He Gave Us Scripture: Foundations of Interpretation: Iscovering Eaning

He Gave Us
Scripture:
Foundations of
Interpretation
LESSON
SIX DISCOVERING MEANING
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Contents
I. Introduction .....................................................................................................1
II. Guides...............................................................................................................1
A. Writer 3
B. Document 5
C. Audience 6
D. Interdependence 9
III. Summaries .......................................................................................................11
A. Complexity of Passage 12
B. Uniqueness of Interpreter 15
C. Needs of Audience 16
IV. Conclusion ......................................................................................................18
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He Gave Us Scripture:
Foundations of Interpretation
Lesson Six
Discovering Meaning
INTRODUCTION
Children usually don’t appreciate how much their teachers do for them. Their
teachers work hard to give them all kinds of new discoveries. But often, young students
do little more than grumble and complain every step of the way. Now of course, as adults
we look back on our childhood teachers, and we understood how good it was that we
didn’t have to learn our lessons on our own. We’re grateful for all they did for us. But
when you think about it, we should be even more grateful for the countless opportunities
our childhood lessons have given us to learn more and more every day of our lives. In
many ways, that’s how it is when it comes to the meaning of Scripture. God didn’t leave
us to discover the meaning of Scripture on our own. He provided guides to help us. But
more than this, one of the most remarkable things about the Bible is that as we go through
our lives, we can return to the Bible over and over and always learn more about its
meaning.
This is the sixth lesson in our series He Gave Us Scripture: Foundations of
Interpretation, and we’ve entitled it “Discovering Meaning.” In this lesson, we’ll focus
on some hermeneutical strategies that can help us figure out the original meaning of
Scripture.
Countless factors contribute to the process of discovering meaning in the Bible.
But for our purposes, we’ll draw attention to just two. First, we’ll talk about some
important guides that help reveal the significance of a biblical text. And second, we’ll see
the value of making multiple summaries of that meaning. Let’s begin by looking at the
guides that point us toward Scripture’s meaning.
GUIDES
In an earlier lesson, we mentioned that most evangelicals today refer to their
general hermeneutical strategy as the grammatico-historical method. Now, this
terminology is relatively recent, but it represents an approach that can be traced back
throughout church history, especially from the time of the Reformation. In effect, the
grammatico-historical method seeks to discover the meaning of Scripture in terms of the
grammar of Scripture — what’s written on its pages — and in terms of its ancient
historical context, especially the context of its human authors and audiences. These
grammatical and historical factors serve as guides to discovering the meaning of
Scripture.
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He Gave Us Scripture: Foundations of Interpretation Lesson Six: Discovering Meaning
In this lesson, we’ll focus on three main guides that help reveal the significance of
a text in Scripture: the writer of the text, the document itself, and the original audience for
whom the text was written.
When the Holy Spirit inspired the writings of Scripture, he worked through the
talents and personalities of the writers. So, knowing something about the writers can help
us understand the things they wrote.
The Holy Spirit also crafted each book as an integrated whole, providing enough
written content for each passage to be understood within its own grammatical and literary
context. So, the document itself can guide our interpretation since it contains the literary
context in which all its passages should be interpreted.
And the Spirit made sure that the books he inspired would make sense to their
original audiences and be relevant to their lives. So, we can also learn something about
the meaning of Scripture by exploring the identities and lives of its original readers.
Imagine a man in a restaurant who finds a note discarded on the floor. The note
has just one word scribbled on it: “HELP!” He shows the note to his friends at the table to
see if any of them can figure out what it means. But there just isn’t much to work with. “I
wish there were more words,” the man complains. “If we just knew who wrote it,”
another adds. And another friend comments, “I wish there were some way to know who
was supposed to get this note.” The fact is that the note could mean a lot of things. It
could be part of a game children were playing at another table. It could be a request for
help with the menu. It could be a desperate cry from someone in serious trouble. Without
further guidance, there’s simply no way for the man and his friends to understand what
the note really means.
And something similar is true about the Bible. When we know little or nothing
about its authors and audiences, or when we read passages without knowing their broader
context, the Bible’s intended meaning will be unclear to us. But the good news is that any
knowledge we gain about the writer, the document or the audience has the potential to
improve our understanding of Scripture’s meaning.
If we don’t take into account the grammatical and historical context

of the Scriptures that we’re studying, we will inevitably read them in
light of just what we already are assuming. For example, and this may
sound absurd to some people, but when Jesus speaks of being born
again, or born from above, there are people who have read that as
reincarnation — being born again, being literally reborn, a kind of,
you know, not entering your mother’s womb but entering someone
else’s womb a second time, which was Nicodemus’ misunderstanding
in the passage. So we need to understand the grammatical sense of it,
the literary context. And in that case, some historical background
would help as well. For example, the Jewish people when they spoke
of being reborn, they would think of it especially in terms of when a
Gentile converted to Judaism. But this is something that wouldn’t
make sense to a teacher of Israel. How could he be treated as if he’s on
the same level as somebody who wasn’t even a part of God's people?
But it’s like where Jesus says later on, going to the larger context, in
John 8, he says that people are children of the devil until they become
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children of God, so a person needs to be spiritually reborn. And you

could multiply with examples throughout the Bible because, again,
everything has a cultural context and a grammatical context in
Scripture. All of Scripture is for all time, but we need to also
recognize the circumstances, the settings that it addressed, so that we
can recognize the principles, the universal and eternal principles that
we can apply to other settings.
— Dr. Craig S. Keener
We believe that a greater knowledge of the grammatical or historical

context will help the modern reader gain more out of reading the
Bible. Now of course, you can read the Bible with little education, with
no extra tools other than the biblical text and it’s been the conviction
of Christians down the centuries that you can understand what the
text means without all the extra biblical tools and resources that are
available to us in our modern age. But nevertheless, an understanding
of the way in which paragraphs and sentences are put together and
understanding of the context in which the passages were written will
bring greater clarity and greater understanding for the reader.
— Dr. Simon Vibert
Our discussion of the guides that help reveal the significance of a biblical text will
divide into four parts. We’ll begin by looking more closely at each of the guides: the
writer, the document, and the audience. And we’ll conclude this section by exploring
their interdependence. Let’s look first at the guidance offered by the writer.
WRITER
Whenever we consider the human author of a portion of Scripture, we have to be
ready to answer all kinds of questions. First, we want to know the identity of the author.
Who was he? At times, the Scriptures actually identify the author of various books by
name. For example, the Old Testament books of Amos and Isaiah are directly attributed
to the prophets Amos and Isaiah. The New Testament epistles of Peter and Paul explicitly
name these apostles as their authors. But at the same time, many books in the Old and
New Testaments, like Judges and Kings, as well as Acts and Hebrews, are anonymous. In
these cases, we often have to settle for some general observations about authorship. But
whatever the case, to one degree or another, general historical research and the Scriptures
themselves always enable us to create a profile for every biblical author. We can always
gain some insights into questions like these: What role did the author have among the
people of God? What were his special interests? What kinds of concepts, behaviors and
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emotions did he emphasize in his book? And everything we know about a biblical author
guides us toward the goal of discovering the meaning of Scripture.
Let’s consider the influence our knowledge of the writer should have on our
interpretative efforts by focusing on the writer of John 3:16. In this familiar verse we
read:
For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that
whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life (John
3:16).
The Gospel of John was written by the apostle John, who was the brother of
James and the son of Zebedee. He was one of the inner circle of Jesus’ most trusted
companions and a pillar of faith in the early Christian community. Besides the Gospel of
John, he wrote four other books in the New Testament: 1 John, 2 John, 3 John and
Revelation. Through his books, and through the things said about John by other biblical
writers, such as Matthew, Mark and Luke, we can gain a useful understanding of John’s
beliefs and the way he communicated those beliefs to his audience. For instance, in John
20:31, John stated his purpose for writing his gospel. He told his audience:
These are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the
Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name (John
20:31).
This passage makes it clear that John’s overarching purpose was to call his
readers to “believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing [they]
may have life in his name.”
When we have some knowledge of the writer and his purpose, it isn’t difficult to
see this same twofold goal in John 3:16.
Most editors of modern translations rightly consider John 3:16 as the beginning of
John’s comments on the words of Jesus that end in John 3:15. The first half of John 3:16
states that, “God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son.” This portion of
the verse corresponds to the first half of John 20:31: “that you may believe that Jesus is
the Christ, the Son of God.” And the second half of John 3:16 states, “that whoever
believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.” This portion of the verse
corresponds to the second half of John 20:31: “that by believing you may have life in his
name.”
Noting these parallels verifies something that many interpreters have recognized
for millennia. John intended this passage as much more than a mere factual, historical
statement. The historical fact that God gave his unique Son Jesus was important to John,
but his real purpose in mentioning it here was to call his audience to saving faith in Christ
so that they could have eternal life. As we can see, understanding John’s purpose and
beliefs, helps us interpret his gospel more appropriately.
Having considered the benefits of relying on the writer as a guide to the meaning
of Scripture, let’s turn our attention to the biblical document.
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DOCUMENT
Our use of the word document will include all the features of the text we’re
studying, including its vocabulary, grammar, figures of speech, sentence structure, formal
structure, the outline of its argument, the surrounding literary context, and so on. To
interpret Scripture responsibly, we must pay close attention to the actual words and
phrases the inspired author wrote.
One of the most important things to remember when we explore a biblical
document is that it conveys its meaning in units of different sizes. Now, these various
units of meaning are different in different genres, but in general terms, meaning is
conveyed by morphemes, which are small features of words that indicate things like
singular and plural and verbal tenses. Meaning is also conveyed through words, then
phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs in prose, and stanzas in poetry. Larger sections
like whole narratives, speeches or law codes and even entire books serve as units of
meaning. And interestingly enough, the meaning of smaller units becomes clearer in the
light of larger units. And the meaning of larger units becomes clearer in the light of
smaller units. So, anytime we want to see how a biblical document guides us toward its
meaning, we have to be ready to explore it on all of these levels.
To illustrate what we mean, let’s look at a facet of John 3:16 that’s often
misunderstood.
As we saw earlier, John 3:16 begins “For God so loved the world…” It’s quite
common for evangelical Christians to take this phrase to mean something like: “For God
so greatly loved the world…”, “For God so dearly loved the world…” or “For God loved
the world so much…” This understanding of the opening of John 3:16 is so longstanding
and widespread that many of us never even question whether or not John meant for the
word “so” to be taken as “so greatly,” “so dearly” or “so much.” But when we look at
John 3:16 in its larger context, it soon becomes evident that this isn’t the significance of
the word “so.”
To begin with, the word “so” is a translation of the Greek word houtōs. This
Greek adverb occasionally has the connotations of “so greatly” or “so much,” but far
more often it’s used to mean “thus,” “in this way,” or “in this manner.” We can see that
this is how it’s used in John 3:16 by comparing John’s use of “so” in verse 16 with the
verses that come just before it. John 3:14-15 says:
Just as Moses lifted up the snake in the desert, so the Son of Man
must be lifted up, that everyone who believes in him may have eternal
life (John 3:14-15).
In these verses Jesus set up a comparison between the time when “Moses lifted up
the snake in the desert” and the time when “the Son of Man” — Jesus himself — “must
be lifted up.”
In verse 15, Jesus referred to Numbers 21:4-9 where God punished Israel in the
wilderness by sending poisonous serpents against them. The people of Israel cried out for
deliverance. And at God’s command, Moses made a bronze serpent, put it on a pole,
lifted the serpent into the air, and all the Israelites who looked to the bronze serpent were
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healed. By this analogy, Jesus made it clear that as he is lifted up, all people everywhere
who look to him will be saved from God’s judgment.
It’s important to note here that Jesus said, “Just as Moses lifted up the snake … so
the Son of Man must be lifted up.” In this comparison, the Greek term translated “so” is
the same word that appears at the beginning of verse 16, the word houtōs. Jesus said that
just as the serpent was lifted up, “thus,” or “in the same way,” the Son of Man must be
lifted up. And John picked up this comparison when he used this same term in verse 16.
In effect, John repeated the word, houtōs, to make a second comparison with
Moses lifting the serpent. But in verse 16, the comparison is between what Moses did and
what God did when he gave his one and only Son. Or as we may put it, “Just as Moses
lifted up the snake in the desert … in the same way God loved the world [and] gave his
one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.”
This example illustrates just one small way that carefully considering the document of a
biblical text helps us understand its meaning.
With this understanding of how the writer and the document serve as helpful
guides to interpretation, we’re ready to consider the audience as a third guide.
AUDIENCE
It’s important to understand the historical setting in which a book of
the Bible is written because one of the remarkable things about
biblical literature is that God chose to speak to his people in a
particular time and to particular individuals, taking into
consideration their cares and their concerns, their fears and their
hopes about the world around them. God spoke to them in this way in
order to reveal himself, and we get to be a part of that message,
receiving it for ourselves, however, as it’s mediated through their
particular historical setting.
— Dr. Scott Redd
Whenever we consider the original audience of a portion of Scripture, we have to

be ready to ask all kinds of questions. First, we want to know the identity of the audience.
Who were they? At times, the Scriptures tell us explicitly who the audiences were. For
example, the New Testament epistle of Romans identifies the audience as Christians
living in Rome. Galatians identifies the churches of Galatia as its audience. But at the
same time, most books in the Old and New Testaments don’t directly identify the
audience. And in these cases, we must settle for indirect clues. In all events, to one degree
or another, general historical research and the Scriptures themselves always enable us to
create a general profile of the original audiences. We must do all we can to answer
questions like these: Where did the audience live? What were their historical
circumstances? What challenges did they face? What conceptual, behavioral and
emotional needs did they have? Everything we know about original audiences guides us
toward discovering the meaning of Scripture.
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Although the original audience didn’t directly contribute to the writing of

Scripture, biblical writers usually composed their books with original and secondary
audiences in mind. They wrote for some people directly, but they also wrote for others
who would be exposed to their books indirectly. This was because when the Scriptures
were first written literacy was the privilege of only a few. So, biblical authors didn’t
expect very many people to actually pick up their books and read them. Still, the more we
know about the primary and secondary original audiences, the better we’re able to
investigate the original meaning of biblical passages.
Let’s return once again to John’s gospel to illustrate the importance of keeping the
original audience of a biblical book in mind. In the case of John’s gospel, we have to rely
on indirect clues about John’s primary and secondary audiences. For one thing, John
frequently felt the need to explain customs in Palestine. Listen to what he wrote in John
4:9 regarding Jesus’ conversation with a Samaritan woman:
The Samaritan woman said to [Jesus], “You are a Jew and I am a

Samaritan woman. How can you ask me for a drink?” (For Jews do
not associate with Samaritans.) (John 4:9).
It would appear from John’s comment that at least some of his audience didn’t
know about the separation between Jews and Samaritans. So, it’s very difficult to believe
that John wrote primarily for people living in Palestine where such customs were known
to all. In fact, at least some of John’s audience was most likely Gentile because twice —
in 1:41 and 4:25 — he even felt the need to explain that the Greek word Christos was the
equivalent of the Hebrew term “Messiah.” As just one more example, listen to John’s
comment in John 9:22:
The Jews had decided that anyone who acknowledged that Jesus was
the Christ would be put out of the synagogue (John 9:22).
In this passage, to “be put out of the synagogue” was to be excommunicated,

excluded from the life of the Jewish community.
Not only can we assume that John’s audience included Gentiles and people from
outside of Palestine, but it seems clear that his audience was also facing a crucial
challenge. One clue to this challenge appears in the fact that John used the terminology
“the Jews” as a way of referring to those who opposed Jesus and his followers. This
theme is so prominent that some interpreters have argued that this gospel is anti-Semitic.
Of course, Jesus, John and the rest of Jesus’ apostles were Jewish, so this was no mere
reference to ethnicity. Rather, John had in mind Jews who didn’t believe in Jesus and
persecuted the church.
The frequency with which John referred to unbelieving Jews as opponents of
Jesus and his followers strongly suggests that John’s audience was also facing
persecution for their faith. And John’s gospel often addresses the reasons that unbelieving
Jews rejected Jesus and the converts to Christianity. For our purposes, we’ll mention just
two.
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On the one hand, unbelieving Jews accused Jesus of blasphemy because he

claimed to be God’s Son. Listen to the way Jesus rebuked his Jewish opponents in John
10:36:
Why then do you accuse me of blasphemy because I said, “I am God’s

Son”? (John 10:36).
As this verse indicates, Jesus’ claim to be the Son of God was one of the main
reasons the Jews rejected him.
On the other hand, Jesus’ Jewish opponents also disliked him because he brought
the hope of salvation to Gentiles as well as to Jews. John makes it clear to his audience
that Jesus was not just the Savior of the Jews but of every group in the world. For
instance, in John 4:42, we read the Samaritans’ response after hearing the testimony of
the Samaritan woman whom Jesus met at the well:
We know that this man really is the Savior of the world (John 4:42).
From John’s point of view, Jesus was not just the Savior of the Jews but “the
Savior of the world.”
The importance of these two themes for John’s original audience helps explain
passages such as John 3:16 where John stressed that Jesus is God’s “one and only Son”
and that the Father sent him because “God so loved the world.”
Every book in the Bible was written to an original audience, and we

here in the twenty-first century are not the original audience. I think
it’s interesting and maybe helpful to us to realize that the majority of
the individual books in the New Testament are epistles or letters, so
when we read those epistles — and I think you could expand that to
the whole Bible but certainly the epistles — we’re reading other
people’s mail. They are for us because we belong to the church, but
they were first written to an original audience, in the case of the New
Testament, an original first century Christian audience. And so if we
do the hard work of understanding the original situation and
concerns of the original audience and the original biblical writer
writing to that audience, we will be able to have a better
understanding of the book. And we should seek to get that original
understanding before we move on to applying it to our own situation
today.
— Dr. Robert K. MacEwan
Now that we’ve considered the ways the writer, the document, and the audience
can serve as guides to the meaning of Scripture, let’s turn our attention to their
interdependence.
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INTERDEPENDENCE
In order for us to interpret the Bible responsibly, it’s very important for us to
understand that each of the guides we’ve mentioned informs and is informed by the
others. Our knowledge of the author helps us understand his document and original
audience. The things we know about the audience help us understand the writer’s
intentions and the nuances of his document. The document’s words and grammar give us
information about the writer and the audience. So, as interpreters, we need to gain as
much guidance as possible from all these sources, so that our readings of Scripture aren’t
skewed by an imbalanced emphasis on just one or two of them.
The writer, the document, and the audience are interdependent guides to meaning.
If we fail to account for their interdependence, it’s very easy to fall into error.
If we overemphasize the author, we often fall into an intentional fallacy. An
intentional fallacy relies too heavily on what we think we know about a writer and his
intentions, and de-emphasizes the things we learn about the document and audience.
There are many ways to commit intentional fallacies in biblical interpretation. For
instance, we might make unwarranted assumptions about an author’s intentions by
speculating about what he was thinking when he wrote. Or we might overemphasize valid
information about a writer by wrongly assuming it was very relevant to the text we’re
interpreting.
Let’s illustrate some possible intentional fallacies by looking at John 3:16. We
can be sure that when John wrote this verse, he intended to draw his readers’ attention to
the love of God shown in the death of Christ. But we can’t be sure of all the subtle,
psychological influences that motivated John to write these words. Scripture and reliable
history simply don’t give us enough clues about John’s inner thoughts to draw these types
of conclusions. And even if we could, his inner thoughts might not be particularly
relevant to the meaning of John 3:16.
Those interpreters who hold a high value on the authority and intent
of a text are sometimes accused of committing the intentional fallacy,
which is the idea that we somehow speculate at what we thought the
author really meant in the biblical text… That doesn’t mean that
we’re not able to say that authors are able to communicate what they
want their hearers to understand and actually for that to be able to
still be comprehensible down the ages. So, whether that be me writing
an email to my wife on the other side of the world, or whether it be
somebody writing something in a newspaper today, or an author
writing a modern book, all authors assume that there is a way in
which they bring their message through who they are and through the
writing of that text, and they convey some of themself through that
text. And, of course, added to that is the fact that we believe that the
ultimate author of Scripture is not the human authors alone, but
actually the divine Author working alongside the human author, and
therefore we do believe that the Holy Spirit helps those human
authors to write the Bible in the first place. But it also helps the
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modern readers to read it so that we can understand what the author

meant in the mind of God.
— Dr. Simon Vibert
A second type of mistake we can make is overemphasizing the document. This

kind of error is often called a graphic fallacy. The term “graphic” comes from the Greek
word graphē, which means “writing.” Correspondingly, the graphic fallacy
overemphasizes the document itself, to the relative exclusion of contextual considerations
like the writer and audience. This is a fallacy, or mistake, because the same document can
mean very different things depending on who wrote it and for whom it was written. We
might commit this fallacy by thinking that we can sufficiently grasp the meaning of a
passage merely by analyzing its vocabulary, grammar, and structure without regard to its
author or original audience.
In our example from John 3:16, think about what could happen if we focused
exclusively on the document and ignored John and his original audience. How would we
know who God’s Son was? After all, this verse doesn’t explicitly identify him. If readers
didn’t know that John was a Christian and that he wrote to a Christian audience, they
might make all sorts of irresponsible assumptions.
A pagan worshipper of the Canaanite gods might think that the “son of God” was
Baal, the son of the Canaanite god El.
Someone familiar with the fact that Adam is called the “son of God” in Luke 3:38
might wrongly conclude that Adam is the Son of God in John 3:16, or even that Adam
and Jesus are the same person.
Other readers might be confused by terms like one and only or world, or the
concept of eternal life. There are many mistakes we can make when we ignore the writer
and the audience.
A third type of interpretive mistake we can make is overemphasizing the
audience. This is often called an affective fallacy because it focuses too heavily on how
Scripture affects its audience. This fallacy is often committed when an interpreter
speculates too much about the mindset of the original audience, and fails to pay enough
attention to the writer and the document. It’s certainly legitimate to consider Scripture’s
effects on its original audience, as well as things we learn about the audience from
reliable history. But the affective fallacy goes beyond this by overemphasizing the
audience’s personal reactions to the text, and almost always results in subjective,
unreliable readings of Scripture.
For example, in John 3:16, the affective fallacy might speculate too much about
the original audience’s circumstances and response to John’s teaching about eternal life.
It might suggest that when John talked about life, what he really meant was earthly
escape from the persecution his original audience was enduring and not a spiritual
renewal and blessing that we enjoy forever. This interpretation would overemphasize the
passage’s impact on its audience, ignoring John’s broader teaching and the details of the
document itself.
It is possible to overemphasize the importance of the original audience

to whom a book of the Scripture was written in this way: First of all,
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by making it too specific, in particular, thinking we know more about

them that we do. Because the truth is for most New Testament books
— and Old Testament books too, but I’ll speak for the New Testament
— most New Testament books, we don’t know a whole lot about the
audience to which they were written. And so, when we try to
hypothesize about the audience, we are likely to misinterpret because
we dream up an audience that is not fair. You know, Hebrews… is a
book I’ve been a specialist in, and all kinds of people dream up
particular audiences to which Hebrews was written… And in fact, it
skews their interpretation because we don’t know the specific
audience. So it is important to realize the books were written in the
first century. It’s important to understand the culture and the
language of that century and how they were written and so forth. But
it also important not to develop an idea of an original audience that
goes beyond what we know. For the Gospels, for instance, we know
they were written, written to Christians to nurture the church, but we
don’t know much more than that. And it’s important not to think that
we do. If we do, we will misinterpret Scripture.
— Dr. Gary Cockerill
Sadly, mistakes like the intentional fallacy, the graphic fallacy and the affective
fallacy are easy to make — especially when we don’t have very much information about
some of the guides. And the truth is that we can’t always know much about the writer or
audience of a text. Many biblical books are anonymous, and many don’t explicitly
identify their audiences. And sometimes we even lack important information about the
document. We don’t always have access to resources that help us understand all its
features, like the implications of the way things were stated in the original languages of
Scripture. When our information is more limited, it’s generally wise for our
interpretations to be more generalized. Even so, when we properly account for the
interdependence of the guidance we receive from the writer, the document and the
audience, everything we learn from any of these guides has the potential to improve our
interpretations.
So far in our discussion of discovering meaning, we’ve addressed three important
guides to meaning. So, now we’re ready to turn our attention to the value of making
multiple summaries of the meaning of biblical texts.
SUMMARIES
If you’ve been in the church long enough, you’ve probably heard more than one
pastor preach from the same biblical text. And often the sermons are very different. As a
matter of fact, it’s possible to preach different sermons, very different sermons, from the
same text without violating its meaning. How can this be? Simply put, no mere human
-11-
interpretation of the Scriptures can be complete or exhaustive of its meaning. There’s

always more to learn. And for this reason, we must always look for new ways to
summarize biblical passages so that we can further our understanding of what they mean.
One of the most useful ways to discover meaning in Scripture is to make multiple
summaries of a passage. In the context of this lesson, we’ll use the word summary to
mean:
A description of a passage
Normally a summary will come from a particular vantage point or emphasize a

particular concept that appears in the passage. Since every passage has a complex
meaning, summaries help us by narrowing our study, allowing us to focus on just a
portion of what the passage has to say.
We can illustrate the concept of a summary by thinking about a group of students
that watches a complex, dramatic play. After the presentation, the students are asked to
summarize the meaning of the play. One student summarizes the play by describing how
the characters developed throughout the story. Another summarizes the events in
chronological order. Still another describes the way the playwright was criticizing
cultural values of the day. And finally, one student describes how the beautiful staging
and expressive language affected him personally. All of these responses are legitimate
summaries of the presentation’s meaning. But none of these summaries completely
captures the play’s full meaning. If we were looking for the full meaning of the play, we
would need to include all these summaries and more. But that’s one of the reasons that
making multiple summaries is so useful — it helps us focus on individual aspects of
meaning, and it also allows us to learn more and more of the play’s full meaning.
And the same thing is true of Scripture. There can be many legitimate ways to
summarize the meaning of a passage in the Bible, and these summaries can help us better
understand aspects of its meaning. And taken together, multiple legitimate summaries
bring us closer and closer to the passage’s full meaning.
We’ll consider three main factors that illustrate the benefit of making multiple
summaries of Scripture’s meaning. First, we’ll look at the complexity of the passage.
Second, we’ll mention the uniqueness of the interpreter. And third, we’ll focus on the
needs of the audience for whom the text is summarized. Let’s start by exploring the
complexity of the passage.
COMPLEXITY OF PASSAGE
As we learned in an earlier lesson, the complexity of Scriptural passages is largely
due to the fact that their original meaning, or literal sense, is multifaceted, like a cut
gemstone. They have facets representing things like historical facts, doctrines, moral
obligations, salvation and eschatology. Every text of Scripture communicates moral
implications for our thoughts, words and actions. Every text teaches us something about
history and salvation, and helps form our hopes and expectations regarding the future.
-12-
And each of these things that a passage communicates can be used as the basis for a
summary.
In fact, because Scripture’s meaning is multifaceted, we can summarize it in many
different ways and still be true to its literal sense. Scripture’s complexity implies that our
summaries will never be exhaustive, and that we can always make more summaries that
are both true and distinct.
Let’s explore this idea by looking at some of the places where one passage of
Scripture actually summarizes another. Consider these words from Psalm 110:1:
The Lord says to my Lord: "Sit at my right hand until I make your
enemies a footstool for your feet." (Psalm 110:1).
The New Testament frequently quotes Psalm 110:1. But each time it focuses on a
different aspect of the original meaning. And none of the quotations contains everything
that other verses say about the psalm’s original meaning.
For instance, Jesus quoted it in Luke 20:41-44 to show that the Messiah must be
more than simply David’s son.
In Acts 2:32-36 Peter used it to demonstrate that Jesus was both Lord and Christ
since he was David’s heir that had ascended to a heavenly throne.
The New Testament also recognizes that the words of Psalm 110:1 are spoken to
David’s Lord; therefore, many New Testament passages use Psalm 110 to refer to
Christ’s reign on earth. Ephesians 1:20-22, 1 Corinthians 15:25 and Hebrews 10:13 all
summarize this aspect of the psalm’s original meaning with reference to the present reign
of Christ until he returns. Hebrews 1:13 even uses it to demonstrate that Jesus’ authority
is superior to the ministry of angels.
Each of these New Testament references to Psalm 110:1 is faithful to the original
meaning of the psalm. But each is also an incomplete summary of that original meaning,
and has a distinct emphasis. This is possible because of the complex, multifaceted
original meaning of the verse.
New Testament writers are using the Old Testament in ways that are
very common in terms of the use of prior text in Jewish interpretive
traditions. And some people call these midrashic techniques. One of
the common passages that’s confusing is in Matthew’s gospel, and
Matthew has what some have called a formula of fulfillment — “it has
been fulfilled…” And in Matthew 2, where Christ and his family are
fleeing to Egypt and then coming back from Egypt, Matthew quotes
from Hosea and says, “Out of Egypt I have called my son.” And often
times, biblical commentators have cited that passage and said, well,
how can that in any way correspond to what Hosea originally meant
when he penned those words so many hundreds of years before?
What we see if we look at the first four chapters of Matthew in
particular is that Matthew is showing how Jesus really embodies
Israel. That he’s the ideal Israelite; he’s the ideal son of God. In the
same way that Israel was called “to be my son,” as we read in Exodus,
Jesus goes into the wilderness, he’s tempted, and he survives that
-13-
temptation and survives the test of sonship. But before that in chapter
2, when he and his family flee to Egypt and they come out of Egypt, he
represents all of Israel as he sort of comes back. And that’s the idea of
what biblical authors call typology: he’s fulfilling a pattern, that
Israel had come out of Egypt and in the same way he comes out of
Egypt, and we’re to understand by that that he is representing Israel.
And that pattern, that typology really is borne out as we look at the
other passages that depict Christ in the first four chapters of Matthew
in particular, that he’s the Son of God, he’s the son of David, he’s the
ideal Israelite.
— Dr. Greg Perry
People are often troubled when they see the way the New Testament
writers use the Old Testament literature, because we particularly in
seminary often teach, no, you have to use it very, very carefully just in
line with how they, the Old Testament writers, used it, and so forth.
First of all, we need to understand that the New Testament writers use
the Old Testament in three different ways: Sometimes they quote it
directly, and when they do, they interpret it very, very closely to the
ways we would. Other times, they use it as an allusion where they’re
simply alluding to something that the Old Testament says. They’re
not really interpreting it; they’re simply picking up a thought. And a
third way that they use it is to illustrate. To illustrate a point that
they’re making, they pull something from the Old Testament as an
illustration, and they’re not really concerned about its setting or any
of that sort of thing, they’re just using it illustratively. If we assume
that every use of the Old Testament in the New Testament is intended
as a direct interpretive quotation, we’re going to have trouble,
because many of the uses of the Old Testament are allusive or
illustrative. I think if we understand that, if we make those kinds of
distinctions, in most cases, the problems disappear.
— Dr. John Oswalt
In fact, the same thing is true of every passage of Scripture. Every text leads to
multiple legitimate summaries. And the summaries that are most valuable to us vary from
place to place, time to time, and person to person. Not every summary of Scripture is
equally valuable or legitimate. But there are many summaries of the original meaning of
biblical passages that are faithful and useful for the church in every age.
Now that we’ve seen how the complexity of the passage can lead us to multiple
summaries, let’s turn our attention to the uniqueness of the interpreter.
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UNIQUENESS OF INTERPRETER
In an earlier lesson, we advocated using an authority-dialog approach to the
meaning of Scripture. You may remember that an authority-dialog model acknowledges
that objective truth can be found in the text of Scripture as long as the methods comply
with biblical standards. One valuable aspect of an authority-dialog model is that it
highlights the fact that all interpreters come to biblical writings with different sets of
concerns, assumptions, backgrounds and questions. Each of us reads Scripture differently
because God has gifted each of us differently. We all have strengths and weaknesses, and
we process information in a variety of ways, based on our unique knowledge and
experience. God has designed his church so that we each can benefit from the strengths of
others.
People’s gifts and backgrounds lead them to summarize biblical passages in
distinctive ways. For instance, an historian may summarize the meaning of Genesis 1
differently than an artist. The historian might describe the order in which God created
light and dark, water and dry land, and plants and animals. But an artist might talk about
the beauty and goodness of the stars in the night sky, and the fish and birds throughout
the world. The personal strengths of the interpreters lead each to bring out important but
different aspects of the passage’s original meaning.
At the same time, both types of summaries can also be hindered by the
interpreters’ weaknesses; each one omits important truths that the other includes. Let’s
assume, for example, that we want to understand the nature of God, and we choose to
begin by exploring Genesis 1. If we read the historian’s summary, we see that God is an
organized planner, but we may overlook the delight God took in his creation when he
declared in Genesis 1:31 that creation was “very good.” However, if we focus solely on
the artist’s summary, we may see God as flawlessly creative but ignore his intentionality
and orderliness. These potential weaknesses help us see that no summary should be
ignored simply because it’s not the same as ours. In many cases, we can learn a lot about
a passage from other peoples’ summaries.
Since we all have strengths and weaknesses in the body of Christ, it is

so important that we not study Scripture simply by ourselves, but we
learn from what others have seen in the Scriptures. I think of several
examples of this. I’ve done a lot of study in the New Testament. I’ve
studied the Old Testament, I see the unity of the Old Testament and
the New Testament, and the Old Testament coming to fulfillment in
Christ in his work in the church, but I benefit greatly from my friends
who have focused their thoughts and attention in Old Testament
passages and can bring wisdom to bear on their understanding of the
Hebrew text, of the backgrounds of the ancient Near East. As I look at
a text that may be quoted in the New Testament that comes from the
Old and I want to understand its original setting as well, I benefit in
that way. I also know that I have my own blind spots, not just because
of a lack of education but because I’m not fully conformed to the
image of Christ yet. And I learn from the wisdom of those who have
-15-
walked with Christ longer. They see things in Scripture. They see
implications of how it applies to my life and to their lives in ways that
I don’t fully recognize. So from that standpoint of my spiritual
immaturity being less than fully mature, I benefit greatly from
brothers and sisters who have walked with Christ further.
— Dr. Dennis E. Johnson
God intended the Bible and Bible interpretation to be understood in a

context of fellowship with other believers. One of the instructions we
get almost sixty-five times in the New Testament is just the simple
word “one another” — encourage one another and build up one
another and lead one another, and so forth. In Ephesians 3:18, the
apostle Paul says that only when we are in fellowship with other
believers we fully really comprehend with all the saints what is the
breadth and the length and the depth of the love of Christ. So alone
we can’t do it. We need to do it in fellowship with other believers. And
then usually they will… I’ve experienced that myself sitting and doing
Bible study in a mixed group of people, and it always amazing with
which insights people enrich one another when they study the Bible
together.
— Dr. P. J. Buys
Having looked at the ways the complexity of the passage and the uniqueness of
the interpreter make multiple summaries possible, let’s consider the needs of the
audience.
NEEDS OF AUDIENCE
When we summarize the original meaning of Scripture, we often do it in ways
that anticipate the needs of different audiences. Sometimes we summarize a passage to
preach a sermon to adults. Sometimes we’re preparing a Bible study for children.
Sometimes we read the Bible because we’re wrestling with a particular problem, or even
just for our own spiritual growth. Different audiences often have very different needs.
And this means that in order to apply the Bible in responsible and relevant ways, we have
to find summaries that are helpful to our specific audiences. As an example, consider
Jesus’ words in John 16:33:
I have told you these things, so that in me you may have peace. In this
world you will have trouble. But take heart! I have overcome the
world (John 16:33).
-16-
There are many legitimate ways to summarize this verse. We could create a
summary that focused on peace, or on the fact that Jesus reveals truth to us. But let’s
assume we need to summarize it for an audience that’s dealing with suffering.
First, we would need to look at the reason for the suffering. Some Christians
suffer because they endure persecution from unbelieving political authorities. Others
suffer from poverty or natural disasters. Others suffer as a result of unwise or even sinful
behavior. And there are other causes of suffering, too. Because of these vast differences
in our own experiences, no single summary will responsibly apply the teachings of John
16:33 to all these different audiences.
For example, summarizing the passage for an audience suffering persecution
might look like this: Be encouraged because Jesus will eventually end your persecution
and establish a world in which you will never be persecuted again.
But to those suffering from poverty or a natural disaster, the summary may look
like this: Jesus has permitted your suffering for a time, and will eventually bless you in
ways that more than make up for the losses you’ve experienced.
In general, we can all be encouraged by the fact that Jesus has overcome the
world, and we can all hope to find peace in the midst of sufferings. But since we all suffer
from different troubles, we have to adapt the complex teaching of this passage in
different ways in order to minister to the needs of different audiences.
And there are cultural differences that we should take into account, too. Each
culture has a different history, different societal structure, different competing religious
viewpoints, and different strengths and weaknesses. In order to apply the Bible in the
most helpful ways, we need to find summaries of Scripture that minister to the needs of
specific people in their own specific circumstances.
One of the privileges of pastoral ministry is to teach the Bible and

proclaim the gospel to a wide variety of audiences — people that are
well educated, people that are not educated at all, people who are
young, people who are old, people in very different kinds of work
situations. But that is a very demanding task because it requires a
pastor really to have a sense of the people to whom he is giving the
Word of God. And two things that I’ve found very helpful in that
area: first of all, just asking people in my congregation, “Was that
clear? Did you understand that? Talk to me. What have you been
learning from recent sermons?” And not just speaking to people all
the time but listening to people in their response to God's Word. The
other thing that I’ve found very helpful is to teach the gospel regularly
to young children. In fact, often times in pastoral ministry I have
taught the same sermon that I am teaching to an adult congregation in
shorter, simpler form to young children, and that’s a great way for a
pastor to develop a gift of simplicity. And we should always try to be
simple and clear when we’re communicating something as important
as the gospel.
— Dr. Philip Ryken
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It’s very important to adapt our message so that people can hear it.
One of the ways to do this is in terms of right- and left-brained people.
Say, left-brained is very analytical, likes to deal with the facts. Right-
brained is much more given to stories and demonstrations and
examples. And I tend to be kind of in the middle of those things, so I
kind of need both. And it depends on the culture you go to because
there’s going to be some places in the world that are exceedingly
right-brained, some people that are exceedingly left-brained, and it’s
good to adapt to those places. In the time of Jesus, it’s very interesting
that he was willing to seek correlations of scriptural truth to things
like other Scriptures, other experiences: look at the birds of the air;
this is like the story about a Samaritan that’s going down the road. He
did it all the time… And I think he adapted very well to various
audiences with both right- and left-brained contingencies.
— Dr. Matt Friedeman
When we interpret the Bible, we should always have in mind both the original
meaning of the passage and the needs of our contemporary audiences. In many ways, the
investigation of Scripture is all about bridging the distance between the original meaning
and our contemporary audience, so that we can all benefit from the full value of biblical
texts. None of us can do this perfectly. But we can trust that the Holy Spirit will lead us
to biblical summaries that minister to his church in valuable ways.
CONCLUSION
In this lesson on discovering meaning: we’ve focused on two main ideas: the
important guides to meaning we find in the writer, document and audience of Scripture;
and the multiple summaries we can make from Scripture.
We all have to admit that sometimes the Scriptures are difficult to understand. But
the good news is that God has given us a variety of ways to discover the original meaning
of his Word. He’s given us the documents of Scripture themselves, and these documents
contain the grammatical and literary context we need. And he’s also provided us with
ways of gathering information about the writers and the original audiences of Scripture.
And beyond this, the original meaning of every portion of Scripture is so rich that we can
gain new insights into it every day of our lives. If we keep these things in mind as we
study the Bible, we’ll be able to discover more and more about the original meaning of
Scripture.
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Dr. Richard L. Pratt, Jr. (Host) is Co-Founder and President of Third Millennium
Ministries. He served as Professor of Old Testament at Reformed Theological Seminary
for more than 20 years and was chair of the Old Testament department. An ordained
minister, Dr. Pratt travels extensively to evangelize and teach. He studied at Westminster
Theological Seminary, received his M.Div. from Union Theological Seminary, and
earned his Th.D. in Old Testament Studies from Harvard University. Dr. Pratt is the
general editor of the NIV Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible and a translator for the
New Living Translation. He has also authored numerous articles and books, including
Pray with Your Eyes Open, Every Thought Captive, Designed for Dignity, He Gave Us
Stories, Commentary on 1 & 2 Chronicles and Commentary on 1 & 2 Corinthians.
Dr. P.J. Buys is Associate International Director of the World Reformed Fellowship and
Adjunct Professor of Missiology Research at Northwest University in Potchesfstroom,
South Africa.
Dr. Gary Cockerill is Professor of New Testament and Biblical Theology at Wesley
Biblical Seminary.
Dr. Matt Friedeman is Professor of Evangelism and Discipleship at Wesley Biblical

Seminary.
Dr. Dennis E. Johnson is Academic Dean and Professor of Practical Theology at

Westminster Seminary California.
Dr. Craig S. Keener is the F.M. and Ada Thompson Chair of Biblical Studies at Asbury
Theological Seminary.
Dr. Robert K. MacEwen is Director of the Chinese Theology Department at East Asia
School of Theology.
Dr. John Oswalt is the Visiting Distinguished Professor of Old Testament at Asbury
Theological Seminary.
Dr. Greg Perry is Associate Professor of New Testament and Director of City Ministry
Initiative at Covenant Theological Seminary.
Dr. Scott Redd is Campus President of Reformed Theological Seminary in Washington

D.C. and Assistant Professor of Old Testament.
Dr. Philip Ryken is President of Wheaton College.
Dr. Simon Vibert is the former Vicar of St. Luke's Church, Wimbledon Park, UK, and is
presently the Vice Principal of Wycliffe Hall, Oxford, and Director of the School of
Preaching.
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He Gave Us

ABOUT THIRD MILLENNIUM MINISTRIES

If we don’t take into account the grammatical and historical context

children of God, so a person needs to be spiritually reborn. And you

— Dr. Craig S. Keener

We believe that a greater knowledge of the grammatical or historical

— Dr. Simon Vibert

— Dr. Scott Redd

Whenever we consider the original audience of a portion of Scripture, we have to

Although the original audience didn’t directly contribute to the writing of

The Samaritan woman said to [Jesus], “You are a Jew and I am a

In this passage, to “be put out of the synagogue” was to be excommunicated,

On the one hand, unbelieving Jews accused Jesus of blasphemy because he

Why then do you accuse me of blasphemy because I said, “I am God’s

Every book in the Bible was written to an original audience, and we

— Dr. Robert K. MacEwan

modern readers to read it so that we can understand what the author

— Dr. Simon Vibert

A second type of mistake we can make is overemphasizing the document. This

It is possible to overemphasize the importance of the original audience

by making it too specific, in particular, thinking we know more about

— Dr. Gary Cockerill

interpretation of the Scriptures can be complete or exhaustive of its meaning. There’s

Normally a summary will come from a particular vantage point or emphasize a

— Dr. Greg Perry

— Dr. John Oswalt

Since we all have strengths and weaknesses in the body of Christ, it is

— Dr. Dennis E. Johnson

God intended the Bible and Bible interpretation to be understood in a

One of the privileges of pastoral ministry is to teach the Bible and

— Dr. Philip Ryken

— Dr. Matt Friedeman

Dr. Matt Friedeman is Professor of Evangelism and Discipleship at Wesley Biblical

Dr. Dennis E. Johnson is Academic Dean and Professor of Practical Theology at

Dr. Scott Redd is Campus President of Reformed Theological Seminary in Washington

Dr. Philip Ryken is President of Wheaton College.

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