Development of an Ultra-Low NOx Gaseous Fuel Burner

for OTSG Applications

American Flame Research Committee 2016 Industrial Combustion Symposium

Kevin Anderson, Vladimir Lifshits, and Santhosh Umapathy

John Zink Company, LLC | Power and Marine Division

Abstract
The paper presents an overview of the development process used to design improvements to an
Ultra-Low NOx gaseous fuel burner for once through steam generator (OTSG) applications. It
discusses the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for the prediction of key performance
metrics such as NOx emissions and vessel heat flux profiles and simplifications in CFD processing
such as the use of steady state solvers and the use of reduced chemistry sets. Results of CFD
modeling are compared with data collected from large scale combustion tests.
Introduction
The use of the steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) process has become an effective and prevalent
means for the production of heavy crude oil in the oil sands deposits found in northern Alberta. In this
process, high pressure steam is generated and then injected into horizontal wells deep underground to
aid in the extraction of heavy crude oil. A brief description of the SAGD process and some details related
to heavy oil extraction in Alberta can be found on the Government of Alberta webpage [1].

During the SAGD process, some ninety percent of the water that is injected into the wells as wet steam is
recovered with the extracted heavy oil. The recovered water is treated, then returned (as feed water) to
steam generating equipment used in the SAGD process. The water treatment process used for SAGD
operation is extensive. Yet, it leaves substantial amount of residual contaminants in the form of minerals
and suspended hydrocarbons returned to the steam generating equipment.

The recovered water quality generally does not meet standards typically needed for conventional
saturated steam boilers. Instead, steam used for SAGD is most commonly produced using once through
steam generator (OTSG) units which are, by design, more tolerant of the water contaminants typically
associated with SAGD operation. Still, mitigating fouling of OTSG heat transfer surfaces continues to be
an area of extensive study and research. Pugsley et al. discuss these challenges in some detail in [2].
Generally, significant effort is made to reduce peak heat fluxes on the OTSG heat transfer surfaces.

Figure 1 depicts a typical OTSG installation. An OTSG consists of a horizontal cylindrical radiant section
coupled with a convection section. The furnace is lined with serpentine steam tubes to absorb heat
released by combustion of fuels to generate steam. Since it is usually more cost effective to construct the
OTSG units offsite, the size of OTSG units is limited by shipping constraints making for a certain uniformity
between units in overall furnace dimensions.

Figure 1 – An OTSG Unit during Installation in Northern Alberta

Generally, natural gas and “produced” gas (a byproduct of bitumen oil extraction) are used as fuels in
OTSG applications. For most units, the heat required to generate steam in an OTSG is supplied through a
single burner mounted on the firing end of the cylindrical furnace. As industrial burners go, these burners
are generally quite large. Firing capacities in excess of three hundred million Btu per hour are typical.
Projects with OTSG firing capacities in excess of four hundred million Btu per hour are in development.

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John Zink Hamworthy Combustion (JZHC) and their affiliates have furnished burners for approximately
two hundred (200) OTSG applications located in Alberta. Most of these installations utilize QLNTM burner
technology, which was developed by Coen Company, Incorporated in the 1990’s as a low NOx burner
design for use in industrial boiler applications.

The QLNTM burner is particularly well suited for OTSG applications. The patented burner design employs
a combination of burner technologies such as partial lean premix and fuel staging to achieve low NOx
emissions without the need of external NOx control technologies such as flue gas recirculation (FGR) or
selective catalytic reduction (SCR), both of which are generally considered as undesirable for OTSG
application in the Canada oil sands areas. Also, the QLNTM burner produces a relatively low intensity flame
radiation profile. This is quite well suited to OTSG applications due to the concerns of furnace tube fouling.

Figure 2 - QLNTM Burner Used for an OTSG Application, Prior to Shipment

Like many areas in the world, emissions requirements for OTSG applications in Alberta have become more
stringent over time. Table 1 below shows the history of NOx emissions that are applicable to OTSG units
in Alberta. Changes to NOx emissions regulations applicable to OTSG units in Alberta are currently being
discussed by Canadian regulatory agencies. There remains some uncertainty as to where these emissions
regulations will ultimately end up.
Table 1 – Applicable NOx Emission Guidelines for New Alberta Oil Sands OTSG Installations
NOx Compliance Limit (g/GJ) NOx Performance Target (g/GJ)
Year Natural Gas Produced Gas Natural Gas Produced Gas
1998 [3] 40 40 40 40
2007 [4] 26 40 7.9 15.8

The first Alberta oil sands OTSG installations utilizing QLNTM burners were commissioned in the late 1990’s.
These units were designed to meet NOx emissions requirements of 40 g/GJ (HHV) firing natural gas and
produced gas fuels. By the mid 2000’s, OTSG installations utilizing a QLNTM burners were being
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commissioned to meet NOx emissions requirements of 26 g/GJ firing natural gas. This represented a thirty
five percent reduction in NOx emissions from 1998 compliance limits. Generally, these emissions
reductions were easily achieved with QLN burners without any modifications or restrictions on firing
modes.

Figure 3 - OTSG Furnace Firing End with QLNTM Burner Installed

Currently, there remains ambiguity among users as to the required NOx emissions performance for new
OTSG applications. NOx emissions requirements of 26 g/GJ (HHV) firing natural gas are still prevalent, yet
some users are seeking to meet the Alberta oil sands performance target of 7.9 g/GJ firing natural gas.
This would represent an eighty percent reduction in NOx emissions from 1998 compliance limits.

Currently, there are OTSG systems with QLNTM burners designed to achieve 7.9 g/GJ NOx emissions using
external NOx control methods such as FGR. However, achieving the target emissions of 7.9 g/GJ level
without the use of external NOx reduction methods such as FGR represented a formidable challenge.

To address the changing NOx emissions requirements, a development effort was undertaken to improve
the performance of the QLNTM burner for large OTSG applications. This effort including making design
optimizations to the aerodynamic aspects of the burners as well as optimizing the design of the fuel
injection components.

Analysis of the impact of potential burner changes on the operation of the OTSG system was made to
ensure that NOx emissions reductions did not come at the expense of OTSG operational flexibility. As
such, parameters such as furnace heat flux profiles, burner operating range, burner ramping capabilities,
furnace pulsations, and combustion noise were evaluated as part of the effort.

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Procedure

Development efforts consisted of the design and evaluation of various potential improvements to the
QLNTM burner. As discussed, this effort included developing and evaluating aerodynamic changes to the
airside of the burner as well as development and evaluation of changes to the burner fuel injection
components. Both Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis and physical testing of a scaled burner
prototype were used to evaluate the proposed design improvements.

CFD Analysis

CFD software has evolved from a tool to evaluate isothermal flow fields in simple geometries to a powerful
and robust tool which can model reacting flow fields in complex geometries. The use of CFD in the design
of equipment for various industries has become prevalent as the capabilities of the CFD codes and speed
of the solvers have improved. A good general description of CFD applied to industrial combustion
applications is presented by Londerville and Baukal [5].

As NOx emissions reduction was a primary objective of this project, a significant effort was undertaken to
develop good correlation between NOx emissions obtained from experimental results (i.e. known
behavior) and NOx emissions predicted using CFD analysis. At the same time, it was imperative that cycle
time for CFD analysis was minimized in order to allow for efficient use of resources to evaluate a
substantial number of potential burner design modifications.

Steady state CFD analysis was used to predict the NOx emissions for the considered burner configurations.
A description of how steady state CFD modeling techniques can be used to predict NOx emissions from
gaseous fuel burner systems is presented by Anderson and Londerville [6]. ANSYS Fluent version 16.1 CFD
software was used to develop, execute, and process all of the CFD simulations.

A burner with heat release of 350 million Btu per hour (HHV) was used for the CFD simulations. Methane
gas was used to simulate the fuel gas in the simulations. A two step reaction mechanism was used to
model methane combustion. A finite rate model with proprietary kinetics coupled with the eddy-
dissipation model based on the work of Magnussen and Hjertager [7] was used to model the reactions.
Turbulence in the simulations was modeled using the realizable k-epsilon model.

As radiation is the primary mode of heat transfer from the flame to other surfaces, it was believed that
accurate radiation modeling would be critical for realistic a NOx prediction. The Weighted Sum of Gray
Gases model (WSGGM) with proprietary parameters was used to approximate the radiation properties
for the combustion products. A one-step soot formation model was included in the simulations to
improve the accuracy of flame radiation computations. Radiation calculations themselves were modeled
using the discrete ordinates (DO) model.

The NOx emissions models included thermal NOx and prompt NOx formulations. Thermal NOx emissions
were computed using the extended Zeldovich mechanism. The significant reactions were as follows:

𝑂𝑂 + 𝑁𝑁2 ⇌ 𝑁𝑁 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 Equation 1

𝑁𝑁 + 𝑂𝑂2 ⇌ 𝑂𝑂 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 Equation 2
𝑁𝑁 + 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻𝐻 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 Equation 3

Some simplifications were made to the thermal NOx calculation. First, Equation 3 was neglected since it
is generally only significant for fuel rich combustion. Second, the quasi-steady assumption for [N] was

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used which allows for equations 1 and 2 to be combined. Finally, reverse reactions were neglected since
resultant NO concentrations were generally very low in all computational cells.

The [O] concentration assumed at equilibrium was computed via post processor based on predicted [O2]
concentration and predicted temperature using a correlation derived from interpolation of JANAF
thermochemical tables which are available from NIST [8]. The kinetic rate constant proposed by Baulch
et al. [9] for Equation 1 was used to compute predicted thermal NOx.

Prompt NOx formation was also considered. The chemistry of Prompt NOx formation is complex and the
species and kinetics driving Prompt NOx formation were not included in the simplified steady state
combustion simulations. Instead, Prompt NOx formation was approximated for the combustion
simulations using the model proposed by De Soete [10].

Fluctuations in the steady state solution due to turbulence were approximated using a beta probability
function (PDF) as described by Missaghi et al [11]. Fluctuations in species were neglected in the PDF
formulation.

Figure 4 depicts the geometry and grid used for one of the simulations. For each of the cases evaluated,
a one eighth segment of the furnace and burner was modeled. Periodic boundary conditions were
assumed at the segment boundaries. Typical computational domain size used for each model was
approximately five million cells.

Figure 4 - CFD Model Geometry/Computational Domain used for Steady State Simulations (Typical)

Several burner configurations were evaluated. First, a baseline case of a conventional QLNTM burner was
modeled and validated with known experimental results to establish a benchmark to compare other
cases. Next a case was evaluated to predict the effect of airside burner changes on NOx emissions. Finally,

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several cases were evaluated to predict the effectiveness of various fuel injector design changes. Each of
the evaluated cases shared a common OTSG furnace design.

Physical Testing of Scaled Burner Prototype

A prototype QLNTM burner was designed and fabricated in order to test various changes to the burner
design. The burner was designed to fire natural gas at 63.0 million Btu per hour (HHV), which represented
eighteen percent of the full scale burner capacity. Figure 5 shows the burner installed at the John Zink
Hamworthy Combustion test facility located in Tulsa, OK.

Figure 5 - Prototype Burner Installed in the JZHC Test Facility located in Tulsa, OK

The impact of geometric scaling on NOx emissions, concerning both on the burner and on the test furnace,
was of obvious interest. This topic, specifically applied to scaling industrial sized burners, is presented in
some detail by Bollettini et al in [12]. Ultimately, a proprietary scaling method was used to scale the
burner. The scaling effects of the test furnace were considered using a combination of CFD simulations
and proprietary analytical methods.

Performance test data were collected for several burner test configurations. The initial tests evaluated
performance of the conventionally designed burner (baseline tests) and fuel injectors. Subsequent testing
efforts focused on evaluation of alternative fuel injector configurations which showed promise in CFD
simulations.

Each design was evaluated with respect to the effect on the NOx emissions, burner excess air, and
combustion stability as characterized by the intensity of pressure fluctuations in the furnace and
combustion noise. In addition to the NOx emissions and O2 in the furnace exhaust, CO emissions,
combustibles emissions, and heat flux profiles along the furnace side wall centerline were recorded. The
heat flux intensity was measured using a calibrated water cooled Schmidt-Boelter thermopile radiometer.
The device measured radiation intensity with a sixty degree (60°) view angle probe inserted into the
furnace through a series ports spaced two feet apart.

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Results and Discussion

CFD Analysis

Figure 6 depicts the CFD results showing predicted NOx emissions for the baseline configuration with
different excess air levels. The predicted NOx values were normalized to the baseline NOx emissions
operating with a typical excess level. Known behavior derived from field data was included in the chart
for comparison.

NOx Emissions
1.10

1.00
Relative NOx Emissions

0.90
Known Behavior, Baseline
0.80 Configuration
CFD Prediction, Baseline
0.70 Configuration

0.60

0.50
Burner Excess Air

Figure 6 - Predicted NOx Emissions for the Baseline Configuration (Known Behavior)

Good correlation between the predicted NOx at different excess air levels and with known behavior was
observed. The correlation of the CFD predictions with known behavior suggested that the CFD analysis
could be effective in accurately predicting changes in NOx emissions due to changes to the burner design.

Figures 7, 8, and 9 depict contours of predicted temperature, predicted mole fraction of O2, and total NOx
formation rate for the baseline configuration operating with design excess air. These figures and other
CFD results for the baseline configuration were analyzed in detail in order to better understand and
address the mechanisms controlling NOx formation.

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 Figure 7 – Predicted Gas Temperature, Baseline Configuration

Figure 8 - Predicted Mole Fraction of O2, Baseline Configuration

Figure 9 – Predicted Mole Fraction of NOx, Baseline Configuration

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Figure 10 shows the predicted heat flux profile for the baseline configuration. The data was presented as
the heat flux absorbed by the cylindrical furnace wall (averaged circumferentially) plotted by distance
from the furnace front wall. The distance was evaluated as the dimensionless number of burner diameters
such that the data could more readily be compared against the scale model test data later. Note that the
peak predicted heat flux was approximately 44,000 Btu/hr-ft2 at 4.6 burner diameters from the furnace
front wall.

Predicted Wall Heat Flux

50,000
45,000
Wall Heat Flux (Btu/hr-ft2)

40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Axial Distance From Furnace Front Wall (Burner Diameters)

Figure 10 - Predicted Furnace Wall Heat Flux, Baseline Configuration

For subsequent cases, adjustments were made to the fuel injection components in attempts to mitigate
NOx formation. Each of these configurations was modeled and analyzed in a similar fashion as the
baseline case. Analysis of the CFD results ultimately led to the design of several modified fuel injection
configurations. Predicted NOx emissions and heat flux profiles were evaluated against the baseline
configuration.

Figure 11 shows the relative NOx emissions as predicted by the CFD simulations for the baseline
configuration and the modified fuel injection component configurations. The data points were sorted
from the highest predicted NOx emissions to lowest predicted NOx emissions. Note that Case 1 (colored
red) represented the baseline configuration, and that all results were normalized against this case.

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 Predicted NOx Emissions
1.40

Baseline
1.20
Relative NOx Emissions

1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Case 8

Case 5

Case 2

Case 3

Case 1

Case 4

Case 6

Case 7

Case 9
Fuel Injection Configuration

Figure 11 - CFD Predictions of NOx Emissions for Various Fuel Injection Configurations

Some of the cases that were evaluated showed predicted NOx emissions in excess of the baseline
configuration (Cases 8, 5, 2, and 3). These cases were not studied further. The cases that showed
reductions in NOx emissions relative to the baseline configuration (Cases 4, 6, 7, and 9) were of interest.
Analysis of Case 9 results suggested that NOx emissions reductions of approximately thirty percent or
more were possible.

Predicted heat flux profiles for the cases showing a reduction in predicted NOx emissions (Cases 4, 6, 7,
and 9) are shown in Figure 12. The profile for the baseline case (Case 1) was included in the figure for
reference. The CFD results showed moderate increases in peak predicted heat flux for Cases 6 and 9. The
other profiles were similar to the baseline case.

Predicted Wall Heat Flux

60,000
Wall Heat Flux (Btu/hr-ft2)

50,000

40,000
Case 1
30,000 Case 4
Case 6
20,000
Case 7
10,000
Case 9
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Axial Distance From Furnace Front Wall (Burner Diameters)

Figure 12 - Predicted Furnace Wall Heat Flux, Reduced NOx Configurations

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Physical Testing of Scaled Burner Prototype

The prototype burner was outfitted with components to replicate the firing scenarios which showed
favorable predicted performance in the CFD simulations. Burner components for Cases 1 (baseline), 4, 6,
7, 9, and 10 were designed and fabricated. For each case, fuel injection components were installed and
the burner was fired in the test furnace. Figure 13 shows the test burner firing at capacity with Case 1
(baseline) components.

Figure 13 - Prototype Burner Firing at Capacity in the JZHC Test Facility located in Tulsa, OK

NOx emissions data measured for each of the firing cases and is shown in Figure 14 below. Also included
are the corresponding CFD predictions of NOx performance. Generally, close agreement between CFD
predictions and prototype test results were obtained. In fact, when furnace scaling was considered, CFD
predictions of NOx emissions matched test data within +11%/-4% for all cases evaluated.

NOx Emissions Comparison

Baseline

1.20
Relative NOx Emissions

1.00

0.80

0.60
CFD Results
0.40
Test Data
0.20

0.00
Case 1

Case 4

Case 6

Case 7

Case 9

Fuel Injection Configuration

Figure 14 – Comparison of Measured NOx Emissions to CFD Predictions

Case 9 showed the lowest NOx emissions during testing of the prototype burner. However, operation of
the burner with the Case 9 fuel injection configuration exhibited undesirable transient behavior which
manifested as low intensity pulsations and excessive combustion noise. It was not possible to discern this
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behavior from the steady state CFD simulations. Ultimately, the Case 9 configuration was abandoned due
to this undesirable behavior.

The remaining prototype configurations (Cases 4, 6, and 7) showed comparable performance relative to
the baseline configuration in terms of combustion stability, sensitivity to excess air, burner turndown, and
ramping capabilities. Of these three cases, Case 4 showed the most favorable performance in terms of
NOx emissions, furnace pulsations, and combustion noise. The tests showed that NOx emissions
reductions of approximately twenty one percent were attainable using the Case 4 configuration.

Figure 15 shows normalized measured wall heat flux intensity for the baseline configuration and for the
Case 4 configuration. The CFD predictions were included in the figure for reference. Note that actual
measurements showed peak heat flux intensities farther down the furnace than the CFD predictions. This
was likely due to the simplifications to the reaction mechanisms used in the CFD simulations which were
selected deliberately in order to simplify the CFD modeling efforts.

Radiation intensity measurements of the Case 4 configuration showed a reduction in peak wall heat flux
intensity of approximately seven percent compared to the baseline configuration. The CFD simulations
showed a similar trend. The CFD simulation of the Case 4 configuration showed a reduction in peak wall
heat flux intensity of approximately three percent compared to the baseline configuration.

Wall Heat Flux Comparison

1.20
Wall Heat Flux (Normalized to Baseline)

1.00

0.80
Case 1 - CFD
0.60
Case 1 - Measured
0.40 Case 4 - CFD
Case 4 - Measured
0.20

0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Axial Distance From Furnace Front Wall (Burner Diameters)

Figure 15 – Comparison of Measured Wall Heat Flux to CFD Predictions, Baseline and Case 4 Configurations

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Conclusions

The CFD analysis offered significant value to the lower NOx design optimization of the QLNTM burner. Even
with significant simplifications such as the use of steady state solvers and greatly simplified reaction
mechanisms, it was possible to discern the performance of candidate designs relative to the performance
of a baseline configuration with known performance characteristics. For instance, it was possible to
evaluate predicted changes in NOx performance relative to the baseline configuration with a reasonable
amount of accuracy. Also, it was possible to evaluate predicted furnace heat flux profiles for the various
configurations with reasonable accuracy.

However, it is still important to compliment the simplified CFD process with prototype physical testing.
When scaling effects were considered, the test results showed discrepancies as high as eleven percent
between predicted NOx emissions and actual test data. Also, the simplified CFD analysis approach is still
unable to predict undesirable transient behavior such as furnace pulsations and/or combustion noise.

Still, combining CFD with prototype testing was quite effective for the process of evaluating the burner
design improvements. The use of CFD in the design process allowed for the elimination of approximately
half of the proposed candidate fuel injector designs, which reduced the number of configurations which
physical testing was deemed warranted. As such, physical testing efforts for promising cases were more
readily expanded.

The results from this development effort were quite promising. Using this process, it was ultimately
possible to find simple design modifications promising to achieve a reduction in NOx emissions of some
twenty percent without degradation in other burner performance metrics such furnace wall heat flux,
burner operating range, and combustion stability.

The next step would be to apply the proposed modifications to a large OTSG unit in order to validate the
performance at full scale conditions.

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