let’s consider
what happens if we drop a rock into a pool. Ripples spread out from the position where
the rock entered the pool and eventually reach the pool’s edge. Floating twigs and straw
near the centre of the pool are not washed ashore, instead they begin moving up and
down about an equilibrium point. Their vertical motion is a form of simple harmonic
motion. This vertical oscillation is transferred outward from one region of the pool to
the next. As the oscillation builds up in one area it dies away in the preceding area. The
wave is seen to travel out from the pool’s centre.
The formation of waves

The best way to understand how waves are formed and how they travel is to consider a
single pulse or wave hump. We can make such a pulse on a horizontal string resting on
a table by rapidly flicking one end of the string up then down. As your hand pulls the
end of the string up, adjacent pieces of the string feel a force that also accelerates
them in a vertical direction. They in turn affect neighbouring pieces of string.
Figure 2.2
The movement of
a wave depends
on energy being
passed from
particle to
particle.
crest moves down string
T forces acting on each

section of string
T T
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As each succeeding piece of string moves upward, the crest of the pulse moves along the
string. By now your hand has returned to its starting position and the end of the string
has also returned to its original position. As adjacent pieces of string reach the top of
their motion they experience a force pulling them back toward their starting positions.
The source of the pulse is the motion of your hand, and the pulse is transferred down
the string because of cohesive forces (tension) between the particles of the string.
Periodic disturbances
If you continue to move your hand up and down at the same rate, or if you connect the
end of the string to a mass moving up and down on the end of a spring, the end of the
string will move up and down in a periodic manner. It will return to the same vertical
position after a precise interval of time. A series of pulses will be generated at the end of
the string separated by precise intervals of time. These pulses will move down the string,
so that if we take a snapshot at any given time each pulse will appear separated by
precise distances. We now have a simple wave.
Figure 2.3 motion frozen in time at t = 0 seconds

The wave has a crest appears to move to
sinusoidal shape right
in space.
motion frozen in time at t = 5 seconds

crest appears to move to
right
motion frozen in time at t = 10 seconds
crest appears to move to

right
Energy trans formations in communication systems

Modern communication devices involve the transformation of energy in the process of
coding, transmitting and decoding a message. A fixed-telephone message starts with an
idea expressed as a sound wave. A microphone changes that sound into electricity,
which is carried along wires. When transmission is along fibre optic cables, a light wave
carries the message, but this is again converted into electrical energy before it enters the
receiver’s telephone, where a loudspeaker transforms electricity to magnetism and back
into sound. This and other energy changes are depicted in Figure 2.4.
The energy transformations of a mobile phone are identical to those of a radio, but on
a smaller scale.
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Figure 2.4 Some of the energy transformations which occur in common devices. Mobile phones, radio and television all transmit
and receive signals carried by electromagnetic waves.
E x e r ci s e
2.1 a Define the terms pulse and wave.

b What does a wave transfer from one point to another?
c Describe the energy transformations involved in a television.
Classification of waves
We observe the passage of a wave as it moves outward from its source as the motion of
particles in the wave’s path. Particles can vibrate about their resting or equilibrium
positions in many ways. The distance and direction in which a particle moves is its
displacement. Each of these forms of vibration can pass energy from one point to
another, and can be regarded as a different form of wave motion. Three main forms of
mechanical waves may be observed in everyday life.
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Transverse disturbances
Particles can move up and down across the direction of the motion of the wave. Waves
of this type can travel along strings, when one end of the string is moved to and fro
across the length of the string. The vibration in a string on a musical instrument such as
a piano, guitar or violin is transverse. A water wave or a wave in a string moves in two
dimensions: the direction of travel and the direction of vibration.
As we will see later in this section, electromagnetic waves are a form of transverse
wave.
Longitudinal or compression disturbances

Particles vibrate along the direction of motion of the wave. The most common forms of
longitudinal wave you will encounter are associated with sound waves. The source of
the sound wave is usually a moving membrane or piston. The matter through which a
wave travels is the medium.
Consider how a loudspeaker diaphragm produces sound waves. An electrical voltage
drives the diaphragm forward. As the diaphragm moves forward, it compresses the air
immediately in front of it. This air begins to expand and in so doing compresses the air
adjacent to it. A pressure pulse spreads out from the loudspeaker. Air is the medium for
transmission.
Other forms of pressure waves may be encountered travelling through solids. If you
strike one end of an iron bar with a hammer, the pulse will travel to the other end as a
compression wave. On a larger scale some of the seismic waves produced during
earthquakes are forms of compression wave. These waves occur in only one dimension.
particles in path of wave energy is transferred from left to right

Figure 2.5 move up and down crest appears to move right
In a transverse
wave the
particles move
up and down
across the Distance form source
direction of
propagation of
the wave.
Figure 2.6 Longitudinal or compression wave

In a longitudinal
wave the
particles vibrate
along the
direction of
propagation of
the wave.
disturbance moves to right
particles vibrate along direction of string
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Figure 2.7 a
Longitudinal
waves occur
in a a hammer
striking an
iron bar,
b loudspeakers,
and c earthquakes. waves travelling down bar
b
loudspeaker
sound wave travelling in a tube
c explosion
or earthquake
observer
seismic
compression
wave
Torsional disturbances
Groups of particles twist backward and forward around the direction of motion of the wave.
These kinds of waves are rarely seen in everyday situations. Consider a set of dumbbells
mounted between two strings or across a thick elastic rope, so that the dumbbells may
twist to and fro. If we set the dumbbell at the end oscillating, the vibrations will pass on to
the neighbouring dumbbell and a wave will progress along the system.
Figure 2.8
torsion wave
In a torsional
wave the
particles twist
backward and
forward around
the direction of
motion of the
wave.
elastic rope
disturbance moves to right
Electromagnetic and gravity waves

The waves discussed so far have transferred energy by mechanical means. Adjacent
particles interact by means of contact forces, pressing against their neighbours or pulling
on them.
A positively or negatively charged particle is affected by changing electrostatic or
electromagnetic fields. Moreover, we can create a disturbance in a group of charged
particles simply by waggling one of the particles up and down. This motion creates a
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varying electromagnetic field which moves outward from the charge that has been
accelerated. Electromagnetic waves vibrate in two dimensions and travel in a third
dimension. We can detect the progress of this electromagnetic wave by studying the
motion of other charged particles in its path. X-rays, light, heat radiation and radio waves
are all forms of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves can travel through a
vacuum—they do not need to be transmitted through a medium.
In a similar way, if we move a mass anywhere in the universe, that motion will have an
effect on all of the other masses in the universe. The effect would normally be very small.
However, in cases in which stars are orbiting each other or a star explodes, the changing
distribution of material can be thought of as a source of gravity waves. It is expected that
these waves would cause other masses in their path to vibrate. Attempts are being made
to detect gravity waves using massive cylinders of metal and looking for minute changes
in their length as the gravity wave passes through them.
What do waves move through?

Seismic waves, sound waves and water waves are all mechanical waves.
Mechanical waves require the energy associated with the wave to be passed from
particle to particle within the material through which the wave appears to move. These
waves must have a medium in which to propagate—they cannot travel through a vacuum.
Longitudinal or compression waves can travel in any material whether it is solid, liquid
or gas. However, it is impossible for a transverse wave or a torsion wave to travel through a
liquid or gas. Have you ever tried to twist water?
Electromagnetic waves rely on the interaction of electric and magnetic fields to carry
energy, and unlike mechanical waves do not need a material medium for the transfer of
energy. They can travel through a total vacuum.
Gravity waves result from rapid changes in position of massive bodies. These waves are
also transverse waves and like electromagnetic waves do not require a medium through
which to propagate.
Wave terminology
When we attempt to describe waves we are forced to describe the effect the wave has
on particles in its path. In the absence of a wave the particles occupy an equilibrium
position. The passage of a wave through the particles causes them to oscillate. When we
look at waves on the sea we can describe them according to the size or height of these
oscillations (for example the wave might be 2 m high), the spacing between crests, and
the number of waves hitting the beach over a period of time. This description can be
formalised and used to describe any wave.
Waves can be examined in two ways. We can take a photo and freeze the positions of
every particle in the path of the wave. This is the view you would have of ocean waves
from a nearby cliff top. In this way we can picture the shape of the disturbance at a
given instant of time (Figure 2.9). Or the movement of a single particle in the path of the
wave can be studied. This is the view you would have of an ocean wave as a surfer
bobbing up and down in one spot (Figure 2.10).
Ocean waves are unfortunately fairly complex so we will consider a simple wave
on a string. If there was no wave the particles would all lie in a line and occupy the
undisturbed or equilibrium position. As the wave moves through them, each particle
oscillates above and below its equilibrium positions. The particle first moves up and
reaches a maximum displacement at the crest of the wave. It then returns through its
equilibrium position to a minimum displacement or trough, before finally returning
to its starting position. This cycle is repeated many times.
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Amplitude
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement on either side of the equilibrium
position. Particles in the path of a wave oscillate between positive and negative
displacements. The amplitude (A) of the wave shown in Figure 2.9 is A = 10 m.
Waves carry energy from their source to particles in their path. The energy transported
by the wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave.
E ∝ A2
E x e r ci s e
2.2 There is strong evidence that the Australian east coast has been hit by
tsunamis of height at least 32 m.
a What is the amplitude of such a wave?
b How many times more energy is dissipated by a wave of this size when it
hits the coast than a wave of height 2 m?
Wavelength
The wavelength (λ) is the distance between adjacent crests or maxima of the wave.
If we take a photograph of a wave we can freeze its motion at a given instant of time.
It is simple then to measure the distance between adjacent peaks. The wavelength for
the disturbance in Figure 2.9 is λ = 5 m.
The wavelength can also be though of as the length of one complete cycle from
equilibrium (zero displacement) through a minimum, back through the zero
displacement to a maximum and return to zero displacement. A single cycle is the
basic pattern of motion which is repeated again and again by particles in the path of
the wave.
Figure 2.9
one cycle
The amplitude
and wavelength crest λ
+10 m
of a wave.
A
amplitude
Displacement
5m 10 m 15 m
0m
Distance from source
A
amplitude
–10 m
trough
λ
wavelength
Period
The period of a wave is the time taken by a particle to complete a single complete cycle
of motion. If you are on a surf board going up and down waiting to catch the big wave
you could measure the seconds between being at the top of one crest and the top of the
next. The period of the wave shown in Figure 2.10 is T = 10 seconds.
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Figure 2.10
The amplitude and One Cycle
period of a wave. period T
crest
+10 m
amplitude
Displacement
10 s 20 s 30 s
0m
Time
amplitude
—10 m
trough
period T
60 mm
Frequency
The frequency ( f ) of a wave is the number of cycles of motion of a particle that occur in one
1
second. If the period of the wave in Figure 2.10 is T = 10 s, the frequency is 10 s or 0.1 cycles
per second. The units of frequency are cycles per second (cps) or Hz (hertz; 1 cps = 1 Hz).
The frequency of a wave is fixed at the source and depends on the frequency of the source.
The frequency of a wave remains constant even when it travels through different materials.
Frequency and period are related to each other by the equation
1
f=
T
E x e r ci s e
2.3 a What information can be obtained from a graph of displacement versus

distance from source?
b What information can be obtained from a graph of displacement versus
time (see Figure 2.10)?
Wave velocity
The wave velocity is the speed at which the disturbance moves through a material. It
depends on several things:
• the kind of wave
• the type of material—its density (e.g. are the particles closely packed?).
The velocity (v) of a wave depends on its frequency or wavelength, not on the
amplitude of the wave. For any given wave the frequency is fixed by the source frequency
and the velocity is fixed by the material through which it travels. The frequency and
wavelength are related in the following way by the wave equation
λf = v
This relationship is demonstrated in Figure 2.11. The velocity of a wave is the distance
travelled by that wave in one second. We can express this distance as the wavelength × the
number of complete cycles of the wave passing a stationary observer every second
distance travelled λ
v= = = λf
time T
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wave has reached this point

Figure 2.11 when we start the clock
The velocity of a
wave depends on the
wavelength and
frequency of the
wave.
wave velocity v
wave reaches this point

one second later
distance travelled in 1 second

= number of cycles × wavelength
= frequency × wavelength
E x e r ci s e
2.4 The frequency of a sound wave is doubled. What happens to the speed of
the wave?
Polarisation
The polarisation of a wave tells you about the direction in which the particles in the path
of the wave vibrate. It describes the direction of the plane of the displacement associated
with the wave.
y 0
Figure 2.12
The polarisation
of a wave is the 270
direction of x
vibration of the
particles. z
90
180
0
y angle of polarisation
E xample
P roble m
The speed of sound is 330 m s–1 in air and 1400 m s–1. in water.
The frequency of middle C on a piano is 256 Hz.
a What is the wavelength of the sound wave associated with middle C played in air?
b What is the wavelength if you play the piano on the Titanic, under water?
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S olution
a The source of the wave is the piano string, which has a frequency of 256 Hz, this is
fixed and cannot change.
In air the velocity is v = 330 m s–1.
v = λf
330
Therefore λ = 256 m = 1.29 m
b Under water, the wave’s frequency is still that of the source, but now the speed has
changed so that
1400
λ = 256 m = 5.47 m
A c tivitie s
2.1 Undertake Experiment 2.1 ‘Waves in springs, ropes and water’, or use a
computer simulation to gather information of the transmission of waves in
slinky springs, water waves and ropes.
2.2 Undertake Experiment 2.2 ‘Measurement of the frequency of sound waves
using a CRO’ or use your data logger and microphone/sound sensor, and your
computer or graphics calculator as an oscilloscope.
2.3 Research and describe the energy transformations in
a the mobile phone b radar.
2.4 Plan, choose equipment for, and perform a first-hand investigation to gather
information to identify the relationship between the frequency and wavelength
of a sound wave travelling at a constant velocity.
E x e r ci s e s
2.5 Draw a diagram of a wave with a wavelength of 4 cm and amplitude 5 cm. Label
crests, troughs, wavelength and amplitude.
2.6 The following diagram represents a waveform, whose frequency is 10 Hz, along
a string at a certain instant of time.
2
)mc( tnemecalpsiD
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
Distance (cm)
a What is the amplitude of the wave?
b What is the wavelength of the wave?
c What is the period of the wave?
d What is the wave velocity?
2.7 What is the wavelength of the sound wave produced by a tuning fork of
frequency 384 Hz played in air?
2.8 Two sounds have the same frequency but one is louder than the other. How do
the two waves differ?
2.9 An echo sounder on a ship receives a pulse reflected from the sea bed after
0.05 s. What is the depth of the sea bed?
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2.10 What is the frequency of X-rays of wavelength 32 × 10–9 m. The wave speed is
3 × 108 m s–1.
2.11 Draw a graph of a transverse wave with an amplitude of 5 cm and a period of
0.2 s. What is the frequency of this wave?
2.12 The following graph shows the displacement against time for an object moving
with simple harmonic motion.
1.0
0.5
Displacement (m)
0.0
Time (s)
– 0.5
–1.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
a Determine the amplitude of this motion.

b Determine the period of this motion.
c If the velocity of the wave is 20 m s–1, what is the wavelength of the wave?
2.13 The sound from a mosquito is produced when it beats its wings at a rate of
660 beats per second.
a What is the frequency in Hertz of this sound wave?
b Assuming the sound wave moves with a velocity of 330 m s–1, what is the
wavelength of the wave?
2.14 An automatic focus camera can focus on objects by use of an ultrasonic sound
wave. The camera sends out sound waves that reflect off distant objects and
return to the camera. A sensor detects the time it takes for the waves to return
and then determines the distance an object is from the camera. If a sound wave
(speed = 340 m s–1) returns to the camera 0.150 seconds after leaving the camera,
how far away is the object?
2.15 Humans can detect frequencies as low as 20 Hz and as high as 20 000 Hz.
Assuming the speed of sound in air is 345 m s–1, determine the wavelength of
the sounds corresponding to the range of audible hearing.
2.16 The following diagram represents the pattern of wave crests in a ripple tank as
viewed from above. The waves are produced in the deep section of water by a
vibrator with a frequency of 100 Hz.
Deep
Shallow
0 10 20 30 40 50 mm
scale
a What is the wavelength of the waves in the deep section?
b What is the speed of the waves in the deep section?
c What is the frequency of the waves in the shallow section?
d What is the wavelength of the waves in the shallow section?
e What is the speed of the waves in the shallow section?
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Visualising waves
Wavefronts
The wave motion we have discussed so far is that in which the wave is confined to a
string, spring or pipe. If we drop a stone into a pond, the ripples spread out in all
directions from the impact point. The ripples are initially circular. If we let off a fire
cracker, the blast wave begins to move outward as a spherical pulse. With time, the
ideal shape of the front of the disturbance is distorted by intervening objects, and by
other disturbances.
In each case the waves start in a small group of particles that transfer their vibrational
energy to their immediate neighbours. These neighbours pass on the vibration to other
particles further from the source of the disturbance. In order to visualise the way in which
the disturbance progresses outward it is useful to introduce the idea of a wavefront.
At any given time we can join up all of the wave crests, which started from the source
at the same time, as a wavefront.
At any instance the wavefront represents a narrow region in which all of the particles
are vibrating in phase. If the source of the wave is creating a disturbance which is simple
harmonic, then the distance between adjacent wavefronts is equal to the wavelength
of the wave.
Figure 2.13 impact
second wave front
a A cross-
section showing
wave crests, and
first wave front
b wavefronts are
formed by joining first wave front
trough
up wave crests crest
that started from
the source at the
same time.
impact
second wave front
Wavefronts that originate from a single point source are usually spherical if they
propagate through a volume, or circular when they move across a membrane or surface
(such as a water–air interface).
We can represent the direction in which the wavefront is moving by arrows or rays,
drawn at right angles to the wavefront. If we follow one set of arrows from the source
outward we may join them to represent a ray.
Key Concept 2.1

Visualising Two-dimensional Wave Motion Using Huygens’ Principle
The motion of the wavefront can be thought of as being due to neighbouring particles
interacting and passing on the vibrational disturbance from one to the next. If we
consider a wave spreading out across the surface of a pool, the particle at the centre or
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source of the disturbance interacts with particles on every side. These particles in turn
interact with each of their neighbours, not just those further out from the centre of the
disturbance. This interaction damps down the motion of the particles closer to the source
of the disturbance and starts those further out vibrating.
Huygens suggested that you could think of every point on the wavefront as producing a
secondary wavelet. These wavelets travel outward from the individual sources at the wave
velocity, v. If we wish to construct the position and shape of the wavefront at some later
time, t, then
• we draw in each circular wavelet with radius vt, centred on a point of the original
wavefront
• we then connect the circular wavelets with a common envelope.
This new wavefront can, in turn, be used to construct the next wavefront at a later time.
Figure 2.14 stage 1 stage 2 stage 3
original wave front each point produces envelope of wavelets
Huygens’
new wavelet forms new wave front
principle says
that every point
on a wavefront
produces a
secondary
wavelet.
radius = vt
Plane waves
Wavefronts from a point source are initially circular (or spherical). We can create plane
waves, in which the wavefronts are straight and at right angles to the direction of motion
of the wavefront, in two ways. The simplest is to use a line of sources all vibrating
together, in phase, instead of a single source. Using Huygens’ construction the subsequent
wavefronts will be plane or linear wavefronts.
E x e r ci s e s
2.17 An electromagnetic radio wave travels outward from a transmitting tower.

Draw a diagram of the wavefronts and indicate by arrows the direction of
propagation.
2.18 A sound wave from a speaker travels down the tube in the diagram below.
Draw the wavefronts and indicate the direction of propagation.
sound
source
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2.19 A plane wave strikes a curved interface with a radius of 10 cm. If the velocity
of the wave on the left of the surface is 10 cm s–1 and the velocity on the right
5 cm s–1, use Huygens’ construction to draw the shape of the wavefront at
distances of:
a 5 cm to the right of the surface
b 10 cm to the right of the surface
c 15 cm to the right of the surface.
Finally draw three rays which trace the wavefront as it passes across the
interface.
10 cm
v = 10 cm s–1 v = 5 cm s–1
2.2 Sound Waves and Communication

Students learn to:
• relate compressions and rarefactions of sound waves to the crests and troughs of transverse waves
used to represent them
• explain qualitatively that pitch is related to frequency and volume to amplitude of sound waves
• explain an echo as a reflection of a sound wave
• describe the principle of superposition and compare the resulting waves with the original waves
in sound.
Characteristics
Sound and light waves are vital to our survival. We are aware of what is happening in our
world through our senses of hearing, sight and touch. The development of modern
society depends on the ability to communicate with others predominantly through sight
and sound.
We therefore need to be able to make sounds and hear them.
Longitudinal or compression waves

Let us look at the common ways in which we can produce a loud sound. We can clap,
shout, stamp, or burst a paper bag. Each of these methods has one thing in common: air
is rapidly compressed by our hands, lungs, feet or the bursting bag. We have squeezed the
air molecules closer together to make the sound.
However, the air molecules push against each other and try to expand again. In doing
this they compress their neighbours. In this way energy is transferred from molecule to
molecule in the form of a sound wave. The air molecules move backwards and forwards
over short distances along the direction in which the sound is travelling. This forms
regions of compression and of rarefaction (regions where molecules have moved apart).
Sound is a compression or longitudinal wave. The energy carried by the wave does not
involve the mass motion of air from the source of the sound to the person who hears the
sound.
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We can plot diagrams showing the passage of a sound wave in several ways:
• as a picture showing the compressed regions as a series of tightly packed lines
• as a graph of the longitudinal motion of the air molecules in the path of the wave
• as a graph of air pressure along the path of the wave.
We have all been in long queues, squashed tightly together. If someone at the back
sways slightly forward, they press against the people in front. They too push back and
forward, squashing the group in front of them. The initial bump travels down the line
until the person at the front falls over! This is an everyday example of a compression wave.
Remember that the maximum pressure you feel in such a situation is usually when you
are not moving, but being squeezed from both sides. So too in a sound wave the
maximum pressure occurs between the maxima and minima on the displacement graph
where the amplitude of the motion is zero.
Remember also that when you draw a plot of how the amplitude of the motion of a
particle in a sound wave changes with position, it is the longitudinal motion that you are
plotting.
In the case of transverse waves in a string or water, the amplitude refers to the motion
of individual particles at right angles to the direction in which the wave is travelling, and
energy is being transferred.
The medium of transmission and the speed of sound

In all mechanical waves energy is transferred from particle to particle from the source to
the observer. There is no mass migration of particles from the loudspeaker to the listener.
Sound waves, like other mechanical waves, need a medium in which to travel. The
sound pressure waves can travel through solids, liquids and gases. The speed at which the
wave propagates depends critically on the physical characteristics of the material through
which it is travelling.
As the wave is really a sequence of pulses of energy being passed between neighbouring
molecules, the speed depends on how closely the molecules interact. This in turn depends
on the density of the material. It also depends on how well the molecules rebound after
being compressed and hence upon the elasticity of the medium.
Figure 2.15 longitudinal motion of particles of air

Sound waves are
longitudinal or compression rarefaction compression rarefaction
compression
waves.
loudspeaker
sound waves travelling in a tube
Pressure in tube Position
Amplitude of
longitudinal Position
motion
41
Sound speed depends on:

• the composition and density of the material
• whether the material is a solid, liquid or gas
• the temperature and pressure of the material
• the elastic properties of the material.
Table 2.1 The velocity of sound in different materials
Material Velocity m s-–1 Material Velocity m s-–1
Carbon dioxide 259 Nylon 2620
Oxygen 317 Brass 4700
Air 331 Glass 5640
Ethanol 1207 Aluminium 6420
Mercury 1450 Soft tissue 1540
Water (25°C) 1498 Blood 1570
Water (50°C) 1540 Skull 3360
Polyethylene 1950
Note how the speed of sound increases from gases, through liquids to the highest
speeds in solids.
E x e r ci s e
2.20 Why do you think the velocities in blood, soft tissue and water are similar?
Pitch and frequency

The frequency of the sound wave is fixed at the source. It could depend on the number of
oscillations a loud speaker cone makes in a second, or the number of vibrations a string
makes every second.
When we listen to a pure note we form an impression of how high or low the note
sounds. We refer to this as the pitch of a note. If the note is produced by a plucked string,
then the more vibrations the string makes in each second (frequency), the higher the
pitch. The pitch of a note is therefore directly related to the frequency of the sound wave.
Western civilisations have established a tonal system which relates to pitch. We talk
about notes on a piano keyboard as being A, B, C, D, E, F, G and intermediate notes being
C# (C sharp) or C (C flat).
Table 2.2 The frequencies of common notes
C 256 Hz
D 288
E 320
F 340
G 384
A 427
B 480
C’ 512
When you play a pure middle C, the string or drumhead vibrates at 256 cycles per
second. We talk about notes differing by an octave when the pitch of one is double that of
the other. Thus the C one octave above Middle C has a frequency of 2 × 256 Hz or 512 Hz.
Sound waves can be broadly divided into several types, based on their frequency and
the way in which they interact with us.
Infrasound: f < 20 Hz
Infrasound cannot be heard but can be felt. The low frequencies are very effective
at causing the larger organs in the body to vibrate (e.g. the spleen and stomach). Some
42
people feel sick when watching movies in which the sound system produces sounds in
this frequency. The stomach can vibrate through amplitudes of several centimetres in
response to frequencies close to 3 Hz.
Infrasound should therefore be considered dangerous at high intensities, and exposure
should be limited.
Sound: 20 Hz < f < 20 000 Hz

These pressure waves interact directly with our eardrums.
Ultrasound: f > 20 000 Hz

The lower frequencies of ultrasound can be produced by pipes and whistles. The higher
frequencies in the region of 1 MHz (1 million cycles per second) are used in medical
imaging, and sonar (sound navigation and ranging) can be produced by extremely rapidly
vibrating ceramics called piezo-electric crystals.
Volume and amplitude

The intensity of a sound wave is a measurement of the amount of wave energy passing
through a 1 metre-square detector every second. Intensity is the power (W) per square
metre measured by a detector.
energy power
Intensity = time × area =
detector area
or
P
I=
A
Figure 2.16
The intensity 1 m2 detector
of a wave is
proportional to the
power in each
square metre of
wavefront.
sound waves far
from source
The intensity of a sound wave is related to:

• the square of the amplitude (A2) or the square of the maximum pressure (Pmax2) of the wave
• the square of the wave’s frequency (f 2).
The larger the amplitude the larger the intensity. The higher the frequency the larger
the intensity of the wave.
The amplitude of a sound wave tells you how loud the sound is. A larger amplitude
means a louder sound, because the particles of air are displaced further from equilibrium.
Figure 2.17
Oscilloscope Loud sound Loud sound
traces of loud Low frequency Low frequency
and soft sounds
of different
frequencies.
Loud sound Soft sound

High frequency High frequency
time
time
43
Reflection and refraction of sound waves

When any wave encounters a change in the medium through which it is travelling, some
of the wave energy will be reflected back into that medium and some transmitted into
the new medium.
The amount of energy in the reflected and transmitted waves depends on the
characteristics of the two media, for example their densities. If a wave travels between
two media of similar characteristics, then the wave is strongly transmitted and little
energy reflected. If, however, the two materials are very different, then most of the wave
energy is reflected from the interface. For example, a sound wave travelling through air
or water and encountering a solid will undergo reflection from the surface of the solid.
This phenomenon forms the basis for medical ultrasound imaging and sonar detection.
A plane sound wave that strikes a flat interface between two materials at an angle will
produce a reflected wave at an angle equal to the angle of incidence, and a transmitted,
refracted wave that is bent through some angle of refraction.
Figure 2.18
reflected wave
Wave energy is
reflected and
transmitted at a
surface.
r
i
transmitted
refracted wave
incident wave
Echoes
When we stand at Echo Point and shout ‘cooee’, or stand in front of a high wall and clap
our hands to hear an echo we are listening for the reflected sound wave.
We act as a point-like source for a spherical sound wave that expands away from us.
This wave will be almost entirely reflected from the distant cliff, producing a convex
wavefront moving towards us.
Our brain processes information from a convex wavefront in such a way that we are
misled into thinking that the sound actually is coming from a source the same distance
behind the cliff as we are in front of it.
Figure 2.19
An echo is
produced by
reflected waves reflected wave
that appear to
diverge from a
distant source.
Cooee
apparent source
Sonar
The reflection of sound from a solid can be used to detect and produce images of
submerged objects. The use of sound waves in this way is called sonar. Sonar systems
are used to detect submarines, sunken vessels and shoals of fish.
44
Figure 2.20 shows how such a reflection may be used to estimate the depth of a
submarine. The sound wave reflected from the submarine travels a distance twice the
depth of the submarine in an elapsed time, t. The submarine’s depth must therefore be
t/2 × c or t/2 × 1500 m s–1, where is c is the speed of sound in water.
Figure 2.20
Reflected sound
waves can be
used in sonar outward pulse reflected pulse
d
and ultrasound
imaging.
echo from submarine
t
echo from sea floor
Signal
Elapsed time
Absorption of sound
There are many reasons for wishing to absorb sound. An echo in a concert hall can be
most annoying. If we reduce the amount of reflection from the walls of the concert hall,
we can eliminate the echo.
In attempting to design the best absorbing surface, we must remember that no matter
what material we choose some sound energy will be reflected from its surface.
In general, smooth rigid surfaces make the best reflectors of sound, while the best
absorbing surfaces are porous and contain a lot of small air spaces in which to trap the
sound waves. Acoustic tiles tend to have many small holes in their surfaces. The moving
air molecules in contact with the tile move in and out of these holes giving up energy to
the tile. This works best for high frequencies, where the energy of the sound wave is
converted through friction to heat.
Lower frequencies are best absorbed by solid surfaces, which are set vibrating by the
sound wave. The internal structure of the material then damps the motion. Sound energy
is converted into vibrational energy within the structure. This vibrational energy is then
dissipated as heat or re-radiated at other frequencies.
The amount of power associated with a sound wave is small. The heating effects are
therefore small. A Hi Fi sound system on maximum volume typically has a power output
similar to that of a single electric light globe.
A c tivitie s
2.5 Undertake Experiment 2.3 Varieties of sound waves.

2.6 Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources for, and plan a
first-hand investigation to model the effect of different materials on the
reflection and absorption of sound.
a What type of data needs to be collected?
b How will you analyse this data?
c Trial your procedure. Describe any modifications you need to make to
obtain valid data.
d Justify why your procedure and choice of equipment is appropriate.
45
Superposition of sound waves

The world would be an odd place if we were only ever exposed to one source of sound
waves at a time. We are continually washed by sound waves from thousands of sources,
the radio, mum and dad shouting at you, your brother clicking his fingers, your sister
playing the guitar.
If a particle is in the path of several sound waves, how does it move? Quite simply the
particle will accelerate according to Newton’s Laws of Motion. The important thing is
the total force acting on the particle is just the sum of the forces acting on the particle
due to the individual waves. This is known as the superposition principle.
Key Concept 2.2 Superposition of Waves

At any point where two waves overlap or meet, the total disturbance is the sum of the
individual disturbances caused by each wave at that point.
It is simpler to consider the motion of two one-dimensional waves moving down a string.
If we send two transverse waves down a string from opposite directions they will pass
through each other unchanged. During the period in which they occupy the same region
of the string their displacements will add together so that the displacement at any given
point is y = yA + yB.
Constructive and destructive inter ference

If we superimpose two continuous waves with the same amplitude, frequency and
wavelength, the way in which they add depends on their relative offsets.
Figure 2.21
The
a
superposition of
two pulses on
a string. pulse A pulse B
superposition of
b both waves
yA
yB
A
c
B
waves continue unchanged
Two particular wave configurations are of importance. In the first, the position of the
wave crests of one wave coincide in position with the crests of the second wave. In this
case the disturbances add together at every position to produce twice the disturbance
expected from the single wave. This type of superimposition of waves is termed
constructive interference. In this case the waves are said to be in phase.
In direct contrast, when the two waves are exactly one half wavelength (or an odd
number of half wavelengths) out of step, the trough of one wave will coincide with the
peak of the second wave. The disturbances then cancel at every point at which the
waves interact, and we get destructive interference. We often refer to the two waves as
being 180 degrees out of phase if they are completely out of step.
46
These effects are important when we consider how two-dimensional waves interact.
Figure 2.22
The
superimposition
of two waves =
showing
a constructive
interference and peaks coincide (waves in step): constructive interference
b destructive
interference.
peaks and trough coincide (waves out of step): destructive interference
Beats
Suppose two sound waves of similar amplitudes, but slightly different frequencies are heard
by an observer. If the waves start off almost in step at the observer’s position, they will add
together constructively to produce a vibration with twice that due to the single waveform.
Over a short period of time the waves will slowly move out of step since they do not have the
same frequency. When they are exactly a half wavelength out of step they will completely
cancel each other and no sound will be heard. The net effect is a sound that varies in
amplitude with a frequency equal to the difference between the frequencies of the two
original waves. The observer hears a background hum that pulses or beats in amplitude.
wave frequency = fa
Figure 2.23
Beats are
produced when time
two waves
with similar
frequencies and wave frequency = fb
amplitudes are
superimposed.
time
constructive constructive
destructive destructive
background
beat frequency frequency (fa +fb)
(fa –fb) 2
This effect is particularly obvious for sound waves. Suppose we have two tuning
forks, one emitting a 500 Hz tone, the other a 550 Hz tone. We hear the beat frequency
550 – 500 Hz = 50 Hz as a rhythmic variation in loudness.
Beats provide a useful way of tuning instruments. A guitar string can be tuned by
playing the same note on a neighbouring string and listening to the beats between the
two. The string should be adjusted in tension so that the beats disappear.
47
We also hear beats in old piston-engined aircraft. If the plane has two engines, then
it is unlikely that each is tuned to precisely the same frequency. The sound from the
engine exhausts interfere and passengers and observers outside the aircraft hear a
buzzing which rises and falls in loudness.
A c tivit y
2.7 Undertake Experiment 2.4 Superposition of waves, or use your computer or

data logger to demonstrate the principle of superposition of two waves
travelling in the same direction.
E x e r ci s e s
2.21 Copy these 4 waves onto a sheet of paper and draw the waves resulting from
the addition of
a A+B b A+C c A+D d A+A
A B
+
+
a a
0 0
5 15 25 35 Time (s) 5 15 25 35 Time (s)
– –
C B
+
+
a a
0 0
5 15 25 35 Time (s) 5 15 25 35 Time (s)
– –
2.22 Two waves are travelling in opposite directions at the same speed, as indicated
in the diagram.
v
Which of the following diagrams could represent the resultant wave form of
these waves at a later point in time?
A C
B
D
48
2.3 X-rays, Light, and Radio Waves are all

Electromagnetic Waves
Students learn to:
• describe electromagnetic waves in terms of their speed in space and their lack of requirement of a
medium for propagation
• identify the electromagnetic wavebands filtered out by the atmosphere, especially UV, X-rays and
gamma rays
• identify methods for the detection of wavebands in the electromagnetic spectrum
• explain that the relationship between the intensity of electromagnetic radiation and distance from a
1
source is an example of the inverse square law: I ∞ d 2
• outline how the modulation of amplitude or frequency of visible light, microwaves and/or radio waves
can be used to transmit information
• discuss problems produced by the limited range of the electromagnetic spectrum available for
communication purposes.
Recent technological developments have allowed greater use of waves in the

electromagnetic spectrum, which do not require a medium for propagation.
The electromagnetic spectrum

James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), a Scottish physicist, unified all the phenomena of
electricity and magnetism. As part of his work he predicted that the interaction between
magnetic and electric fields would produce an electromagnetic wave. The speed of this wave
was determined by two fundamental constants already known from other experiments.
Electric field
Figure 2.24
Light is a travelling
electromagnetic
wave composed of
rapidly changing
ield
electric and etic f
magnetic fields M agn
that are
perpendicular to
each other.
The speed was calculated to be given by the relation:

1
v=
√ε 0 × µ 0
where ε0 = 8.85 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2 the permittivity of free space and µ0 = 4π × 10–7 T m A–1
the permeability of free space.
E x e r ci s e
2.23 Calculate the velocity of Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave. (Both constants are
given in SI units.) How does it compare with the known speed of light?
Radio waves and microwaves

Maxwell predicted that light was only part of a spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
Scientists had already discovered the presence of ultraviolet and infrared radiation.
Maxwell also predicted that other such radiation should exist, but it was not until 1887
that long wavelength radio waves were discovered.
49
Gamma rays Ultraviolet Infrared Microwaves Radio waves

X-rays
10–15 m 10–12 m 10–9 m 10–6 m 10–3 m 1m 103 m
blue yellow red far red
400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm

Visible light
Figure 2.25 The electromagnetic spectrum includes high energy gamma rays and low energy radio waves.
Maxwell showed that the radio waves were stopped by a thin sheet of metal placed
between the transmitter and detector. Insulators do not stop the waves. The radio waves
were found to travel through walls into other rooms and have a wavelength of about 33 m.
Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894) showed that when a spark jumped between the terminals
of a high-voltage circuit, a voltage was induced in a nearby circuit. In addition Hertz
measured the speed of radio waves and found it to be similar to the speed of light. As
final confirmation of the wave nature of these radio emissions, Hertz used a simple
dipole antenna to show that radio waves exhibited all of the properties of light: reflection,
refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation.
Electromagnetic waves can have an infinitely wide range of wavelengths and frequencies.
They all have one thing in common, they travel at the same speed—the speed of light:
c = 3.00 × 108 m s–1
The relation between frequency and wavelength is as for any wave: λf = c.
The wavelength and frequency range of electromagnetic radiation is enormous,
ranging from radio waves with wavelengths greater than 1 km through visible light with
wavelengths of 500 nanometres to gamma rays with wavelengths as short as 10–15 m.
The energy associated with each small wave packet of radiation (or photon) is given
by ∆E = hf. The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength and the greater the
energy in one of these wave packets. Thus we often talk of high energy X-rays and low
energy radio waves.
Absorption of electromagnetic radiation by the

Ear th’s atmosphere
The Sun has a surface temperature of about 5900 K. At this temperature the peak in the
EMR emitted is in the visible spectrum (400–700 nm). There is very little emission below
200 nm, which corresponds to high energy ultraviolet radiation. The gamma rays and
X-rays in the solar spectrum do not penetrate below the thermosphere. They are absorbed
by the oxygen and nitrogen atoms with the energy subsequently released as heat.
In the upper stratosphere high energy ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by oxygen
molecules (O2) causing them to form free atoms. These free oxygen atoms then combine
with oxygen molecules to form ozone (O3) and heat energy. Consequently the ozone
layer is warm.
The solar ultraviolet radiation from 200–400 nm is considered as three bands. UVa,
UVb and UVc.
UVa is the least energetic and the least damaging band of UV radiation, it has
wavelengths that vary from 320 to 400 nm. It is not absorbed by ozone and penetrates to
the Earth’s surface.
50
a b
5900 K black body representing solar spectrum
above atmosphere
150 oxygen and nitrogen
atoms absorb UV
O3
Intensity
H2O
Altitude (km)
100
Thermosphere O2 H2O
H2O
Mesosphere H2O CO2
50 ozone absorbs UV
H2O CO2
O3 H2O CO2
Stratosphere
molecules absorb IR
Troposphere 200 nm 500 nm 1 µm 1.5 µm 2 µm 2.5 µm
Blue
Red
Ultraviolet
Near Infrared
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60
Wavelength
Temperature (°C)
Figure 2.26 a The temperature profile of the Earth’s atmosphere to the spectrum of the Sun’s radiation. b The major absorption
bands in the visible and infrared spectra occur because of molecules in the troposphere. Short wavelength ultraviolet radiation is
absorbed by ozone in the mesosphere.
UVb radiation ranges in wavelength from 280 to 320 nm, it is more energetic than UVa
and is largely absorbed by ozone.
UVc radiation ranges in wavelength from 200 to 280 nm, and is the most energetic
and most damaging but is totally absorbed by ozone and oxygen (O2) high in the
atmosphere.
In the lower atmosphere the molecules of nitrogen and oxygen as well as carbon
dioxide and water absorb in the visible and infrared spectrum.
How do we detect electromagnetic waves?

The waves at the high wavelength end (radio) of the electromagnetic spectrum are detected
by metal conductors—aerials. The radio wave induces an oscillation of the electrons in the
aerial. This oscillation is amplified by the radio unit to produce an audio signal.
Infrared radiation causes an increase in temperature of an absorbing (metal) surface.
A mercury thermometer heats up in sunlight well above the air temperature. Our skin
also is a sensitive detector of infrared (heat) radiation.
Our eyes detect visible light through chemical changes in the rods and cones of the
retina. Photographic emulsions also respond to visible light in cameras. Ultraviolet
and infrared radiation can also be detected in this manner. The waves at the short
wavelength, high energy end of the spectrum (X-rays and γ-rays) are detected by devices
such as the Geiger Müller tube. The energy of the radiation ionises the gas in the
detector, creating a pulse of current through the high voltage tube.
Figure 2.27 dipole aerial

Electrons in a
conductor can be
disturbed by an
electromagnetic
wave and produce
an oscillating spark gap
current.
electrons
accelerate up
and down wire
51
Demonstration detection of electromagnetic radiation

A Set up a dual trace cathode ray oscilloscope so that one channel displays a 50 Hz
AC wave from a laboratory power supply. Set the sensitivity of the other probe to a
maximum and hold it in your fingers so that the terminals contact your fingers.
Are you picking up a signal? If not bring your hand and probe near the mains lead
of the power supply. Which student in the class has the most potential? What band of
the electromagnetic spectrum are the waves you are detecting? How can you account
for this effect?
B A teacher activity (follow safety procedures for an induction coil).
Connect an induction coil to a Maltese Cross cathode ray tube using a laboratory
AC power supply. Test the areas around the cross and near the induction coil with
the probe of a Geiger counter or similar. What is being emitted?
Research activity
How do we detect electromagnetic radiation from space?
How does the digital camera create an image?
Velocity and the speed of light

Although EM waves have the highest speed in the Universe, their speed is still finite.
We can send information encoded on electromagnetic waves between two points on
the Earth with only a small delay. However, when one communicates with a distant
spacecraft or looks at light from a distant galaxy, the travel time is significant.
Imagine controlling a robotic buggy driving over the surface of Pluto. It would take
5 hours for the robot to send a picture showing it was going to fall into a crevasse.
It would take another 5 hours for you to tell it to stop. Too late!
Table 2.3 Light travel times

Moon 1.3 seconds
Sun 8 minutes
Pluto 5 hours
Proxima Centauri 4.2 years
Galactic centre 30 000 years
Large Magellanic Cloud Supernova Sn 1987 160 000 years
Edge of universe 10 000 000 000 years?
When light travels through any material its speed is slower than that in a vacuum.
In air the reduction in speed is very small so that the speed of light is still approximately
3.00 × 108 m s–1.
Table 2.4 The velocity of light in different materials
Material Velocity (m s–1) c/v

Air 3.00 × 108 1.00
Water 2.26 × 108 1.33
Ethanol 2.20 × 108 1.36
Glass 2.00 × 108 1.50
Diamond 1.24 × 108 2.42
The usual relationship exists between frequency, wavelength and the speed of light.
c=fλ
The frequency of the light wave is fixed by the vibrations at the source of the wave.
It does not change as the light travels through different materials. Only the velocity and
therefore the wavelength change when light enters different materials.
52
The variation of intensity with distance from

the source
Waves are important because they carry energy outward from their source to the
observer. The amount of energy the observer sees depends on several things:
1 The amplitude of the wave. Clearly the bigger the wave the more the observer is
affected and the more energy transferred.
2 The distance between the source of the wave and the observer. The further you are
from the source of a seismic wave (earthquake) the less its effect.
3 The shape of the wavefront. If all of the wave is directed down a fibre optic or
waveguide towards the observer, the observer will receive more energy than if the
wave were allowed to spread out in all directions.
Power and intensity

As an observer you almost always see only a small part of the wavefront as it moves
outwards from its source. You see only part of the total power associated with the
wavefront.
If the observer were to hold up a detector the size of a sheet 1 m by 1 m square, the
energy flowing through the sheet every second (power per square metre) is termed the
intensity of the disturbance. For example, our eyes intercept power from an area of
the wavefront only 3 mm × 3 mm square (9 × 10–6m2). We can increase the total power
received by using a 25 cm diameter lens to gather light from a larger area.
Simple binoculars have a light-gathering area that is circular and has a diameter of
50 mm. This is a factor of 277 times the light-gathering area of the normal eye. The
power entering the binoculars is therefore 277 times that entering the eye.
Figure 2.28
Spherical waves
from a point
source have
intensities that
obey the inverse
square law.
r=1m
area = 4 units
area = 1 unit
r=2m
Inverse square law

Suppose that there is an explosion in which 10 000 W of power goes into producing light.
A pulse of light (an electromagnetic wave) spreads out uniformly in all directions and
carries this power to the observer.
The spherical wavefront carries a total power of 10 000 W as it spreads out. This
means that the power carried by each square metre of the wave is:
10 000 W
total surface area of the wave
53
The surface area of the wavefront is that of a sphere with a radius that increases as
the wavefront moves out from the explosion.
Surface area = 4πr2
Therefore the energy you will intercept if you stand at a distance from the source of
the explosion with a sheet of area 1 m2 is given by
10 000 W power of source
4πr 2 or 4πr 2
This rule is known as the inverse square law. All waves emitted by a point source
obey the inverse square law (Figure 2.28).
As we move out from the source of a 3-dimensional spherical wave, the intensity
1
decreases as .
r2
E x e r ci s e
2.24 A Geiger Müller counter was used to determine the γ-count at varying distances
from a screened Co–60 source. The count was adjusted for background
radiation and the results are shown in the table below. Plot this data and
determine the relationship between the count and the distance from the source.
Distance Corrected Distance Corrected
from count (minute from count (minute
source (m) intervals) source (m) intervals)
0.04 143 0.11 18
0.045 119 0.12 15
0.05 102 0.13 14
0.055 82 0.14 13
0.06 64 0.15 12
0.07 54 0.16 10
0.08 38 0.17 8
0.09 31 0.18 6
0.1 21
EM waves and communication

Television and radio transmission
In 1887 Heinrich Hertz noticed that when he produced a high voltage spark another
spark would appear across a gap in a metal ring several metres away. The high voltage
spark produced a pulse of rapidly varying electric and magnetic fields that spread
through space, without the need for any intervening matter to carry the wave. In 1907
Marconi was able to use such radio waves to transmit the first sound wave across the
Atlantic Ocean.
Radio waves form part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They travel at the speed of
light (3 × 108 m s–1) and have frequencies in the range 30–3000 MHz.
Table 2.5 Transmission bands and frequencies
Frequency Name Wavelength (m) Range Uses
30–3000 Hz extra low frequency >100 000 submarine link
3–300 kHz very low frequency 100 000 to 1000 >1500 km defence use
0.300–3 MHz medium frequency 1000 to 100 medium wave worldwide sound radio
3–30 MHz high frequency 100 to 10 short wave worldwide sound radio
30–300 MHz VHF 10 to 1 just over horizon high quality sound radio
300–3000 MHz UHF 1 to 0.1 line of sight television
>3000 MHz <0.1 line of sight satellite link
54
The main radio wave bands of concern to us are those used for radio and television
transmission. As can be seen from Table 2.5 the higher the frequency the more restricted
the range of the transmissions.
Transmission of a sound or television signal is not simple. It is not possible to transmit
information as electromagnetic waves with the same frequency spectrum as sound
(20 Hz < f < 20 000 Hz). Even if it were technically feasible, imagine 20 radio stations each
broadcasting in your region. It would sound as though 20 different people were all
shouting at you.
Each radio station is assigned an individual carrier frequency. The radio station takes
the sound wave to be transmitted and combines it with the carrier wave, which is then
transmitted. Your radio or television receiver receives this signal and decodes it to produce
the original sound wave.
There are two ways of combining the carrier wave with the sound wave, amplitude
modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM).
Amplitude modulation (AM)

Amplitude modulation means that the original sound signal is used to vary the amplitude
of the carrier signal. Amplitude-modulated radio transmissions are very prone to
interference. A lightning flash or the spark from a car ignition system will produce an
amplitude spike in the received signal. The radio receiver is not able to tell the difference
between this and the real signal.
carrier signal
amplitude modulated signal
sound signal
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Time Time
Time
Figure 2.29 In amplitude modulation (AM) the amplitude of the carrier wave encodes the sound signal.
Frequency modulation (FM)

In frequency modulation the sound signal changes or modulates the frequency of the
carrier signal. When the sound signal is large amplitude, the carrier is changed to a slightly
lower frequency. When the sound signal is small amplitude, the carrier is changed to a
slightly higher frequency.
FM or frequency modulated radio transmissions are less affected by interference. It is
unlikely that any outside disturbance could mimic the varying frequency that represents
the sound signal. No attention is paid to the amplitude of the received signal, so lightning
or car ignition systems have little effect on the quality of the sound.
Analog electrical image
of signal to be transmitted
Higher frequency, Carrier wave from transmitter.

shorter period Frequency modulated
when signal is electromagnetic Frequency
maximum carrier wave Modulator
Electric
Field
Carrier wave is Frequency
Electrical image Modulated–the transmitted
generated by microphone. FM radio signal.
Time Microphone picks
up sound signal.
Lower frequency, longer period when

signal is at negative extreme
Figure 2.30 In frequency modulation (FM) the sound signal is encoded by slightly varying the carrier frequency.
55
Fibre optics communications

Radio waves are the most common form of communications at present in the form of
AM/FM and microwave transmissions; however, they have some draw backs. In particular:
• they are not secure, anyone with a radio can eavesdrop
• they can be affected by adverse weather conditions through scattering of the
electromagnetic wave by water droplets and changes in the Earth’s ionosphere.
Of more importance is the fact that they can carry only a limited number of users. Each
transmitter is granted a unique transmission frequency with a given bandwidth.
bandwidth
Figure 2.31
Different
transmitters are
allocated WZFM 3MH 6CW 98-JNM
separate
frequency bands.
central frequency
If you wish to transmit information accurately then you must have a bandwidth that is
similar to the rate at which you transmit your picture and sound. You must transmit
one television picture every 1/30th of a second. Each picture contains about 1 million
individual dots, each represented by 255 grey levels and three colours. This means you
have an information data rate of over 100 MHz and you require a similar bandwidth for
your transmissions.
There is only a finite range of radio frequencies allocated by international agreements
for television transmissions. This means that the number of television transmitters in a
given area is limited. Similarly, the number of phone conversations we can transmit over
conducting copper cable and satellite links is limited, although each requires much less
bandwidth than a television station.
The total available bandwidth depends on the frequency of the radiation. We can therefore
overcome these problems by moving to higher frequency electromagnetic radiation. We can
use tight infrared or visible laser beams to transmit information at a wavelength between
400 nm and 2 microns. Unfortunately, visible and infrared radiation is also affected by
weather and scattered by clouds. To avoid this problem we send the infrared carrier waves
along fibre optic cables. The carrier waves can be modulated with the information we wish
to send and transmitted down the fibre by total internal reflection.
The available bandwidth is so large that many thousands of television channels can be
carried along such a network.
Figure 2.32 glass cladding

Total internal
reflection in glass core
infrared
a glass fibre laser
used in
communications.
A c tivit y
2.8 Plan, choose equipment for, gather information and perform a first-hand
investigation to observe the inverse square law for light intensity and distance
from the source.
a What variables need to be kept constant and how will you achieve this?
b What technology will you use during the investigation? Justify its
suitability and effectiveness.
56
E x e r ci s e s
2.25 Using information from this chapter, discuss the limitations of the use of
electromagnetic waves for communication purposes.
2.26 Describe the characteristics of the waves involved in the transfer of energy
that occurs during the use of a mobile phone, television and radar. Evaluate
the appropriateness of the particular wave to its purpose.
2.27 Using a range of secondary sources, present information that charts the depth
of penetration in the atmosphere of electromagnetic spectrum waves and
identify the wavelengths filtered out by the atmosphere, especially UV, X-rays
and γ-rays. Describe any consequences of this selective filtration. Include only
relevant information and include a bibliography.
2.4 Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic Waves

Students learn to:
• describe and apply the Law of Reflection and explain the effect of reflection from a plane surface
on waves
• describe ways in which applications of reflection of light, radio waves and microwaves have assisted
in information transfer
• describe one application of reflection for each of the following:
— plane surfaces
— concave surfaces
— convex surfaces
— radio waves being reflected by the ionosphere
• explain that refraction is related to the velocities of a wave in different media and outline how this
may result in the bending of a wavefront
• define refractive index in terms of changes in the velocity of a wave in passing from one medium
to another
v sin i
• define Snell’s Law: v1 = sin r
2
• identify the conditions necessary for total internal reflection with reference to the critical angle
• outline how total internal reflection is used in optical fibres.
Reflection of light
When light strikes the surface of an object or passes from one material into another,
part of the energy associated with the wave is
• reflected back into the first material
• refracted into the second material.
At every surface we expect to see a reflected wave travelling back into the first
medium and a refracted wave travelling forward into the second medium.
In diagrams, arrowed lines called rays are frequently used to show the direction in
which light is travelling. These rays are drawn perpendicular to the wavefront and point
in the direction of wave motion. We often use narrow beams of light in our experiments
(e.g. ray box kits) and refer to them as rays. These beams are really narrow sections of
wavefronts whose behaviour is similar to that of a ray.
57
Figure 2.33
Reflected and incident wave incident wave
transmitted
waves at a
surface.
i
r
refracted wave
refracted wave
reflected wave
reflected wave
We usually discuss simple reflection and refraction in terms of the following angles:
• the angle of incidence—the angle between any incident ray and the normal to
the surface (a line perpendicular to the surface)
• the angle of reflection—the angle between any reflected ray and the normal to
the surface.
• the angle of refraction—the angle between any refracted ray and the normal to
the surface.
Reflection of waves
If we consider the reflective ray alone, we find from experiment that the following
rules apply.
Rules of reflection
• The incident ray, the normal and reflected ray are all in the same plane.
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection: i = r.
Key Concept 2.3 Drawing Ray Diagrams for Plane Mirrors

For any ray from a point source we can construct a ray diagram involving reflection
from a plane reflective surface by following three simple steps.
1 Draw the surface and the normal to that surface.
2 Draw the incident ray as an arrow toward the surface at the angle of incidence.
3 Draw the reflected ray as an arrow pointing away from the surface at the angle of
reflection, remembering that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
incident ray incident ray
normal normal normal
reflected ray
Figure 2.34 The construction of a reflected ray from a plane mirror.
58
Figure 2.35 mirror

An imaginary
image produced
by light reflected
from a plane
mirror. object
imaginary image
Reflection in daily life

Plane reflective surfaces are encountered in everyday life. The mirrors that hang in our
houses use the reflection provided by a flat glass surface silvered on the back. A fibre
optic cable uses reflection from a flat surface to send the wave down the tube.
When we look into a mirror our eyes and brains calculate the position of the source
of light. Unfortunately we do this without taking into account the existence of reflection
or refraction and imagine the source to be directly down the ray that enters the eye.
This leads to us imagining that the source of light is behind the plane mirror.
Plane waves may be bent by reflection from a curved surface so that the wavefronts
become concave and converge or focus their energy on a point. At every point on the
curved reflector the law of reflection is observed. If a normal is drawn to the tangent to
any point on the surface, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
Convex mirrors
Figure 2.36
The diverging incident plane wave
waves produced
by the reflection
of a plane wave reflected circular wave
from a convex focus
mirror.
centre
of curvature
Plane waves reflected from a convex mirror appear to diverse from its focus.
Convex mirrors are used as security mirrors in shops and in side vision mirrors in cars
as they provide a view of a wider area. They are also used in conjunction with concave
mirrors as secondary mirrors to produce telescopes and all reflecting optics.
Key Concept 2.4 Drawing Ray Diagrams for Convex Mirrors

A convex surface bends outward and waves diverge outward from its surface. Parallel rays
striking the surface spread out from the surface, and wavefronts appear to originate from
an imaginary source behind the surface called the focal point.
59
To draw a ray diagram for a convex surface:

1 Select the scale for your diagram. In the centre of your paper mark the centre of
curvature of your mirror. Place the point of your compass on this point. Draw the
arc of the circle which represents the convex mirror surface.
The focus of a mirror lies half way between the mirror and its centre of curvature.
Draw the focal point where the parallel incident rays converge.
2 Draw the incident ray as an arrow toward the surface.
3 At the surface draw a dotted line from the end of the incident ray to the focus of the
mirror.
4 Continue the line outward, away from the focus. This line represents the reflected ray.
re
fle
Figure 2.37
ct
ed
Ray diagrams for
ra
y
a convex mirror.
2f incident ray
focus
f
centre
of curvature
5 Note how the line which bisects the angle between the incident ray and the reflected
ray passes through the centre of curvature of the mirror. This line is the normal to the
mirror surface.
Concave mirrors
Plane, parallel waves incident on a concave mirror converge on its focus. Satellite
dishes are concave because this shape allows them to concentrate a weak
electromagnetic signal. Conversely, a source placed at the focus of a concave dish
travels outward as a straight beam that does not spread out or weaken as much with
distance.
Figure 2.38 incident plane wave reflected circular wave

Converging
waves produced
by a concave
mirror.
centre of curvature centre of curvature
focus focus
Microwave repeater stations use concave dishes to bounce incoming waves to the
next station. Radio telescopes similar to the Parkes 64 m antenna collect almost plane
parallel waves from distant sources in the Universe and focus them onto sensitive
detectors.
60
Key Concept 2.5 Drawing Ray Diagrams for Concave Mirrors

1 Select the scale for your diagram. In the centre of your paper mark the centre of
curvature of your mirror. Place the point of your compass on this point. Draw the arc
of the circle which represents the concave mirror surface.
The focus of a mirror lies half way between the mirror and its centre of curvature.
Draw the focal point where the parallel incident rays converge.
2f
f
centre
of curvature
2 Draw the incident ray as an arrow toward the surface.

3 At the surface draw the reflected ray as an arrow from the point where the incident
ray meets the surface through the focus.
Figure 2.39
Ray diagrams
for a concave incident ray
mirror.
ray
cted
refle
E x e r ci s e s
2.28 Use ray diagrams to draw the path of a ray reflected from a flat surface and a
convex surface.
2.29 Use a ray diagram to show the path of five parallel rays reflected from a
concave surface.
Refraction of light
Changes at an inter face bet ween t wo materials
We have seen in discussing waves in general that as a plane wave moves from a region of
high velocity to a region in which its velocity is low the following happens:
• the wave slows down
• its frequency remains constant, therefore its wavelength decreases
• if the wave approaches the surface at an angle, the direction of the wave changes
after refraction.
Let’s take a simple case in which the light wavefront is parallel to the interface
between the two regions.
Using Huygens’ construction we can draw successive wavefronts at equal time
intervals. The wavefronts are spaced at distances vt apart. As the wavefronts move into
the slower speed material the distance between them decreases. This represents a
decrease in wavelength in the second material.
61
Figure 2.40
high wave velocity low wave velocity
Huygens’
construction vat vbt
shows that the
wavelength
changes when
light enters a
material.
The light wave’s frequency is independent of its velocity and depends only on the
light source. Because the velocity of light changes as it moves into the new medium
v
and the wavelength is given by λ = , the wavelength will become shorter in the slower
f
velocity material.
Refractive index of a material

Before the nature of light was properly understood, the refraction of light was discussed
in terms of the refractive index of a material. It was later discovered that the refractive
index was related to the speed of light in the material.
The absolute refractive index (n) of a material is defined as:
speed of light in a vacuum
absolute refractive index =
speed of light in the medium
c
n=
v
The refractive index of a material cannot be less than 1. Why?
Table 2.6 Refractive indices (for yellow light in a vacuum)
Medium Refractive index Medium Refractive index
Air 1.000 Sugar solution 80% 1.49
Water 1.33 Crown glass 1.52
Ethanol 1.36 Quartz 1.54
Paraffin oil 1.44 Flint glass 1.65
Glycerol 1.47 Diamond 2.42
Refraction of waves
When waves pass from one medium to another:
• their speed changes
c
• their wavelength changes according to the equation λ =
v
• their frequency remains unchanged.
Some of the energy of the wave is reflected in the form of a wave moving back into the first
medium, the remainder appears as a transmitted wave moving into the second medium.
If the waves approach the interface of the two materials at an angle, then the angle made
by the direction of travel of the incident and refracted waves to the normal to the surface are
related by Snell’s law.
62
Figure 2.41 normal

The refraction of
a wave as it
moves from a
material with low i
n1
refractive index high velocity
to one with a
higher refractive
n2
index. low velocity
The relation between the angle of incidence (i) and the angle of refraction (r):
sin i n2 v1
= n = v
sin r 1 2
is known as Snell’s law. This law has been shown experimentally to be a constant for a
given pair of media since 1621, long before the wave theory of light had been fully
developed. The terms n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two materials.
We can see that Snell’s law leads to the following relationships between the speed
of light and its wavelength:
sin i n2 v1 λ1
= n = v = λ
sin r 1 2 2
We often refer to materials as being optically dense. This relates only to the ability of
light to pass through a material and means that the more optically dense the material,
the lower the speed of light in that material.
Light moving from an optically less dense to a more dense medium will be turned
toward the normal to the surface.
Rules of refraction
• The incident ray, the normal and reflected ray are all in the same plane
• The relation between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction:
sin i n2 v1
= n = v
sin r 1 2
a b
fast slow slow fast
r
r
i i
Figure 2.42 Light waves moving from a low to high refractive index materials; b high to low refractive index materials.
A light wave moving into a material in which its velocity is higher will bend so that the ray is bent
away from the normal. The wavefront swings away from the surface.
63
E x e r ci s e s
2.30 The path of a ray of light passing from air into glass is shown in the following
diagram. N
25°
air
glass
15°
a Calculate the refractive index of the glass.

b Calculate the velocity of light in the glass.
2.31 The path of a ray of light passing from air into flint glass is shown in the
following diagram. N
θ air
flint glass
12°
a Calculate the value of θ.

b Calculate the velocity of light in the glass.
2.32 The path of a ray of light passing from a diamond into air is shown in the
air
20°
diamond

b Calculate the velocity of light in the diamond.
2.33 The path of a ray of light passing from water into air is shown in the following
diagram.
N
air
55°
water

b Calculate the velocity of light in water.
64
Applications of reflection and refraction

Lenses
One of the most common applications of the refraction of light is the use of lenses.
The plane wavefront slows on entering the lens. Parts of the wavefront that travel
through the thickest part of the lens lag behind parts of the wavefront that pass through
the thinnest part of the lens. In this way convex lenses cause the plane parallel light waves
to converge onto a point, the focus of the lens.
Concave lenses cause the same waves to diverge and expand.
Figure 2.43 Convex lens Concave lens

Convex
(converging) and
concave
(diverging)
lenses.
We can also think of the way lenses bend light in terms of rays. Because light entering
glass (which is optically more dense than air) bends toward the normal, a curved surface
of glass can alter the path of light in predictable ways.
Concave lens
A concave lens bends inward.
Figure 2.44
b
A bi-concave a
lens causes A
parallel light rays normal
to diverge.
A ray of light, A, entering a concave lens at point a, will bend toward the normal, and
when it leaves the lens at point b it will bend away from the normal, causing a permanent
change in direction. Similarly, a parallel ray of light, B, at the bottom of the lens will also
bend towards the optical axis of the lens. A concave lens causes rays of light to diverge.
An object viewed through a concave lens appears smaller as the light from the object
spreads out in the lens. Looking backward down the ray of light, we see a smaller object,
as light in our experience travels in straight lines and we expect the object to be at the end
of a ray of light. Concave lenses are used in spectacles for certain types of vision
Convex lens
A convex lens is thicker at the middle than its edges. It brings parallel rays of light to a
focus.
65
A ray of light, C, entering the convex lens at point c also bends toward the normal when
entering and away from the normal when leaving. A ray, D, at the bottom of the lens is
similarly bent, but upwards. This causes the rays to converge at a focus.
Convex lenses are used in spectacles, telescopes and microscopes, as well as in
magnifying glasses and binoculars. When used as magnifying glasses, the object to be
magnified must be placed between the lens and the front focus.
Convex lenses bend light rays so that they actually pass through a point. These images
are known as real images, and can be caught on a screen, therefore convex lenses are used
in slide, film and overhead projectors. A light placed at the focal point becomes a parallel
beam of light so convex lenses can be used in searchlights and theatre lights.
Lenses can be also made of different materials to focus other frequencies of
electromagnetic waves. As a demonstration opaque wax lenses can be used to refract
microwave radiation, or a balloon filled with carbon dioxide can focus sound waves.
Figure 2.45 normal
A bi-convex C
lens causes
c
light rays to
converge on a
focal point. focus
D
d
A c tivitie s
2.9 Perform Experiment 2.8 Reflection using a ray box.
2.10 Perform Experiment 2.9 Observations of reflection and refraction of waves

using a ripple tank.
2.11 Perform Experiment 2.6 Snell’s Law.
Reflection, refraction, and the ionosphere

The atmosphere above the surface of the Earth is divided into layers. The outermost
layer consists of electrically charged particles called ions, and is therefore called the
ionosphere. The ionosphere itself is divided into three layers, which have differing
properties. The ions are created by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, therefore there are
daytime and nocturnal as well as seasonal variations in the altitude of the layers.
The ionosphere is very important to radio transmissions since it refracts radio waves
so sharply that they appear to have been reflected from its layer and can be received far
over the horizon of the transmitter.
The lowest part of the ionosphere, the D-layer (50–100 km), refracts low frequency,
long wavelength signals.
The E-layers, extending up to 150 km, bend radio waves with frequencies up to 20 MHz
back to the Earth’s surface enabling them to be received 2500 km from the transmitter.
The outermost F layers extend out to 450 km and are responsible for bending the high
frequency long distance radio transmissions.
66
Figure 2.46 100 MHz

Short wave ionosphere transmitted
radio signals are
reflected from
the ionosphere.
refracted radiowaves
5 MHz 20 MHz
Very high frequency microwaves are not refracted by the ionosphere and therefore are
reflected off satellites and ground-based stations in order to carry television and
telephone communications around the world.
Microwaves are not refracted by the ionosphere and therefore are reflected off satellites
and ground-based stations in order to carry television and telephone communications
around the world.
Refraction in the world around us

Real and apparent depth
The bending of light can give a false impression of the depth of objects immersed in water
or other fluids. Rays from an object below the surface bend away from the normal at the
surface on entering the air. The eye expects the source of the rays of light to lie at their
crossing point. This point seems to lie closer to the surface than the object itself.
x x
From simple geometry, tan i = h and tan r = h
real 1
sin i hreal real depth

For small angles then = h = = refractive index of fluid.
sin r 1 apparent depth
r
x
air
h1
hreal
water
ball
Figure 2.47 An object at the bottom of a pool seems closer than it really is.
67
Atmospheric effects
We live in a world with an atmosphere. The atmosphere extends upwards and outwards
for about 100 km. Its density slowly decreases as we get further away from the surface of
the Earth. When we observe distant stars, or the moon and planets, light entering the
atmosphere is bent closer to the vertical (the normal) as it encounters layers with
increasing refractive indices.
Figure 2.48 apparent position
The atmosphere of moon
refracts light
from objects
close to the
horizon making real moon
them seem
dex
higher than they
e in
really are.
ctiv
refra
ing
eas
incr
horizon
The overall effect is that the body appears to be higher in the sky than it really is. This
effect increases when the planet or star is near the horizon and rising or setting. Its light
then travels along the longest possible path through the atmosphere. When this occurs
we are actually seeing the object after it has passed below our horizon.
Figure 2.49 Sun

Warm air near
the ground
cool air
density of air
produces a observer
increases
mirage.
total internal reflection
warm air
Another common effect is a mirage (Figure 2.49). In this case hot air above a road is
trapped below colder air. Light from distant objects is then bent and makes the objects
appear closer. It sometimes appears as if there is water on the road.
Total internal reflection

As we increase the angle of incidence for light leaving an optically dense material in which
the velocity of light is low and moving into air we observe that the angle of refraction
rapidly increases. Eventually the angle of refraction reaches a maximum at 90º, at which
point the refracted ray lies along the air–glass interface.
sin i n2 nair 1
From Snell’s laws of refraction we see that = n = n = n
sin r 1 glass glass
68
refracted ray grazes surface totally internally reflected ray
r r = 90¡
i i r
i
Figure 2.50 If the angle of incidence of a light ray is large, the ray is reflected back into an optically dense medium. This is the basis
of all fibre optics.
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases until it
reaches 90º and the refracted ray lies parallel to the surface. This angle of incidence is
known as the critical angle. For normal glass with a refractive index of 1.5, the critical
angle is 41.2º. 1
sin icritical = n
glass
If the angle of incidence increases beyond the critical angle, the light is reflected back
into the glass. This is called total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection is used in many areas where a mirror surface is not suitable.
The prisms in binoculars utilise total internally reflected rays to shorten the length of the
instrument. The angle of incidence of the light is 45º, which is greater than the critical
angle of glass. The ray is therefore reflected from the glass–air interface at an angle of 45º.
Figure 2.51
A total internally
reflecting prism
turns a light beam
through 90º.
r
i
sin i > 1/nglass
Optical fibres
Total internal reflection also forms the basis of fibre optic cables. Optical fibres are thin
flexible glass rods. When a ray enters the fibre it strikes the sides at large angles of incidence.
The angles of incidence are greater than the critical angle and total internal reflection occurs.
By making use of total internal reflection we minimise the energy lost at each reflection.
Light is transmitted down the fibre optic cable by reflecting from side to side. A bundle of
fibres is often called a light pipe. If an object is imaged on the face of such a light pipe each
fibre carries part of the image down the pipe. A second lens is then used to focus the image
on a detector at the far end.
Optical fibres are also used to transmit digital signals or pulses of light from one place
to another. This form of telecommunications suffers less interference and power loss than
conventional systems using electric voltages. It is therefore cheaper. The light sources used
69
Figure 2.52
A simple fibre cladding n2
optic cable uses
total internal
reflection to n0 n1
θcritical
transmit a beam r
of light. Modern
i
optical fibres are
clad in low
refractive index
glass to prevent
surface scratches.
are small solid state laser diodes that produce an infrared pulse at a wavelength of about
1.2 microns. The fibres are designed to transmit these wavelengths with very low losses.
The simplest optical fibres have a glass core of high refractive index coated by glass
cladding with a lower refractive index.
n2
Total internal reflection occurs for θcritical = sin–1 n
1
90 – r < θcritical
The light entering one end of the fibre will undergo up to 7000 reflections for each
metre of fibre. Some light is lost at each reflection. Though each loss is small, it can mount
up to a total loss unless the fibres are almost perfectly reflecting.
Losses within the fibre are due to:
1
• scattering from defects in the glass proportional to 4 ; thus use of long wavelengths
λ
means lower power losses
• molecular and atomic absorption
• absorption by metallic ions and OH impurities
• roughness and non-uniform fibre thickness
• bending.
E x e r ci s e
2.34 a Why does a breaststroke swimmer see a reflection of the bottom of the
pool when his or her head is below water?
b What is the critical angle for water (n = 1.33)?
c Which material has the highest critical angle; water (n = 1.33), glycerol (n = 1.47)
or diamond (n = 2.42)?
d How is total internal reflection utilised in optical fibre technology?
e Why doesn’t total reflection occur when a light beam in air is incident on water?
f Why does a diamond in a diamond ring sparkle in light?
g A sapphire has a critical angle of 34.4 degrees. What is its refractive index?
Pulse dispersion
Waves following different paths have different travel times through the fibre. Pulses get
smeared and information gets lost.
Figure 2.53
Light may follow
several paths
through the fibre.
This leads to
pulse smearing. Time
70
Figure 2.54 Stepped index

Graded index n2 n2
(GRIN) fibres
focus the light n1 n1
so that all rays
have nearly the
same path
length.
r
Stepped index
Graded index
n1
r
GRIN fibre
We can reduce this pulse smearing by using graded index fibres (GRINs). In a GRIN,
the refractive index of the core varies from a maximum in the centre to a minimum at the
outside. This has the effect of refracting rays deviating from the centre line back towards
the centre.
Fibres may also be used as sensors. The transmission efficiency of a fibre depends on a
number of external things and can be used to measure:
• bending
• pressure
• the distance to the reflector from an object
• temperature
• magnetic field strength.
A c tivitie s
2.12 Perform Experiment 2.7 Determination of the critical angle.

2.13 Gather and analyse information to assess the impact of lenses on understanding
the nature of light.
2.5 Digital Data and Communication

Students learn to:
• identify types of communication data that are stored or transmitted in digital form.
There are two kinds of signals commonly used for communications. These are analogue
signals, which vary smoothly with time, and digital signals in which the information is
encoded as a sequence of voltages which are either high or low (on or off).
Analogue signals
In most of the discussions about waves we have talked about waves that vary smoothly
over time. We have looked briefly at how we transmit sound waves, converting them into
electrical voltages using a microphone before transmitting them from an aerial. Just like
the sound that produced them, these voltages vary in a complex way and are made up
of many superimposed frequencies in the range 50–10 000 Hz. In order to transmit
71
Figure 2.55 a b
A sketch of Voltage Voltage
a analogue and 10 V
b digital signals. 5V
0V
Time (s) Time (s)
frequencies in this range by radio, we have to use a carrier wave with a frequency in the
radio spectrum (> 300 kHz). We have talked about how we can use AM and FM to
modulate the carrier wave.
We can store sound by converting it to electrical voltages using microphones, then
using these voltages to control a stylus that cuts grooves into vinyl records. Alternatively,
we could use the voltages to produce a varying magnetic field that affects the magnetic
coating on a tape. Once again the depth of the groove represents the amplitude of the
original sound and varies smoothly. These are known as analogue signals. Analogue
signals vary continuously and smoothly with time.
Digital signals
We can turn any analogue signal into a digital signal. Any kind of information, except
smell and taste (and these are being worked on), can be stored and transmitted in digital
form. The only requirement is that the signal must be able to be converted to numbers.
To do this conversion we sample or measure the voltage of the analogue signal at
precise intervals. The more frequently it is sampled the closer the information
corresponds to the true shape of the wave. These numbers can be stored or transmitted.
We take each sampled voltage and convert it into a digital number, which is stored in
a computer memory before being recorded to DVD or CD. This process is known as
A–D (analogue to digital) conversion and the electronic box which does this is called an
A–D converter.
Figure 2.56 Analogue recording Sampled signal

The process of Voltage Voltage
turning analogue 10 V 10 V
sound signals
into a digital
signal.
Time (s) Time (s)
4-bit digitiser
sample
1 2 3 4
3V 6V 7V 6V
72
In this way we can take a Jimi Hendrix or Beatles recording from tape or a vinyl record
and convert it into a digital CD.
Newspaper stories and photographs are entered into a computer in digital form and
transmitted around the world via modem. In Australia, mobile phones now transmit
digital signals rather than analogue, using GSM or CDMA coding. Internet data is sent
in digital form using satellites, and cable television also arrives digitally. Compact discs
(CDs) record sound digitally, and we can now stream sound and vision bits along the
modem line to transmit videos. Music CDs are recorded at sampling rates of 44 100 bits
a second.
The use of digital signals allows us to process information using computer techniques.
We can use sophisticated software programs to take a piece of digitised music and remove
clicks and pops caused by scratches, or cut and paste over mistakes.
If we transmit digital signals, we can easily filter out noise from other sources (for
example lightning) and get a far higher transmission quality than with AM and FM radio.
A–D conver ters

When we convert the analogue voltage to a digital signal, the electronics of the A–D
converter produces a number. This number is a sequence of 0s and 1s represented by
0 volt and 5 volt signals. Such a number is known as a binary number.
In daily life we count using a decimal system. We have ten separate decimal digits
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and when we need to count a larger number we use combinations
of these digits to represent ones, tens, hundreds etc. Thus 1969 represents 1 thousand
+ 9 hundreds + 6 tens + 9.
In binary notation we only have two binary digits 0 and 1. To count higher than 1 we
need to use a combination of these.
Table 2.7 Numbers 1 to 9 and their binary equivalents
Number Binary number
23 22 21 20
8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
The A–D converter limits the number of binary digits we have available to represent the
analogue voltage. A 4-bit A–D converter only has 24 or 16 numbers available, an 8-bit A–D
only 28 or 256 numbers and a 16-bit A–D only 65536 numbers. This limits the accuracy of
the digital conversion.
CD technology
Once we have a digital signal it can be recorded in a variety of ways, the most common
of which is the CD. The digital data is written to the CD as a sequence of pits, which
represent 1s, on a flat reflecting surface, which represents 0s. The recording track starts in
the centre of the CD and moves outward to the edge in a tight spiral with about 40 000
turns per cm. The track is less than the thickness of a hair and several kilometres long.
When read, the disk rotates at over 500 revolutions a minute.
73
Figure 2.57 flat pit

A CD is made metal coating
up of a series of
pits burnt into a
plastic disc. transparent layer
These pits
represent the 0s
and 1s of the
digital signal.
strong reflection weak reflection
E x e r ci s e s
2.35 If the recording track is a tight spiral with about 40 000 turns per cm, and the CD
track is about 4 cm wide, how long is the track?
2.36 What would be the decimal number 10 in binary?
2.37 Describe ways in which applications of reflection of electromagnetic waves

have assisted in information transfer.
Other digital technologies

Global Positioning Systems
A Global Positioning System (GPS) provides you with your exact position on the Earth.
Twenty-four GPS satellites orbit at 17 500 km above the Earth and take 12 hours for one
complete orbit. Each satellite is equipped with an accurate clock to let it broadcast precise
time signals. The satellites also tell their precise orbital position. A person equipped with a
GPS receiver receives the satellite signal, which travels at the speed of light. The difference
between the time the signal is sent and the time it is received enables the GPS receiver to
calculate the distance from the satellite.
Signals from four separate satellites allow the GPS receiver to calculate its precise
latitude, longitude, and altitude.
Figure 2.58
The Global
Positioning
System needs
signals from at
least three
satellites to give GPS1 GPS2
a good position.
you
GPS3
74
If we know our exact distance from a satellite, we know we are somewhere on the
surface of an imaginary sphere with a radius equal to the distance to the satellite. If we
know our exact distance from two satellites, we know that we are located somewhere on
the line where the two spheres intersect. A third measurement, allows only two possible
points where we can be located.
The GPS system can tell you your location anywhere on or above the Earth to within
about 90 m. Better accuracy can be obtained using corrections supplied by a GPS receiver
at a known fixed location.
The Russians operate a similar system using Global Navigation System (GLONAS)
satellites.
A c tivit y
2.14 Choose one of the following:

a Global Positioning System
b CD technology, including the differences between CD and DVD
c the Internet
and gather, process and present information from secondary sources to:
1 identify developments in technology that allowed that technology to be
developed
2 identify one area of current research
3 use the available evidence to discuss some of the underlying physical
principles used in that application.
In your paper:
• access information from popular scientific journals, the mass media and
the Internet
• assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass media by
comparing it with similar information presented in scientific journals.
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 2.1 Waves in springs, ropes and water

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to observe and gather information about the
transmission of waves in slinky springs, ropes and water.
M at e rial s
Each group of students will need:
• slinky spring
• rope or heavy demonstration spring
• ripple tank or water waves or a video of waves
• stopwatch
M e t hod
1 Stretch a rope or demonstration spring down the length of the room with a student
holding it rigidly at either end. Send a pulse down the rope by flicking the end. Observe
what moves.
2 Send repeated pulses down the rope at about 2 or 3 per second. Estimate the
wavelength.
3 Increase the frequency and estimate the wavelength again.
4 Produce a wave with a wavelength of about 1 metre. Count how many waves pass a
point in 10 seconds.
75
5 Repeat Step 4 with a wavelength of about a half metre.

6 Increase the height of the wave. Observe any effect.
7 Repeat steps 1 to 5 with a slinky spring. Create the wave by pushing and pulling the
spring.
8 With a ripple tank, repeat steps 1 to 5, using wavelengths of 2 cm and 1 cm, or use the
surf or a video to analyse the frequency of a wave.
R e s ult s
1 How did you have to modify this procedure to make the observations clearer?
2 a Are there any risks involved in this experiment?
b How can they be minimised?
3 Does the end of the rope or slinky move down the room? What is transmitted?
4 What frequency did you observe for the wave in the rope with a one metre wavelength?
What was the frequency for a half metre?
5 For the slinky wave, what frequencies did you observe for the two wavelengths?
6 Summarise your observations for the water wave.
7 How did you increase the amplitude in Step 6?
C alc ulation s
Use the frequency and wavelength in steps 4 and 5 to calculate the speed of the wave in
the rope and in the spring.
C on clu s ion
1 Are the speeds calculated for the two different wavelengths in the same medium the
same? Discuss why they might be different?
2 Compare the average speed of the wave in the rope, slinky and water.
3 On what does the amplitude depend?
Experiment 2.2 Measurement of the frequency of

sound waves using a CRO
P r elab e x e r ci s e
The following diagram is a record of the trace from a CRO (cathode ray oscilloscope)
screen. The CRO was linked to a frequency generator.
The oscilloscope settings were: Vertical Display, Volts/Div = 2 V/cm
Time base = 20 ms/cm
1 Determine the peak to peak voltage of the signal.

2 Determine the frequency of the signal.
A im
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the frequency of sound waves using
a CRO.
76
M at e rial s
• cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
• frequency generator
• connecting wires
M e t hod
1 Turn the CRO on and ensure that the trace is centred and in focus. Set the time base to
10 ms and the vertical display to 1 volt/div.
2 Connect the output of the frequency generator to one of the probes of the CRO. Set
the frequency to about 100 Hz. Observe the CRO and adjust the settings if necessary.
3 Repeat at other frequencies with the speaker on. It may be of interest to determine the
typical frequency range of hearing of the class by measuring the frequencies at which
hearing cuts out at both ends of the spectrum.
4 Vary the output of the signal generator at constant frequency and note the effect on
the wave and compare with the change in sound intensity.
R e s ult s
Calculate the period and then frequency for each setting.
C on clu s ion
How may the frequency of a wave be determined with a CRO?
A n swe r to p r elab e x e r ci s e
a 8 VPP
b 44.4 Hz
Experiment 2.3 Varieties of sound waves

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to analyse sound wave forms from a variety of sources
using a CRO or computer technology.
M at e rial s
• CRO or data logger
• microphone or sound sensor
• tuning forks of various frequencies (256 Hz, 384 Hz, 512 Hz)
• resonance boxes
• various musical instruments (recorder, chime bar, keyboard, guitar)
M e t hod
1 Set up the oscilloscope as for Experiment 2.2, but with the microphone attached to
the probes, or use your data logger and sound sensor. Class must be quiet.
2 Strike the 256 Hz tuning fork and hold it near the microphone. Record the resulting
wave form, making any adjustments to the CRO settings.
3 Repeat with a 512 Hz fork. Note any differences.
4 Repeat with a 512 Hz and a 384 Hz fork played at the same time.
5 Repeat with a tuning fork placed on the corresponding resonance box.
6 Repeat with the chime bar and with a musical instrument playing a single note.
7 Predict the appearance of the wave form from a different musical instrument playing a
single note, an instrument playing a chord, a human voice singing a single note and then
speaking, and the whole class speaking at once. Justify and then test your predictions.
R e s ult s
Record your results, predictions and verifications
C on clu s ion
1 How can you explain the wave form of a musical instrument?
2 What is the difference between music and noise?
77
Experiment 2.4 Superposition of waves

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate the effect of the superposition of two
different waves in the same medium.
M at e rial s
• cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
• 2 frequency generators
• 2 resistors 100 Ω
M e t hod
1 Adjust CRO as in Experiment 2.2.
2 Connect the outputs of the frequency generators to the probe of the CRO placing one
of the resistors in series with each of the generators to prevent them from damaging
one another.
3 Turn on one frequency generator, adjusting the CRO and frequency so a clear wave
form is visible. Using a scale, draw the wave, then turn off that generator.
4 Turn on the other frequency generator adjusting it to the same amplitude and
frequency as the first.
5 Turn on both and draw the resulting wave.
6 Repeat with two waves of differing frequency.
7 Vary the amplitude of one of the waves and try different frequency combinations as
time permits.
R e s ult s
Draw relevant diagrams
C on clu s ion
1 What kind of wave results when two waves are superimposed?
Experiment 2.5 The relation bet ween the frequency

and wavelength of sound at constant speed
In this experiment you will determine the wavelength of a sound wave at given
frequencies. The wavelength will be determined from the distance between two points
in a column that produce a maximum in sound intensity (resonance) when a vibrating
tuning fork is held over the column. The difference in tube length between two points
λ
of resonance of a column of air is 2 . The speed of sound for your experiment can be
determined as follows.
At normal atmosphere pressure, the temperature dependence of the speed of a sound
wave through air is approximated by the following equation:
v = 331 m s–1 + (0.6 m s–1 °C–1) × T
where T is the temperature of the air in degrees Celsius. Using the equation the speed
of a sound wave in air at a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius is:
v = 331 m s–1 + (0.6 m s–1 °C–1) × T
v = 331 m s–1 + (0.6 m s–1 °C–1 × 25 °C)
v = 331 m s–1 + 15 m s–1
v = 346 m s–1
A im
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the relation between the frequency and
wavelength of sound at constant speed.
78
M at e rial s
Each group of students will need:
• beaker (to top up measuring cylinder)
• burette
• glass tube 0.60 m, 1.0 m
• large measuring cylinder
• metre rule
• retort, clamp and bosshead
• rubber bung
• rubber tube (to fit gas outlet)
• set of at least three tuning forks, e.g. 256 Hz, 384 Hz, 512 Hz
• thermometer
P roc e d ur e
1 Clamp the glass tube so that it is supported vertically inside the measuring cylinder
full of water but not in contact with the base. The length of tube above the water
should not exceed 14 cm.
metre glass
rule tube
measuring
cylinder
2 Strike the 512 Hz tuning fork gently on the rubber bung (otherwise it will not vibrate
at a single frequency) and hold over the air column. Slowly raise the glass tube until a
maximum in sound intensity is reached. Carefully measure the length of the air
column in the tube at this point.
3 Strike the 512 Hz tuning fork again and continue to raise the tube until another
maximum in sound intensity is reached. Carefully measure the length of the air
column in the tube at this point.
4 Record the air temperature.
5 Repeat these steps for each tuning fork. You may need to use a longer glass tube
(to 1.0 m).
R e s ult s
Tabulate your results, e.g.
Air temperature = °C 512 Hz 384 Hz 256 Hz
1st resonance
2nd resonance
Length of resonant air column
Wavelength (twice length above)
C alc ulation s
1 Calculate the speed of sound (v = 331 m s–1 + (0.6 m s–1 °C–1) × T ) for your results.
2 Determine the relation between f and λ at this speed (e.g. graphically).
C on clu s ion
How are frequency and wavelength of sound related?
79
E x t r a work
1 You can test the precision (how closely individual measurements agree with each
other) of this experiment by taking three readings for each measurement for each
tuning fork used. Then use the mean values of these readings. You can test the
accuracy by seeing how closely your results agree with theory—the wave equation
v = λf.
2 You can plan variations on this experiment by using a frequency generator (in place
of tuning forks); it may need calibrating with a CRO. Then use open fixed length glass
tubes and determine the lowest frequency that produces resonance. In this case the
wavelength is twice the length of the tube.
Experiment 2.6 Snell’s Law

A im
To determine the refractive index of a rectangular prism.
M at e rial s
• ray box kit
• power supply
• protractor
• plastic rectangular prism
• glass rectangular prism (for extension)
M e t hod
1 Trace the plastic rectangular prism onto a plain sheet of paper.
2 Draw a normal at the centre of one edge.
3 Construct lines to the prism at angles of incidence of 10° to 60° to the normal.
4 Align a beam from the ray box kit so that it follows the line at an angle of incidence
of 10°.
5 Mark the position where the beam leaves the prism and another point further along
the beam. Construct the normal and measure the angle of refraction.
6 Repeat for all the angles in the table.
R e s ult s
i r sin r sin i
10° 0.174
15° 0.259
20° 0.342
25° 0.423
30° 0.500
45° 0.707
60° 0.866
C alc ulation s
1 Plot sin i versus sin r.
2 Determine the refractive index of the prism.
E x t e n s ion
Repeat the experiment with a glass rectangular prism.
C on clu s ion
How does your value for the refractive index compare with text values for glass?
80
Experiment 2.7 The critical angle

A im
To measure the critical angle of a semicircular prism.
M at e rial s
• ray box power supply kit
• protractor
• semicircular prism
M e t hod
1 Trace the plastic semicircular prism onto a plain sheet of paper.
2 Draw a normal to the centre.
3 Align a beam from the ray box kit so that it enters the curved part of the prism and
reflects from the straight edge at the intersection of the normal.
4 Move the position of the ray box until the reflected beam is along the straight edge of
the prism.
5 Mark points along the incident beam and measure the critical angle.
6 Repeat steps 1 to 5 twice more and determine the average value of the critical angle.
C alc ulation s
Use your measure of the critical angle to determine the refractive index of the plastic.
C on clu s ion
How well do your results agree with the published value for the refractive index of the
prism material?
Experiment 2.8 Reflection using a ray box

A im
The aim of this experiment is to gather first hand information to observe the path of
light rays undergoing reflection.
M at e rial s
• ray box kit
• power supply
• plane and curved mirrors from the kit
• protractor
M e t hod
1 Trace the flat mirror onto a piece of paper.
2 Draw a normal to the surface of the mirror.
3 Align a single beam from the ray box kit so that it touches the mirror at 30° to the
normal.
4 Draw points along the incident beam and the reflective beam and measure the angle
of reflection.
5 Draw the incident ray and reflected ray wavefronts perpendicular to the rays.
6 Repeat steps 1 to 5 for an angle of incidence equal to 45°
7 Use the slide producing 4 parallel incident rays and draw the reflected rays.
8 Trace the curved mirror onto a piece of paper.
9 Draw the normal to a point off centre of the convex side of the mirror.
10 Repeat steps 1 to 5 for the convex side.
11 Use the slide producing 4 parallel incident rays and draw the reflected rays.
12 Repeat steps 8 to 11 for the concave side of the mirror.
81
R e s ult s
Present your results as a table and a series of diagrams.
C on clu s ion
1 What is the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection?
2 What effects do concave and convex mirrors have on a parallel beam of light?
Experiment 2.9 Observations of reflection and

refraction of waves
A im
The purpose of this experiment is to observe reflection and refraction of water waves.
M at e rial s
• a barrier, such as a piece of wood, a block of glass or Perspex
• overhead projector and screen
• plain white paper
• ripple tank
• wave generator and power supply
M e t hod
1 Set up the ripple tank with the barrier parallel to the wavefront. The ripple tank can
be placed on an overhead projector or placed under a light with white paper
underneath. Observe what happens when the waves strike the barrier.
2 Move the barrier so that the wavefront strikes it at an angle. Observe the pattern of
reflection for several angles.
3 Place a flat rectangular pane of glass in the ripple tank and add sufficient water so
that it is below the water level. Observe the shape of the waves passing over it.
4 Then place the glass so it is at an angle to the wavefront. Observe what happens to
the waves.
R e s ult s
Draw a diagram of the appearance of the waves in steps 1 to 4.
C on clu s ion
1 What can you say about the angle of reflection of the wavefront when compared to
the angle of incidence?
2 What factor causes refraction of water waves?
Review Questions and Problems

1 The following diagram represents a waveform with a frequency of 20 Hz along a
string at a certain instant of time.
2
Displacement (cm)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Distance (cm)
–1
–2
a What is the amplitude of the wave?

b What is the wavelength of the wave?
c What is the period of the wave?
d What is the wave velocity?
82
2 The following graph shows the displacement against time for an object moving
2.0
Displacement (m)
1.0
0.0
–1.0
–2.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

Time (s)

3 The following graph shows the displacement against time for an object moving
8.0
Displacement (m)
4.0
0.0
–4.0
–8.0
0.0 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00

Time (s)

c If the velocity of the wave is 10 m s–1 what is the wavelength of the wave?
4 The following graph shows the displacement against time for a point on a wave.
2
Displacement (cm)
–1
–2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (ms)

c If the velocity of the wave is 200 m s–1 what is the wavelength of the wave?
5 Electromagnetic waves such as light travel at a speed of 3.0 × 108 m s–1. The
wavelengths of visible light range approximately from 4.0 × 10–7 m (violet) to
7.6 × 10–7 m. What is the frequency range of visible light?
6 The following diagram shows the pattern of water-wave crests in the shallow
end of a large pool. The pattern in the deep end is not shown but the wave
speed is double that in the shallow end. The waves are produced by a vibrator
of frequency 5.0 Hz.
83
shallow deep
0 50 cm
scale
a What is the period of the waves in the shallow end?

b What is the wavelength of the waves in the shallow end?
c What is the speed of the waves in the shallow end?
d What is the frequency of the waves in the deep end?
e What is the speed of the waves in the deep end?
f What is the wavelength of the waves in the deep end?
7 The diagram represents a wave in the same piece of string at two different
instances of time.
y t = 0.00 s y t = 0.10 s
0 x 0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 cm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 cm
a What is the wavelength of the wave?

b What is the minimum wave velocity?
c What is the frequency of the wave based on the minimum velocity?
8 A wave train travels along a string towards a rigid boundary. The wave train
moves at 5.0 cm s–1 and consists of three wavelengths of 10 cm.
The following diagram shows the position of the pulse at time t = 0.0 s.
5.0 cm s –1
10 cm 10 cm
a Draw diagrams of the pulse at times:

i t = 2.0 s ii t = 3.0 s iii t = 3.5 s
b At what time will the pulse be in the inverse position to that at time t = 0 s?
9 The following diagram represents waves travelling across a boundary between

two media. The lines represent the crests of waves.
84
boundary
medium 1
medium 2
4 cm 10 cm
frequency of waves in medium 1

a What is the value of the ratio: ?
frequency of waves in medium 2
wavelength of waves in medium 1
b What is the value of the ratio: ?
wavelength of waves in medium 2
speed of waves in medium 1
c What is the value of the ratio: ?
speed of waves in medium 2
10 An observant physics student at the beach notices that the crests of the waves
coincide with two buoys 5.0 m apart and that there is a 5.0 s interval between
successive wave crests. What is the speed of the waves?
11 The following diagram represents the screen of a dual trace cathode ray
oscilloscope (CRO). The grid is in cm. It shows two waves, equal in size and
frequency. The time base setting (x-axis) is 50 ms/div and the vertical display
setting is 5.0 volts/div for both waves.
a What is the period of each wave?

b What is the frequency of each wave?
c What is the amplitude of the wave in volts?
d It is possible for the CRO to add the two waveforms. Sketch the
appearance of this wave as it would appear on the screen. The time
base and vertical display settings remain unchanged.
12 The following diagram represents the screen of a dual trace cathode ray
oscilloscope (CRO). The grid is in cm and it shows two waves. The time base
setting (x-axis) is 20 ms/div and the vertical display setting is 2.0 volts/div for
both waves.
a What is the period of each wave?
b What is the frequency of each wave?
c What is the amplitude of the wave in volts?
85
d It is possible for the CRO to add the two waveforms. Sketch the appearance
of this wave as it would appear on the screen. The time base and vertical
display settings remain unchanged.
13 A buoy on a wave takes 2.0 s to move between its highest and lowest points. The
distance between successive wave crests is 4.0 m. What is the speed of the wave?
14 The following diagram represents a transverse wave travelling to the right at
20 m s–1.
y (m)
1.0 2.0 3.0 t (s)
a What is the period of the wave?

b What is the frequency of the wave?
c What is the wavelength of the wave?
15 The speed of sound in air is 330 m s–1 and 1500 m s–1 in water. A sound wave of
frequency 1000 Hz travels from air into water.
frequency of sound wave in water
a What will be the value of the ratio: ?
frequency of sound wave in air
wavelength of sound wave in water
b What will be the value of the ratio: ?
wavelength of sound wave in air
16 The following diagram represents a single pulse as it moves to the right along a
string. A, B, C, D, E, F and G are points on the string.
B D
A E G
86
At the instant represented by the diagram indicate the point or points that are:
a moving up b moving down.
17 The following diagram represents the pattern produced by two in-phase

sources S1 and S2 in a ripple tank. The lines represent the position of wave
crests.
C B
S1 S2
Explain the significance of points A, B and C.
18 The frequency of a wave is 5.0 Hz. Two points, 20 cm apart, on the wave are
observed to be 90° out of phase. What is the wave velocity?
19 A group of students used a ray box kit to follow the path of a beam of light
through a prism. They varied the angle of incidence and measured the angle of
refraction. In order to look for a regularity in the data they determined the
values of sin i and sin r and plotted these on graph paper.
i r sin i sin r incident

ray in air i normal
10° 6.6° 0.174 0.115
15° 9.8° 0.259 0.170
refracted
20° 13.0° 0.342 0.225 r ray in
25° 16.1° 0.423 0.277 θ glass
30° 19.2° 0.500 0.329
45° 27.7° 0.707 0.465 φ
60° 34.7° 0.866 0.569
a Plot i versus r. Is there a simple linear relation between them? If so

determine the slope of the line.
b Plot sin i versus sin r. Is there a simple linear relation between them?
c For a value of i = 45° in the diagram suggest the values of the angles θ and φ.
20 The speed of a wave in a wire (v) is related to the tension in the spring (F ) and
the mass per unit length (µ) of the spring by the relation:
v=
√ F
µ
A wire of mass per unit length (µ) 0.010 kg m–1 is kept under a tension of 25.0 N.
What will be the velocity of a wave in the wire?
21 When light of wavelength 6.0 × 10–7 m enters a slab of crown glass, its speed
changes from 3.0 × 108 m s–1 to 2.0 × 108 m s–1.
a What is the frequency of the light in the air?
b What is the frequency of the light in the crown glass?
c What is the wavelength of the light in the crown glass?
22 A group of students used a ray box kit to follow the path of a beam of light
through a prism. They varied the angle of incidence and measured the angle of
refraction. In order to look for a regularity in the data they determined the
values of sin i and sin r and plotted these on graph paper.
87
i normal
incident ray
in air
refracted
ray in glass
r
i r sin r sin i
10° 6.1° 0.106 0.174
15° 9.0° 0.157 0.259
20° 12.0° 0.207 0.342
25° 14.9° 0.257 0.423
30° 17.6° 0.303 0.500
45° 25.4° 0.428 0.707
60° 31.7° 0.525 0.866
Plot sin i versus sin r and determine the relative refractive index of the glass used.
23 What is Snell’s law? Explain with reference to the angles indicated in the
following diagram.
N
θ medium 1
Θ
ψ
medium 2 φ
24 The path of a ray of light passing from air into glass is shown in the following
diagram. N
30°
air
glass
18°
Calculate the refractive index of the glass.

25 The path of a ray of light passing from air into crown glass is shown in the
following diagram.
N
θ
air
glass
18°
Calculate the value of θ.
88
26 The path of a ray of light passing from crown glass into air is shown in the
40°
air
water

27 The path of a ray of light passing from water into air is shown in the following
diagram. N
air
40°
water

28 The path of a ray of light passing from water into crown glass is shown in the
following diagram.
N
30°
water
glass
θ

29 The speed of light is 3.00 × 108 m s–1 in air. What is the speed of light in
a water? b crown glass?
30 The speed of light is measured to be 1.50 × 108 m s–1 in a sucrose water solution.
Calculate the refractive index of the solution.
31 A ray of light passes from air through oil into water as shown in the diagram.
normal
40°
air
oil
36°
water
a Calculate the value for the refractive index of the oil.

b Calculate the value of θ.
89
32 A beam of red light of wavelength 671.0 nm and violet light of wavelength

405.0 nm is incident on a flint glass block. The refractive index of flint glass for
the red light is 1.643 and 1.685 for the violet light.
red, violet light
normal
40°
air
flint glass
θ a
b
a Determine the angular separation θ of the red and violet beams in the flint
glass block.
b Calculate the wavelength of the red light in the flint glass block.
33 The following diagram shows the relation between the refractive index of glass
and the wavelength of light.
n
1.80
1.75
1.70
1.65
1.60
1.55
1.50
1.45
1.40
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nm)
a On what factors does the speed of light in glass depend?

b Which colour of the spectrum would have the greatest speed in glass?
c Which colour of the spectrum is most refracted in glass?
34 What is Huygens’ principle?
a Show how Huygens’ principle can be used to explain the refraction of
light.
b How does Huygens’ principle explain that the frequency of a wave does
not change during refraction?
35 Calculate the critical angle for crown glass. Show how a simple periscope can
be constructed using glass prisms (45°–45°–90°) of crown glass.
36 A ray of light is to be totally reflected in passing through the 60°–60°–60° prism
shown in the diagram. The refractive index of the prism is 1.650.
N 60°
φ N
60° 60°
90
a Determine the critical angle for internal reflection.

b Determine the greatest allowable value of φ that will result in a ray being
totally reflected.
37 The following diagram represents the path of a light wave through four
different media.
P Q R S
18°
50°
16°
45°
In which medium is the speed of the light ray the slowest?
91

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2

THE WORLD COMMUNICATES

Waves, Energy and Information Transfer

2.1 Waves and Information Transfer

The formation of waves

crest moves down string

T forces acting on each

Figure 2.3 motion frozen in time at t = 0 seconds

motion frozen in time at t = 5 seconds

motion frozen in time at t = 10 seconds

crest appears to move to

Energy trans formations in communication systems

2.1 a Define the terms pulse and wave.

Longitudinal or compression disturbances

particles in path of wave energy is transferred from left to right

Figure 2.6 Longitudinal or compression wave

disturbance moves to right

particles vibrate along direction of string

Electromagnetic and gravity waves

What do waves move through?

2.3 a What information can be obtained from a graph of displacement versus

wave has reached this point

wave reaches this point

distance travelled in 1 second

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

a Determine the amplitude of this motion.

second wave front

Key Concept 2.1

2.17 An electromagnetic radio wave travels outward from a transmitting tower.

2.2 Sound Waves and Communication

Longitudinal or compression waves

The medium of transmission and the speed of sound

Figure 2.15 longitudinal motion of particles of air

Pressure in tube Position

Sound speed depends on:

Pitch and frequency

Sound: 20 Hz < f < 20 000 Hz

Ultrasound: f > 20 000 Hz

Volume and amplitude

The intensity of a sound wave is related to:

Loud sound Soft sound

Reflection and refraction of sound waves

echo from submarine

2.5 Undertake Experiment 2.3 Varieties of sound waves.

Superposition of sound waves

Key Concept 2.2 Superposition of Waves

Constructive and destructive inter ference

waves continue unchanged

peaks and trough coincide (waves out of step): destructive interference

2.7 Undertake Experiment 2.4 Superposition of waves, or use your computer or

2.3 X-rays, Light, and Radio Waves are all

Recent technological developments have allowed greater use of waves in the

The electromagnetic spectrum

The speed was calculated to be given by the relation:

Radio waves and microwaves

Gamma rays Ultraviolet Infrared Microwaves Radio waves

10–15 m 10–12 m 10–9 m 10–6 m 10–3 m 1m 103 m

blue yellow red far red

400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm