IEEE TR4NSACTIONS O N SONICS A N D ULTRASONICS VOL. su-13, NO.

1 MARCH, 1966

Effects of Ultrasound on Deformation Characteristics

of Metals
BERTW-IS LASGESECKER

Abstract-Experimental evidence is presented for several effects hardening [ 3 ] . I n the first of these, acoust,ic irradiation
that ultrasonic stress waves have on physical properties of metals. reduces theapparentstaticstress necessaryforplastic
Amplitudes up to -lo9 dyn/cm2 at frequencies between 15 kc/s and
1 Mc/s are applied. Interpretations of the phenomena and aspects
deformation; it is usuallyobserved during application
of possible applications in industrial forming processes are given. of ultrasound. Ilardening, on the other hand, is a phe-
nomenon which, in general, is observed and invest'igated
IXTKODUCTION after ultrasonic irradiation.
In earlier experiments [I], [4],metal crystals were ir-
HT;: RIIXH--lSICAL characteristics of metals are radiated in a Polanyi [-l] tensile apparatus; tlle specimens
largely determined by lattice imperfections; there- were mounted in pin vises of the tester and positioned so
fore, a complete understanding of the properties of that a quartz crystal transmit,ted sound wtlves through
metals can only he achieved by deterlninillg the behavior a liquid 1):Ltll t,o tlle t,lle spccinums. Since cavitation in the
of latticedefects under variousphysicalcircumstances. liquid makes thistecllnique i1npr:xtical at intensities
The environment,produred hy ultrasonicirradiation above 10 IV/c1n2, sanlples' are 1 1 0 1 ~[S]fastened directly
of metals for lattice defects is of corlsidertlble interest'. t o a trulsdac:c!r horn (a Branson Sonic I'ower velocity
Intense ultrasonic stress waves force dislocations to oscil- transformer [(;l).
latewithamplitudes comparallle to distancesbetween Figure I shows stress-strain c~~rv(:s wllich \vere obtained
theirequilibriumpositionswhen 110 ult,rasorlic fieldis
from tensile tests of higIl-purit,y alun1ilum single crystals.
applied. In turn, pronounced influences on metal plasticity The dnsllcd curve? indicate tlle plastic behavior of metal
occur, some of which shall he hiefly described inthis crystalsundercontinuousultrasonicirr:~diation a t 20
paper. kc/s and a t various power levels; tlle solid curves rep-
The experirnent:ll details of application of ultrasound resent the plasticity of aluminuln as it depends o n tem-
are nom modemtely w-1~ll-established.The interpretation peratlure. S o t e t,llat the shear stress can be reduced hy :ts
of the elfcots oI)scrredj however, is incompletebecause mucl1 as 100 percent, [:l, down to "zero stress",when
dislocation theoryandthetheory on mechanical wave u1tr:w)und of -50 IYi'cm2 is applied.
propagation are ~ ~ atlequate
o t t o describe interactions of Soft metals like zinc single crystals can be brought to
high-amplitude ultrasonic strcss waves wit11 dislomtions. zero stress by about 25 ITT/cInzof ultrasound, while room
Heseardl on the effects of ultrasound therefore aids inthe temperat,urc (ISOC) tests on stailllcss steel :md beryllium
:icpisition of fur1d:mmltalknowledge aboutmetal plas- show that zero stress can be p r o d u c d in sucll metals by
ticity. about 80 to 100 W / / ( ! m 2 ; acousticsofteningllas been
The results of our investigations may also be looked a t observed in all other metals that were tested, including
from the viewpoint of industrial application, keeping in cadmium, iron, titanium, and tungsten [.';l
mind the possible application of ultrasound t o large-scale Acousticsoftening takes placeirnmediately when a
forming processcs andthe strengt,llening of materials metal is subjected to ultrasonia irradiation; thus, if one
through ultrasonic treatment. appliesultrasoundintermittentlyduring a tensil test,
This paper presents the underlying effects; but it, does the static stress will drop abruptly whenever the ultra-
not discuss details, since it is intended to give an overall sound is switcahed on.
pict,ure, starting wit11 a description of some prototype Intense ultrasound and heat seem to havesimilar effects
experiments and their results, and then pointing to tlle on the apparent shear stress, as shown in E'ig. 1, but one
difficulties that co~lfrontu s when we at,tempt t o describe significant difference is that it takes about 10" eV/cm3
t8he effects ohserved. Certainexperiments,designed to of thermal energy d e r d y t o produce a zero stress in
evaluate our concepts and first, interpretations, are now aluminum when110 u1tr:lsound is applied, while ultrasound
yielding a more complete picture which this paper follows alone may redl1ce tlle apparent shear st,ress t o zero a t an
step by step. acoustic energy density of only 1 0 ' ~eVjcm3.
BASICPHESOJlES.4 The difference in the energies involvedhas been ascribed
to the preferred absorption of acoustic energy a t disloca-
Therearetwo pronounc~ed"nonlinear"effects of ul- tions [>l. Acoustic: energy is assumed to be absorbed only
trasound on metals: acoustic softening [l], [ 2 ] and acoustic
1 Intenbit,iesare c.al(*rllatedfrom the mensnred electrical power
Manuscript received 1)cc~ernl)er3, 1'364; reviied >larch 26, 1965. input :tssurning that the trarlsduccr is $10 percent efficient and that
The author is withthe Research I)epartment, IT. S. X'sval all the poner passes uniformly throllgh the a r w o f :L 1.35-cm diameter
Ordnance Test Station, China Lake, Calif. horn tip.
1
2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SONICS AND ULTRASOKICS MARCH

200‘C

400’C
600°C
I I I I I I
0 20 60 100
ELONGATION, S.

Fig. 1. Stress vs. elongation for aluminum single crystals; dashed

curves indicate straining during ultrasonic irradiation a t 20 kc/s
and solid curves indicate no irradiation.

4 00 l
295OK
Fig. 3. Pure slip (left) and kinking (right) of zinc single crystals by

,
E
E
m
g 240
v)
v)
320

f ultrasound (sample diameter -0.1 cm).

level a t b’ [3]. Whenultrasoundhaving

lV/cm2isapplied(point
power of -25
c in 1;ig. 2 ) , we observe a n
even more pronounced acoustic hardening; the stress rises
W
n
c
up to point c’ when the ultrasound is turned off.
l60
v)

n
The amount of acoustic hardening which can possibly
a
W be achieved is limited by the fact that application of
1
v)
eo ultrasound much more than 25 W/cm2 may cause plastic
deformation or kinking [S], as illustrated in Fig. 3, and
may even fracture metal crystals.
1.0 I .5 The fact that intenseultrasoundmayhardenmetal
GLIDE S T R A I N crystals is another phenomenon which dist,inguishes ul-
Fig. 2. Acoustic hardening in zinc crystals trasonic andheattreatment of metals.Application of
(glide rate U = 6 X 10-6 S-’). intense ultrasound causes the hardening described; heat,
however, causes permanent softening of the metal.
a t those regions in the met’al lattice which are known t o
carryout t’hemechanisms of plasticdeformation (e.g., THE STRESSCRITERION
dislocations and grain boundaries), since little attenuation From the viewpoint of dislocation theory, the resolved
occurs in defect-free crystal regions [ 7 ] .Heat, on the other shear stress 7, i.e., the stress that is needed t o produce
hand, is distributedrather homogeneously amongall continuous plastic flow [4], is the &ress required for sub-
the atoms of the crystalincludingthose which do not stantial dislocation migration in the slip plane [g]. When
participateinthe mecllanisms of plasticdeformation. ultrasound reduces the apparent’ shear stress of a cryst>nl
Thus,activation of plasticdeformationbyheat is less to zero, theorypredictsthatthe acoustic field must
efficient than activation by uItrasound. supply a stress X = 7.
Figure 2 illustrates the second of the two fundamentd The acoustic(tensional)stress X produced by an ul-
phenornenn of ultrasound, the acoustic hardening w-hich trasonic wave traveling through a solid may be calculated
shows up after one has applied ultrasound of sufficiently from [lo]
high-st,ress amplitudes. At point a ultrasound, a t a power
level intensity of about 5 1Y//cm2 (relatively low), is
applied. We observe the reduction in the apparent shear
x = Epwc = p u c = 4; IY

stress mentioned above; if the strain rate is constant and where is the particle displacement, p is the density, o t’he
the acoustic field is turned off, the stress returns t o it’s angular frequency, c the sound velocity-, U the particle
original curve at point a’ without any aftereffects of t,he velocity, I the intensity, and I.’ is Young’s modulus. I n
acoustic treatment. Fig. 4 the acoustic stress X is plotted as a function of
If, however,ultrasound a t a Ievcl above 1 5 lT/cm2 ultrasonic intensity, and the critical resolved shear stress
isapplied,ithas a residual effect which is obserrcd (or “yield point” [4]) T~ is marked for each material. S o t e
as hardening after the acoustic irradiation is stopped; in that all of our experiments have been carried out in the
Fig. 2 this treatment and its effect are marked by points lower left-hand quadrant of this diagram a t intensities
b and b‘ where the hardening shows up as a higher stress below 100 ’IT’jcm2or a t correspondingacousticstresses
1966 DEFORMATIONLANCENECKER:
METALS OFCHARACTERISTICS 3
IO" r

I I I I
1=160dB 10 IO2 I 03 I0 4 105
90,000
INTENSITY (watt/crn2)

Fig. 4. Acoustic stress vs. ultrasonicintensityforseveralmetals;

critical shear stresses are indicated by T O .

below 10' dyn/cm2; in contrast,r0 varies between lo7 and

10" dyn/cm2 as a function of the metal structure, cry- PDloritmg
stallographic orientation, impurities, etc. Angle = 0"
It follows that for relatively soft single crystals of zinc, (3) (b)
the applied ultrasound produces shear-stress components
Fig. 5 . (a) Standard tensile sample (SAIC l019 steel, gauge diameter
adequate to break away dislocationsfrom their pinned 1.3 mm). ( b ) Photoelastic model of stantlard tensile sample under
positions and then to drive them through thecryst(a1;but acoustic stress.
clearly, one does not expect traveling waves of these in-
tensities to affect the plast,icity of the high-strength metals:
beryllium, iron, steel, and tungsten. For example, in steel, ing wave. When the transmission is measured and cali-
a reduction inthe staticyield stress from above30 kgjmm' brated [l;] in terms of stress, it gives information about
t o zero would require acoustic stresses of about 3 X 10' acoustic wave propagation and concentration.
dynjcm'. I n particular, tostudythe distribut'ion of acoustic
One then immediately thinks of stress (or energy) con- stresses in our standard tensile specimens [shown in Fig.
centrations due to partialreflections of sound waves, wave 5(a)], we madephotoelastic models of them [shown in
conversionsfromonemodet'o another,and localized Fig. S @ ) ] . The observed short-wavelength pattern is de-
heating. I n fact, these are the mechanisms we proposed termined by the sample geometry and by field distortions
[5] when we firstobserved100-percentreductionin the a t t h e interfacebetween the transducerhornandthe
static yield stress in high-strength metals. At that time sample. Since no high macroscopic stress peaks develop
no direct evidence for this hypot'hesis was given, but we in the model, stress concentrations with peaks X = T are
havecontinuedinvestigations onstressconcentrations unlikelyin thestandardsteel samples. This wasalso
ever since, and throughsbress analysis by means of photo- verified bymagnetostrictivemcnsurements of the type
elasticity [ll],inverse magnetostriction [la], and infrared described in the following section.
radiometry [13], a more complete picture is nom emerging.
INVERSE
MAGNETOSTRICTION
APPLICATIONOF PHOTOELASTICITY A second technique, which can be used to study acoustic
A material is photoelustic if it becomes birefringent when stresses,isbased on the fact that externalmechanical
it is subjected t o a stress I1.21. It thus is possible t o see stresses produce changes in the state of magnetization of
regions of stress as bright areas against a dark field [see ferromagneticmat,erials.Thisinversemagnetostrictive
Fig. 5 ( b ) ] . effect-often referred t o as t,he Villuri effect [16]-is ob-
The amount of light transmitted through a bright area served when stresses change the magnetic field surrounding
is a measure of the stress in that area; as the stress in- slightly magnetized materials.
creases, the lighttransmissionincreasessimultaneously. The signa1 pic,ked up by magnetostrictive probes [17],
Thus, if a standing longitudinal wave is set up in a lucite [l81 can, therefore, be used to detect acoustic stresses in
rod, thestressantincdes become brightevery period ferromagnet,ic nlaterials (or in other materials coated with
indicating both compression and tension phases of stand- ferromagnetic film [lo]), t o indicate the distribution of
4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SOKICS ASD ULTRASONICS MARCH
1966 LANCENECKER: DEFORMATION
CHARACTERISTICS O F METALS 5

L O
600
Sound l-
f 500
1,200r
g
0
400

” 300
z
% 200
4
100

0 ‘ I I I I I I

2ooL
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
TIME, (SEC)
05
0 I I I I I I I I I I I
I.o 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 Fig. 9. Damping corlstant, vs. time from the beginning of ultrasonic
D, cm irradiation in SAE 1019 steel.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Temperature profile of standard tensile samples a t several
increments Of time after the beginning o f ultrasonic irradiation.
(a) Profile at 35 watts. ( b ) Profile a t 80 watts power input.

Fig. 10. Electron micrograph showing s1lbl~oundnries consisting. of

tlislorat~ionnetworksin alr~mi~lurnafterultrasonic irrndi:it,lon
at 20 kc/s (56 000 X).

(a) (11) (C)

Fig. X. IClectron mirropraph of a standard tensile sample. (a) Be-

fore irradiation. ( b ) After ultrasonic irradiation. (c) After heating
by torch.
6 IEEE TRANSACTIONS OK SONICS AND ULTRASONICS MARCH

inferred, and to adequatelyexplain the acoustic activation Onlyspeculations areleftto describeplausibly the
of dislocations. Below is a n outline of present attempts to experimentalfacts of acousticsoftening.However, the
describe the loss of acoustic energya t dislocation sites. apparent quantitative disagreementbetween the observed
or calculated acoustic stresses X and those expected from
ACOUSTIC ACTIVATION OF DISLOCATIONS dislocation theory (X should equal T ) can be resolved by a
Theory provides several mechanisms by which metals refined explanation of the experimental results that takes
absorb energy from sound waves (see the review articles into account temperature changes caused by the sound
byMasonandEntwistle [7], [24]). Probablythemost waves. I n particular, it is suggested that since dislocations
important effects are those of thermoelastic energy con- absorb the acoustic energy, localized heating takes place
version [ 2 5 ] , those due to the motion of dislocations [26], in the regions around dislocations when ultrasonic stress
[27], and energytransformation effect dueto inclastic waves propagate through the crystal. These heated areas
scattering [ B ] , [ B ] . of dislocations are then “weak spots” in the met,al and
Thermoelasticeffectsplay animportant role a t fre- so aremovable a t much lower resolved shearstresses
quencies in the megacycle range [3O]. They are, however, (or static yield stresses) than those required a t t h e meas-
negligible a t frequencies of -20 kc/s. ured specimen t’emperature.It then follows that our work-
Three mechanisms of absorptionassociated wit,h dis- ing hypothesis is in qualitative and quantitative agree-
location motion are resonance, relaxation, and hysteresis. ment with theory. The stress criterion may thus be written
The natural frequency of oscillation yo of dislocation in the form
lines is known to be in the order of10’ c/s, and since the
input frequency was -20 kc/s resonance effects can be
x ‘v T’, (5)
disregarded. If the relaxation mechanism were responsible where T’ is the apparent static shear stress required for
for significant absorption, there would be a spectrum of substantial plastic
deformation a ta n elevated
tem-
characteristic relaxation frequences v R = voe-Q’LT, where perature.
Q = activation energy (barrier height), k is Boltzmann’s
constant, and T is the absolute t’emperature. By varying ULTRASONIC FORMING OF METALS

T , it is possible t o sweep through a wide range of relaxa- Acoustic softening has the possibility of aiding forming
tion frequencies v R while applying ultrasonic irradiation processes provided that the coupling of acoustic energy t o
at a constant frequency V,,. Whenever v R = v,, a n anoma- the forming apparatus is such that sound is applied prin-
lous decrease in the shear stress should be observed;how- cipally to the region of deformation [37].
ever, none was observed in the temperature range used Working inthe kilocycle range,Aeroprojects, Inc.,
PI, ~311. WestChester,Pa. [38], performed the firstactual ul-
Hysteresis does not appear to be a suitable mechanism trasonic extrusion of metals. They reported as much as
for absorption of large amounts of acoustic energy; how- 15-percent reduction in the forces necessary t o draw or
ever, it may account for a background loss [ll]. extrude metal wires or tubes. A more efficient approach
A quite remarkable amount of energy can be extracted t o a n industrical use of effect of intenseultrasound on
from the appliedsound field by the mechanism of jog metals wasachieved at thislaboratory [39]. A wire-
formation(vacancyorinterstitial) a t dislocation inter- drawingdevice which isacoustically matchedwith a
sections. IIomever,it is difficult t o explain how dislocations Branson Sonic Power S-75 transducer is shown in Fig. 11.
mightmove and intersect each other, if it is true that The whole device including the electromechanical trans-
x < T. ducer has a hole along its length axis, thus allowing con-
Energy conversion by inelastic scattering is clue to t,he tinuous drawing of wire, tubes, or other extruded forms;
difference in orientation between adjacent grains within the die is located at the displacementantinode of the
a polycrystalline material [29]. If inelastic scattering were transducer horn.
t o be of importance in our experiment,s, one would expect I n another application, copper shdls were ironed and
R significant difference between the effects upon polycrys- deep-drawn [37]. A formingtoolwasdesigned t o con-
talline material (with small grains and a large number of centrate intense ultrasound a t those points where most
boundaries) and upon single crystals (with no boundaries). of the deformation t,akes place. When copper cups were
No such difference was observed [lI]. ironed t o approximatelytwice the originallength, the
Theories of isotropic scattering by randomly distributed forming load was 220 Ib, measured byan Instron compres-
scatterers [32] do not simplify the problem; and ultrasonic sion cell. In thesame process, but with intense ultrasound
attenuationby phonon-phononorphonon-electron [33] of about 70 W/cm2 a t 20 kc/s, the forming load was re-
interactions does not become appreciable under our ex- duced to about TO lb. The implication is that ultrasonic
periment,al conditions. It may be interesting t o consider a softening may speed up forming processes by eliminating
quantum mechanical effect [34]-[36] that would permit some intermediate steps in the common operations.
didocations to penetrate barriers a t stresses lower than Lip curling of copper cups under the influence of ul-
the shear stress, but to the best of our knowledge only trasound is illustrat’ed in Fig. 12. The forming forces re-
partial theories, valid a t Eow temperatures, are presented quired for curling in the presence of ultrasound were re-
in the literature on this particular subject. duced by more than 50 percent.
1966 LANGENECKER: DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS 7
RESONATORS [METAL)
manent changes appear in the properties of metah. On
MOUNTING FLANGE the other hand, irradiation a t high power levelscauses
m/
/ absorption of sufficient acousticenergy a t dislocation
sites to activate dislocations and to free them from their
pinnedequilibriumpositions; the amplitudes of oscil-
lations of dislocations increaseuntil theyexceed the normal
distances between equilibrium positions. When there is a
superposition of acousticstresses andinternal stresses
GLUED WITH‘EPOX?RESIN $TEP HORN DIE AT‘THE produced by lattice imperfections, dislocations are forced
ANTINODAL t o move in apreferreddirection, thereby changing the
POINT
Fig. 11. Ultrasonic wire-drawing device.
internalstructure;inother words, materialproperties
undergo permanent changes. Such processes may be as-
sociated with the development of heat depending upon
amplitude and duration of uItrasonic irradiation.
Acoustic heating, however, offers a new means of zone
melting. It also provides a simple check on the coupling
between ultrasonic source and specimen; acoustic energy
must be transmitted efficiently t o cause heating. Finally,
acoustic heating and high-temperature fracture of metals
are stjrongevidence thattherearedrastic changes in
Young’s modulus during application of ultrasound. This
conclusion which was arrived a t earlier in I l l ] is supported
byindependent evidence reportedin [40],thus making
impossible a statementin [42] that ultrasoundhasno
effect on the elasticitmy modulus.
Acoustic heating can be turned on and off rapidly, which
,‘ . ,. offers a new quenching technique. We prefer to prevent
1 _ _

, -
, ” .1 . ...OI ” I

heatingphenomena and to raise strength and ductility

Fig, 12. Ultrasonic curling,ironing,
and deep drawing of copper cups. of metals by properly controlling the level and duration
of ultrasonic irradiation [3], [41].
Both acoustic softening and acoustic hardening occur
AFTEREFFECTS
a t all frequencies tested from 15 kc/s up to 1 Mc/s. Still,
Low-amplitude ultrasonic waves leave no residual effects the questioncannotyet be definitely answered as t o
onthe physicalproperties of metalsafter acousticir- whether or not high-frequency ultrasound will bring other
radiation is stopped. If, however,acousticstresswaves interesting facts intoconsideration. For example, sound in
exceed a critical“intensit,y”typicalforthe different the megacycle range is of a wavelength that is comparable
met&, permanent changes occur in the physicalprop- to thedimensions of grains in metals. However, frequencies
erties, particularly in the strength. For example, the crit- above 100 kc/s present the problem of energy conversion
tical shear stressof single crystals of zinc was shown to be and transmission; as the frequency increases this problem
increased markedly after proper irradiation [3], [40] (see becomes more pronounced. High-intensity sound a t lower
Fig. 2). I n aluminum, the critical resolved shear stress frequenciescancauseseverediscomfort,pain,or even
may be increased up to fivefold due t o ultrasonic irradia- physicaldamage to persons nearthe source. Thus, in
tion, while the ducti1it.y remains unaffected by the treat- industrial applications, one considers the range of 15 t o
ment [41]. Simultaneous ultransonic irradiation and neu- 100 kc/s suitable.
tronirradiationmayraisethe criticalshearstress of
aluminum by a factor of fourteen [41]. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
COXCLUSIOX Theauthor wishes tothank S. R. Colberg, C. W .
Fountain, JJT. €1. Frandsen,and I<. H. Wesmacottfor
The apparent static shear stress necessary for plastic
helpful discussions and practical assistance. IIe appreciates
deformation of metals is significantly reduced during ap-
t’he suggestions of 111-S.R. Lytton during preparation of
plication of intense ultrasonic stress waves; the amount
this manuscript.
of reduction is directly proportional to theacoustic energy
input to the specimen. This yielding of metals due to
ultrasonicirradiation holds out the possibility of more REFERENCES
efficient metal forming by industryprovided that coupling [l] F. Blaha and B. Langenecker, “Drhnrlng von Zink-Kristallen
unter Ultraschalleillwirkung,” Z. N a t u ~ w i s s . ,vol. 20, p. 556,
of acoustic energyto thedeformation zone can be achieved. -4llgUSt l%j.
B. Langenecker, “Plastiait~twntersuchllngenan Metdlkristnl-
As long as ultrasound is applied a t energy levels below [Z] len im Ultraschallfeld,” P1~lI.dissertation, University of Wien,
a critical value, typical for the different metals, no per- Austria, 1957, p. 79; also F. Blaha and B. Langenecker, “Plas-
 SONICS AND ULTRASONICS MARCH

inultrasonicallyirradiatedaluminum,” Phys. Rev.

Letters,
vol. 14, pp. 221-222, Febrrlary 15, 1965.
[23] B. Langenecker, K. H. Westmacott, and D. E. Schroeder,
“Internal friction of aluminnm when exposed t,o high-intensity
ultrasound,” Ru(l. Am. Phys. Soc., vol. 10, pp. 162-165,
Febnlary 1865.
[24] K. fir. Entwist,le, “The internal friction of metals,” Ale!. Rev.,
vol. 7, no. 26, pp. 175-239, 1962.
12.51 K. Liicke,“Ultrasonicattenuation c a ~ ~ s eby
d thermoelastic
heat flow,”J . d p p l . P h y s . , vol. 27, pp. 14X-1438, December
1936.
[26] A. S. Kowick,“Internalfriction in metals,” in Progr. M e l n l
Phys., 13. Chalmers, Ed. New York: It~tersciencePub., vol. 4,
pp. 1-70, 1953.
[27] J. S. Koehler, Imprrfwtions in Kearly Perfect Crystals. New
York: Wiley, 3953, p. 197.
[28] Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Soxnrl. New York: Macmillan, 3020,
p. ,504.
[29] W. P. 3Iason and H. %J.RIcSkintin, “Atten~~ation and scattering
of h~gh-frequency s o \ l n t I waves in mei:tls antl glasses,” J .
itcowst. Soc. . I m VOI.
.
, 19, pp. 464-473, 3I:ty 1947.
[XI] K. I,iirke,“IXe v 0 1 1 c l o n Kristalll)nufehlern I m d isohesondere
von dcn \-eruetzllrlgrn verr1rs:whtrn I)iinrpfur~g~erscheilulngerl,”
. , X < , pp. 57-71, FehrlIar,v 1962.
%. ~ l l ~ t n l l kvol.
[31] C;. E. Nevill and F. I%rotzctn, “Ttle effect of vihratiorls on the
static yield strelLgth of low-c.:trt)on steel,” Proc. A m . Soc.
Testing Ila!erictls, vol. 57, pp. 751-755, 10.57.
[32] L. L, Foldy, “The nlrlltiple scattering o f waves, I. General
theory ( J f isotropicsc:ttiering by r:tndonlly tiistrihllted scat,-
terers,” I’hy,s. Rev., vol. 67, pp. 107-119, February 194.5.
[33] R. Trnell : ~ n dC. B:lb:tllm, Et?r.//cloprdfaor Physics. S. Fliigge,
Ed. Berlin: Springer-\’crl:tg, INX, vol. SII2, p. I S .
[34] G . TAhfrie.1, Dvformration and Florr>os Solids. Berlin: Springer-
T’erlag, l<).X,11. 2 5 .
[:<B] N. F. .\I:jti, “Creep in metal c:rvst:tls : I t very l o w t,emperatr~res,”
Phil. .Ifa9., vol. 1, pp. 564-572, Jlune 1056.
361 .J. W. (ilen, “The creen of c:ttlmirInt cyvstnls at liqnid helirlrn
temperatrlren,” P h i l . .Ifan.,vol. 1 , pp. 400-408, RIay 1956.
[37] R. I,angcwecsker, C. IV. Folmtain, antl V. 0. Jones, “ ~ J l t r a -
sonlcs: an aid to metal forming?,” Jletal Progr., vol. 8.5, pp.
97-101, April 1964.
[33] W. 13. Tarpley :tnd TI. Karilllke, “TJltmsonic t h e drawing:
niohiltm, xircaloy-2 and copper,” Aeroprojects, Inc., West.
Chester, Pa., AEC Rept. No. NYO-l0008 (on Cor1ir:tct
AT(RO-l’)-18:56), 1061.
[39] A. T. lt,)binson, “The application of rdtrasonic energy to
met,nl wire drawing,” ll’ireTl’ire Prod., pp. 19X-lO:<l, De-
cember 1964.
[40] LLInvestie;ation of the effects of nltrasonics on the deformation
characteristics of met,sls,” 11. Institute of Physics, IJniversity
of T‘ienna, Allstria, Progr. liept. on Ihn-opennResearcah Con-
tracts Program Contr:tct No. N62558-:3436, Final Report
(February 1, 1964-Jan11:try 31, lR6.5), 1,9ti5.
ill] B. Langenerker and C. W . Forultaln, “Nelltron-ncorlstic
irradiation o f a l ~ 1 r n i n ~single
~ m crystals,” Phil. lfag., vol. 11,
DD. .tj13-519, Rfarch 196.5.
[43] K. E. Haverheckand R. R . Weber, “Inflrlence of vihration
[21] Llaterials ;\tlvisory Rciird, National i2cademy of Sciences, energy on metalworkine DrocesseF,” C i n ~ i n n a t3Zilling
~i Mnrhine
Proe;. Rept.. hIAB-2060-1\I, 1963, p. 5 . Co., Interim Progress Report, (Anril 4, 196:<-0ctober 3 , 1963’),
[22] K. H. Westmacott and R. Imlgenecker, “Dislocation stnlctnre Air Force Contract No. hF33(657)-10821, October 1963, p. 45.