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APL 102

Deformation (Mechanical) Behaviour of Materials

Concepts: elastic-, plastic-, anelastic- deformation; stress states; engineering- & true-
stress, strain; tensile testing; stiffness; strength; toughness
Lecture 26
 Recap
IIT Delhi Diffusion Couple – to determine D D dependence on T  Q 
t2 > t1 | c(x,t1) t1 > 0 | c(x,t1) t = 0 | c(x,0)
Diffusivity, D = Do exp - d 
 R T 
C2 Dinterstitial >> D substitutional

1500
C in -Fe

1000
Cu in Cu

600

300
T(C)
C in -Fe
Concentration →

Al in Al 10-8
Fe in -Fe

C
in
2 Ci
Fe in  -Fe D (m /s)

-
n

Fe
-Fe

log D
Cavg
10-14

Zn
↑t

Fe

in Cun -

Al
Bulk Diffusivity

Cu in Fe
F

in
in 
ei e

Al
-F
Grain Boundary 10-20

Cu
A B Diffusivity 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 1000K/T
C1
x → 1/T
Qsurface< Qgb < Qlattice
Atomistic diffusion mechanisms
Interstitial Mechanism Substitutional Mechanism Diffusion Applications
Surface hardening of steel : carburizing or nitriding
e.g. C in Fe e.g. P in Si
Doping Silicon with P for n-type semiconductors
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Question for thought

Why are we interested in knowing about the

microstructure and how it evolve?

To understand and optimize structure (mechanical) property correlations

 Response of a Material to Mechanical force/load
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Time Independent Time dependent

Temporary Truly elastic Anelastic

(obeys Hooke’s law)

Elastomeric
(doesn’t obey Hooke’s law)

Permanent Plastic Creep

Viscous flow
 Mechanical behaviour of Materials
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Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

 Mechanical behaviour of Materials
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Plastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Large load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

elastic + plastic plastic

F
F
linear linear
Plastic means permanent! elastic elastic

plastic
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Why to know Mechanical behavior?
Compression member or column
Tensile member or tie
Flexural member
or beam

To get an understanding on :
 How materials deform, when subjected to various loading conditions?
 What factors affect their behaviour?
 How materials fail?
 How the mechanical properties can be improved?
 Common States Of Load/Stress
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Ski lift
 Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional

 Simple shear: drive shaft

M Fs A
Ac o

M
2R
 Common States Of Load/Stress
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 Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

Note: compressive structure

member (F < 0 here)
Balanced Rock, Arches
National Park
 Common States Of Load/Stress
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Pressurized tank Fish under water

Bi-axial tension: sq > 0 Hydrostatic compression:

sz > 0 sh < 0
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Question for thought

How the geometry dependent parameters for any

material can be eliminated?

By normalizing with the original cross-sectional area, length etc.,

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Background Knowledge: Parameters

 Load (Stress): tensile, compressive and shear (N/m2 – Pa)

- Stress State
 Displacement (Strain): Tensile, lateral or shear (dimensionless)
 Modulus (N/m2 – Pa)
- Young’s modulus, Bulk and shear modulus
 Poisson’s ratio
 All above are tensor properties
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Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s: Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

A rea, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft Ft
s Fs Ft
Ao t F
original area
Ao
Stress units:
before loading
N/m2 (Pascal) or lb/in2
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Engineering Strain
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
/2
L
   L 
Lo Lo wo
wo
/2
L/2 L/2
Shear strain:
q/2

 = tan q
/2 - q Strain unit:
Always dimensionless
/2 q/2
 Stress and Strain
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During loading, the length of the specimen is continuously changing and the
cross-sectional area is also changing

P
True stress sT  Ai = instantaneous area
Ai
True stress ≠ Engineering stress (s = F/A0)

dL
True incremental strain d T 
L
L
dL L
True strain  T    ln
L0
L L0

True strain ≠ Engineering strain ( = L/L0)

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True Stress and True Strain
P
• True Stress s
Ai
Instantaneous area

• Engineering Stress s  P
Ao Original area

l
dl l
• True Strain     ln
lo
l lo

l
• Engineering Strain e
lo
 True vs. Engineering terms
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Relationship between true and engineering quantities

s  S (e  1)
  ln(e  1)
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Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E: s
(also known as Young's modulus) E
• Hooke's Law: 1 
sE Linear- elastic F
• Poisson's ratio, n:

n  t
l
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~ 0.25 F
polymers: ~ 0.40 Units: simple
E : [GPa] or [psi] tension
test
n: dimensionless
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Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear modulus, G G simple
1 
t= G  torsion
test

M
• Elastic Bulk modulus, K: P P
V V P P
P= -K
Vo Vo
-K
1 Pressure test:
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Initial vol =Vo.
Volume chg. = V
 How to obtain the Mechanical
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properties of materials?
 Experimentally measured
 Tell us how materials would behave under load:
 Elasticity / Stiffness
 Plasticity
 Strength
 Hardness
 Toughness
 Brittleness / Ductility
 Creep
 Fatigue
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Various Mechanical Tests
• Tension/Compression tests
• Hardness tests
• Impact tester
• Bi-axial testing
• Fatigue Testing
• Creep testing
•…

21
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Most versatile test to determine the mechanical

properties of materials: Tensile test

Next lab experiment:

Steel and Al samples
 Tensile testing – Tensometer (Next Lab)
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Gauge
length

ASTM standards of testing Why reduced cross-section?

specimen
 Result of a Uniaxial Tensile testing – Mild Steel
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s (Engineering stress)
Ultimate tensile
strength, sUTS necking
Yield
point
Yield strength, sy

STRENGTH
break
Area = Toughness

STIFFNESS
Slope = Young’s
modulus (E)
DUCTILITY
f (strain to fracture)

 (engineering strain)
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Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

25
 Announcement
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 Quiz 1 Exam Schedule:

Date: 27th September (Today)
Locations: LH – 108 (Monday’s and Tuesday’s group)
LH – 111 (Thursday’s and Friday’s group)
Time: 5:30 pm – 5:50 pm

 Minor II Syllabus: After minor I topics (i.e. from Thermodynamics) to

today’s (27th September) lecture topic (Deformation behaviour)

 Minor II Exam Schedule:

Date: 06th October (Friday)
Location: LH – 121 & LH – 310
Time: 2:30 pm – 3:30 pm