Marketing

Organizational
Communication and
Sustainable Development:
ICTs for Mobility
Anette Hallin
Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
Tina Karrbom Gustavsson

Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
InformatIon scIence reference

Hershey • New York
Director of Editorial Content: Kristin Klinger
Senior Managing Editor: Jamie Snavely
Assistant Managing Editor: Michael Brehm
Publishing Assistant: Sean Woznicki
Typesetter: Kurt Smith, Michael Brehm
Cover Design: Lisa Tosheff
Printed at: Yurchak Printing Inc.
Published in the United States of America by

Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue
Hershey PA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail: cust@igi-global.com
Web site: http://www.igi-global.com/reference
Copyright © 2010 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or
companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Organizational communication and sustainable development : ICTs for mobility /

Anette Hallin and Tina Karrbom Gustavsson, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: "This book covers the use, effects, potentials and limitations of
new technology for information and communication in social settings and aims
to develop an understanding of different perspectives of sustainable
development"--Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-60566-822-2 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-823-9 (ebook) 1.
Communication in organizations. 2. Corporate governance. 3. Management
information systems. 4. Sustainable development. I. Hallin, Anette, 1969-
II. Gustavsson, Tina Karrbom, 1973-
HD30.3.O724 2010
658.4'5--dc22
2009026086
British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Table of Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................ xiv
Preface ............................................................................................................................................... xvii
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xxii
Section 1
Sustainable Development
Chapter 1
ICTs for Business Enterprise Mobility: Mobile Communications, Mobility and the Creation
of Sustainable Value ................................................................................................................................ 1
Per Andersson, Centre for Information and Communication Research (CIC), Stockholm School
of Economics, Sweden
Susanne Sweet, Centre for Information and Communication Research (CIC), Stockholm School
Christopher Rosenqvist, Centre for Information and Communication Research (CIC), Stockholm
School of Economics, Sweden
Chapter 2
ICT Instruments as Possible Support for the Equal Distribution of Population ................................... 19
Aleksandra Djukic, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Vesna Tomic, Ski resorts of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Chapter 3
Green Urban Planning and Design for Smarter Communities.............................................................. 41
Ozge Yalciner Ercoskun, Gazi University, Turkey
Chapter 4
ECORadar-Shakti: An Interactive Knowledge Base Contributing to the Greening
of an Indian Megacity ........................................................................................................................... 60
Martin Kreeb, Potsdam University of Management and Communication, Germany
Georg Dold, Potsdam University of Management and Communication, Germany
Hans-Dietrich Haasis, Bremen University, Institute for Production and Logistics, ISL, Germany
Section 2
Communicating Sustainability
Chapter 5
Philanthropy, CSR and Sustainability ................................................................................................... 76
Arun Sahay, Strategic Management, Management Development Institute, Gurgaon, India
Chapter 6
Tools for Corporate Assessment of Sustainable Development ........................................................... 100
Cecilia Mark-Herbert, Department of Economics, The Swedish University of Agriculture
Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Jonas Rorarius, Department of Economics, The Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences,
Uppsala, Sweden
Chapter 7
Communicating Environmental Information on a Company and Inter-Organizational Level ........... 115
Elke Perl-Vorbach, Institute of Systems Sciences, Innovation and Sustainability
Research Karl Franzens University Graz, Austria
Section 3
Sustainable Communication
Chapter 8
Communicating in Multicultural Firms: Boundary Creation, Fragmentation and the Social
Use of ICT........................................................................................................................................... 135
Jakob Lauring, Department of Management, Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus University,
Denmark
Anders Klitmøller, Department of Management, Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus University,
Denmark
Chapter 9
Communication in Global Development Projects: Objectives, Mechanisms and Interpretations ...... 153
Maria Adenfelt, Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University, Sweden
Katarina Lagerström, Department of Business Administration, School of Business,
Economics and Law, University of Gothenburgn Sweden
Chapter 10
The Relation Between ICT and Environmental Management Practice in a Construction
Company ............................................................................................................................................. 170
Mattias Jacobsson, Umeå School of Business, Umeå University, Sweden
Anneli Linde, Umeå School of Business, Umeå University, Sweden
Henrik Linderoth, University of Skövde, Sweden
Chapter 11
The Need for Accounting in Dialects: Making the Special Competitive Culture in Family-Run
Companies Sustainable ....................................................................................................................... 189
Per Forsberg, University of Borås, Sweden
Mikael Lind, University of Borås, Sweden
Chapter 12
Workplace Location and ICTs Substituting Travel ............................................................................. 205
Greger Henriksson, The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Minna Räsänen, The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Section 4
Critical Perspectives
Chapter 13
Communication, Information and Sustainability: A Geographical Perspective on Regional
Communication Policies ..................................................................................................................... 227
Marco Tortora, Political Science School, University of Florence, Italy
Chapter 14
African Families Faced with NICT: Stakes and Effect on Inter-Individual and Intergenerational
Relation ............................................................................................................................................... 245
Honoré Mimche, IFORD-University of Yaounde II, Cameroon
Norbert Tohnain Lengha, CNE-Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation, Yaounde,
Cameroon
Chapter 15
Gender and Technology: Mind The Gap! ........................................................................................... 256
Michela Cozza, Department of Sociology and Social Research, Faculty of Sociology,
University of Trento, Italy
Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 275
About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 310
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 317

Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................ xiv
Preface ............................................................................................................................................... xvii
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xxii
Section 1
Chapter 1
ICTs for Business Enterprise Mobility: Mobile Communications, Mobility and the Creation
of Sustainable Value ................................................................................................................................ 1
Per Andersson, Centre for Information and Communication Research (CIC), Stockholm School
Susanne Sweet, Centre for Information and Communication Research (CIC), Stockholm School
Christopher Rosenqvist, Centre for Information and Communication Research (CIC), Stockholm
School of Economics, Sweden
This chapter puts focus on and relates to three central concepts “sustainability”, “mobility”, and “customer
value”. The results from two long-term lines of research and two research programs are combined in the
chapter. The first focuses on the effects of the use of new wireless communication and information on
organizations in terms of changed “mobility” of people and artifacts within and between organizations.
The second research area addressed is that of social and environmental enterprise and business. The
chapter has the aim and ambition to contribute to a conceptual discussion on sustainability, mobility,
and value. Based on the discussion, the chapter presents a set of propositions to help advance research
in this relatively new research field. Short empirical examples are presented, followed by a concluding
discussion and a set of propositions for further research.
Chapter 2
ICT Instruments as Possible Support for the Equal Distribution of Population ................................... 19
Aleksandra Djukic, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Vesna Tomic, Ski resorts of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Unequal city development, namely the faster development of large centers and concentration of power,
globalization and local specificities in certain locations, have caused a lack of balance between large
city centers and smaller settlements and villages. In Serbia, there are major differences in the level of
development, as well as in cultural features of settlements. There are significant economic differences
between settlements in the north, the east, and the south of the country, since settlements developed in
valleys and hence had better traffic communication, and could therefore be competitive and stay abreast
of transformations. Smaller settlements and villages (especially those along the borders, in National
parks and in difficult to access rural regions), are marginalized, and face many problems, most often
caused by lack of infrastructure, decrease of the number of inhabitants, the dissolution of the secondary
and tertiary sector. Today, a quarter of the total population lives in the capital city of Belgrade, while a
considerable number of settlements are completely shutting down. These settlements once had their iden-
tity and a harmonious balance of all elements constituting the life of the community and the individual.
A distinctive social aspect contributed to a rich cultural heritage, but over time this was gradually lost
and begins to disappear. The question is if any of the processes (globalization, technological revolution),
which contribute to the demographic and economic decline of rural regions, could form a basis for re-
newal. A classical planner’s approach would imply the networking of settlements and providing equal
population distribution by investing in infrastructure and providing conditions for settlements through
the development of central functions, requiring considerable investments. The other possibility relies on
the development of information and communication technologies (ICT), which could provide for many
necessities: access to and exchange of information, paying bills and ordering products from a distance,
working from home, meetings via internet conferences, etc. The use of internet technologies in order to
develop settlements, by converting traditional into “net” technologies, can make up for disadvantages
of life in smaller settlements and enable their revitalization, by networking them into a global net of
settlements, without geographical borders and limits.
Chapter 3
Green Urban Planning and Design for Smarter Communities.............................................................. 41
Ozge Yalciner Ercoskun, Gazi University, Turkey
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) changes the concept of place and social life. Research-
ers should find some solutions about how to combine ICT with sustainable construction to revitalize
an existing neighborhood and to create a new model for growing areas especially in small cities. The
objectives of this study are to search for new ways to create sustainable communities with the sustain-
able use of ICTs, to discuss the advantages and disadvantages and the use of ICTs in cities, to put a new
approach as ‘eco-tech’ city, and to explore the potential ways of creating sustainability in practice. The
study summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the use of ICTs in cities and describes smart city
and eco-tech city concepts. The following part, which is consisted of a discussion of urban planning
and design, incorporating ICT for the construction of sustainable communities, explores the prospect
that dehumanized communication can be ameliorated through progressive, innovative and green urban
planning and design strategies.
Chapter 4
ECORadar-Shakti: An Interactive Knowledge Base Contributing to the Greening
of an Indian Megacity ........................................................................................................................... 60
Martin Kreeb, Potsdam University of Management and Communication, Germany
Georg Dold, Potsdam University of Management and Communication, Germany
Hans-Dietrich Haasis, Bremen University, Institute for Production and Logistics, ISL, Germany
This chapter describes concept, design and future implementation of a knowledge based Internet portal -
ECORadar Shakti India - aimed at small and medium sized enterprises of the Indian megacity Hyderabad.
The portal sets out to use the simplest and most persuasive means to motivate and enable sustainability
management in those enterprises that have so far taken little or no interest in this aspect of management.
Hyderabad, a prime example of an emerging mega city, is a laboratory where the goal of becoming a
sustainable mega city faces of difficult challenges. The intention to work towards a sustainable future
will be difficult to achieve without adequate data, tools and implementation strategies. The research idea
of this approach in Hyderabad was set up in a research program funded by the German Federal Ministry
of Education and Research (BMBF).
Section 2
Chapter 5
Philanthropy, CSR and Sustainability ................................................................................................... 76
Arun Sahay, Strategic Management, Management Development Institute, Gurgaon, India
Despite business’s business being business, the business owners have been doing acts of benevolence
depending upon the owner’s religion, faith, values and beliefs. Establishment of temples, mosques,
churches, schools, hospitals etc. has been usual practice through which firms have shown their concern
about the society and made contribution to the social cause. However, of late, it is observed that pro-
gressive businesses, after understanding the nuances of sustainable development and its reporting, have
moved from philanthropic mode of contributing to society to the concept of Corporate Social Respon-
sibity (CSR). Some of them have gone beyond CSR and have entered the domain of Strategic CSR. In
the process, a new concept of Corporate Sustainability, which is based on Triple Bottom-line concept,
has emerged in strategic management literature. Thus, today CSR activities are being aligned with the
business strategy of the firm. In the developed countries, firms are increasingly integrating CSR with the
core business activities e.g. innovation, marketing, finance etc. This article attempts to look into firm’s
CSR and corporate sustainability with special reference to a developing country - India.
Chapter 6
Tools for Corporate Assessment of Sustainable Development ........................................................... 100
Cecilia Mark-Herbert, Department of Economics, The Swedish University of Agriculture
Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Jonas Rorarius, Department of Economics, The Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences,
Uppsala, Sweden
Corporate needs to assess, evaluate and communicate sustainability efforts are evident in the increasing
use of management tools. A selected set of commonly used sustainability management tools are compared
in this study with a key question in mind: how well does each of them provide grounds for assessing
and communicating corporate sustainability ambitions? Each of the tools reflects different aspects of
responsible conduct; expressed in economic, environmental, social and temporal & spatial terms. They
represent a partial foundation for ex ante assessment and ex post evaluation and, as such, grounds for
providing information and communicating. Selecting suitable tools for making sustainability manage-
ment assessments presupposes an awareness of a need to integrate the perspectives on sustainability as
well as finding a suitable marketing tool mix.
Chapter 7
Communicating Environmental Information on a Company and Inter-Organizational Level ........... 115
Elke Perl-Vorbach, Institute of Systems Sciences, Innovation and Sustainability
Research Karl Franzens University Graz, Austria
The collection, managing and communication of environmental information are nowadays seen as an
essential prerequisite for sustainable development. However, ways of generating and exchanging envi-
ronmental information differ within and between companies. Moreover, the use of highly sophisticated
environmental information systems can still be seen at in its infancy. The aim of this chapter is thus
to assess ways of the application of environmental information systems for sustainable development,
both within and between organizations, can be supported. An empirical analysis of those barriers and
obstacles, which inhibit the implementation of environmental information systems, is also carried out.
Additionally, we also pay attention to forms of industry wide environmental protection, and take exist-
ing cooperation and relationships, sustainable supply chains, and recycling networks into account. For
this purpose, basic conditions for the inter-organizational exchange of environmental information are
investigated. This provides the basis for identifying means to strengthen the position of environmental
protection in connection with inter-organizational exchange of environmental information. Improved
methods of implementing environmental information systems within and between companies are de-
veloped, thus promoting greater cooperation for sustainable development.
Section 3
Chapter 8
Communicating in Multicultural Firms: Boundary Creation, Fragmentation and the Social
Use of ICT........................................................................................................................................... 135
Jakob Lauring, Department of Management, Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus University,
Denmark
Anders Klitmøller, Department of Management, Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus University,
Denmark
Based on a qualitative study of 14 knowledge intensive companies, this chapter suggests that multi-
cultural and multilingual firms are faced with certain challenges in the attempt to fruitfully utilize the
diverse background of their workforce. Firstly, through informal settings, the employees to create social
boundaries within the firm use native languages strategically. Secondly, even though the introduction of
English as cooperate language might solve some communication issues, it tends to render the commu-
nication less nuanced, thereby reducing the use of human resources within the firm. Thirdly, ICT does
not necessarily solve communication problems within a given company. It can even be used as a social
‘tool’ to uphold social boundaries or social fragmentation. It is suggested that in order to address these
challenges, the management should seek to reward not only individual employees, but also expand the
notion of performance to include the collectivity of the workplace.
Chapter 9
Communication in Global Development Projects: Objectives, Mechanisms and Interpretations ...... 153
Maria Adenfelt, Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University, Sweden
Katarina Lagerström, Department of Business Administration, School of Business,
Economics and Law, University of Gothenburgn Sweden
Globalization trends make the task of revisiting the nature of the organization of global development
projects (GDPs) within MNCs imperative. In this study, GDPs are viewed as contemporary ventures
that seek scale economies in response to opportunities and threats posed by globalization trends. Our
focus is to obtain a better understanding of how communication is managed and organized in GDPs. The
study is of a GDP with the aim of developing a common global product to be used by all subsidiaries
in an MNC, but with openings for local market adaptations. The empirical findings show that: (1) the
management had two goals with the project, which were conveyed and understood differently depend-
ing on organizational level and organizational belonging, (2) the administrative heritage of the MNC
influenced the use of information communication technology for sharing information and knowledge,
and (3) the impact of frequency and structure of communication for information processing.
Chapter 10
The Relation Between ICT and Environmental Management Practice in a Construction
Company ............................................................................................................................................. 170
Mattias Jacobsson, Umeå School of Business, Umeå University, Sweden
Anneli Linde, Umeå School of Business, Umeå University, Sweden
Henrik Linderoth, University of Skövde, Sweden
The aim of this chapter is to draw attention to the use of ICT in the building and construction industry
with a special interest in the day-to-day activities of those companies that are working to develop more
environmentally friendly and sustainable production processes. The chapter is based on a comprehensive
survey of ICT use and attitudes to environmental related issues in middle and large sized construction
companies in Sweden and two case studies: One of ICT use in a larger Swedish building and construc-
tion company and one of communication, coordination, and decision making processes in a construction
project. Based on the empirical data we argue that in order to enhance a more environmentally friendly
building and construction industry there is a need for a more genuine cooperation and knowledge sharing
between different actors both in crossing project boundaries as well as overriding contractual limitations.
Decisions in a construction project must be taken earlier in the process and construction companies need
to focus more on those processes over which they actually do have power.
Chapter 11
The Need for Accounting in Dialects: Making the Special Competitive Culture in Family-Run
Companies Sustainable ....................................................................................................................... 189
Per Forsberg, University of Borås, Sweden
Mikael Lind, University of Borås, Sweden
This chapter deals with the challenge of ensuring and sustaining cultural competitiveness in a globalised
world where control and management tend to be made at a distance. The authors illustrate this by argu-
ing that family-run businesses have a special culture that makes them good at creating and taking part
in innovative networks. Today this culture is however threatened. Implementation of technologies for
controlling and governing at a distance destroy this special family-run business culture. As a solution to
this problem the authors suggest that new technologies of communication have the potential to strengthen
the ability to create innovative networks. New technologies of communication do this when they give
rise to alternative forms of communication and thus complement management based on “controlling
and acting at a distance”.
Chapter 12
Workplace Location and ICTs Substituting Travel ............................................................................. 205
Greger Henriksson, The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Minna Räsänen, The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
This chapter is based on the assumption that keeping the number and length of business and commut-
ing trips at reasonable levels could contribute to reaching targets of environmental sustainability. The
authors highlight a couple of options for reducing or avoiding business trips and commuting through
workplace location or improved use of communications. They present case studies concerning travel
and communications, carried out by using diaries and interviews. They also present relevant literature
on social practices and sustainability goals in relation to use of ICT. The aim is to shed light on variation
in the use of travel and communications on an individual level in work life. The case studies illustrate
that such variation is mainly due to the concrete practices involved in execution of professional duties
and roles. Duties that involve a clearly defined end result or product being delivered regularly by the
member of staff are correlated to clearly defined needs for communications. Less clearly defined end
results of the work duties seem to make it harder for the individual to plan and perform communication
and travel in a more energy saving way. The difference in professional duties can thus be expressed in
terms of clarity and maturity. Another factor that affect who can replace travel with ICTs is relations
of power, e.g., when a purchaser dictates the terms for a subcontractor concerning how and where to
“deliver” his working time, service or product. The importance of clarity, maturity and power aspects
means that professional practices need to be studied at a detailed level to find out who could substitute
ICTs for travel and how this could be done.
Section 4
Chapter 13
Communication, Information and Sustainability: A Geographical Perspective on Regional
Communication Policies ..................................................................................................................... 227
Marco Tortora, Political Science School, University of Florence, Italy
This chapter, recognizing that the main communication concepts are deeply geographical in their inner
nature, has the intent of introducing an analysis of the connection there should be between geography,
communication, organization and sustainability. The author will use the geography of information as the
main framework to detect these links and to present the analysis of a regional communication infrastruc-
ture to understand how the Internet can be pivotal to communication and local development strategies.
The analysis will present regional communication policies, projects and practices to understand if these
are positive or negative forces for a regional sustainable development.
Chapter 14
African Families Faced with NICT: Stakes and Effect on Inter-Individual and Intergenerational
Relation ............................................................................................................................................... 245
Honoré Mimche, IFORD-University of Yaounde II, Cameroon
Norbert Tohnain Lengha, CNE-Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation, Yaounde,
Cameroon
In Africa, family structures are today committed or involved in the dynamics of social transforma-
tion which jeopardize their mode of constitution their future, the sustenance of intergenerational and
individual relationships as well as the traditional systems of social relationships based on direct and
personal communication. This chapter is a sociological analysis of the future of the family through its
relationship with NICT notably the Internet and the cellular telephone. The analyses lay emphasizes on
the consequences of NICTs on the modalities for the constitution of marriage covenants, family relation-
ships and intergenerational transfers.
Chapter 15
Gender and Technology: Mind The Gap! ........................................................................................... 256
Michela Cozza, Department of Sociology and Social Research, Faculty of Sociology,
University of Trento, Italy
In this chapter the mutual shaping of the technology and gender is analyzed in relation to the phenomenon
of gender digital divide. The discussion starts with the re-construction of the theoretical background,
shedding light on different analytical approaches to technological development. The gender blind per-
spective of mainstream technology studies is uncovered; looking at theoretical contributes of feminist
and gender studies. This positioning is aimed to consider the cultural and material aspects involved in the
digital gender gap. The chapter leads to a general conclusion: it is of utmost importance that researchers,
decision-makers and professionals in Information Technology field take into account that all spheres
inhabited by human beings are inevitably gendered. The gender mainstreaming approach may inform
the construction of a gender-aware research agenda and the identification of the following transforma-
tive actions. The synergy among researchers, practitioners and decision-makers at political and business
level is crucial for a gender-sensitive and sustainable development.
Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 275
About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 310
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 317

xiv
Foreword
SuStainable Development anD organizational CommuniCation:

iCtS for mobility – Some refleCtionS for global reSilienCe
Since the presentation of the World Commission on Environment and Development report Our Common
Future, ‘sustainable development’ has become an area of practical, theoretical and political importance
(WCED - World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). How we should live in order not
to endanger the possibilities of future generations is a crucial question, not only important for economic
and environmental reasons, but also for ethical reasons. And even though there are many different politi-
cal opinions regarding the implications, there seems to be a broad agreement about the importance of the
question.
So far, most of the attention to ‘sustainable development’ has been given to issues regarding economy
and the natural environment, which of course is good. Social or cultural aspects of ‘sustainable develop-
ment’ that have been studied concern many different aspects such as the distribution of economic and
material resources (i.e. welfare issues from a global perspective); the way we interact on a workplace or
between suppliers on a global supply-chain; how crucial studies and knowledge in language and culture
are to a sustainable development (Packalén, 2010); or public health issues, both regionally and globally
(Rosling et al, 2006). To me, an important way of approaching social aspects of ‘sustainable development’
is to talk about values, confronting yourself and others with what is important in life, for humanity and for
you personally. To me as a privileged citizen of a materially wealthy Western country, a good and respect-
ful dialogue is an important cornerstone for understanding the culture and life circumstances of people
in other parts of the world than the privileged West and thereby become and stay connected with those in
less materially wealthy countries.
The question raised in this book, how organizational communication can be understood from a sustain-
ability perspective when ICTs are involved, is new and interesting. What does the good conversation of two
people sitting in the same room have to do with ICTs? We know that ICTs have involved great possibilities
and led to improvements in organizational life, for instance the added possibility of staying connected in
real time with people around the world without having to travel so much physically. We know today that
we travel more despite such ICT advances, that such technologies still promise more than they can deliver,
and that they have had not only positive effects. Instead, ICTs seem to have increased our exchange with
people, making us travel even more. It has also affected our communication patterns – today we seem quite
careless with what we write, how much we write and to whom we send our e-mail messages, which is a
huge difference compared to the ‘art’ of writing letters by hand, only fifteen years ago.
And even though technology is constantly improving, the ‘killer application’ is yet to come, because
there always seem to be a bug in the technologies we use, turning our hopes to despair when not having
enough knowledge of how to fix it. The greening of the ICT-industry has only begun, and there is still a
xv
long way to go before we have solutions to problems regarding energy and the scarcity of raw material
used in for example computers.
Google is maybe the most prominent and largest service provider on the Internet and I think it may serve
as a good illustration of why the topic of this book, how organizational communication can be understood
from a sustainability perspective when ICTs are involved, is important. (Google has company, however,
by Microsoft, Apple, Yahoo!, the search engine of Ask and many more.)
As one of the dominant factories of the information age, the server and computing halls of Google con-
sume much more electricity than the industrial brick-and-mortar factories of the early 20th century. In The
Dalles, a city at the Columbia River in the north of the US state of Oregon, there used to be an aluminium
plant that was heavy on its electricity consumption. This plant is shut down, but just next doors two fac-
tory halls, as big as soccer fields, have recently been raised for Google. In each hall, several thousands of
servers work 24/7 to provide us with YouTube videos, weather forecasts, daily news or photos of friends
and family, but also to enable business transactions of money transfers, contacts throughout value chains,
or the route planning of planes in the air. Each server hosts many processors that use as much energy as a
fast hot plate. (Another astonishing figure is that a ‘life’ on Second Life is said to use as much energy as
an average person in real life in Brazil…). Estimations name about 3 million server halls in use worldwide
that is increasing exponentially through the social networking of people. Early 2008, 65 million users were
part of the digital meeting point of Facebook, more than 200 million traded on eBay, and 280 million had
e-mail accounts in Hotmail alone (Rohwetter, 2008).
Processors, servers and server halls need to be cooled, and air-conditioning work hard to keep them at low
working temperature. When planes are flying into or leaving Silicon Valley airports, around the headquarters
of Google in Mountain View, Yahoo! in Sunnyvale and Apple in Cupertino, it is well known that they feel
bumps when flying over the hot air of the air-conditioning parts of server halls of these corporations.
The effect of this increase of digital transactions through ICTs is an electricity use that equals the emis-
sion of greenhouse gases by the global air traffic; that also equals the electricity production of Vattenfall,
one of the dominant electricity producing companies in the world. This has made the ICT industry aware of
their environmental burden and initiatives for sustainable development appear; one example is that Green
IT has become an important aspect of the yearly CeBit, the world’s largest trade fair showcase for ICT
solutions for home and work environments; another example is the Climate Savers Computing Initiative
that by 2010 wants to half the electricity use of computers.1
So far, the illustration of electricity-consuming server halls of Google and the like has linked the ICT
industry to sustainable development, but what about organizational communication? Well, many of these
corporations are stuck in managerial incentives programmes that focus on economic dimensions only. While
Chief Information Officers (CIO) are developing server halls, their electricity costs are more often than not
identified as indirect costs of building or maintenance managers. CIOs thus prefer cheaper rather than green
servers low on electricity use. Also, green thinking has yet to become part of the agenda of CIOs. Internet
business cases have to rethink their environmental burden and take more responsibility for sustainable
development and the way ICT can help reducing the environmental load and reaching global resilience2.
Thus, the agenda of sustainable development and corporate social responsibility (Dobers, 2009a; Dobers,
2009b) should clearly become part of management and organizational communication.
In order to find answers to these pressing questions, the international community of academia, business,
politics, administrations and the big volunteer corps must work together, taking shared responsibility in
thinking, communicating and acting. Areas of ‘sustainable development’, ‘organizational communication’
and ‘ICTs’ have an advantage since they all are transdisciplinary in character. This means that they build
not only on interdisciplinary theoretical grounds and on many different knowledge interests (Dobers et al,
2001), but that they encompass a number of practical fields, having the possibilities of drawing from all
of these. In fact, the responsibility for solving the problems within each area – as well as within the area
at their intersection – is a common responsibility.
xvi
So is ICT the answer to a more sustainable world? Does ICTs improve organizational communication from
a social, cultural, environmental and economic perspective? The three areas that this book aims at bringing
together – ‘Sustainable development’, ‘Organizational communication’and ‘ICTs’– are three interesting and
rapidly expanding fields of scientific inquiry, and their intersection provides several challenging questions,
both for scholars and practitioners. The three fields share a common interest for normative claims, which
can be explained with the fact that they more or less are driven by the common vision to solve problems;
globally as well as locally. Since the three areas draw from a wide range of fields, scholars sometimes find
it difficult to find room in the established scientific community. This is why publications like this book are
important; they bring together scholars and practitioners from various fields, building a common ground
that is necessary if we are to succeed in creating a fair, just and sustainable development.
Peter Dobers
School of Sustainable Development of Society and Technology
Mälardalen University, Sweden
Peter Dobers has an interest in how ideas of corporate (social) responsibility, guided tours, broadband, city images or sustain-
able development travel the world, and are enabled or disabled. He holds a chair in management and sustainable development
at Mälardalen University and is currently associate dean of the Faculty for Humanities, Social and Caring Sciences. He has
also been visiting professor at Umeå School of Business and Economics in the years of 2006-2008. Dobers has published
widely in areas such as corporate (social) responsibility, sustainable development, urban studies and modern information and
communication technology and is frequently commissioned as guest speaker by industry and municipalities.
referenCeS
Dobers, P (ed.) 2009a. Corporate social responsibility. Challenges and practices. Santérus Academic
Press Sweden: Stockholm.
Dobers, P. 2009b. Corporate social responsibility. Management and methods. Corporate Social Respon-
sibility and Environmental Management 16(4).
Dobers, P, Strannegård, L and Wolff, R. 2001. Knowledge interests in corporate environmental manage-
ment. Business Strategy and the Environment 10(6): pp. 335-343.
Packalén, S. 2010. Culture and sustainability. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental
Management 17(2).
Rohwetter, M, “Digitaler Hunger”, Die Zeit, No. 10, 2008, pp. 21.
Rosling, H, Lindstrand, A, Bergström, S, Rubenson, B and Stenson, B. 2006. Global health. An intro-
ductory textbook. Studentlitteratur: Lund.
WCED - World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. Our common future. Oxford
University Press: Oxford.
enDnoteS
1
http://www.climatesaverscomputing.org
2
For the concept of ‘resilience’, see for instance the Stockholm Resilience Center at www.stockholmresilience.
org
xvii
Preface
In this book, three different but converging processes are investigated; sustainable development, glo-
balization and technical development. Each process is complicated and multi-faceted, but here, their
mutual interaction, effects and possibilities have gained attention and interest.
“Sustainable development” are words of honor in many settings today, due to the world-wide debate
on how we shall lead our lives and form our societies so that the generations to come have good pos-
sibilities of leading their lives. According to the classic definition in the so called “Brundtland-report”,
sustainable development involves economic, environmental as well as social consideration, and in the
report, social sustainability is defined as the building of long term, stable and dynamic societies where
basic human needs are fulfilled, but where local and regional values, traditions and actions are acknowl-
edged and respected at the same time1. And in a time that has witnessed and to a large extent embraced
a rapid development of technologies that in some cases seem to threaten these very basic ideas of social
and cultural society, there is a pressing need to dig deeper into how technology – or rather ICTs - is
related to social and cultural sustainability. Moreover, due to the process of globalization, where the
mobility of people, goods and ideas is a general feature, this is a relevant issue world-wide and therefore
this book will explore this question by, as previously described, going into the heart of human activities:
communication.
This book is thus about the use, effects, potentials and limitations of new technology for information
and communication in social settings such as private corporations, organizations, the web, societies and
families. The overall aim of the book is to develop an understanding of how the different perspectives of
sustainable development, globalization and technical development interact, through managerial as well as
general human actions, and which measures can be taken to secure sustainable development. This means
that this book, rather than answering the overall question of how mobility can meet sustainability in
contemporary organizational communication, discusses and highlights different aspects of the issue.
As will become obvious to the reader, the book contains a variety of perspectives, from different parts
of the world, different theoretical fields as well as different approaches. Thus, the book is to be seen as
a patch work in the word’s most positive sense, which rather than being the ultimate collection building
a coherent theory, brings together a collage of texts on the theme. In this book, different perspectives on
organizational communication and sustainable development are displayed, indicating how the central
concepts of “organizational communication”, “sustainable development” and “ICTs for mobility” can
and are interpreted in a variety of ways.
themeS anD ChallengeS
Reading the chapters, it becomes clear that there is a realm of concepts associated with “sustainable
development”, such as “Corporate Social Responsibility”, “sustainable construction”, “green strate-
xviii
gies”, “sustainability tools” and “philanthropy” which reflect the wide spread of the sustainability idea
into different theoretical and practical settings. It is clear that “sustainable development” as a concept
is political, in the sense that there are several related concepts, framing the basic concept differently. At
the same time, the chapters in this book also show that sustainable development is not merely a ques-
tion of rhetoric – the book contains several examples of actions undertaken, aiming at creating a better
world for future generations.
Also, it becomes clear that there are more similarities than differences in the usage of ICTs inde-
pendent of the social setting. Most organizations and corporations use Internet, E-mail, Intranet, digital
communities, mobile phones etc – ICTs is a global phenomenon. The variety of information and com-
munication tools and strategies is limited and the arguments for using ICTs are often similar independent
on the setting – often cost- and time efficiency as well as environmental-arguments are used. However,
several authors in the book also draws our attention to the down sides of using ICTs, such as informa-
tion overload and the problems of decisions being made from a distance, with little or no knowledge
and awareness of local effects. Is that sustainable communication?
StruCture of the book
There are of course several ways of structuring a book with chapters of such broad scope. We have chosen
a thematic structure including four themes: Sustainable Development, Communicating Sustainability,
Sustainable Communication and Critical Perspectives. In each section there are chapters ranging from
basic research to case descriptions and more visionary texts. Our hope is that by putting the texts together
this way, the reading will evoke new insights as well as new, fruitful questions.
The first theme, Sustainable Development, contains chapters about how ICTs can contribute to the
work with and for sustainable development in organizations on local, regional, national and international
levels. Here, Per Andersson, Susanne Sweet and Christopher Rosenqvist have contributed with a chapter
about how the spread and use of mobile phones and wireless services impact the business and develop-
ment in developing countries. The authors introduce the concept of value, a concept they argue is of
increasing importance but difficult to define or measure. They elaborate on a conceptual framework that
addresses some contemporary issues of the new emerging, wireless world such as: the ‘value’ created
by new wireless applications. The chapter provides an interesting discussion of the value of mobility
for economic sustainability.
In the following chapter, Aleksandra Djukic and Vesna Tomic discuss how ICTs can be used in the
development of a country that has an unequal distribution of population which, the authors argue, is a
sustainability issue since the rapid urbanization leads to the emptying of certain regions, and thus the
overthrow and challenge of local values and traditions which instead might help build the country. The
case they explore is Serbia, but according to the authors all SEE-countries (South Eastern Europe) share
the same challenge today.
The next chapter takes us from the national level to the city level. Here, Özge Yalciner Ercoskun
provides a thorough overview of the ‘eco-tech city’ concept and an evaluation of the use of ICTs in cities
with the aim of exploring the potential ways of creating sustainable cities. The chapter argues that in this
development, urban planners as well as policy makers must take an active role in incorporating ICTs for
the construction of sustainable communities, in order to avoid dehumanized communication.
Ercoskun’s chapter is followed by a chapter which illustrates how the work with creating the sustain-
able city can be carried out in practice. Written by Martin Kreeb, Georg Dold and Hans-Dietrich Haasis,
the chapter reports on the ECORadar-Shakti, which is an interactive internet portal aimed at helping
xix
and motivating managers of small- and middle sized companies in Hyperbad, India, to work more with
sustainability issues. This chapter, being an in-depth description of the project, highlights the problems
and success factors of these kinds of initiatives.
Communicating Sustainability is the theme for the second section, which includes chapters that all
deals with the possibilities and problems of communicating sustainability, with or without ICTs. The
section begins with the chapter by Arun Sahay who sketches the development of how businesses have
gone from being philanthropic to corporate social responsible as the CSR-activities of the firm have been
aligned with the business strategies of the firm. This way, Sahay shows how sustainability are much older
than the concepts we use to denote these kinds of activities today, but how “CSR” and similar concepts
have forced companies to adopt these ideas into their ordinary activities and into their strategies in order
to be able to communicate them externally.
The chapter written by Cecilia Mark-Herbert and Jonas Rorarius looks at different tools that are used
for assessing organizational sustainability. By evaluating the tools according to the framework proposed
here, the authors conclude that the different tools are geared differently – some put larger emphasis on
economic sustainability, or environmental sustainability, for example – an insight which is important,
not only for those interested in selecting evaluation tools for organizational sustainability, but for orga-
nizations’ possibilities of communicating sustainability to external audiences.
Elke Perl-Vorbach’s chapter takes an interorganizational approach to the communication of sustain-
ability. Based on an empirical survey of 138 Austrian companies, she draws the conclusion that compa-
nies are surprisingly unaware of the advantages of interorganizational cooperation regarding reaching
sustainability. This indicates a need both of more research, as well as the dissemination of this knowledge
from academia to practitioners.
Sustainable communication is the book’s third theme. Here, the chapters discuss communication
from a social and cultural sustainability, departing from case studies in companies, projects as well as
businesses of various kinds.
Anders Klitmøller and Jakob Lauring depart from a qualitative study of a number of knowledge
intensive companies and suggest that multi-cultural and multilingual firms are faced with certain chal-
lenges in the attempt to fruitfully utilize the diverse background of their workforce. They argue that
native languages are used strategically by the employees to create social boundaries within the firm and
that even though the introduction of English as cooperate language might solve some communication
issues, it tends to render the communication less nuanced, thereby reducing the innovative potential
within the firm. According to Klitmøller and Lauring ICT does not necessarily solve communication
problems within a given company but may instead be used as a social ‘tool’ to uphold social boundaries
and fragmentation. It is suggested that it is necessary to expand the notion of performance to include
the collectivity of the workplace.
In their chapter Maria Adenfelt and Katarina Hamberg Lagerström provides a better understanding of
the management and organization of global development projects (GDP) with focus on communication
and coordination. The study is based on a GDP developing and implementing a common IT-system open
for local market adaptations. The authors elaborate on the duality of what was actually communicated
to the project members and what actually were the intentions from management. Adenfelt and Hamberg
Lagerström show that the duality had negative effects on the project outcome. Thus, communication
was not to be understood as contributing to social sustainability.
In the next chapter Mattias Jacobsson, Anneli Linde and Henrik Linderoth elaborate on challenges
in the construction sector in Sweden. Based on several empirical studies of the construction sector the
authors discuss challenges that relate to the construction sector becoming more sustainable. The focus
of this chapter is the area of environmental management and its relations to communication and infor-
mation practise in construction companies.
xx
The authors Per Forsberg and Mikael Lind focus on family-run businesses when illustrating the
challenges of ensuring and sustaining cultural competitiveness in family-run businesses in a globalised
world where control and management tend to be made at a distance. The authors argue that family-
run businesses have a special culture that makes them good at creating and taking part in innovative
networks – a culture that is threatened by the implementation of ICTs for controlling and governing at
a distance. As a solution to this problem the authors suggest that new technologies of communication
have the potential to strengthen the ability to create innovative networks.
Greger Henriksson and Minna Räsänen take a sustainability perspective on travelling. They base
their chapter on the assumption that keeping the number and length of business and commuting trips
at reasonable levels could contribute to reaching targets of environmental sustainability. The chapter
shed light on variation in the use of travel and communications on an individual level in work life and
provide some examples of ways in which ICTs may lead to improvements.
The section called Critical perspectives gathers chapters of various kinds raising issues stemming
from neglect of all dimensions of the communication process; cultural specificities as well as gender
problems when it comes to implementing and using ICTs.
In his chapter, Marco Tortora uses geography of communication as a theoretical framework to un-
derstand the issue of organizational communication. After illustrating the framework with an example
from Tuscany, Italy, Tortora provides a brief empirical example – also from Tuscany – which points to
the difficulties that can arise in the geography of communication due to a mismatch between the local
and the regional level. If organizational communication is to be sustainable, argues Tortora, all aspects
of the geography of communication must be taken into account; i.e. it is not sufficient only to build in-
frastructure, for example for ICTs, those that are to use it must become involved so that the infrastructure
is filled with relevant content.
Honoré Mimche and Norbert Tohnain Lengha’s chapter takes us to Africa, and discusses the impact
of new information and communication technologies (NICTs) on the organization of the family. Despite
its advantages, Mimche and Lengha points to the problems of NICTs when it comes to upholding cultural
traditions regarding family matters, which can be discussed from a cultural sustainability-perspective.
To what extent should we allow the new technologies change our societies is the overall question that
this chapter evokes.
The final chapter in this section, written by Michaela Cozza looks at technology from a gender perspec-
tive. There is, argues Cozza, a gender digital divide, which is understudied, due to “gender blindness”.
This affects the way we perceive new technology, and Cozza’s conclusion is that even though there have
been attempts to deal with it, the big question still remains: “how is technology gendered”?
target auDienCe
As should be clear from the brief description of the different chapters above, this book encompasses
chapters discussing the issue of organizational communication, sustainable development and ICTs both
theoretically and practically, and our hope is that this book will be beneficial to a range of different read-
ers; scholars and practitioners, managers and others working in organizations interested in a deeper un-
derstanding of the area of sustainable development, as well as politicians and government authorities.
xxi
finally…
The world is always changing – that is what we call development. During the one year long process
of editing this book, the word has changed immensely. Financial systems have broken down, there is
a worldwide depression and many people have lost their savings and their jobs. This has of course an
impact on the three processes we set out studying in the book: sustainable development, globalization
and technical development. The conditions for corporations, organizations and individuals to fulfill
their goals and dreams and to develop new and more sustainable ways to communicate have changed.
However, the question of how how mobility can meet sustainability in contemporary organizational
communication is still highly pressing. What are the advantages of ICTs? Which are its negative aspects?
Which problems are solved and which are created?
This book is a timely contribution to researchers, politicians, students and decision makers with a fresh
and thought provoking discussion on ICTs in relation to sustainable development and communication,
an area of growing importance. This way, our hope is that the book will not only provide answers, but
stimulate new questions and studies regarding the cross roads of sustainable development, globalization
and technical development.
enDnote
1
WCED - World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. Our common future. Oxford
University Press: Oxford.
xxii
Acknowledgment
We have both been working as ass. Professors at the Department of Industrial Management at The Royal
Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden for several years. Our research has focused on the areas
of organization studies, industrial management, project management and communication as well as the
managing and organizing of cities. During the last couple of years, our interest in the area of sustainable
development has grown and we have attended interesting national and international conferences linking
organizational research with sustainable development research. This book can be understood as our way
of further establishing such a linkage. We have also written texts on CSR and organizations, for example
“Managing Death – Corporate Social Responsibility and Tragedy” in Corporate Social Responsibility
and Environmental Management (2009; 16:4).
Apparently, we are not the only ones who finds the connection between organizational studies
and sustainable development interesting, in fact, the response to our call for chapters to this book was
overwhelming, not only in number of submitted abstracts, but in the variety of fields and perspectives
which were and are represented by the authors of the call. The cross-section of ”Organizational com-
munication”, ”Sustainable Development” and ”ICTs for mobility” is obviously interested for many,
both theoretically and practically. This means that the task of editing this book has involved several
challenges. However, we have had great help by all the reviewers in the double-blind review process.
Our deepest gratitude to all of you:
Sven Antvik, Tech. Lic. Joakim Lilliesköld, Ph.D.

Henrikke Bauman, Ph.D. Monica Lindgren, Ph.D.
Fredrik Barcheus, Ph.D. Kent Thoren, Ph.D.
Henrik Blomgren, Ph.D. Kristina Palm, Ph.D.
Pär Blomkvist, Ph.D. Thomas Westin, Ph.D.
Mats Engwall, Professor Nina Wormbs, Ph.D.
Claes Gustafsson, Professor Adrian Ratkic, Ph.D.
Anna Jerbrant, Tech. Lic. David Sköld, Ph.D.
Nina Kivinen, Ph.D. May-Britt Öhman, Ph.D.
Fredrik Lagergren, Ph.D.
Anette Hallin & Tina Karrbom Gustavsson

Stockholm, May 2009
Section 1
1
Chapter 1
ICTs for Business
Enterprise Mobility:
Mobile Communications, Mobility and
the Creation of Sustainable Value
Per Andersson
Centre for Information and Communication Research (CIC), Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden
Susanne Sweet
Christopher Rosenqvist
abStraCt
This chapter puts focus on and relates to three central concepts “sustainability”, “mobility”, and “cus-
tomer value”. The results from two long-term lines of research and two research programs are combined
in the chapter. The first focuses on the effects of the use of new wireless communication and information
on organizations in terms of changed “mobility” of people and artifacts within and between organiza-
tions. The second research area addressed is that of social and environmental enterprise and business.
The chapter has the aim and ambition to contribute to a conceptual discussion on sustainability, mobility,
and value. Based on the discussion, the chapter presents a set of propositions to help advance research
in this relatively new research field. Short empirical examples are presented, followed by a concluding
discussion and a set of propositions for further research.
the value of mobility between increased mobility of business enterprises

for SuStainability? and citizens in developing countries and economic
development of these countries? In addition, if
How can the spread and use of mobile phones and we extend the scope, how can enterprise mobility
wireless services impact business and development support issues of environmental sustainability and
in poor and developing countries? Is there a link corporate social responsibility? The problem can
also be phrased in theoretical terms: what relation,
if any, is there between mobility, including the
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch001
Copyright © 2010, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
ICTs for Business Enterprise Mobility
value of mobility, and sustainability (in broad on business at the “base of the pyramid”, BoP (c.f.
terms)? The business magazine Forbes (11 Aug Prahalad & Hart, 2002; Prahalad, 2005, Kandachar
2008) reports a London Business School study & Halme, 2008).
that states that every time 10 more people out of
100 start using mobiles, GDP growth rises a half aim and Structure of the Chapter
percentage point (p.75).
In this chapter, we approach this and similar The chapter has the aim and ambition to contribute
observations, but from a business (and user/con- to a conceptual discussion. Following the back-
sumer) perspective, looking at the way business ground we elaborate on three central concepts:
processes supported by wireless information and sustainability, mobility, and value. Based on this
communication technologies (ICTs) can affect discussion, the aim is also to present a set of propo-
and support sustainability and corporate social sitions to help advance research in this relatively
responsibility. In “business processes” we include new research field. Short empirical examples are
both the entrepreneurial SME, Small and Medium presented, followed in the concluding discussion
size enterprise, type of business that we can find in by a set of propositions for further research.
developing countries, and the activities of foreign
multinational corporations, MNCs in such regions. two basic assumptions
When talking about environmental sustainability
we also extend the geographical scope outside of This chapter advances two propositions. Firstly,
the developing regions of the world. the conceptual framework presented assumes
This chapter puts focus on and relates to three that ‘value’ created by wireless technologies
central concepts “sustainability”, “mobility”, and and applications that enhance ‘mobility’ can be
(customer) “value”. The results from two long- connected to ‘sustainability’. Organizations’ and
term lines of research and two research programs consumers’ ‘mobility problems’, i.e. basically
are combined in the chapter. The first focuses on information and communication needs that can be
the effects of the use of new wireless (in combina- partly solved by the use of wireless solutions, vary.
tion with wire line) communications and informa- Individual consumers in the same segment and
tion on organizations in terms of changed work enterprise customers in the same industry or ‘user
operations, changed modes of organizing, and environment’ will value different solutions to their
changed business development. – or decreased problems differently. The extent to which a mobile
– “mobility” of people and artifacts within and solution solves a customer’s communication and
between organizations. The second research area information problem(s) is partly a measure of its
addressed is that of social and environmental en- value to the customer. The chapter attempts to link
terprise and business. This research is focusing on user value associated with wireless technology to
sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibil- various aspects of sustainability.
ity (CSR) and addresses the move towards more Secondly, linking user value of wireless so-
ethical, environmental and social sustainability in lutions requires understanding that individual
production and consumption. The discussion in suppliers cannot (and most often do not) create
this chapter connects both to the general research mobile solutions and value in isolation. Value
studies on sustainability and corporate responsibil- from mobility solutions can only be created in
ity conducted at SuRe1 and to the recently started constellations of cooperating actors, in various
project that address sustainability and innovation ‘value constellations’ using terms of Normann
in poor and emerging markets. The latter research and Ramirez (1993). To make this linkage clear
project connects to an emerging line of research we adopt a systemic perspective, connecting to
2
the systems theory tradition by Churchman (1968) and Indonesian suppliers’ factories. Several hu-
and others, later developed into more network like, man rights and labor organizations protested and
systemic approaches (e.g. Håkansson 1982, Axels- focused on getting Nike to take-on increased re-
son and Easton 1992, Håkansson and Snehota sponsibility in their supply chain. Nike responded
1995). The systemic, network approach assumes to the pressure and in a speech in 1998 Nike CEO
that both suppliers and customers – for example Mr. Knight specified Nike’s policy on working
users of mobile solutions – are interconnected in conditions in its supplier factories, including health
both stable and changing constellations and we link and safety standards, introducing a minimum age
these dynamic constellations to sustainability. for workers, inclusion of NGOs to help monitor-
ing factories and make the information publicly
available. In an attempt to regain public trust,
SuStainability anD mobility: Nike also installed on-line real time cameras in
introDuCtory exampleS selected factories that were accessible from Nike’s
web site making it possible for anyone to view the
Empirical examples of how mobility affects conditions in the factories. Nike used connectivity
sustainability often focus on transportation and technology to both monitor and make transparent
climate issues connected to mobility: communica- its actions regarding social issues of importance to
tion via phones, web, web cameras, etc. are more its stakeholders. The Nike example made available
often discussed as a way of reducing the need for information, in real-time, while reducing the need
mobility and thus actual travel, in connection to for stakeholders and others to travel and monitor
both business activity and commuting. Addition- for themselves. This type of ‘mobility solution’ can
ally, connectivity offered by ICT solutions can be extended to the monitoring of environmental
lift awareness and impact opinion formation, problems or habitats that could be difficult or
information sharing and action regarding social expensive for humans to reach and monitor. For
and environmental problems. example, using a combination of ICT monitoring
Widespread globalization of production and technology to prevent poachers of endangered
consumption brings into focus the need and species or to measure and send important health
benefits to monitoring and sharing information data of remote eco-systems.
regarding the affects of global production and When the link between mobile communica-
consumption, and via technologies of connectivity tions and sustainability are discussed we see a
significant networks of civil society organizations dominance of empirical examples taking the per-
have been built and continue to increase in their spective of companies of the Western developed
influence regarding sustainability agenda-building world marketing mobile systems and services to
and action. Mobile phones, satellite connections developing countries. Infrastructure system sup-
and Internet all play a role in diffusing knowl- pliers and mobile network operators are typically
edge fast about abuses of human rights, working in focus. The underlying idea is that developing
conditions, environmental damage etc. Similar countries often will take the leap directly into
examples often form the empirical foundations wireless communications, jumping over the step
when mobility and (environmental) sustainability of wire line telephone communications. The fact
are discussed. that this business also can have effects on small-
A short empirical illustration on Nike can serve scale business, on business communications, and
as introduction. In the mid- and late 1990s Nike business entrepreneurship are most often treated
was reported on in media as supporting poor and as indirect. For the global, mobile telephony
unethical working conditions in its Vietnamese suppliers and operators it is primarily a question
3
of market expansion, while the effects on e.g. ment and Use Mobile Solutions – Studies of the
business communications and development in the Enterprise Market for Wireless Services and
local countries are secondary, mainly treated as Applications, which was organized as a broad,
long-term effects and marketing arguments. long-term research program of user oriented,
However, there are exceptions where Western business development studies. In total, enterprise
based firms see the diffusion of mobile com- users in 20 industrial sectors were covered in the
munications and the emergence of sustainable program, with one or several cases in each sector.
development as the primary business. In two of The aim in all cases was to start with the “user
our empirical illustrations we will give examples environment”, i.e. to select a wide variety of en-
of this. Furthermore, we believe that we also need terprise settings to be able to compare different
to direct our focus primarily on the ways in which organizational circumstances and settings in which
mobile communications affect aspects of sustain- the new wireless technologies were implemented.
ability within and between small business firms General differences and similarities concerning
in developing countries, starting in the economic user settings and logics, communication pat-
sustainability effects, but including also the socio- terns, implementation problems, purchasing and
political and environmental sustainability effects. procurement procedures, and more were studied.
One of the empirical examples is a case of a locally The project applied a number of different methods
developed ICT solution in and for the people in to study product development, implementation
a developing country. New systems and services and use processes. Qualitative, ethnographic ap-
for intra- and inter-organizational communication proaches were in focus of data collections. Other
in local small business contexts in developing studies in the overall research program built on a
countries will have varying effects on different broad set of secondary sources. Andersson et al
dimensions of sustainability. Our chapter suggests (2007), reported on a three-year project focusing
a framework for studying such interdependencies primarily on enterprise users of wireless informa-
and causalities. tion and communication applications. The overall
research question guiding the project and studies
of mobility-in-use in organizations was: How are
baCkgrounD StuDieS new mobile technologies implemented and used
anD noteS on methoD in different types of enterprise contexts? The
focus on “How”-questions signals an explorative
Methodologically, this study draws both on focus with the aim to develop knowledge on how
secondary sources, building on results from pre- different types of organizations adopt, integrate,
vious studies, and on a set of new, preliminary and use new wireless solutions. Focus was on the
studies of mobile systems in complex enterprise effects on enterprise organization internal and
contexts, described below. Important input to external communication patterns, work practices,
this study comes from two previous studies. Our organizing processes, knowledge processes, and
discussion builds on a set of long-term research processes of business development, when imple-
projects and programs. The chapter combines menting new mobile solutions.
1) conceptual and empirical studies on mobile The second set of studies relates to a new line
communications (mainly in developed business- of research in the field of business administration
world settings), with 2) previous and ongoing that suggests market-based activities and solutions
sustainability research. aiming at poverty alleviation and market develop-
The first set of background studies includes ment by addressing and serving the needs of the
a research project, entitled Organizations Imple- poor, conceptualized as the Base of the Pyramid,
4
BoP2. Base of the Pyramid refers to the 4 billion to small business in developing countries; MyC4
people who live on less than $ 2/day (Kandachar & that via a web-platform service connects investors
Halme, 2008) and whose needs go largely unmet. with small entrepreneurs in Africa; and WIZZIT
Some of the interest in this approach stems from – a mobile banking service for the un-banked in
a recognition that aid and charity based solutions South Africa.
have failed to alleviate poverty and that the income Next, we elaborate on each of our three central
gap between the rich and the poor has continued concepts in focus: sustainability, mobility and
to widen in spite of international governmental value, followed by combining them in a discus-
developing efforts and corporate social respon- sion.
sibility programs.
The basic idea behind the approach is that
the private sector can contribute to poverty SuStainability
alleviation through entrepreneurial activities
that address needs of the people that live at the Sustainability
BoP, by 1) viewing these groups as groups of
people making-up viable markets and therefore What do we mean by sustainability in this con-
creating offerings that are based on their needs, text? The field of sustainable development can be
and 2) by enhancing innovation at the BoP that conceptually broken into three constituent parts:
will contribute to increased economic activity. environmental, economic and socio-political
Since Prahalad and Hart (2002) introduced the sustainability:
BoP-concept the research field has advanced There are many definitions of the concept.
and several researchers are now also addressing One of the most cited stems from the UN Com-
issues of ecological sustainability in relation to mission (UN, 1987): “Sustainable development
BoP-strategies. Potential problems of increased is development that meets the needs of the pres-
energy consumption and resource depletion, in ent without compromising the ability of future
the wake of increased consumption of 4 billion generations to meet their own needs”. It contains
people, as well as the relation between poverty, two key concepts:
dependence and vulnerability with respect to
eco-systems and natural resources, are emerging • The concept of ‘needs’, in particular the es-
areas of interest to researchers. In particular the sential needs of the world’s poor, to which
relation between BoP-strategies and social and overriding priority should be given; and
environmental impacts is not well investigated • The idea of limitations imposed by the
which calls for increased research. state of technology and social organization
The empirical examples that we have used in on the environment’s ability to meet pres-
this chapter to illustrate our conceptual discussion, ent and future needs.
are cases collected from different studies of CSR
and BoP in connection to the diffusion of informa- United Nations Division for Sustainable
tion and communication technologies. We have Development lists a very large number of areas
used examples that are using ICT technologies to as coming within the scope of sustainable de-
solve challenges at the Base of the Pyramid and velopment.3 Some research activities start from
that illustrate mobility and sustainability issues, this definition to argue that the environment is a
connecting social with economic development. combination of nature and culture. The Network
The three illustrative examples we use are Digicel of Excellence “Sustainable Development in a
– a mobile telephone operator who creates value Diverse World”, sponsored by the European
5
Figure 1. The concept of sustainable development (retrieved from Wikipedia, 2009)
Union, integrates multidisciplinary capacities pation as key, interdependent building blocks to

and interprets cultural diversity as a key element help countries achieve development. It has been
of a new strategy for sustainable development. argued, ”in sustainable development everyone is
Still other researchers view environmental and a user and provider of information. It stresses the
social challenges as opportunities for development need to change from old sector-centered ways of
action. This is particularly true in the concept of doing business to new approaches that involve
sustainable enterprise that frames these global cross-sectoral co-ordination and the integration
needs as “opportunities for private enterprise of environmental and social concerns into all
to provide innovative and entrepreneurial solu- development processes. Furthermore, Agenda
tions.” The Universal Declaration on Cultural 21 emphasizes that broad public participation in
Diversity (UNESCO, 2001) further elaborates decision making is a fundamental prerequisite
the concept by stating that “...cultural diversity for achieving sustainable development” (UN
is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity 2008).
is for nature”; it becomes “one of the roots of In addition to the governmental sector, new
development understood not simply in terms of approaches in the field of business has also
economic growth, but also as a means to achieve emerged that stress the importance of the role of
a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral the market and the consumer to solve poverty and
and spiritual existence”. As argued, in this vision, other global challenges. One of the fastest grow-
cultural diversity is the fourth policy area of sus- ing fields of research and practice approaches is
tainable development. called BoP, Base of the Pyramid. BoP refers to the
approximately 4 billion lowest income people who
Dimensions of economic earn less than $2.5/day (Hart & Prahalad, 2002).
Sustainability Prahalad and Hart argue that this vast market is
highly ignored, both in terms of their needs but
Central to the focus of this chapter is one of also as a potential profitable market. In the process
the three dimensions described, i.e. economic of entering and tapping poor or emerging markets,
sustainability. In connection to this, Agenda 21 innovations of products and services emerge as
identified information, integration, and partici- well as new partnerships between different sec-
6
tors that allegedly improve the economic, social and organizations’ strategic decision to increase
and environmental status of such market (c.f. organizational mobility with the help of new in-
Prahalad, 2004). A number of business cases and formation and communication technologies there
anecdotal data exist that show promise on such are often several different objectives. Among the
approach. For example the Danish company MyC4 most important effects and points forwarded by
(described below) which offers an online Web- companies are6:
based credit system linking investors with small
business enterprises in BoP-markets, connecting • Increased work flexibility through in-
the North with the South. creased mobility
As these multiple dimensions of development • Improved internal coordination and commu-
have been taken into account by governments, nication through mobile communications
agencies and other organizations, we have seen • Improved and changed customer services
a different language emerging in development through use of mobile solutions
papers and reports. The World Bank defines • Changes in the internal organizational
participation as ‘a process through which stake- structures and processes through new
holders influence and share control over develop- solutions
ment initiatives and the decisions and resources • Changes in the inter-personal communica-
which affect them’, and talks about the need to tion within organizations
‘empower’ the poor - helping them move from • Changes in security and control through
being ‘beneficiaries’ to ‘clients’ (World Bank new mobile solutions
1996). The United Nations Development Pro- • General improved operational efficiency
gram (UNDP) used the term ‘sustainable human and productivity with the new mobile
development’ to describe a human-centeredness solution
of sustainable development (UNDP 1996). The
ability of people to exercise meaningful choices In most companies, several of these factors
for their own benefit and that of society is said are mentioned when asked about the content of
to be at the heart of the initiatives to strengthen mobility, which suggests a multidimensional view
community resilience and community adaptation of the concept. When asked about the purpose of
in the face of global environmental change and mobility, three parts of the organizational systems
other sustainability issues.4 are generally referred to:
In this chapter we will include all three sus-
tainability dimensions described above: environ- • Increased mobility as a way to increase
mental sustainability, economic sustainability the internal efficiency of the buyer
and socio-political sustainability. As we focus on organization
aspects of economic sustainability, information, • Increased mobility as a way to increase
integration, and participation will be adopted as efficiency in the buyer’s exchanges with
important, interdependent building blocks. customers
• Increased mobility as a way to increase the
value creation towards and effectiveness in
mobility5 in general anD relation to the users’ own customers
enterpriSe mobility
Being able to access a user organizations’
Next we address our second area of focus, information system in an efficient way e.g.
mobility. Behind developed world companies’ through mobile phones or terminals is important
7
when considering mobility solutions. From an forces, in their movements in space and time. The
empirical point of view, it is difficult to separate mobility concept is not easy to catch and is closely
mobility from connectivity and accessibility. It is related to the philosophical discussion on time and
often argued that the major aim when implement- space and configured in place and space (See for
ing new integrated mobile systems is increased example Casey 1993, 1997, Tuan 1977).
connectivity in the first place, and mobility The grand question about mobility and time
would be a consequence of this. For example, and space has also been discussed and scrutinized
field representatives in both manufacturing and by social scientists on a concrete level, frequently
service companies who were equipped with new for more pragmatic ambitions. One such strategy
systems that linked them via mobile telephony to to highlight the concept of mobility is to discuss
the company’s information data bases and fixed it in terms of where different communication
telephony system, saw it as a major advantage solutions are used. Kristoffersen and Ljungberg
to be connected. In other words, they could be (1999; 2000), for example, distinguish between
connected to information sources if they should different work forces using IT in different situ-
need it, wherever they were situated. Successively, ations: while wandering, visiting or traveling.
when learning to use this connectivity, it could In their studies of mobile workers, Kakihara
also affect the representatives’ mode of using and and Sörensen (2004) argued mobility could be
changing their mobility, in the way they moved understood better when analyzed along three
in time and space. Hence, increased mobility, via dimensions: locational mobility (concerned with
increased connectivity and accessibility, as a way workers’ geographical movement), operational
to increase the internal efficiency of an organiza- mobility (concerned with workers’ capability for
tion, would successively lead to increased mobil- flexible operation), and interactional mobility
ity. This would be a way to increase efficiency (associated with mobile workers’ intensive and
in the users’ exchanges with their customers, and fluid interaction with a wide range of people).
subsequently, to mobility as a way to increase Another mobility distinction is made by Luff &
the value creation and effectiveness in relation Heath (1998). Their often quoted paper makes a
to their customers. distinction between micro-mobility, local mobil-
The concept “mobility” entails other compli- ity and remote mobility, where the last denotes
cations. Implementation of “mobility” solutions the situation when geographically separated
could mean that certain organizational functions people interact through the use of technology.
in fact would become more “stationary”, when Weilenmann (2003) distinguishes between the
other functions were made more mobile, and vice mobility of individuals, mobility of the setting,
versa. Studies pointed to several issues that made mobility of technologies/artifacts, and mobility
the concept sometimes misleading. Concerning the of information.
interdependence between “mobile” and “station- In line with e.g. Weilenmann, several authors
ary” aspects of “mobility solutions”, mobility in criticize the narrow use of the mobility concept
use could not be discussed and analyzed without when looking at work forces as “only” dealing with
including its opposite. In fact, in many customer aspects of remoteness from a specific geographi-
studies, the increased mobility of some parts of the cal location (aspects of “space”) or dependency
user organization was based on the fact that other issues (power). Instead they propose to highlight
parts could be made more stationary. One of the the dynamism of work as such. Kakihara and
changes anticipated or actually seen in organiza- Sörensen (2004) argue along this line:
tions when new wireless technologies have been
implemented is a shift in the “mobility” of work
8
For example, the concept is typically used in such is created and changed over time.8 It is possible
forms as ‘mobile technology’, ‘mobile office’, and to distinguish between two forms of value: value
‘mobile work’…. All of these usages of ‘mobile’ of the products/offerings and value of the actual
refer to some sense of geographical movement or relationship between the buyer and the seller (e.g.
remoteness from a certain fixed point or location. of a mobile solution). Following different sugges-
…However, such usage of the concept ignores tions for value analyses9, three important areas
another important aspect of the original meaning, for understanding value are, for example, how
referring to transformation or motion of objects, value analysis is realized by customers, how value
states, conditions, or structures. (p. 183-84) analysis can be brought into the development of
offerings, and how value actually is delivered in
Summing up, there is a growing literature various value constellations to customers. Hence,
on “mobility” in social science, focusing on the the creation and consumption of value involves
dimensions of the concept as such, focusing on more than only a single supplier and a single cus-
its relevance in economic, enterprise contexts tomer, but most often several “stakeholders”.10 In
where different work processes are in focus, and addition, when offerings are seen in the context of
focusing on shifts and changes in mobility as an long-term supplier-customer relations, customer
effect of the introduction of wireless technologies value becomes dynamic. Value is created and
and applications. Some of this will be connected exchanged over time in a series of transactions.
to our sustainability focus and developing country What does the concept of value mean in the
contexts as we present the three cases. But first, context of wireless offerings for enterprise users,
we comment on the customer value concept and and dimensions of sustainability? It is proposed
the value of mobility. that we need a “wider” perspective on value.
Firstly, this wider perspective includes a stronger
emphasis on the fact that groups of actors together
the value of mobility create value for users/customers, and others.
Normann and Ramirez (1993) describe such net-
Mobile devices and services can create new value works of connected, value creating actors as value
for users, e.g. for enterprise users. Researchers constellations. Secondly, when analyzing value
and practitioners have increasingly discussed the creation from mobile offerings, we need a dynamic
notion of value.7 However, there is little agreement perspective on value and value creation.
in the literature on what constitutes “value” and Much literature on customer value has focused
“customer value” (Payne and Holt 2001). Value on the value of use, i.e. it is directly related to
and value creation processes have been viewed the consumption event (Payne and Holt 2001).
from the perspective of the individual consumer, Some scholars have emphasized the situation of
from the perspective of organizations’ internal use as the context during which parties interact
value creation processes and value creation toward (Chen and Nath 2004). Woodruff and Gardial
customers, and, increasingly, also from an inter- (1996) suggested that consumers could gain value
active perspective including both organizations just by owning a product. Research on customer
and customers. And as stated by Lindgreen and value can contribute an understanding for how
Wynstra (2005), although value is an increasingly individuals experience e.g. benefits and sacrifices
relevant concept, many enterprises cannot define of mobile offerings in different user contexts.
value or measure it. Important for mobile services and applications
Relatively little is known about what new value is that technical, temporal and spatial value di-
that is created from mobile offerings, and how it mensions can be perceived as important parts of
9
Table 1. Mobility dimensions
“Locational mobility” “Operational mobility” “Interactional mobility”
customers’ perceived value of services (Heinonen here is the economic sustainability and the three
2004). It can be assumed that an important part dimensions described identified in Agenda 21:
of the “new” customer value created in the use information, integration, and participation as
of new wireless applications concern aspects of important, interdependent building blocks to help
time and location. countries achieve economic development and
As stated by Lindgreen and Wynstra (2004), sustainability (Figure 2).
although value is an increasingly relevant concept, Information implies that everyone is a user
many enterprises cannot define value or measure and provider of information. Integration implies
it, for example what value that is associated with the presence of cross-sectoral coordination and
various aspects of “sustainability”. (See also the integration of social and environmental
Paavilainen 2001). Relatively little is known concerns. Participation, lastly, implies public
about what new value in terms of sustainability participation in decision-making. Although all
that is created by wireless information and com- three are important, it can be anticipated that
munication technologies, mobile offerings, how in a commercial enterprise context, economic
it is created and how it changes over time. Next, sustainability is more openly connected to the
we combine some of our conceptual discussion first two (information and integration) while the
above on sustainability, mobility and value. third, participation, is more strongly connected
to sociopolitical sustainability. However, we can
also anticipate that “participation in decision
DiSCuSSion: the value of making” can also be transferred to the more
mobility for eConomiC private, enterprise sphere: taking part in the
SuStainability daily “decision making” that is part of enter-
prise life, will be strongly connected to aspects
So, how can we approach the connections and in- of information exchange and integration within
terdependencies between sustainability, mobility and between enterprises.
and value? Building on the introductory conceptual In line with the discussion on sustainability,
overview above, we can choose to take the starting we can choose to delimit the mobility aspects to
point in the three generally accepted dimensions three dimensions (Kakihara and Sörensen, 2004)
of sustainability: sociopolitical, environmental (Table 1).
and economic sustainability. With our empirical The value of changes in mobility (affecting
focus on “mobile solutions” (i.e. wireless ICTs) sustainability) can in general terms be technical,
used in “enterprise contexts”, our starting point spatial and temporal (Heinonen 2004) and effect
Table 2. Value dimensions and economic effects
Value dimensions “Technical value” “Spatial value” “Temporal value”

Economic effects “Efficiency” “Effectiveness” “Innovation”
10
three central economic aspects: efficiency, ef- Next, we bring up three empirical illustrations.
fectiveness and innovation (Table 2). Our starting point in the conceptual framework
This gives us a conceptual framework to discuss is the creation of economic sustainability, with a
empirical examples linked to the area of wireless particular focus on the use of mobile solutions in
communications and their links to aspects of sus- business enterprises. In our final discussion, we
tainability. The starting point being that like the extend it to the other dimensions and concepts
three central concepts (sustainability, mobility, described.
value) this is multifaceted area, and understanding
some of the interdependencies between our main
variables is part of the aim of this chapter. empiriCal illuStrationS
How can we anticipate these dimensions to
be connected to dimensions of organizational example 1. Digicel and the Creation
communication, here in a developing country of new temporal and Spatial values11
setting?
Mobile operator Digicel has built a powerful
• Firstly, based on our previous studies of in- position as supplier of wireless services and
tra- and inter-organizational effects of in- phones in the poverty stricken part of the world.
creased use of mobile communications, we During a few years time the company has built a
can anticipate also in developing countries, position in over 27 countries (2008), dominating
important effects on economic sustainabil- the position in a dozen of these, mainly poverty
ity, mainly as a direct effect of changed stricken, developing countries. In addition, the
integration. Changed opportunities for operator is targeting seventeen more countries in
inter-organizational communication e.g. the developing world. Forbes describes some of
between more or less local “buyers” and the effects of Digicel’s operations: “In a speech,
“sellers”, less dependent on time and space the treasury minister (of Papua New Guinea)
(i.e. increased spatial and temporal value) noted that 0.7 percentage points of 6.2% GDP
could lead to more frequent and regular growth had come from cell phone “competition”.
communication leading to increased inte- The country’s biggest paper ran a story about the
grations, and hence more stable and effi- boost, with Digicel in the headline. Perhaps letting
cient business interaction. people peddle phones is one of the best things a
• Secondly, it can be anticipated that the poor country can do to spur growth. One reason:
increased use of mobile communications Entrepreneurs use mobiles to work around the
between small business firms – where the long delays, crumbling infrastructure and count-
boundaries between private and business less little Third World frustrations that cut into
communication can be expected to be less opportunities. Haitian merchant Jean Maurice
clear – will through the increased oppor- Buteau exports 150.000 more mangoes a year now
tunities for information exchange – spill because his truck drivers can call when stranded
over on participation in connected societal on a rutted road with a broken axle or shot spring,
(private) processes, increasing the oppor- and fruit rotting in the back. Samoan fisherman
tunities for participation and changed so- Finau Afitu earns 80 dollars a week, four times
ciopolitical sustainability. In short, people his pre-Digicel pay, because he can check which
have the opportunity to keep better in- markets want his fish by phone instead of walk-
formed both on business and private/social ing to each one while they go bad. ‘My kids can
matters. buy lunch at school now’, he says. According to
11
a London Business School study, every time 10 The presence of cross-sectoral coordination is also
more people out of 100 start using mobiles GDP indicated, for example in case example two.
growth rises a half percentage point – something
Digicel is helping a dozen countries achieve two example 2. myC4. internet platform
or three times over (p.75). The article argues, for investments to promote
“…indeed, it’s hard to overstate the impact cell entrepreneurship and fight poverty
phones are having on poor citizens. Fittler Larsen,
an impoverished betel nut seller in a PNG squat- Mads Kjaer, former CEO of Kjaer Group A/S
ter settlement of 20.000, is making more money and with extensive experience from the African
now that he can call wholesalers to check if new continent, and Tim Vang, a Danish entrepreneur,
shipments have arrived. ‘I used to spend half a started MyC4 in May 2006, inspired by the
day getting supplies’ says the 19-year-old…now Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. Building on their
I can stay here and sell more’…” capabilities and visions they set out to create a
The introductory case on the telecom opera- web based investment platform that linked in-
tor Digicel indicates three short examples of how dividual small business and entrepreneurship in
their introduction of mobile communications has Africa with individual investors, primarily from
changed the business operations of three small the North. The formation of the company and the
enterprises in developing countries. Firstly, the design of the idea linked Tim’s capabilities as an
Haitian merchant Jean Maurice Buteau exports IT-platform builder and a successful entrepreneur
150.000 more mangoes a year now because his with Mads’African knowledge and insights about
truck drivers can call when stranded on a rutted the needs of capital for the poor. The vision is
road with a broken axle or shot spring, and fruit that MyC4 via the Internet could be an important
rotting in the back. Secondly, the Samoan fisherman tool to raise and give access to capital for African
Finau Afitu earns 80 dollars a week, four times his entrepreneurs and in so doing creating sustainable
pre-Digicel pay, because he can now check which prosperity fighting to end extreme poverty. MyC4
markets want his fish by phone instead of walking to has also received grants from the Danish Aid
each one while they go bad. Thirdly, Fittler Larsen, Agency for developing the platform. The platform
the impoverished betel nut seller in a PNG squatter is a meeting arena for individual investors and
settlement, is making more money now that he can individual entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurs are
call wholesalers to check if new shipments have screened for economic sustainability and have to
arrived, staying where he is and still sell instead of fulfill several criteria to be included on the web
spending half a day getting supplies. The first and platform. Most importantly they have to show a
the third example indicate an increased (logistical) history of economic sustainability, which excludes
efficiency from the use of mobile communications. new companies/entrepreneurs from this service.
The third example also shows that a decreased As an investor you can screen the entrepreneurs
spatial, locational mobility – the betel nut seller can and, if you find a business you want to invest in,
actually stay in the same place – thereby increas- you offer to loan a specified amount to a, of you
ing the possibility to re-distribute his use of the specified, interest rate. As an entrepreneur you
time send on various business activities. The three specify your capital need and by the end of the
examples also indicate some potential effects on “bid” period you can review the offers and make
economic sustainability in terms of both informa- a decision on which one to accept or not.
tion exchange and integration (between business This case shows how an innovation has
sectors). The three entrepreneurs in the examples increased and simplified connections between
become both users and providers of information. borrowers of small loans, small business, and
12
investors, thus creating both technical and spatial cal bank branches covering the country as well
value. This solution also overcomes the so-called offering services to the less attractive lower end
poverty penalty, the phenomenon that the poor of the market called for new models for offering
often have to pay more for product and services services to the un- and under-banked people in
than the affluent. This is commonly connected to South Africa. Associated to the lack of geographi-
the informality of the economy in poor regions. cal access to banking services in South Africa,
If there is no access to banking services for the was the issue that a majority of the employed
poor, moneylenders in the informal sector offer- population are migrant workers who to a large
ing loans to very large interest might be the only extent transfer money by informal and expensive
option available, i.e., the availability of affordable means to family and friends back to their home
capital to develop small business is influencing community. Usually they have no other means
social-political sustainability as well as overcom- than using taxi or bus drivers, that could cost
ing spatial and social distances. The informational up to 25% of the value of the money transferred
value for both the investor in finding attractive (Richardson & Callegari, 2008).
investment objects, and for the lending entre- One of the additional challenges to not having
preneur in comparing offerings from investors a bank account in South Africa was that salary
is one of MyC4 platform’s great advantages. In payments had to be administered in cash. With a
addition, the effectiveness and efficiency in over- high crime rate and an increasing problem with
coming relational transaction costs is prevalent armed robberies and muggings, carrying cash
in this case. The decreased spatial mobility also became an everyday risk for people.
creates environmental sustainable value since it To solve these challenges a group consisting
diminishes transportation, as well as social value of two entrepreneurs and a leading South African
connecting investments to the underserved. politician were looking for other methods than cash
payments for the unbanked in South Africa. In 2005
example 3. Wizzit: mobile banking they formed WIZZIT that offered a full-service
for the poor in South africa12 mobile phone based banking facility, unrestricted
by various networks, type of SIM cards or age of
Access to banking services is a global concern, mobile phone. WIZZIT have arrangements with
with only 1 out of 6.5 billion people of the world three business partners, a division of the South Af-
population having a bank account (Richardson rican Bank of Athens Ltd, one of the major banks in
& Callegari, 2008), with the majority of people South Africa, and the post office to enable deposits
located in developing countries. This lack of ac- for their customers. WIZZIT also is an accredited
cess will have large implications for their ability to issuer of MasterCard’s Maestro debit cards that use
transact effectively as economic citizens, workers mobile phone technology as a payment channel.
and consumers. This solution offers a new, affordable and an easy
In South Africa about 50% of the adult popu- access way of cash-less transactional account using
lation lack access to banking services, in spite no fixed fees but use a ‘pay-as-you-use’ model.
of post-apartheid reforms to give the previous The fee is per transaction ranging from US$0.13
marginalized black majority access and benefit to max US$0.67 and requires no minimum balance
from all parts of the economy. After the fall of to open. The banking services can be performed
apartheid the banks continued offering services 24 hours a day and all days of the week using the
to the more affluent part of the population as well mobile telephone. The transactions are done over
as not offering services in all parts of the country. the mobile phone, but the account holders do not
The high costs associated with providing physi- even have to own their phone, it is sufficient with
13
the SIM card, available to very low cost, that can between people and banking services, several
be inserted in any mobile telephone. Common is benefits can be seen. The previously un-bankable
to have one shared handset for a household. are given access to banking services without
In addition to the un- and under-banked cus- long travel as well a decreasing transaction costs
tomers, a key strategy is to offer a growing sector in transferring money to relatives, thus creating
of small- and medium sized business affordable spatial and economic value. Using the services
banking services, also connecting it to safer pay- makes it possible to have savings that can be
ment practices for employees, reducing the risks the starting point for credit, and further develop-
of robbery. This payroll system service is called ment. It also gives employment opportunities for
iWIZZ. This have created less risks and over entrepreneurs in distributing the solutions on the
time it has also changed the workers habits from local level, thus helping to establish economic
carrying and spending all of the salary to saving sustainability to individuals and households. In
some on the account. addition, similar to the MyC4 case, WIZZIT gives
The WIZZIT can also be used in selected stores availability to capital as well as to services that
for payments (at POS, Point of Sales). WIZZIT can help small business, influencing the social-
do not have branches but use independent field political sustainability as well as overcoming
agents, WIZZkids, who promote the product and spatial and social distances.
help unbanked customers open accounts. WIZ- Lastly, the effectiveness and efficiency in
Zkids are recruited among WIZZIT’s clients and overcoming transportation and transaction costs is
are trained and certified by WIZZIT, in 2007 more prevalent in this case. The decreased spatial mobil-
than 3000 had been certified. WIZZkids are earn- ity creates environmental sustainable value since
ing a commission on each sale and are working it diminishes transportation as well as social value
in their local area that creates closeness to the connecting banking services to the un-banked and
customers. It is required by South African law to the underserved.
be able to identify the customer, why WIZZkids
become a key doing so and connect to proof of
income and residential address. propoSitionS anD impliCationS
The WIZZkid forms a relational link between for SuStainability anD
WIZZIT and the customer that complements the ChangeD CommuniCation
mobile phone service that perform the actual
transactions. This system also creates jobs and To summarize the conceptual discussion and ideas
provides education and financial literacy for a from the short empirical illustrations above, we end
large proportion of the South African people the paper with a set of propositional statements.
previously ignored or excluded from banking Our standpoint is that the research area we are
services. The value model is based on bringing approaching in this chapter is fairly new and still
affordable services and social value to a previously undeveloped and is in need of both conceptual
neglected part of the market and slowly building work and deeper empirical investigations. The aim
business value through adding more customers of our concluding discussion and propositions is to
and services to the established ones. indicate potentially productive avenues for future
This case shows how connecting communi- research. Our empirical illustrations are short; we
cation technologies with standard services that will rely also on our conceptual framework and
address needs that previously were ignored, can explorative thinking, and also prior empirical expe-
create innovation that has yet to be introduced riences, when we elaborate on 3 final propositions.
in developed world. By increasing connectivity The three propositions take the three dimensions of
14
sustainability (economic, sociopolitical and envi- or diffuse, leading to important spillover effects.
ronmental) as starting point, connecting them to the Hence, through changes in interactional mobility
other dimensions of the conceptual framework: based on shifts in information and integration,
Proposition 1. The opportunities and willing- there will be important links between economic
ness to explore effectiveness effects and innovative- and sociopolitical sustainability enabled by the
ness in the use of wireless communications is high new mobile communications.
in developing countries, leading to positive effects Proposition 3. The opportunities to explore
on economic sustainability. Several empirical economic sustainability through wireless com-
examples of the use of wireless communications munications can contribute to balance the direct
in various developing world contexts (e.g. in and indirect effects on the use of natural resources
connection with small enterprise business opera- and on the impact on the natural environment
tions) seem to indicate a high degree of (business) in developing countries, leading to effects on
innovativeness in the actual use and employment the environmental sustainability. In general
of the new technologies. This increased economic increased economic development will increase
sustainability is in several cases connected to consumption that will have a negative effect on
processes of improved and radically new patterns environment. Also increased production and in-
of information exchange, sometimes leading to novation will have a negative effect on the use of
increased integration between actors, i.e., new natural resources and will create environmental
interactional mobility. In economic terms, this pollution. The use of wireless communications
innovativeness in the use processes of new tech- can have an influence on both consumption and
nologies seems to be linked to the exploration of production and therefore lead to negative effects
new patterns of business interactions. Hence, the on environmental sustainability. On the other hand
technical value for the users of the new wireless our examples show that wireless communication
technologies and applications is often high, having through its capacity to create spatial value can
effects on business development and subsequently contribute to replacing or reducing transportation
on economic sustainability. There are also indica- needs as well as be used to monitor the health
tions that in certain areas (e.g. mobile banking) of natural habitats and eco-systems in remote
this innovativeness in the developing world could areas. The use of ICTs can also lead to increased
benefit the advancement of similar technologies information exchange that can support promotion
and applications in the developed world. and diffusion of knowledge of protection of the
Proposition 2. The opportunities to explore natural environment.
economic sustainability through wireless com- Hence, the increased use of wireless commu-
munications can be an important starting point nications can contribute to a negative effect on
and driver for improved information exchange environmental sustainability, but also mediate or
and integration between professional and private balance the general negative impact on environ-
lives among users, in turn leading to effects on ment with increased economic development.
sociopolitical sustainability. Several empirical
examples indicate that the introduction of mobile
communications among small business users in ConCluDing WorDS
developing countries have important spillover
and integration effects on other parts of the users’ We set out to explore, mainly conceptually the link
private and sociopolitical lives. The boundary between dimensions of (organizational) mobile
between the private and public spheres in the ac- communications and dimensions of economic sus-
tual use of mobile communications is very weak tainability. However, we can anticipate – both from
15
a theoretical and an empirical point of view – that Chen, L., & Nath, R. (2004). A framework for
intra-and inter-organizational effects of changed mobile business applications. International Jour-
potential for communication will be linked also nal of Mobile Communications, 2(4), 368–381.
to other aspects of sustainability, to socio-political doi:10.1504/IJMC.2004.005857
sustainability in the first step, but also to various
Håkansson, H. (Ed.). (1982). International Mar-
dimensions of environmental sustainability. We
keting and Purchasing of Industrial Goods - An
have explored mainly the use of ICTs in the setting
Interaction Approach. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
of developing countries where currently several
ICT solutions are explored to increase mobility Håkansson, H., & Snehota, I. (1995). Develop-
and contribute to reduction of economic poverty. ing Relationships in Business Networks. London:
We can see opportunities of economic and socio- Routledge.
political value-creation on the organizational and
Heinonen, K. (2004). Reconceptualizing customer
individual level using ICT solutions developed
perceived value – the value of time and place.
with the needs of the poor in focus.
Managing Service Quality, 14(2/3), 205–215.
However, on the societal level we can also
doi:10.1108/09604520410528626
anticipate possible negative environmental impact
that must be considered when introducing mobile Kakihara, M., & Sörensen, C. (2004). Mobile
communication solutions. We therefore believe it Urban Professionals in Tokyo. Info, 6.
is of importance to further research on the con-
Kandachar, P., & Halme, M. (Eds.). (2008). Sus-
nection between mobility and sustainability that
tainability Challenges and Solutions at the Base of
can offer insights and models for how business
the Pyramid. Business, Technology and the Poor.
approaches and technological solutions can offer
London: Greenleaf Publishing Ltd.
solutions to societal problems such as poverty and
environmental degradation. Kristoffersen, S., & Ljungberg, F. (1999). Mobile
use of IT. In Proceedings of the 22nd Informa-
tion Systems Research Seminar in Scandinavia,
referenCeS IRIS 22.
Andersson, P., Essler, U., & Thorngren, B. (2007). Kristoffersen, S., & Ljungberg, F. (2000). Mobil-
Beyond Mobility. Lund: Studentlitteratur ity: From Stationary to Mobile Work. In K. Braa,
C. Sorenssen, & B. Dahlbom (eds.) Planet Internet.
Axelsson, B., & Easton, G. (Eds.). (1992). Indus- Lund, Sweden: Studentlitteratur.
trial Networks - A New View of Reality. London:
Routledge. Lindgreen, A., & Wynstra, F. (2005). Value in
business markets: What do we know? Where
Casey, E. (1993). Getting back into place: toward are we going? Industrial Marketing Manage-
a renewed understanding of the place-world. ment, 34(7), 732–748. doi:10.1016/j.indmar-
Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press man.2005.01.001
Casey, E. (1997). The fate of place: a philosophical Luff, P., & Heath, C. (1998). Mobility in collabora-
history. Berkeley, CA: University of California tion. In Proceedings of the 1998 ACM conference
Press. on Computer supported cooperative work. Seattle,
Washington.
16
Norman, R., & Ramirez, R. (1993). From Value Wikipedia (2009). Sustainable Development. Re-
Chain to Value Constellation: Designing Interac- trieved April 30, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.
tive Strategy. Harvard Business Review, 65–77. org/wiki/Sustainable_development
Paavilainen, J. (2001). Mobile Business Strategies. Woodruff, R. B., & Gardial, S. F. (1996). Know
Understanding the technologies and opportuni- Your Customer: New Approaches to Understand-
ties. London: Addison-Wesley. ing Customer Value and Satisfaction. Cambridge,
MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Payne, A., & Holt, S. (2001). Diagnosing Customer
Value: Integrating the Value Process and Relation-
ship Marketing. British Journal of Management,
12(2), 159–182. doi:10.1111/1467-8551.00192 enDnoteS
Prahalad, C. K. (2005). The Fortune at the Bot- 1
Sustainability Research Group
tom of the Pyramid, eradicating poverty through 2
Base of the Pyramid was initially called Bot-
profits. Boston: Wharton School Publishing. tom of the Pyramid (e.g. Prahalad & Hart,
Prahalad, C.K. & Hart, S. (2002). The Fortune at 2002).
3
the Bottom of the Pyramid. Strategy + Business, Agriculture, Atmosphere, Biodiversity,
(January). Biotechnology, Capacity-building, Climate
Change, Consumption and Production Pat-
Richardson, B., & Callegari, N. (2008). WIZZIT. terns, Demographics, Desertification and
Mobile banking for the poor in South Africa. In Drought, Disaster Reduction and Manage-
Kandachar, P. & M. Halme (Eds) Sustainability ment, Education and Awareness, Energy,
Challenges and Solutions at the Base of the Pyra- Finance, Forests, Fresh Water, Health,
mid: business, technology and the poor. London: Human Settlements, Indicators, Industry,
Greenleaf Publishing Ltd. Information for Decision Making and
Tuan, Y.-F. (1977). Space and place: the perspec- Participation, Integrated Decision Making,
tive of experience. Minneapolis, MN: University International Law, International Coopera-
of Minnesota Press. tion for Enabling Environment, Institutional
Arrangements, Land management, Major
UN (1987). Report of the World Commission on Groups, Mountains, National Sustainable
Environment and Development: Our Common Development Strategies, Oceans and Seas,
Future. Transmitted to the General Assembly as Poverty, Sanitation, Science, SIDS, Sustain-
an Annex to document A/42/427 - Development able tourism, Technology, Toxic Chemicals,
and International Co-operation: Environment. Trade and Environment, Transport, Waste
UN (2008). Overview of progress towards sustain- (Hazardous), Waste (Radioactive), Waste
able development: a review of the implementa- (Solid), Water
4
tion of Agenda 21. Programme for the Further http://translate.google.com/
Implementation of Agenda 21 and the Johan- translate?hl=sv&sl=en&u=http://www.
nesburg Plan of Implementation. Report of the wikipedia.org/&sa=X&oi=translate&resn
Secretary-General E/CN.17/2008/2 um=3&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3D
wikipedia%26hl%3Dsv%26client%3Dsaf
Weilenmann, A. (2003). Doing Mobility. PhD The- ari%26rls%3Dsv-se
sis, Gothenburg Studies in Informatics, Report 28, 5
This and the next section on value builds on
Gothenburg, Sweden: Gothenburg University. two existing texts: 1) Andersson et al (eds),
17
8
Beyond Mobility, Lund: Studentlitteratur, A promising framework for discussing
2007, and 2) a chapter text in a manuscript: such values is presented by Chen & Nath
Andersson et al, ”Mobile Organizations” (2004).
9
(forthcoming EFI, Stockholm School of Lindgreen & Wynstra (2005)
10
Economics) Payne and Holt, 2001
6 11
Building on the research project ”Mobile Fortune 11 Aug 2008, pp. 72-77
12
Organizations” Based on the case WIZZIT described in
7
For reviews of the concept see Payne and Richardson and Callegari (2008).
Holt, 2001; Khalifa, 2004.
18
19
Chapter 2
ICT Instruments as Possible
Support for the Equal
Distribution of Population
Aleksandra Djukic
Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Vesna Tomic
Ski resorts of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
abStraCt
Unequal city development, namely the faster development of large centers and concentration of power,
globalization and local specificities in certain locations, have caused a lack of balance between large
city centers and smaller settlements and villages. In Serbia, there are major differences in the level of
development, as well as in cultural features of settlements. There are significant economic differences
between settlements in the north, the east, and the south of the country, since settlements developed in
valleys and hence had better traffic communication, and could therefore be competitive and stay abreast
of transformations. Smaller settlements and villages (especially those along the borders, in National
parks and in difficult to access rural regions), are marginalized, and face many problems, most often
caused by lack of infrastructure, decrease of the number of inhabitants, the dissolution of the secondary
and tertiary sector. Today, a quarter of the total population lives in the capital city of Belgrade, while a
considerable number of settlements are completely shutting down. These settlements once had their iden-
tity and a harmonious balance of all elements constituting the life of the community and the individual.
A distinctive social aspect contributed to a rich cultural heritage, but over time this was gradually lost
and begins to disappear. The question is if any of the processes (globalization, technological revolution),
which contribute to the demographic and economic decline of rural regions, could form a basis for re-
newal. A classical planner’s approach would imply the networking of settlements and providing equal
population distribution by investing in infrastructure and providing conditions for settlements through
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch002
ICT Instruments as Possible Support for the Equal Distribution of Population
the development of central functions, requiring considerable investments. The other possibility relies on
the development of information and communication technologies (ICT), which could provide for many
necessities: access to and exchange of information, paying bills and ordering products from a distance,
working from home, meetings via Internet conferences, etc. The use of Internet technologies in order to
develop settlements, by converting traditional into “net” technologies, can make up for disadvantages
of life in smaller settlements and enable their revitalization, by networking them into a global net of
settlements, without geographical borders and limits.
introDuCtion scientific theories and insights about life on our

planet and our own life, from consciousness about
Technologies of the industrial, super industrial and the impact on the environment and theories of
postindustrial society, or the ‘’third wave’’ have sustainability, to the discovery of links between our
caused and are still causing simultaneous opposing emotions and neurobiological processes, attempts
assumptions for the future. Technologies that we to scientifically foresee the future development of
are developing are both a tool for progress and economy, settlements and the society have become
a disintegrator for the foundations of living and almost indispensable.
of values that have until now formed the human According to certain theoreticians (Mitchel,
community. 1996; Castels, 1997; Grapham, 1996; Batty, 1996),
Utilization of information and communication development and creation of ICT infrastructures is
technologies (ICT), especially the Internet, is regarded as the basic means to support the com-
becoming an ever more important factor for the munity in order to upgrade its social and economic
development of cities and regions. This devel- development. According to Mitchel, (1996), today,
opment and utilization is a global phenomenon, the overall success of cities can be measured by
which surpasses and neutralizes many cultural, the refinement and spread of implementation
regional and economic differences between geo- of state of the art ICT means, while in modern
graphically distant areas. It contributes to bring business many strategies and business decisions
closer spatially distant areas, to a change of spatial are preconditioned by new technologies and the
formulas, and to generating new forms of settle- need to be integrated into a global information
ments. Accepted and adopted notions about the society. ICT implementation may permit a higher
nature of space, time, distances and lifestyles are level of democratization and citizen participation,
questioned – subjected to our revision (Graham, but will also influence perception and a mixture
Marvin, 1999). of the real and the simulated, the public and the
Processes of globalization are changing econo- private (Grapham and Marvin, 1996). Virillio
mies, the organization of the society, and the life of (2000) interprets changes pessimistically, claiming
each and every individual. People are losing their that humanity is facing a “housebound paranoid
jobs, and becoming asocial. However, new and culture”.
numerous possibilities for work and different social Relevant to global trends, present everywhere
relationships are also opening up for them. to different degrees, local changes have also
During the last 20 - 30 years, which have encompassed the social system, economic and
generated rapid development of important new demographic development, which requires a com-
20
pletely different approach and answers differing The Republic of Serbia has a population of ap-
from those we are accustomed to. proximately 7.5 million. According to the OECD
This chapter will investigate the potential for definition it is a predominantly rural country
taking the additional ‘’step’’ in solving the problem (population density below 150 per km2). Today,
of unequal distribution of population by applying over 50% of the Serbian population lives in cit-
new technologies in the spirit of local traditions ies, while only some 10% works in agriculture.
and values. In our opinion, problems of sustain- Data from 1948 shows that at that time 18% of
able development must today be approached the population lived in cities, and approximately
pragmatically, but with a high level of innovation 75% worked in agriculture.
and creativity when reinterpreting known struc- This significant change of the manufacturing
tures, concepts, values and processes. The case and at the same time also of the demographic
used here, as a starting point for the discussion, is structure, is a consequence of the centralized state
Serbia, a country that has quite a different position administration from after World War II, until the
today compared to 20 years ago. end of the 20th century, based on ideas of social
justice, development of self management, and
the working class as the promoter of political
Development problemS ideas. For this reason, means at the disposal of
in Serbia the state were channeled into developing specific
branches of the economy, primarily industry, and
Demographic trends in Serbia into pronounced construction of socially owned
apartments for workers. The population moved
The process of rural depopulation in Serbia is to cities, where factories were established, and
significant in recent decades and presents one of conditions for economic progress were better.
the very serious problems requiring solutions by The state intensively built apartments in urban
implementing strategies at the highest state level. centers, especially in Belgrade. In the 1970s,
Economy and sociology experts warn that if nothing 44,000 apartments were built annually in Serbia,
is done, in a few years Serbia will be an agricultural in the 1980s approximately 64,000, and in the
country without villages and peasants. Almost 2,000 1990s approximately 18,000. In Belgrade, annual
villages in Serbia have no inhabitants, while 200 construction in 1978 was 12,000 apartments, in
villages have no inhabitants less than 20 years of 1080s the average was 10,000 apartments annu-
age. Some 260,000 men around 50 years of age ally, in 1999, there was 1,000 apartments, and in
who have not formed families live in villages, while the period from 2000 to 2003 the average was
approximately a quarter of the total population lives 2,000-3,000 apartments annually.
in the capital city – Belgrade (The Statistical Office The end of the 20th century brought changes
of the Republic of Serbia, 2002). that would lead to the development of the free
Census data, which will be presented, does not market, when the consequences of the neglected
contain data for Kosovo and Metohia, since the development of rural areas, especially in east-
2002 census was not performed in this territory. ern parts of central Serbia will begin to be felt.
Due to the boycott by the Albanian population, These parts of the country remained far from
the 1991 census was also not fully implemented developed centers, without adequate traffic
in the municipalities of Bujanovac and Preshevo, links, with underdeveloped technical and social
therefore for most settlements in the territory of infrastructure. Many companies were closed in
these municipalities the population was deter- the process of transition, reducing potentials for
mined by an estimate. employment.
21
Figure 1. Municipalities, according to population density (Books of Census 2002. Belgrade, Serbia: The
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. Used with permission.)
According to comparative data of the 1991 Until 1981 the migration balance (ratio be-
and the 2002 census, it can be concluded that tween emigrants and immigrants) in the territory
the process of population reduction was most of Serbia (Central Serbia and Vojvodina) was
pronounced in the eastern part of Central Serbia positive. Between two censuses (1981-1991) the
(Figure 1). In Eastern Serbia, in certain munici- migration balance in Serbia was negative, because
palities as much as 25% of the population are there was less immigration from other parts of
temporarily employed abroad, mostly due to ex-Yugoslavia and more pronounced emigration
economic reasons. Population growth is present of the population ‘’due to the economic and so-
in the north of the country, in Vojvodina, where cial crisis and the intimation of tragic events that
there is a registered negative natural population will take place in this area at the beginning of the
growth, but there is an overall population growth 1990s’’ (Stevanovic, 2006, pg 71).
due to migrations in the territory of the former According to the census of 2002, the share
Yugoslavia (Figure 2). of migrants in the overall population in Serbia
The majority of the population lives in ur- (Kosovo and Metohia excluded) was 45.8%, in
ban centers. Zones with the highest growth of Central Serbia 45.4%, in Vojvodina 46.9%. Also,
population at the beginning of this century are migrants represented over one half (50.9%) of the
the gravitational areas of Belgrade and Novi Sad. population in urban and 39.2% of the population
Population has decreased in 75% of municipalities, in other settlements. The process of depopulation
and in 32 municipalities, i.e. 20%, this decrease of parts of Serbia is very pronounced in certain
was over 10%. areas, mostly in East Serbia. For example, in the
22
Figure 2. Municipalities, according to average annual level of net migration, Period 1991- 2002, (Books
of Census 2002. Belgrade, Serbia: The Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. Used with permis-
sion.)
municipality of Crna Trava, in the 1991-2002 only one pupil. Incomplete schools (only four
period, population decreased by almost a third. grades), and schools with combined classes are
It is not only that villages are left devoid of present in rural, underdeveloped parts of the
population, but also the age and educational country. Incomplete schools in Central Serbia
structure of the remaining population does not on the average have 1.8 classrooms, 25.3 pupils
offer sufficient internal potentials to oppose such and 1.8 teachers. In addition, conditions are not
processes. much more favorable relevant to basic healthcare
Over 20% of the population of extraurban parts and social welfare.
of Serbia is older than 60 years, i.e. 44.32% of ag-
ricultural households are over 50 years of age. Spatial Determinants of rural
These underdeveloped areas have a higher Settlements in Serbia
share of less educated population, since approxi-
mately 90% of the highly educated population, It is very hard to differentiate village settlements
and approximately 70% of the population with from small towns, due to the fact that in both types
high school education lives in cities, while only of settlements a certain percentage of the popula-
28% of the population with high school and tion is active in agricultural production.
university education lives outside urban centers. From the aspect of relations between man and
In some villages elementary schools are being the environment, relations are artificial (without
shut down, and there are registered schools with integration between man and his environment),
23
static and local (no attention is devoted to the A comparison of the 1991 and the 2002 cen-
broader, but only to the immediate environment), sus shows that the presence of utilities in rural
with a very low level of environmental awareness. households (%), has somewhat, but not signifi-
Waters, especially streams, are insufficiently cantly improved, i.e. the level of availability of
regulated, most often used to deposit waste, and waterworks, sewage and electricity went from
are in most cases without any protection. 64.2% to 66.8%.
The majority of undeveloped rural settlements This indicates that the state and the local com-
(Central Serbia) have preserved the authenticity munities did not have economic potentials and
of morphological patterns, of individual construc- interest to invest in infrastructural development
tions as well as urban patterns. Depending on of rural areas, which is a result simultaneously
natural conditions, these settlements are more of the specific morphology of these settlements
or less dispersed, making it hard to determine (low housing density), and of the complex and
the building region, and have very low popula- deteriorating economic situation that Serbia faced
tion densities (1- 3 inhabitants/km2), or are semi during the last decade of 20th century. This made
compact and compact, with more or less visible these areas even less attractive, and presented an
building regions, and with somewhat higher additional stimulus for migrations.
population densities (5-25 inhabitants/km2) (Si-
monovic, 1976). These types if rural settlements economic aspects of negative
are harmonized with the environment and with the Demographic and Spatial
existing authentic manner of ethnic constructions Development trends
(characteristic appearance of constructions, utili-
zation of natural materials with local specificities Geographically, and in a certain sense also ac-
in finishing details). cording to economic development, the territory
The status of constructed physical structures is divided into developed flatlands and valleys
(built during the last fifty years) is chaotic. Most (plains in the north – Vojvodina; in the south the
frequently, building is carried out without approv- broad river valleys of Central Serbia), and the less
als and without adequate planning documentation, developed areas (the hills of Central Serbia, the
with numerous individual housing constructions difficult to access rural regions, zones of national
that are not fully completed. In municipalities with parks, and zones along the state borders).
considerable numbers of the population tempo- The lack of balance in development was par-
rarily working abroad, this population constructs ticularly deleterious for the economy of Serbia
buildings for when they return, most frequently during the last 20 years, because with the decline
oversized, which remain unoccupied for years. of power of urban centers, a phenomenon unavoid-
Buildings designated to provide social standards able at the beginning of economic restructuring,
are in poor condition, are not maintained, and “support” from diversified development of agri-
their functionality and offer often do not fulfill culture and tourism was lacking. In recent years,
the needs of the population. private initiative has partially, even though slowly,
It can be said that from the aspect of infra- made up for this (in agriculture, Serbia has highest
structural equipment they are at a very low level. revenues from sugar, raspberries and corn; and
Numerous villages do not have an adequate traffic efforts are being made to expand production of
structure (they are even cut off from large centers strawberry type fruits, to develop production of
during the winter), and there are still many build- herbs, flower seedlings, etc.).
ings without waterworks and sewage (without Global political changes, processes of global-
indoor toilets). ization, on one hand and the inefficient economy of
24
the country on the other influenced the economic of life, and with their own necessary autonomy,
and social crisis of the 1980s. Subsequent events i.e. responsibilities and initiatives.
in ex-Yugoslavia caused additional economic Even after World War II, the development
deterioration of the then republic, and now the of settlements in Serbia was not sufficiently
independent state of Serbia. channeled toward the autonomy of individual
1993 saw the second largest inflation in his- parts – municipalities and regions, nor was there
tory of 2.35·1023 percent, or 64% daily on the sufficient investments in equal development of
average. settlements. In fact, compared to the level of traffic
According to data of the Ministry of Finance, communications in developed European countries,
Serbian GDP is now approximately five times certain parts of the country can be regarded as cut
higher than in 2000, or one third of the European off from other parts of its territory.
average. Previous data shows how devastating the
events in the 1990s were for the economy and the Sustainable Development:
potential of the country, since it is expected that Comparative advantages,
it will take until 2008 for the average salary to Development of tourism
once more reach 375 euro (which was its value and agriculture
in 1991). The highest GDP is realized in the City
of Belgrade, with the regions in Central Serbia All stated data on economic, demographic and
lagging two- to three-fold (The Statistical Office spatial development indicate that the overall
of the Republic of Serbia, 2002). development of Serbia since the last decade of
These differently developed regions also differ the 20th century is unsustainable. The 2001-2007
culturally and socially, with the highest frequency period brought an accelerated revival of the
of (the still present) local differences and cultural economy. Compared to the preceding period,
clashes during the two most pronounced waves when the structure of generation and utilization of
of migration – after World War II, and during the GDP was disrupted, with a growing domination
disintegration of Yugoslavia. of the primary sector, the neglecting and decline
of industry and stagnation of the services sector,
principles of equal Development the state set new goals in the National Strategy for
Sustainable Development (2008). This document
Today, one of the adopted principles of town is harmonized with local strategies for sustain-
planning is the planning of equal regional able development (2005), social welfare (2005),
development, grounded in good reasons of poverty reduction (2003), development of small
efficiency, economic and social stability, and and medium sized enterprises (2003), agriculture
optimum control of development. Pronounced (2005), tourism (2006), stimulating foreign invest-
differences in development of parts of Serbia, ments (2006), development of information society
resulting in depopulation and unequal economic (2006), and other relevant documents.
development, require targeted national and local One of the more significant priorities of the
policies and initiatives. National Strategy is balanced regional develop-
Those European countries that had uniform ment, implying a reduction of regional inequalities,
development after World War II, today mostly rising of regional competitiveness, stimulating
have a well developed network of connected settle- balanced regional development, and sustainable
ments, with good infrastructure and links, good rural development.
working conditions, satisfying social, healthcare Today, the period of economic stagnation ap-
and other needs regarded as a standard for quality pears as an advantage for Serbia - infrastructure
25
was not developed; industrial production was economically developed countries and go to less
reduced or was not developed. In underdeveloped developed ones, and because today, in addition
rural areas, this contributed to preservation and to the usual vacation services, other products and
protection of the environment, as well as of the values can also be offered as part of an extended
cultural heritage, opening up the possibility for tourist service, additionally increasing the ex-
future development in line with principles of pected income.
sustainability. The economic branch of tourism in Serbia has
According to market demands and their po- significant growth. Foreign currency income from
tentials, local communities in Serbia can offer the tourism in 2007 was 30% higher than in 2006,
following as their unique comparative advantage, amounting to 531.3 million US dollars, with a
as a starting point for sustainable development of surplus of 44 million US dollars.
those regions: The share of foreign guests has grown to ap-
proximately 30%. In 2007 foreign guests realized
• Space/ nature, with autochthon values of 23% more overnight stays than in 2006, with
preserved natural entities, with the poten- highest numbers in the cities of Belgrade and
tial for producing healthy food and other Novi Sad, and in the mountain resorts of Kopaonik
natural products, the potential to use re- and Zlatibor.
newable sources of energy, to develop of- Tourist centers have a better offer of original
fers for active vacations, etc. domestic food products and products of home
• Social aspects – individuals and commu- made crafts, more and more with adequate cer-
nities with a local way of life as the basis tificates, however this form of offer of ecologi-
for vitality, joint work, fulfillment of all cally high quality is still only starting. In addition
social needs, development of individual ‘’ethno villages’’ are also appearing, as specific
and collective creativity/identity; commu- catering facilities offering authentic Serbian rural
nities sharing tasks, exchanging experienc- environments with characteristics reminiscent
es and emotions, and unselfishly offering of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century
assistance; (Figure3, Figure 4).
• Cultural heritage – accessibility of cultural Tourism and accompanying activities have
monuments, archeological and other sights, better potentials for development if they are also
authentic architecture, and traditional local technologically competitive, if they apply modern
customs. technologies, especially the utilization of global
distribution systems and the Internet, as important
Today, underdeveloped, rural regions of factors for promotion and sales of tourist products.
Central Serbia, hilly and mountainous regions, Their utilization would be especially important
national parks and natural reservations can develop for smaller tourist destinations in rural areas of
tourism, agriculture, local crafts, and can make Serbia, because this would enable them to have
an attempt to use this to become competitive on a broad access to the tourism market at a lower
the domestic and the foreign market. cost. Researches show that younger generations
For developing countries, tourism offers good in such areas are interested in new technologies
opportunities, as a branch of the economy that and that they accept the principles of sustainability
still has a good outlook, especially since most (Stupar, 2003).
individuals taking recreational trips come from
26
Figure 3. Rural settlement, Stara planina, eastern part of Serbia (photo by arch. Ana Graovac, 2008.
Used with permission).
iCt There is practically no country without its

own policy for ICT development, and results of
global iCt Development trends the already realized and of projects in realization
offer significant experiences from the aspect of
Today, information and communication technolo- access, techniques, and potential results.
gies are in the development phase, offering tremen- Benefits and advantages of ICT, especially
dous possibilities to the society and the individual, the Internet, for the development of settlements,
with the outlook of becoming a part of our daily are enormous. This pertains to the quality of
life that will fully transform the conducting of regulations, i.e. the “comfort” offered by the legal
business, manufacturing, cultural development, framework controlling utilization of the Internet,
and many other routine relations. and influences the attractiveness of the state for
State of the art ICT are recognized as an im- potential investors in IT, telecommunications
portant development factor, and are the focus of and other multimedia technologies. The manner
interest and activity of many international institu- whereby the use of ICT supplements existing
tions, with themes relevant to their development components of cities reflects the existing social
and implementation present in many international conditions of a country (Narushige, 2000).
documents: Agenda 21, Aarhus Convention, Lis- ICT development projects differ, primarily
bon Strategy 2000 and 2005, and eEurope Action relevant to their base, the level of development
Plan. In its documents, the EU initiates and sup- of the telecommunication system, the presence
ports projects prompting experimentation of cities of ICT users, and the level of development of
relevant to ICT (eEurope 2002, eEurope 2005). the information network. The basic goal is to
27
Figure 4. Traditional household, Stara planina, eastern part of Serbia Serbia (photo by arch. Ana Grao-
vac, 2008. Used with permission).
utilize technological potentials in accordance with research, however in the 2006-2008 period the
principles of sustainable development. The EU National Investment Plan (NIP) will invest 42.8
has its vision of sustainable development within million euro for the development of e-Government
a knowledge-based society (knowledge society), (SCORE project, 2007). Within the NIP, in ad-
operationalized in the Policy of Sustainable De- dition to regular funds, additional investments
velopment until 2030. for science in the 2006- 2011 period, a total of
Today, ICT is developing in several directions 30 million euro, are envisaged, and funds for co
that can roughly be divided into two basic ones: financing technical designing of project proposals
development of ICT foundation – infrastructure for FP7 are also planned in the Budget. However,
(introduction of ICT as an integral part of all public compared to funds invested in developed countries
services and of the economy, better accessibility these are not large funds.
of ICT, development of active data bases), and To understand and define potentials for ap-
scientific research work – future ICT (development plying ICT for development of rural regions, one
of next generation ICT, development of ICT as a should keep in mind the multifunctional character
“constitutive technology” (ISTAG, 2006)). of agriculture, and the diverse range of activities in
Developed countries are investing in ICT rural areas. ICT can in fact offer the required scope
development. USA and Japan are channeling of response and assistance, and additionally speed
30% of the funds for scientific research into ICT up development by offering very diverse services
development, and Europe 18% (ISTAG, 2006). - eGovernance, eCommunities, eCulture, eHealth,
Serbia, on the other hand has no designated funds eBusiness, food safety, knowledge and education –
for ICT development in the budget for scientific distance learning (Serge, Vittuari, Ricci, 2005).
28
Figure 5. Household devices (Adapted from Dr. Dragan Vukmirovic, Kristina Pavlovic, Vladimir Sutic
(edit). (2008). Upotreba informaciono-komunikacionih tehnologija u Republici Srbiji, 2008. Beograd,
Republika Srbija: Republicki zavod za statistiku Srbije).
iCt Development trends in Serbia According to data from 2008, 40.8% of Serbian
households have PCs (in 2006 this was 26.5%). As
The infrastructural basis for ICT development in for other phenomena analyzed in this assay, the
Serbia is constantly improving in recent years. presence of PCs in the urban and in rural regions
Presently, there are three large providers of mo- in Serbia is 47.5% and 31.2%. Even though this
bile telephone services and one provider of fixed difference is considerable, it is encouraging that
telephone services. In the last five years, invest- this gap has decreased relevant to 2007, and that the
ments in this sector were over 1 billion euro. Optic level of growth has almost doubled (Figure 6).
infrastructure was set up, and all large cities were The number of Internet users is also growing
covered. Today, 74.5% of the Serbian population parallel to the growth of the number of PC users,
has mobile phones, and 98.4% of households have however Internet is used to a larger extent by
TV sets (Figure 5). iDVT is a completely new offer higher income households (Figure 7).
and good market response is expected. Relevant to the educational structure, according
In 2006 the Republic Agency for Telecom- to data from 2008, among PC users individuals
munications was formed, and it is expected to with university and higher education dominate
contribute to the development and regulation (57%), followed by high school education (23.7%),
of this sector (Score project, Strengthening of with lowest numbers among individuals with
Strategic Cooperation between the EU and the lower than high school education (19.3%). In
West Balkan Region in ICT Research, Review of recent years there is a trend of growth for users
Research Activities for ICT in Serbia). with high school, higher and university educa-
29
Figure 6. Internet use in households, according to the type of settlement (2006 – 2008). (Adapted from
Dr. Dragan Vukmirovic, Kristina Pavlovic, Vladimir Sutic (edit). (2008). Upotreba informaciono-
komunikacionih tehnologija u Republici Srbiji, 2008. Beograd, Republika Srbija: Republicki zavod za
statistiku Srbije).
Figure 7. Internet use in households, according to the level of income (2008). (Adapted from Dr. Dragan
Vukmirovic, Kristina Pavlovic, Vladimir Sutic (edit). (2008). Upotreba informaciono-komunikacionih teh-
nologija u Republici Srbiji, 2008. Beograd, Republika Srbija: Republicki zavod za statistiku Srbije).
30
Figure 8. PC users according to educational structure (2006-2008). (Adapted from Dr. Dragan Vukmirovic,
Kristina Pavlovic, Vladimir Sutic (edit) (2008). Upotreba informaciono-komunikacionih tehnologija u
Republici Srbiji, 2008. Beograd, Republika Srbija: Republicki zavod za statistiku Srbije).
tion, while the percentage of users with lower fact that they have lower income, a lower level of
levels of education is stagnating. Introduction education structure, and more modest conditions
of PC literacy in the educational system is in its for education. Regardless, 2008 has seen a positive
infancy, although the number of PCs in schools trend of growth of the number of Internet users in
has significantly grown in recent years. In 2003, extra urban environments, as high as 44%.
about 14% of Serbian eighth grade students had the Research of PC use in Serbia implemented by
opportunity to use computers in science teaching the Republic Statistical Bureau in 2008 indicates
(Antonijevic, 2003)(Figure 8). that approximately 98% of companies use comput-
Approximately 1.25 million inhabitants of ers in their operations, and that there have been no
Serbia use the Internet on a daily basis, and ap- significant changes in the last three years. Approxi-
proximately 7% shop via the Internet. Projections mately 92% of companies have Internet access,
for e-Commerce for 2010 are 346 million euro. and of these approximately 69% have websites.
The majority of users (60.4%) use the Internet as In a survey in ICT users and their influence on
a source of information about goods and services, operations, 22.5% of companies states that ICT
and 27% as a source of tourism information. Pres- use significantly contributed to the organization
ently only 12.7% of investigation participants of the work process, 10.7% that this has signifi-
use Internet services for regular administrative cantly helped the development of new products
services, even though this field has had the high- and services, and 9.8% that this has significantly
est investments. contributed to higher company income.
It is clear that rural regions in Central Serbia
have less possibility to develop ICT, due to the
31
State Strategies and programs level of preparation for implementing the system
for iCt Development of applying for such funds.
The Strategy for the Development of Informa-
Together with other SEE countries, in 2002 Serbia tion Society in the Republic of Serbia places con-
signed eEurope projects, undertaking specific siderable emphasis on the development of national
international obligations relevant to ICT develop- research capacities, which is well positioned within
ment and implementation. the context of EU development plans, as well as
In 2002, SEE countries (Albania, Bosnia and within the context of local potentials and needs.
Herzegovina, Croatia, Federal Republic of Yu- The Government of the Republic of Serbia has
goslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), Macedonia, adopted the Strategy of Sustainable Development
and Moldova), signed the “eSEEurope Agenda of the Republic of Serbia for 2008, and Serbia is
for the Development of Information Society”, the first country in the region, along with Monte-
undertaking the obligation to work in the com- negro, to adopt such a document. New informa-
ing period on the legislative framework, and to tion technologies are confirmed as an important
form environments for ICT development, as a instrument for the development of a competitive
basis for regional cooperation and inclusion in market economy and for the development or hu-
European trends. man resources as the main support for economic
The main document, which defines the policy development (National Strategy for Sustainable
of the Government of Serbia relative to ICT, is the Development, 2008).
Strategy of Development of Information Society Serbia needs to invest in human resources,
in the Republic of Serbia, adopted in 2006. Its especially in view of the fact that at the end of the
basic goals were to upgrade the status in ICT, to 20th century 320 thousand educated individuals,
establish basic relations for participation of all mostly under 40 years of age, left the country
most important partners, to direct certain funds for (Penev, 2006). Regardless of this, the scientific
ICT utilization into priority national projects, to research system in Serbia is much more developed
enable local initiatives, to promote social change, and of better quality than could be presumed based
to indicate shortcomings, to research the effects on the level of economic development, which
of network communication, and to secure ICT results from the constant influx of new educated
development as the infrastructure which enables human resources (SCOREproject, 2007).
and offers required services. The focus of development policies in Serbia is
The Strategy for the Development of Infor- development of human resources, i.e. of scientific
mation Society is in its initial phase of imple- research work, which represents an apparent po-
mentation, and additional initiatives are needed tential and a comparative advantage. Main areas
to speed up its implementation and to assist the of research supported by state investment are soft-
development of information society in Serbia ware, computer hardware, and telecommunication
(SCOREproject, 2007). To date, Serbia partici- systems. Regardless of the visible benefit of such
pated in FP 5 and FP 6 programs, within which investments the fact remains that most projects
some 60 projects were realized. The problem is under development will not contribute to the
that the regulation of the legislative framework development of underdeveloped, rural areas, but
which should support and ensure ICT development will further strengthen the already existing lack
is lagging relevant to the planned dynamics, and of balance. There is the danger that implemented
that the means accessible within EU funds from policies and strategies will not contribute to, or
2007 to 2013 are still insufficiently used. To a at least will not stop the process of depopulation
certain extent, this is also due to the insufficient of underdeveloped rural areas.
32
The strategy of AR Vojvodina adopted in 2007 Adopted EU strategic documents permit a

– ‘’Basic Directions of Technological Develop- conclusion relative to the problems anticipated
ment of the Autonomous Region of Vojvodina’’, in the development of the technological society,
a region which has owing to migration trends for which a satisfactory solution is sought in
annulled negative population growth, is aimed advance:
at providing means to retain and employ human
resources. Central Serbia has no such strategy. • Dehumanization of relations – develop-
ment of new social ties is expected at all
iCt implementation for levels;
Sustainable Development • Loss of local cultural specificities – insist-
ing on the preservation of the national lan-
In EU documents, ICT is a novel and promising guage as the vehicle of culture;
tool for economic development and the develop- • Fear that regardless of broad potentials for
ment of the overall society, which will enable the all, development will really benefit only
overcoming of 21st century challenges (ISTAG, certain groups – transparency and accessi-
2006). It is expected that the development and bility is expected to minimize this effect;
the broadest implementation of ICT will enable • Perception that development is too inten-
prosperity in a manner that will be more equal, sive and that the essential ‘’plunge’’ will
that it will influence upgrading of the general ensue before it is expected, and will be dra-
quality of life, and will enable development that matic – development will have to be con-
will not have to be at the expense of degradation trolled to a certain extent.
of natural resources. For this reason ICT devel-
opment is directed by state and regional policies areas that Could benefit from iCt
and initiatives. and its integral implementation
Basic areas for ICT implementation are:
administration, healthcare, and social welfare, ICT creates the environment for economic devel-
education, and economic activity (trade, services, opment, and underdeveloped rural areas in Serbia
manufacturing, transport of goods). Its role is would in fact enjoy the highest benefits.
growing in local and global transfer of informa- In case if ICT is applied for the development of
tion, as well as in employment, development of rural areas of Serbia, the main goal in the first phase
information and leisure media, culture, sport, would primarily be directed toward the economic
and recreation, but also in the domain of social and the social aspect. The new economy is more
contacts and organization of NGOs. oriented toward the production and distribution
ICT development and implementation can of information and services, and less toward the
support the development of an environmentally production of other types of goods (Friedich,
friendly economy, can improve the economy of Schoaafsma, 1999). In addition to services that
transport, reduce energy consumption, reduce ICT must provide – access to required information
environmental pollution, improve efficiency of and business contacts, jointly forming potentials
energy systems, improve population mobility by to develop adequate activities, they would also
adding ‘’virtual mobility’’, expand the potentials have to open the space for communication within
of the education system (distance learning), con- the community in order to reestablish social ties
tribute to the independence and comfort of senior which had been the basis of the vitality of these
citizens and of individuals requiring some sort of local communities, and that are in the present
assistance. day context of social relations in economically
33
developed countries and urban environments also initiation anD organization

a comparative advantage. Positive effects would of a proJeCt for iCt
be reflected also in the economic aspect – better implementation for the
possibilities for employment and choice of jobs, Development of rural areaS
the quality of no privileged layers of the society
would improve (ICT would be used as a means The project of assistance to the development of
for social integration, for securing access and rural, underdeveloped areas in Serbia could be
participation for handicapped citizens), inclusion the first of the major, integrated projects of ICT
in public life would be easier. development.
State strategies for the development of the ICT The Government of the Republic of Serbia has
basis also form good foundations to take a step initiated strategic investments in the development
further – to integrate technologies into economic, of these regions. In 2007- 2008, 10 million euro
cultural, social processes in order to especially were invested for construction of road, communal,
assist specific communities. and skiing infrastructure in the region of Stara
ICT implementation and development could planina, and considerable additional investments
help to accelerate the development of the coun- are expected, with a projection for public invest-
try and to ‘’skipping several steps’’ that would ments at a level of approximately 100 million euro,
otherwise be indispensable if the usual methods including the participation of foreign investors,
of urban-economic development, which demand and with the total value of the project by 2010
more time for implementation and require more reaching approximately 550 million euro.
funds, were applied. This does not mean that the This is an investment in the underdeveloped
only goal is to electronically connect underdevel- area of East Serbia where all analyzed problems
oped regions and to thus fulfill their basic needs are very pronounced, but which is at the same time
without investments in the development of physi- an area with exceptional natural characteristics,
cal structures – roads, communal, educational, proclaimed a Nature Park and a protected natural
social and healthcare infrastructures. These two resource with endemic species and rich in paleon-
approaches must be simultaneous and support tological, speleological, and archeological sites.
each other. It should be added that a higher level Local governments have accepted these plans
of democracy would also be achieved – due to as the only possibility for the development of their
data accessibility and transparency, and that the municipalities, with parallel negative reactions of
efficiency of public services for the citizens would NGOs working on activities aimed at protecting
be upgraded (Strrack, 1995). Stara Planina as a preserved natural resource.
Revitalization/regeneration of smaller settle- Local communities in this area, in an organized
ments and villages would be based on interaction manner, and due to personal initiatives of individu-
of tradition and modern technologies, i.e. on the als, are making an effort to present, make more
development of authentic and autochthon values accessible and develop own tourist offer using
by applying ICT technology, because this would the Internet. Presently, these sites are primarily
enable an additional “step forward”. This would targeting the domestic market and the diaspora
require an integrated approach, with the segment with its pronounced demand for domestic foods.
aimed at reestablishing social ties and the identity The Tourist Organization of Serbia and local tour-
of the local community as the most sensitive area ist organizations have raised the level of access
of development and implementation for such a to information, which has certainly contributed
project. to the development of tourism evident in recent
years.
34
What is lacking is in integrally conceived and and high quality foods, the promotion of climate,
organized project which would also encompass mountain, and eco tourism, and should use market
aspects that are presently not included, aspects analysis to channel the local offer.
of communication and organization for the direct As an example, there is an interesting and use-
producers, their education, access to information ful inventive Serbian project for implementation
about state and local projects, and their mutual of ICT relevant to available resources and needs,
communication and organization, but also other which was presented in the finale of a World Bank
fields that must be developed within local commu- competition entitled ‘’Sustainable Agriculture for
nities – social welfare, healthcare, culture, etc. Development’’, with 2,000 projects from all over
Due to local specificities, the communication the world. It was developed by the company ‘’GM
network should also include the offer of goods, konsalting’’ from Kragujevac, with the idea to
services, and information, for following target use mobile phones possessed by over 80% of the
groups: agricultural population, and SMS to facilitate for
agricultural producers the access to information
• Local population, young people without on market prices of products, as well as commu-
employment or with inadequate employ- nication with potential buyers.
ment from urban milieus, with high school
and higher education, with a significant problems in realization
level of awareness relevant to ecological and expected results
‘’healthy living’’, etc.,
• Owners of housing facilities – population One of the probably major problems is that the state
temporarily employed abroad and own- must be prepared to initiate a project that would
ers of weekend homes (in Serbia, espe- require a much higher level of communication and
cially in the 1970s and 1980s, there was harmonization, i.e. more political coherence.
a pronounced trend of building houses for The basis for initiating such a project exists
recreation – weekend homes, which was (readiness of local communities to support and
to a certain degree compensation for the implement development projects, development of
lack of possibility to own a house in the the information base, investments in scientific re-
city where construction of apartments was search work, constant growth of ICT utilization).
organized), There is also the issue of acceptance of ICT
• NGOs active in environmental protection, projects by the local population, their readiness
• Associations of applied and other artists to accept a new form of communication. For this
(organization of art colonies), reason, as already mentioned, it is necessary to
• Sports associations, etc. use development projects to find frameworks
for communication that would be supported by
The state has already created funds to offer technical potentials, but also rooted in tradition
favorable loans or once only assistance to small and habits of such communities, and that would
enterprises and individual development projects. at the same time prompt the reestablishing of old
However part of such funds could be designated ties and the creation of new ties. Internal connec-
and directed toward development projects that tions, i.e. an internal ICT network should afford
would unify all required aspects of development everyone his personal identity and personal space
for rural areas. For example, within such projects, for creativity, but also a clear motive for the for-
the state should assist the ‘’branding’’ of the offer, mation of a community that works together and
the providing of protection for certain authentic offers mutual assistance.
35
Figure 9. Comparative presentation of GDP and the number of Internet users for countries in the region
(2006)
Stopping the process of depopulation of smaller The status of countries in the broader region
settlements and villages would be the first and varies, from EU member states (Hungary, Greece,
the most important indicator of success of such Slovenia), candidates (Croatia, Macedonia,
a project. The period required to note its effects Turkey, Romania and Bulgaria in certain of its
would be a minimum of 10 years. The best indi- components), to potential candidates (Serbia,
cator would be a higher percentage of the next Montenegro, Albania, B&H), which also implies
generation that would decide to stay and to accept different levels of political and economic stability.
a location and a way of life. The problem of underdeveloped rural areas is also
Economic strengthening of local communities present in Montenegro, Albania, B&H, Croatia,
and of entire areas would increase investments Macedonia, Turkey, Romania and Bulgaria,
in better transport communications and social, and this is sure to be a topic of future regional
healthcare and communal infrastructure, which cooperation.
would in turn influence economic development. Ex-Yugoslav countries and countries of
the Balkan Peninsula have similar cultural
Similar problems in the region and historic heritage, and similar economic
development problems. Balkan countries have
In the region, ICT development has similar trends, strong patriarchal family relationships and
with constant growth in recent years, and direct ties similar family structures, especially pronounced
to economic development. For example, the relative in rural areas. Their ethnic tradition is also
number of Internet users in Serbia is double compared similar: especially in the domain of building,
to Bosnia and Herzegovina, but one half compared ethno music, traditional dress, folk dances,
to Croatia which has almost in the same ratio higher local foods. During the second half of the 20th
Per Capita GDP. Romania has approximately 50% century, most of these countries developed their
higher Per capita GDP than Serbia, and a similarly social economic systems based on a doctrine
higher percent of Internet users (Figure 9). of socialism or communism.
36
The most important comparative advantage of Certain underdeveloped parts of Central Serbia
smaller rural communities in the Balkan region, (rural communities in hilly regions, difficult to
within the context of the globalization process, access rural areas, zones of National parks and
may well be the preserved cultural heritage and border zones) are the most vulnerable.
the local tradition, natural resources, and autoch- Today, numerous countries state following
thonous environment. The fact that during the goals as the strategic commitment for the devel-
period of economic stagnation these regions were opment of rural settlements: the upgrading of the
mostly protected from excessive urbanization is quality of life, economic development, develop-
also important. ment of the global network (connecting settle-
Today, there are also differences and problems ments locally and globally). The most important
in cooperation between countries of the Balkan and ever more efficient tool for achieving these
peninsula, seemingly insurmountable, however goals is the development of telecommunication
with good signals that this may not be so (in ad- infrastructure which would encompass the most
dition to the signed strategic documents, there are important aspects of urbo-economic development
important concrete results: the establishing of a – the development of the economy, of the educa-
free trade zone for SEE countries in 2007, and tion system, and of social infrastructure, with the
the signing of the Memorandum for a Common potential to more efficiently apply principles of
Electricity Market on 2008). sustainable development.
It can be presumed with certainty that local Economic development must rely on a strong
projects and projects organized at the level of local community, supported by an educated and
one state based on ICT, will, both in accordance labor active population, motivated to remain in
with general trends and policies, and due to the their environment and contribute to its develop-
very nature of ICT, over time become part of, ment.
and even maybe the key to regional coopera- Relative to the level of development of ICT
tion. Basic preconditions will be project vitality basics in the initial phases such technical solutions
and the fact if they have within their concept a could be sought which would rely on existing
sufficient number of common denominators that capacities and technology (networking via SMS
can serve as a focus for the interests of users and and iDVT).
participants also outside a particular local com- Sustainable development and a knowledge-
munity, i.e. state. based economy require an intensive role of ICT.
The Republic of Serbia still lacks a sufficiently
broad level of IT literacy. Data indicates that ICT
ConCluSion use is very low and inefficient, and if this is not the
case, ICT is used passively rather than creatively.
At this point in time it is very important for Serbia ICT development in Serbia should be aimed at
to set development priorities. The development improving the efficiency and competitiveness
and implementation of ICT via directional projects of the national economy by upgrading informa-
can be the key to overcoming: tion exchange and information accessibility, and
especially e-business, as well as economic-tech-
• Discontinuity of development in the last nological communication in general. In addition,
two decades, the population, especially the young generation
• Unequal regional development, needs to be empowered for the broadest and cre-
• Negative trends of depopulation of certain ative to utilization of ICT, in order to enable them
regions. to equally compete on the international scene.
37
However, at this time, ICT development is not a Cabinet Office. UK (2000). E-government: a
priority in Serbia, even though it has a significant strategic framework for public services in the
place in all strategic documents. In view of the Information Age. Retrieved from http://www.e-
complexity of local socioeconomic problems envoy.gov.uk/ukonline/st rategy.html
and the interrelationship of processes in progress
Castels, M. (1996). The Rise of the Network So-
there is an actual space for giving a significant
ciety. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
role to ICT development and the development of
neglected rural areas. Commission, E. U. (2003b). Global standards for
ICT development can provide underdevel- the Global Information Society, DN IP/03/1374.
oped rural areas with better access to informa- Retrieved from http://europa.eu.int/documents/
tion required for the development of agriculture, index_en.htm
tourism and accompanying services, via a direct
Djukic, A. (2004). Internet kao podrska razvoju
communication with potential markets as well as
sela. In M. Ralevic (Ed.), Planiranje i uredjenje
with local networks within the local community,
sela i ruralnih podrucja, (pp. 219- 231). Srbija,
with institutions and with other entrepreneurs,
Banja Vrujici: Udruzenje urbanista Srbije, eS-
to enable them to unite and offer a product and a
EEurope Agenda for the Development of the
service at a high level of competitiveness.
Information Society (n.d.). Retrieved from www.
Networking of rural settlements should be-
eseeuropeconference.org/agenda.pdf
come a strategic program of the state. Such a
strategy should however contain aspects on how Djukic, A., & Colic, R. (2001). Moguce transfor-
to renew the population and revitalize the almost macije razvoja seoskih naselja. In M. Ralevic, R.
abandoned and economically underdeveloped Malobabic & R. Bogdanovic (Ed.), Selo u Prom-
parts of the territory by relying on their compara- enama, (pp. 171-177). Beograd, Srbija: Udruzenje
tive advantages. Virtual linking with cities, even urbanista Srbije.
metropolises, would considerably reduce both
Doyle, S., & Batty, M. (1998). Vitrual Regenera-
the disadvantages of rural life and the advantages
tion. London, UK: Centre for Advanced Spatial
city life, and would enable villages to compete
Analysis, University College London.
on a global level. Electronic networking of rural
settlements would create two spatial structures – European Comission. (2002). eWORK 2002-Sta-
the real and the virtual – while their intertwining tus Report on New Ways to Work in the Knowledge
would form a unified entity fully able to compete Economy. Retrieved from http://europa.eu.int/
with larger cities and metropolises. information_society/topics/ework
Friedich, S., & Schoaafsma, M. (1999). Cyber-
space and the Loss of the Concentracion and
referenCeS
Centrifugation. Paper presented in TAN 3 Confer-
Antonijevic, R. (2007). Usage of computers ence report. Berlin, Germany.
and calculators and students achievement: Friedman, Y. (1980). A better life in towns. Brus-
results from TIMSS 2003. ERIC, ED497737, re- sels: EU, Council of Europe.
trieved from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/
recordDetail?accno=ED497737 Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New
York: Bantam books.
Books of Census (2002). Belgrade, Serbia: The
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia.
38
Graham, S., & Marvin, S. (1996). Telecommu- Mitchell, W. (1995). City of Bits: Space, Place and
nications and the city: Electronic spaces, urban the Infobahn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
places. New York: Routledge.
Mitchell, W. (1999). E-topia: Urban Life, Jim-
Imagawa, N. (n.d.). Metamorphosis of Space: But Not as We Know It. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Long-life space connecting time-thoughts on Press.
materials and structures-difference between pos-
Narushige, S. (2000, August). Urban Planning,
sible and impossible. Retrieved from http://www.
Information Technology, and Cyberspace.
um.u-tokyo.ac.jp/dm2k-umdb/publish_db/books/
Journal of Urban Technology, 7(2), 105.
va/english/virtual/08.html
doi:10.1080/713684111
ISTAG. (2006). Report from the Information
Osnovni pravci tehnoloskog razvoja Autonomne
Society Technologies Advisory Group. Retrieved
pokrajine Vojvodine (2007). Novi Sad, Srbija:
from http://www.cordis.lu/ist/istag.htm
Izvrsno vece Autonomne pokrajine Vojvodina.
Ivić, I., Marojević, S., Chinapah, V., Uvalić
Penev, G. (2006). Stanovnistvo i domacinstva
Trumbić, S., Ivanović, S., Damjanović, R., et al.
Srbije prema popisu 2002. Belgrade, Serbia:
(2001). Sveobuhvatna analiza sistema obrazo-
Statistical office of the Republic of Serbia,
vanja u SRJ. Beograd, Srbija: UNICEF.
Institute of Social Sciences and Association of
Kahn, H., Bronjn, W., & Martel, L. (1976). The Demographers of Serbia. SCORE-045384 in FP6
next 200 years. New York: Hudson Institute. (2007). The ICT Research environment in Serbia.
Strengthening the Strategic Cooperation Between
Kolarevic, B. (1996). Space, Place, and the In-
the EU and Western Balkan Region in the field of
fobahn: Architecture, Urbanism and the Electronic
ICT Research. Retrieved from http://consultations.
Infromation Age. In Architecture& Urbanism at
score-project.eu/attach/ictcr_rs_en.pdf
the Turn of the III Millennium [). Beograd, Srbija:
Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade.]. Segre, A., Vittuari, M., & Ricci, R. (2005). ICT
Proceedings, 1, 61–69. and rurality, the role of information in the devel-
opment process of the rural areas of the Western
Kostov, Z. (2006). Global tendecies and local
Balkans. Rural development 2005 - Develop-
implications: Cyber exslusion and within Western
ment of knowledge and information society in
Balkan countries. Discussion paper 40, Proceed-
rural areas. Retrieved from http://www.lzuu.lt/
ings of the Informing Science & IT Education
rural_development/archive/2005
Conference (InSITE), Centre for the Study of
Global Governance, London School of Econom- Sieridis, A. B. (2006). New ICT Concepts and
ics and Political Science, London. Retrieved from Projects for the Development of Rural Areas: The
http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/ project Bio@gro. Retrieved from http://bioagro.
DiscussionPapers/DP40.pdf aua.gr/modules/wfsection/html/sideridis_2006.
pdf
Milovanović, D. (2001). Interaktivni urbanizam:
novi oblici saradnje podrzani internetom i novim Simonovic, D. (1976). Sistem seoskih naselja u
kompjuterskim tehnologijama. In N. Randjelović, uzoj Srbiji. Belgrade, Serbia: IAUS.
& M. Ralevic (Ed.), Urbani menadzment, urbani
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (1991).
marketing i preduzetnistvo, (pp. 63-71). Beograd,
Statistical Yearbook of Serbia 2007. Belgrade,
Srbija: Udruzenje urbanista Srbije.
Republic of Serbia: Author.
39
Stevanovic, R. (2006). Migrantsko stanovnistvo Tofler, A. (1980). The third way. New York:
Srbije. In G. Penev (Ed.), Stanovnistvo i domacin- Bantam books.
stva Srbije prema popisu 2002 (pp. 71- 106). Bel-
Virilio, P. (2000). Informaticka bomba. Novi Sad,
grade, Serbia: Statistical office of the Republic of
Srbija: Svetovi.
Serbia, Institute of Social Sciences and Association
of Demographers of Serbia. Vukmirovic, D., Pavlovic, K., & Sutic, V. (Eds.).
(2008). Upotreba informaciono- komunikacionih
Strack, C. (1995). Managing cities with the help
tehnologija u Republici Srbiji, 2008. Beograd,
of telecomunications. Retrieved from http://www.
Republika Srbija: Republicki zavod za statistiku
kpnqwest.at. /give/gv95/straclec.html
Srbije.
Stupar, A. (2003). Informacione tehnologije i raz-
voj ruralnih podrucja- mogucnosti i ogranicenja.
In R. Bogdanovic, & M. Ralevic (Eds.), Selo
u novim razvojnim uslovima. Beograd, Srbija:
Udruzenje urbanista Srbije.
40
41
Chapter 3
Green Urban Planning
and Design for Smarter
Communities
Ozge Yalciner Ercoskun
Gazi University, Turkey
abStraCt
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) changes the concept of place and social life.
Researchers should find some solutions about how to combine ICT with sustainable construction to
revitalize an existing neighborhood and to create a new model for growing areas especially in small
cities. The objectives of this study are to search for new ways to create sustainable communities with
the sustainable use of ICTs, to discuss the advantages and disadvantages and the use of ICTs in cities,
to put a new approach as ‘eco-tech’ city, and to explore the potential ways of creating sustainability in
practice. The study summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the use of ICTs in cities and de-
scribes smart city and eco-tech city concepts. The following part, which is consisted of a discussion of
urban planning and design, incorporating ICT for the construction of sustainable communities, explores
the prospect that dehumanized communication can be ameliorated through progressive, innovative and
green urban planning and design strategies.
introDuCtion systems. Is there any way to incorporate ICT in

urban planning and design to construct sustainable
“We are convinced that sustainable human life on this communities? Can ICTs be employed to develop a
globe cannot be achieved without sustainable local prototype for a smart or ecological and technological
communities. Cities are key players in the process (eco-tech) city? This chapter attempts to find some
of changing lifestyles, production, consumption solutions to such questions.
and spatial patterns” (The Aalborg Charter, 1994). ICT is a tool only however if it is not taken
The big question is how to meet the needs of urban seriously and dealt with professionally, it can be a
‘bastion to the denial of reality’ in urbanism. ICT
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch003 causes spatial changes in an urban area. Basically, it
Green Urban Planning and Design for Smarter Communities
transforms some facilities into telespaces, such as Urban designers should use new technical tools
bookstores to bitstores, galleries to virtual museums, offered by new technological instruments. There
schools to virtual campuses, banking chambers to should be balance between real spaces and digital
ATMs, department stores to e-shopping and work spaces. Urban designers play a prominent role as
in offices to telework (Drewe, 2000). The remark- a weaver between different groups and organizer
able power of ICTs in supporting new types of of public places (Velibeyoglu, Gencel, 2001). Ad-
information flow, communication, transaction and ditionally, a new urban design approach should
cultural experience can be mobilized and shaped be generated for the cities of the future.
in various ways, which can have positive impact The symbolic importance of labeling and
on cities. The challenge is to design local ICTs, branding cities with ‘cyber’, ‘intelligent’, ‘digital’
which are equitable and supportive of a genuine or ‘smart’ prefixes is stressed around the world
community and civic dialogue (Arifoglu, 2004). (Graham & Marvin, 1999). The solution proposed
New models of social innovation are needed to here is an ‘eco-tech’ (ecological and technologi-
bridge urban digital divides and to improve skills cal) city model to contribute to the better sustain-
in different groups of community (Graham, 2002). ability of small cities supporting localities in the
Harvey points out social divide. For him, commu- globalized world. Such urban strategies shape
nity often means enhancing privilege on the already face-to-face interactions in place in parallel with
privileged and leaving the underprivileged to their electronically mediated ones in eco-tech cities.
own devices. Since the 1950s, the nature of planning Some kinds of technology can be useful in eco-
and zoning laws have fostered the separation of tech cities (Bogunovich, 2002): Environmental
economic classes, destroyed open space, and eroded technologies, which encompass technologies of
the sense of community and care for the common energy, water and waste; ICTs, which include
good. In this climate, public discourse degenerates computer based hardware and software that enable
into competitive clashes over resources pitting the the transfer of data; the environmental sensing
suburbs against downtowns and the rich against technologies in wired or wireless environments,
the poor. Harvey argues that the direct effects of and finally, GIS, where geo-referenced data is
this polarization of rich and poor are: Division and stored, transformed, visualized, queried and re-
fragmentation of the metropolitan space, loss of ported (Bandyopadhyay, 2001).
sociality across diversity, and localized defensive The objectives of this study are 1) to examine
posture towards the rest of the city. He notes that the question of how to create sustainable com-
global income inequalities are causing large-scale munities with the sustainable use of ICTs 2) to
environmental devastation, cultural destruction, discuss the advantages and disadvantages and
and the undermining of social cohesion. If policy the use of ICTs in cities 3) to put a new approach
created the situation, perhaps policy can alter it. as ‘eco-tech’ city, and 4) to explore the potential
He advocates the renewal of utopian dreaming as ways of creating sustainability in practice.
a hope. “As we collectively produce our cities, so The first part of this chapter states the advan-
we collectively produce ourselves. We need projects tages and disadvantages of the use of ICTs in
concerning what we want our cities to be are, there- cities and makes a description of smart city and
fore, projects concerning human possibilities, who eco-tech city concepts. The following part dis-
we want, or, perhaps even more pertinently, who cusses urban planning and design approaches that
we do not want to become” (Harvey, 2000:200). incorporate ICT into the construction of sustain-
Once again Harvey encourages us to engage in able communities. Developing new approaches
imagining utopias of urban space where the role and techniques for appropriate design outcomes
of designer are assigned. is the main challenge to be explicated about how
42
the changing urban community can continue to few meters away. Some organizations have even
express an ongoing positive relationship with introduced ‘email free days’ to encourage people
the natural environment by the sustainable use to actually talk to one another. Furthermore, family
of ICTs. members, each playing or working on their own
computers may actually send instant messages
to each other in the same house rather than talk
aDvantageS anD to one another.
DiSaDvantageS of the uSe Technology can have a negative effect on fam-
of iCtS in CitieS, Smart City ily relationships. With this much entertainment
anD eCo-teCh City ConCeptS availability, there is less need to actually sit around
the table and talk to one another at home. Text
The new ICTs are advantageous to many sectors. messaging during lessons is a distraction and so
Most businesses, governments and schools have this has a bad effect on learning at school. Being
now moved from manual methods to the use of able to communicate with colleagues from a desk
ICT while processing data. People can talk to means people just do not walk around enough to
each other when they have access to the right keep fit. Eventually, a growing population of unfit
technology. Video conferencing and email have people may have an impact on their health.
reduced the need for business travel, which has Electronic items, such as mobile phones are
allowed people to have more time at home with very expensive items; therefore, they encourage
their families than being stuck in an airport. Less theft and other crime. As with most technologies,
travel generates less pollution, as fewer cars and there is always a blend of good and bad effects on
aircraft is used. Video conferencing and remote society. But for any technological development
control of another computer has allowed teachers to succeed, it must have an overall benefit to the
and trainers to run lessons at distant locations. The end-user (Akca, Sayili & Esengun, 2007). There
24-hour news networks bring events from around should be always a balance in smart cities.
the world live. These facts point to the fact that a Smart cities can be accepted as the demonstra-
society can react almost immediately. tion areas of e-government applications. Smart
Being able to access the company network city concept is integrated with the information-
from anywhere means that people are no longer based economy. Research and the use of new
tied to the office, they could just as easily work technologies accounted for the development in
from home. Because of this, teleworking is be- science, industry and commerce in a smart city.
coming more common. Additionally, international The impacts of ICTs can be observed in smart
corporations’ employees can travel from country cities. The e-governance concept links the admin-
to country on business and yet settle down to a istrative institutions to these technologies. Public
fully networked local office desk and work as if bodies using ICTs in management, commerce and
they are at their home office. communication across offer e-governance with
Many developed country citizens in the use multi-participation.
Internet while looking for a job, career advice and a The financial services, information technolo-
new house. It shows that the Internet has become a gies and communication industry in a smart city
milestone in searching for necessary information. bring economic development. Smart spaces are
Having all these methods of communicating integrated with infrastructure in a smart city. Local
has a tendency to make people lazy. They may governments should share their decisions, plans and
no longer bother to talk face to face; instead, projects with developing their internet networks
they send an email to a work colleague only a for effective city management, should present
43
some guidelines, make interactive talks with the 3. The public and private sectors are collabo-
community in the e-democracy process and virtual rated. These developments are characterized
libraries should be created (Odendaal, 2003). by partnerships among governments, real
A study conducted in January 2005 in MIT estate developers, educational or research
explained smart cities, and stated that new cen- institutions, and technology companies.
tury urban projects are located at the intersection 4. Information and media technologies are
of technology, urban design, social policies and woven into the design of these cities. These
real estate development. These projects vary in developments are pioneering integration of
size, organization and management. As mixed use advanced communication and media tech-
projects, they are home to technology enterprises, nologies into the physical form and fabric of
including enterprises that leverage information new century cities, and into the enterprises,
technology, and to creative workers who both institutions, retail and entertainment estab-
live and work in development zones. The case lishments, and residences that make them
studies are on Arabianranta-Helsinki, Seoul up. ICTs, which are applied to residential,
Digital Media City, Crossroads-Copenhagen, One work and recreational functions make life
north-Singapore etc. The televillage of Helsinki, easier. They are used for the development of
Arabianranta has been developing since 1999 water, electricity, and cleaning and security
and it will be completed in 2010. The land sup- systems. ICTs are tools for management of
plies began in 2002 in Seoul Media City and are traffic, logistics, and car parking and public
almost completed. Copenhagen was inaugurated transport systems. The information on date,
in 2002 and works efficiently with universities timetable and location can be found easily
and ministries today. One north- Singapore is with these technologies. The communication
in the second phase of construction, many de- is held between individuals, groups and busi-
velopers started to construct a Fusionopolis for ness partners. ICTs with media technologies
multifunctional facilities today. What new century perform art; show and other experiences give
cities have in common are (MIT Center For Real the feeling of space in the smart cities.
Estate, 2005, p.4):
Furthermore, eco-tech city proposed in this
1. They promote innovation to achieve signifi- study, is an ecological friendly smart city and is
cant social and economic value for their host seen as the city of tomorrow. Eco-tech is defined
cities. These projects lead to development of as technological equipment and tool that works
highly creative, cutting edge, value-added with alternative energy resources in the world. In
production in the global high technology the architectural field, Slessor (1997) defines eco-
fields, thereby building substantial social tech architecture, and gives some world examples
and economic capital for the geographic of sustainable architecture, high technology and
regions in which they are located. eco-tech at the building scale. Marras (1999)
2. They are livable. These developments are discusses the philosophy of eco-tech architecture
designed for a high degree of livability. as well. These major studies explain the eco-tech
The result is the creation of spaces and concept explicitly. The topic is quite new; there
places that attract the younger generation is only a plenty of research and city planning
of creative workers to these live/work/play literature on the application of the concept to city
environments that melt the old boundaries in planning. The research of Bogunovich (2002) is
space and time between residential, office, the source of inspiration of this study. Moreover,
and retail/entertainment real estate. Amborski and Lister give some clues on eco-tech
44
settlement structure in their project report of Mil- broad range of technologies of energy, water and
ton’s development area in Canada. Therefore, this waste; “Information Technologies (IT)” which
study refers to the researchers above and creates include the well known range of computer based
unique ideas for settlements. hardware and software and the environmental
Eco-tech is the transformation of one way sensing technologies to gather environmental data;
of ecology (oykos-logos1) to technology (tekne- “Geographic Information Technologies (GIS)”
logos2) by smart tools appropriate to the physical where geo-referenced data is stored, transformed,
rules of nature. Eco-tech, in-between ecology and manipulated, managed, visualized, updated,
technology, is a paradigm based on natural ele- queried and reported related with databases as
ments and processes that meets the requirements tabular data (Bandyopadhyay, 2001). Urban in-
of sustainable planning by fitting it into the new formation system which is a part of GIS include
century by using technology (Marras, 1999). land use analysis, preparing development plans,
Today, garden cities with a lot of preserved environmental plans, monitoring and control of
natural open space, energy efficient cities that eco-zones, transportation etc. and sharing these
use alternative energy and reduce commuting, on internet (Yalciner, 2002). The fourth one is
and other urban models that promote urban sus- the “Communication Technologies (CT)” which
tainability remain only as green or compact but enables the transfer of environmental data, in-
also as smart in the 21st century. Eco-tech city formation, knowledge, and decisions; in wired
planning contributes to better sustainability of or wireless environments. Their overall purpose
cities. This subject is a utopia or techno-ecotopia3 is to overcome spatial distance and enable the
(Bogunovich, 2002). flow and availability of urban and environmental
Historically, eco-villages evolved from inten- information in real time to gain time.
tional, often self-sufficient communities that have Eco-tech city is a local solution- locally shaped
their roots in the 1960s commune movement, as a model in a small scale, for raising awareness by
reaction against urban decay. (For example, “The design with nature, created by economic planning
Farm” in Tennessee is one of the original commune- with energy saving, implemented in a short time
style, activist-oriented eco-villages. See http://gen. with a plan promoting local climate, local culture
ecovillage.org/ for other examples of eco-villages and landscape, supported by eco-technologies
around the world). Today, the eco-village concept which bring adaptation, flexibility, multi-use
has a broader appeal and may share many of the and reduce distance. It is designed by proactive
same features as other sustainable community planning approach, which is participatory, shar-
developments. In particular, the eco-tech city con- ing and considering local information (Van der
cept is based on innovations in high technology Ryn, 1999).
resulting in more sustainable building designs The principles of eco-tech city can be explained
that facilitate flexibility of space and advanced as the following (Karaaslan & Ercoskun, 2006):
telecommunication. For context, the eco-tech city Eco-tech city aims to reduce waste by technol-
concept can be considered within a spectrum of ogy and promotes renewable energy. It improves
sustainable or “green” developments that ranges the quality of life. Eco-tech city changes the
from the more radical alternative communities current planning understanding by sustaining
to progressive New Urbanist and “smart-wired” environmental values and natural resources with
communities (Amborski & Lister, 2002). the use of nature friendly technologies. It is self-
By means of technology, four kinds of tech- sufficient because it produces its own energy and
nology can be useful in eco-tech cities: “Environ- food. A settlement planned with the eco-tech ap-
mental Technologies (ET)” which encompass a proach, will be developed economically as well.
45
It promotes sustainable transport and reduces character that reflects the life of the community
emissions for urban health by using environmental (Saleh, 2004). Eco-tech design, which offers
technologies. Eco-tech city is planned in a natural this possibility is the combination of ecological,
habitat for human comfort by selecting convenient sustainable, high performance, green city and
locations for specific urban functions by using smart wired, techno-cities with high-tech living
geographic information technologies. In an eco- and working spaces. Many eco-cities and techno-
tech city, location selections for living, working cities exist in the world today but the settlements,
and leisure facilities in proximity facilitate fuel which are based on both ecology and technology,
saving and increases social integration. Mixed- are rather few.
use decisions in this city create more alive, safe The worldwide examples for such develop-
and equal urban environment. Finally, eco-tech ments include an eco-tech village project, which
city, which is planned nature-friendly, is disaster- was built for the development area of City of
resistant. Milton in Canada (BGD, 2002). A campaign is
The eco-tech development pattern in new held in Waitakere, New Zealand called eco-tech
growth areas should be designed on the principles action, aims to transform the technological city
of New Urbanism. There exists a strong emphasis to eco-tech city with public participation (WETA,
on the creation of a road system for vehicles and 2004). Another example, Eco-Viikki, in the pe-
pedestrians to create connectivity, viewscapes, riphery of Helsinki, Finland is a techno-city with
and accessibility to community resources. Each ecological principles (Viikki, 2004). Arcosanti is
neighborhood will be centered on a neighborhood a famous and old eco-settlement in the middle of
centre that includes a range of uses, including a desert with upgraded technology (Luke, 1994,
schools, daycare and religious facilities, conve- Arcosanti, 2005). Another Scandinavian example
nience commercial and a park to provide a focus is Bo01, an urban fragment in Malmö, Sweden,
and gathering place for residents like Seaside one of the most sustainable settlements in Europe,
Florida, the first New Urbanist community (Logan, has an award in Housing Expo in 2001 and can
2001, Gauzin-Müller, 2002). compete with the Milton project by being closer
Eco-tech city which has a mixed use and com- to the eco-tech concept (Singh, 2004, Ekostaden,
pact planning/design; and when planned in col- 2004). The other example is the referred Integer
laboration with local investor, local management project in UK, which is more flexible project
and technical team, can decrease the ecological package and can be built in anywhere (Clark,
footprint of that area by using high performance 2001). The brand of “eco-tech” is only used in
ecological buildings and city technologies. Flexible, Milton and Waitakere, however, not resembled in
adaptable living and working spaces are created by the examples of Eco-Viikki, Arcosanti, Bo01 and
the state of the art telecommunication infrastructure. Integer. But it can be stated that these settlements
By using distance learning, interactive education resemble the eco-tech concept. These cases are the
and real time teleconferencing technologies; the best practices, which can be sources of inspiration
social and environmental transportation costs will for the cities of tomorrow in both developed and
decrease (Mahizhnan, 1999). Three basic principles developing countries.
will be integrated: “the public”, “well operated The idea of eco-tech design for small cities is
economy” and “clean and healthy environment” derived from a doctorate dissertation (Ercoskun,
(Amborski & Lister, 2002). 2007). The dissertation includes a performance
The planning and design of the residential guide that is consisted of 6 major themes. This
neighborhoods of a community are related to hu- guide aims to create a tool for eco-tech urban
man and environmental aspects with a physical design techniques for small town development
46
for their sustainability. It is useful to planners, A green street is designed in an eco-tech

developers and other decision-makers. Eco-tech settlement. A ring road with traffic, bicycle and
design concept can be better understood with an pedestrian lanes shaded by large trees connects
operational design guide and eco-tech concept live/work areas. Land uses are clustered in walk-
strategies and performance targets can determine ing distances to promote accessibility and reduce
sustainable urban design components. transportation demands. The residential area in-
While summarizing the concept of an eco-tech cludes a car-free section surrounded by the ring
settlement and giving the main ideas that pioneer road and supported by public transport vehicles
in the field (Ercoskun, 2007), the dissertation of- and bicycles. Performance targets are defined to
fers the design of a new development area next to increase the number of kilometers walked and
a small town. The area is about 20-30 ha similar to develop green roads. A bicycle network is
to the examples in the world. 1/3 of the built-up proposed. A car-pooling system can be built in
area is a low-rise residential area, and 2/3 of it is the eco-tech site in order to offer access to the
a mixed-use area. Residential areas are designe d environment. Additionally, green buses running
on the silent part of the area, approximately 500- by biogas circulate in the ring road.
600 m away to the current settlement. Computer Photovoltaic (PV) systems are proposed on the
programs with shade cones measure height of the roof of commercial and administrative buildings
buildings and the distances between the buildings of the eco-tech site, as well as on the parapets of
and their energy performances are simulated. The live & work units and other detached houses. PV
mixed-use area is oriented close to the current systems are used for street lighting. Moreover, col-
center with an appropriate distance. The area is lective solar gardens are proposed for the mixed-use
walkable and close to the public transit stops. The area and residential area for heating of water in the
amenities serve this new population close of about units. Integrated systems with wind turbine and
3000-5000 inhabitants. The sense of neighborhood solar energy can be used in autumn and winter for
should be improved. effective use of energy. A geo-exchange pump is
Low density and medium density residential proposed in every detached house in the eco-tech
areas are recommended for eco-tech settlement. site, and a biogas plant is proposed to produce
Low-density areas have large permaculture energy from solid waste (Ercoskun, 2007).
gardens. Medium density areas are closer to the Rainwater is collected by roof leaders of
mixed-use area. In the area, life- and work units detached houses in the eco-tech site and by rain
are designed for freelance workers with flexible barrels that collects water to use in landscaping
interior design components. An eco-tech com- and toilet flushing; additionally, a biotope pond
munity center is of 8000 m2 with a large green is built. Gray water coming from kitchen and
roof. A supermarket serving organic products and bathroom are collected from residences and com-
hardware department exist in the area. mercial buildings of the eco-tech site, treated and
New facilities such as a theater, a cinema, day- reused for irrigation and toilet flushing.
care center, a multifunctional hall, youth clubs and All buildings are constructed from local or
an ecological education center are recommended to recycled material and measured in the eco-tech
improve socio-cultural life. Swimming pools and site. Live-work units in mixed-use area of the eco-
tennis courts will be built for enhancing the sense tech site have flexible housing design including
of community and healthy public. All amenities mobile walls. Detached houses can be of timber;
are within the walking distance. All of the designs row houses can be of stone, timber, adobe and
should protect or restore at least 75% of the biodi- straw bale. These techniques are applied and
versity and ecology in the area (Ercoskun, 2007). measured by LEEDS etc.
47
An open and green system is proposed for the information in streets. OpenGIS brings success
eco-tech community and is composed of arte- and accuracy in spatial applications with better
rial open space which connects and integrates presentation, and enhances public participation
eco-tech community to adjacent neighborhoods, in these applications.
collector open space which links eco-tech site to
old town and nearby recreational areas and local
open space which gives opportunity to access eCo-teCh urban DeSign for
collector and arterial open spaces, established SoCial SuStainability
in conjunction with local. Every resident has an
access to the open space with a 3-minute walk Social sustainability is one of the three legs of
and fruit trees are planted in all parks. Green the sustainability stool (the other two are envi-
roofs are applied to the eco-tech center and ronmental and economic): each leg needs the
supermarket in the mixed-use area. The south support of the other two. For example, to have a
facades of the buildings, roads and pedestrian strong economy, we need a skilled and educated
lanes and large parking areas are planted with workforce, and the more people are able to par-
appropriate shade trees in the eco-tech site. ticipate in the economy, the stronger the economy
Eco-forest can be built close to the residential is. It is environmentally beneficial when people
area to prevail the winter wind; the depth of the afford to live in a community where they work and
forest is to be determined by the wind intensity there is an efficient public transportation system
(Ercoskun, 2007). because it reduces their reliance on fossil fuels
In this context, eco-technologies are consid- and car emissions.
ered as solutions for environmental protection Furthermore, a community means much more
in technological societies. The information and than a pure physical form. A community is com-
communication technologies are used to share posed of people as well as the places they live;
information, to strengthen communication, to de- it is as much a social environment as a physical
crease energy consumption and to raise awareness environment. Thus, communities must not only
of the consumer on energy use by ICT such as be environmentally sustainable, they must also be
‘WIMAX technology’, ‘life safety systems’, ‘au- socially sustainable. Social sustainability cannot
tomated energy control systems’, ‘smart metering’ be created through physical design of a community
‘telecommunication systems’ and ‘car pooling’. but physical design prepares an environment and
The aim is to build international communities, spaces for environmentally sustainable lifestyles,
smart cities/regions and to create flexible and and it can help to make such environmentally
easily adaptable spaces by integrating 21st century sustainable choices easier.
information and communication infrastructure in Integration the physical and social design of
the eco-tech city. communities is particularly necessary if we are to
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) such create communities that are both environmentally
as ‘GIS in urban planning and design’ and ‘kiosks’ and socially sustainable. The soft infrastructure
provide GIS applications in urban planning and includes formal human services (health, educa-
urban design in the municipalities. OpenGIS tion, social services, recreation and culture, etc.)
supports community for public participation as well as the community’s informal structure,
in planning studies. All urban activities and the web of voluntary organizations and social
information on public buildings put into geo- relationships that comprise a community. Urban
graphical information stations-kiosks, which design should integrate these elements, giving as
can be located in public buildings for sharing much weight to the soft infrastructure as to the
48
hard infrastructure. In designing the built environ- the supermarket in the eco-tech center. The theater,
ment, urban designers need to address issues of cinema, youth clubs, daycare center, multifunc-
basic needs such as urban food production and tional hall, festival area and sports facilities will
availability; equitable access to work and educa- enhance social and cultural life of the eco-tech
tion; urban design that enhances social interaction community and lead to healthy people. Internet,
and participation; methods of reducing living GIS café and ecological education center with
costs etc. (Hancock, 1993). The physical design lifelong learning raise awareness on sustainability
of communities to promote social sustainability and green technology issues. Understanding that
serves as an eco-tech community. face-to-face communication is the best way of
In this framework, eco-tech urban design integrating new neighbors into the city, a square
offers some opportunities to build a sustainable in the eco-tech center with an odeon can bring the
community that enhances social sustainability. community together for various open-air activities
Eco-tech site is a neighborhood design for house- (Ercoskun, 2007).
holds with various incomes coming together for Pedestrians and bicycle users are encouraged
a new lifestyle. Every small city offers the ad- for healthy lifestyles. The residents can save money
vantage of a homey, close-knit, family-oriented by eco-tech appliances of renewable energy and
environment. However, with ever-changing and smart metering. Moreover, the community will
mobile populations, it is a challenge to welcome be self sufficient in energy against global warm-
new residents into the communities and to inform ing. The waste can be collected by underground
them quickly on the quality of life. The current vacuum systems and human resource is saved
and new residents of the small town participate by eco-technologies. Permaculture gardening,
all ecological and social events/campaigns in the orchards, vineyards, pilot community gardens
eco-tech site for environmental protection and and other agricultural activities provide com-
energy conservation. munity spirit, taste of organic production and
Mixed used area is designed as a 24-hour lively self-reliance.
and safe environment. All soft infrastructures are Todd states that “it is possible to design liv-
located in walking distance to enhance the sense ing technologies that have the same capabilities
of community. The various housing types are as natural systems do –self design, self-repair,
supplied for a wide range of population groups reproduction and self organization in relation to
by contemporary eco-tech housing techniques for changes –functions that now take technological
cities of tomorrow. The residents of the eco-tech society inordinate amount of chemicals, materi-
site make gardening to reach self-sufficiency in als, and energy, often with harmful environmental
food. Tele-working is generally seen as one of consequences” (Todd, 1993, p.41).
the most important contributions to social sus- The next section discusses the changing mean-
tainability providing a higher quality of life in ing of urban space, public space and virtual space
the eco-tech site: less stress, better health, more and investigates new ways of sustainable use of
flexible working hours and more time for family ICTs to establish sustainable communities.
and leisure. It changes the relationship between
individuals, work and communities, and, there-
fore, it has an impact on the social capital. The DiSCuSSion
residents of live and work units can work from
home and change the interior of their flats with Today urbanism goes beyond the post-fordist
movable walls according to their needs, seasons industrial metropolis, which is accepted as the
or their moods. They can buy organic food from new territorial division of labor and spatial orga-
49
nization of flexible production (Soja, 2000). The them is about the level of materiality where every
digital revolution dominates us, and the world component can be explained in physical terms in
cannot be thought without computers. Words such urban places. Electronic spaces as post-industrial
as cyberspace, netropolis, telecosmos have been spaces primarily contain spaces for consumption-
enhancing this phenomenon. As new citizens of oriented activities.
the digital domain, netizens feel the ideas of person Today, individuals spend their leisure time
and identity compete with virtual data, informa- at home, office or at other consumption spaces.
tion and computerized knowledge for control of Thus, other urban public spaces are deprived and
realm without being able to see anything except have become lifeless. Urban spaces have rapidly
the components of technology (Welsh, 1996). The decreased in number and size where different
rise of the informational mode of development groups came from different places and discussed
changed the world. Information as a qualitative their special problems on the public platform,
element turned into an input and ‘knowledge made face-to face contact, met by coincidence,
intervenes upon knowledge itself in order to talked and discussed or reached a consensus on
generate higher productivity’ (Castells, 1989, their ideas (Bauman, 1998). Urban public spaces
p.10). Castells (1989) introduces the concept of as one of the main concern of urban design have
space of flows, where the space is the continuum been transformed. Today many researchers call
of the knowledge dissemination requisite to the this negative transformation by these keywords:
task wherever the task may be physically located. Privatization, commodification (Madinipour,
Therefore, the flow of information provides global 1996, Sorkin, 1992), militarization (Davis, 1992),
networks of communications technology, and social polarization (Zukin, 1995) and the fall of
flexible production facility is the key component public man (Sennett, 1992). Traditional urban
redefining space in the information age. However, public spaces are replaced by non-places refer
he indicates the difficulty for the reconstruction to places of transience that do not hold enough
of social meaning in the space of flows. So, local significance to be regarded as places (Auge &
governments can mobilize local societies (in this Howe, 1995). Examples of a non-place would
case eco-tech communities) to support a collective be a motorway, a hotel room, an airport or a
strategy toward locality with dynamic control of supermarket. Public spaces have become traffic
universities, corporations, NGOs. Eco-tech com- nodes due to lack of civic uses. Public spaces
munities can use the infrastructure of information had become apolitical. They turned into places
technologies with other small eco-tech communi- of private emotions. Speed has changed the spa-
ties in the world to reconstruct the social meaning tial sensations. The main reasons and changes
and to transfer best green strategies and practices. can be summarized as follows: Privatization of
Then, space of flows can be reduced to space of public spaces, rising control on design and uses
places by those technologies disaggregating the of public spaces, increase in racism and social
large networks into small community networks. conflicts, dual city scene, simulated environments
Graham and Marvin’s (1999) comparison of that breaks its ties with localities and emphasize
urban places and electronic spaces is also use- on consumption and entertainment (Velibeyoglu
ful. The attributes of urban places are: Territory, & Gencel, 2006). Today, vital urban activities
material, visible, actual, tangible, embedded, such as working, recreation and entertainment
fixity and social space, where the attributes of are incorporating whilst the boundaries delineat-
electronic spaces are: Network, immaterial, ining these areas are blurring. Ritzer explains the
visible, virtual, intangible, disembedded, motion process of mixing of urban activities in the case
and logical space. The main difference between of consumption activities. Now a single building
50
complex can be able to house a number of urban to the traditional public space that is empty and
activities such as walking, shopping, recreation that looses much of its functions (Velibeyoglu &
in its structure (Ritzer, 2004). Gencel, 2006 p.6).
Another dimension is the problem of “scale” If public spaces are considered as active ur-
in the electronic communication paradigm. With ban void areas and are allowed to construct their
the time-space compression (Harvey 1990), ur- identity by their users, an opportunity will arise
ban spaces have begun to be reshaped by distant for the sustainability of these spaces in the future.
effects. People connecting virtual cities are able The combination of real and virtual spaces that
to shape their lives and relations with global results as an augmented space, has redefined the
communication networks. The discussion on the way urban planners conceive, plan and control
emerging realm of the virtual cities introduces a space in cities. This augmentation is linked to the
different viewpoint on the current understanding development of the ability to communicate and to
of public spaces in the information age. City’s be present in multiple spaces with the help of the
public spaces must be accessible to all groups ICTs. The city which is a consequence of many
of people. The problematic construction of ac- role-players and forces operate both in global to lo-
cess for both real and virtual spaces needs to cal dimensions, utilizing tools which are invisible
be scrutinized. In the seamless integration of and strategic. They are knitted together through
real and virtual public spaces the problem of both physical and virtual networks of connection,
ownership and the blurring boundary between telecommunication, social and political relation-
private and public realm should be underlined. ships (Firmino et al., 2008). However, urban
In high-tech world of the individualistic self, studies and policies still discard ICT issues. This
technology enables a territorialization of private study intends to fill this gap. The complexity of the
and semi-public spaces. amalgamation of virtual and real spaces (Graham
According to Lynch (1981) public spaces and Marvin, 1999) in the settings of urban public
should be welcoming to the members of the spaces needs a holistic approach of urban planning,
community that they serve. The friendliness in a management and design, which is referred to as
virtual public space, on the other hand, resembles the eco-tech approach in this study. The temporal
an issue of interface design. In recent decades, changes in community interactions change the
the substitution effect of new technologies has spatial pattern. There are different spaces and
been concerned by urban planners and designers different spatial relations. The built environment
and is considered as a serious threat to most of designed in a particular manner will promote
the conventional urban patterns and functions certain kind of social behavior (Gregory & Urry,
in urban public spaces. For example, online de- 1985). A new type of urban design process should
livery of many urban services has been blamed be configured in a locally sensitive way and should
to disrupt the liveliness the streets. New public take into account various users and demands. As
spaces capture people as consumers. Similarly, Harvey points out that there is a strong relation-
technological initiatives identify people as clients ship between technological changes in economic
or end-users. The new semi-public spaces, such production and structural changes in quality and
as shopping malls, or the Internet as a virtual production of urban spaces. In this context, urban
public space have raised new questions on the design is an effective tool that advances the quality
users of public spaces. These new semi-public of the urban environment.
spaces are mostly in private hands that bring high Eco-tech city, which is a product of a sustain-
security and control. Segregation and the trend of able urban design, is a place where all citizens
privatization gain significance. This is a threat are able to harness the full potential of ICT in
51
pursuit of equitable and sustainable development. on how we produce, buy, use and apply ICT.
The residents, businesses and communities in the These decisions include energy savings through
eco-tech city have access to a broadband connec- monitoring and managing energy use, creating
tion. To use ICT effectively, they have literate more efficient transport systems, reducing travel
information and access to relevant and appropriate needs through electronic commerce, video links
training to improve their skills. The eco-tech city and other forms of electronic transactions, produc-
is influenced by the declaration of principles from ing fewer physical products that consume finite
the World 1st Summit on the Information Society resources and increasing interaction between
(http://www.wsis.org). ICT underpins much of people and organizations. The questions to be
the social, economic, environmental and cultural answered are as follow (Madden & Weißbrod,
future of the eco-tech city. This strategy provides 2008): Do we minimize the resources used in
a future roadmap for the community, business, and manufacturing the hardware and maximize the
government partnerships. New communication social benefits for communities in the supply
networks point to opportunities for more flexible chain? Do we remarkably improve the energy
living, working and learning. ICT is embedded efficiency by increasing the use of renewable
in the children’s futures through their schooling energy? Do we ensure re-use, recycling and
and future employment opportunities. A digital responsible disposal? Do we create wealth and
future is a reality. Delivering eco-tech strategy satisfy needs with a lower environmental impact?
involves many stakeholders, such as central and Do we reduce the need for people and things to
local government institutions, business, commu- move and transport things more efficiently? Do we
nity agencies and groups, education sector, and enable people to connect, interact and strengthen
individual citizens. These stakeholders provide their communities? Do we innovate to solve the
ideas and resources; project skills, support ser- problems of how we live together sustainably,
vices, and funding. Each community is different locally and across the world?
than the other and for this reason, has different One of the innovations presented in this study
needs. Each project is uniquely molded to the as eco-tech community is to reach sustainability.
community it serves and ideally it is designed by ICT can be used in attaining eco-tech city’s main
its stakeholders. So, eco-tech city approach seeks goal, which is to reduce the ecological footprint.
support from the key stakeholders to recognize It can facilitate networks, partnerships and actions
itself and its synergies with their individual strate- to work things out in a complex and connected
gies, frameworks and action plans, such as in the world regardless of location, age, disability or
City of Waitakere (WETA, 2004). income. Can ICT help to build a more inclusive
Sustainable development depends on human society? Television, for instance, is long argued to
capital, good governance, an effective use of be a prototype in the discourse of social decline,
natural resources and the protection of the environ- and is accused of isolating people, eroding social
ment for future generations. ICTs can contribute consciousness through a process of becoming
to all these factors. If ICT is applied effectively, apolitical. Hence, it is normal to hesitate when
the rewards can be enormous. socio-political functions of new communication
It can help to enhance creativity and innova- technologies, or namely the virtual environment,
tion, build communities, give more people access are of concern (Barlas & Caliskan, 2006). Despite
to goods and services, and use natural resources the fears that e-revolution will contribute to the
more efficiently. erosion of social relationships and undermine
We have the capacity to secure significant local communities, there are plenty of examples
social and economic benefits with our decisions on the contrary. Many people have established
52
online relationships in addition to, rather than tial to deliver real improvements to people and
instead of, existing social networks. Sometimes the planet (Madden & Weißbrod, 2008): Energy,
this occurs via new forms of virtual community, shopping, work and meeting.
more often through strengthening the existing ICT brings benefits in various sectors, which
patterns of social interaction. Online communi- have impacts on the urban and rural space. In
ties can influence how people work and socialize. agriculture, ICT is being used to help to minimize
These are new technical substructures enabling waste in a water-intensive industry. The ICT
new modes of socialization. Examples of such firms can produce a wireless sensor network to
communities include MySpace, Facebook etc. help farmers optimizing irrigation. Each sensor
They keep online diaries- blogs and comment on monitors soil moisture, leaf temperature and
them. In this sense, it can be referred to text-based evaporation. Some projects look at how embedding
socialization, which leaves out normal forms of technology in industrial greenhouses might lead
perception and cognition. These networks plug into to the reduction of water, energy and chemical
the net to share information and to give technical use to grow food.
or emotional support to the others. On the other Furthermore, ICT has a high potential impact
hand, online communities tend to communicate in on the rational use of heating energy. Heating
only one language: English. This means that some has a higher share in total energy consumption,
of the potential for cultural exchange and learn- and the most effective conservation measures
ing is not being realized and language diversity using physical materials tend only to be applied
is being undermined. to a relatively small number of buildings that are
Online interaction often encourages interac- renovated or newly built each year.
tion off-line, and this may help to re-establish ICT can also spawn new business models.
local communities rather than obliterate them. Some home-delivery services for organic food
Sometimes, after online meetings, physical meet- are mainly based on online ordering. Online
ings can take place in a café or a restaurant or an shopping provides an opportunity to reduce the
urban square to talk face-to-face. The social role environmental impact of retailing, as well as in-
of ICTs has so far focused on the Internet but creasing choice, information and targeting. Urban
mobile phones play a significant role in social designers should find some solutions to keep the
networks as well. Promoted access devices include shopping streets alive.
mobile phones, information kiosks and resource Altering the work environments can also de-
centers are among the means used to broaden the liver productivity and environmental gains. For
ICT access. example, virtual meetings can save travel time
How ICT can be a central mediator for a more and environmental costs of passenger transport.
sustainable living in cities? The ICT industry plays Until recently, video conferencing facilities often
a compelling role in delivering a low carbon, produced poor sound and visual quality. However,
sustainable future. For this reason, the industry today, high-definition video conferencing system
must move from a model based on ever increasing networks offer better results.
consumption of natural resources to a service-led ICT is particularly important for current urban
future that is more efficient and less reliant on planning issues. Municipalities can benefit from
hard-wired solutions. the use of ICT to facilitate specific planning ac-
By looking at the bigger picture, the opportuni- tivities. Use of geographical information systems,
ties for greening the ICT actually lie, not in the for example, simplifies complex planning data
production and use of ICT, but in its application. the analysis and contributes to more accurate
Some key areas exist where ICT has the poten- information. Additionally, Internet is a source of
53
information for planning. ICT facilitates scenario institutions. Negative impacts of a further ICT
development, which is useful for forecasting out- use for urban planning such as limited creativity,
comes of alternate planning policies among which standardization, simplification and unification are
planners are able to choose the most sustainable put forward as well.
development option. Visualizing planning issues ICT will only be able to support sustainable
with the help of 3D modeling contributes to a reli- urban development when certain conditions are
able forecast of planning outcomes, such as visual met (INTELCITY, 2003): High accessibility of
impact, noise and wind analyses. ICT is used to ICT needs to be guaranteed by low cost of equip-
disseminate planning information via Internet and ment. ICT knowledge and awareness have to be
to promote the transparency of activities and public encouraged by offering ICT training to city ad-
awareness of planning and sustainability issues. ministrations and public. ICT development should
Planning participation is supported to achieve a be based on local skills and knowledge but not
better collaboration between public administration on foreign experts. The legislative frame should
and civil society. Citizens are asked to comment stimulate ICT development. A well-organized
on local and strategic urban planning projects. system of data collection and processing regarding
Finally, ICT is used for international communi- sustainable urban development is required.
cation because communication becomes easier
and faster.
Currently ICT is mostly used for information ConCluSion
retrieving. Additionally, some municipalities
actively use the internet to support sustainable ICT is a tool that constitutes a new infrastructure,
urban development, for example, by providing a changing the way our societies function, while its
database for vacant inner-city building lots and technical applications will give us totally new op-
promoting an infill development and energy use portunities to both preserve the best elements of
in buildings with maps, such as in Haringey Mu- our society, and develop new and better solutions
nicipality, London (Nisancioglu, 2008). to our existing problems. ICT is global, crosscut-
ICT will facilitate future work in urban plan- ting, low-cost and fosters the dissemination of
ning and promote sustainability. Creating and knowledge. In general, ICT is best viewed as a
calculating models, simulations and scenarios catalyst that can speed up current negative trends,
will contribute to improved planning informa- or alternatively contribute to a shift towards sus-
tion systems and simplify the forecast in process tainable development in cities.
of the impact of different various alternatives on This chapter attempted to synthesize knowledge
urban sustainability. Simulation, multimedia and from sustainable community development topics,
interaction can even be substituted in traditional eco-tech urban design and ICTs in order to identify
plans containing maps and texts and encourage how three concepts interact and overlap. The aim
communication of planning issuesby increasing is to create visionary energy-saving infrastructure
participation in planning the social acceptance solutions for establishing long term, stable and
of plans. Additionally, ICT can lead to efficient dynamic societies. We must extend the definitions
infrastructure planning, a better management of of urban planning and design to encompass virtual
services, and help spreading the information on spaces as well as physical ones. We should recon-
best practices of urban sustainability. sider the vital bonds that hold cities together and
The impact of ICT on urban planning will to reinvent urban design and development while
depend on technological innovations, regulations adapting desirable, feasible, possible technologies,
and the adaptation of ICT by planners and planning and maintaining social bonds.
54
This study will contribute to an extended un- planning and design of sustainable communities.
derstanding of urban restructuring in new century It should be used as an educational project to
cities and the utilization of new ICTs as a means foster environmental stewardship and lifelong
to urban development by the eco-tech concept. learning opportunities for members of the wider
If ICTs seem to threaten the social and cultural community.
stable society and is against social sustainability, The eco-tech city model fully exploits the po-
there is a vital need to organize a hybrid of real tential of ICT and leverages it for greater participa-
spaces and digital spaces. The concept that was tion, efficiency and transparency in functioning of
drawn in this chapter embraces the possibilities the local government as well as in time and cost
of sustainable ICTs and proposes green options savings in decision-making. ICTs encourage and
towards the implementation of ICTs as commu- facilitate effective public participation in planning
nication tools in an eco-tech environment that by providing the necessary skills to planners and
fulfills local values. public to communicate with each other, and by
Sustainability points to the reduction of the developing the appropriate tools that would make
ecological footprint such as resource inputs and such communication meaningful. The eco-tech
waste outputs, whilst simultaneously the improve- city addresses all participants in the planning
ment of the quality of life in health, housing, ac- process, improves communication skills, and
cessibility, community etc., within the capacity acquires an understanding of the built environ-
limits of a city. ICT systems can play a valuable ment and spatial representations. ICT provides
role in reducing organizations’ wider carbon an opportunity to broaden public participation in
footprints, for example, by reducing the need for government by crossing geographical boundaries.
travel through videoconferencing. Use of ICT Web-based tools and workspaces help interaction
leads to lower resource consumption, addition- on service design and delivery; they facilitate ac-
ally; it leads to lower transport use of means of cess to local government information, and enable
thus, decreasing the use of fuel and pollution. ICT access to information and consultation. They build
also fosters inclusion in information societies in engagement with governmental agencies and
eco-tech settlements. exchange information. Kiosks provide access to
Collaboration and quality of life increase in government information and transact to receive
small eco-tech settlements. Solution is grounded a governmental service.
in place. When the size of the settlement enlarges, The key of green future in urban planning and
the problems escalate. Small, compact eco-tech design is in the hands of technology supporting
settlements connected to the metropolitan cities local applications. ICT-enabled developments of
by rail systems will solve the problems of met- mixed-use, walkable, and sustainable neighbor-
ropolitan life and the heavy pressure on people hoods can improve the environmental performance
created by stress, traffic, pollution etc. The feeling of cities significantly. Realizing these benefits on
of alienation in a residence, sitting in front of the a broader scale, however, requires major changes
computer and meeting people only in virtual envi- in the process of financing, designing, and manag-
ronments will be prevented by eco-tech settlements ing the built environment. This study, hopefully,
and their wide applications around metropolitan enlightens the target group of practitioners and
cities. In an eco-tech city, ICT helps to equalize policy makers in decision-making. Authorities
and promote participation in society at all levels should put out their own efforts to build up de-
(i.e. social relationships, work, culture, political mand for new configurations of real estate, ICT
participation, etc.). Eco-tech city model will be a infrastructure in newly developed spaces, and all
template for development elsewhere to encourage the associated technological hardware and services
55
embedded in them. Public subsidies, discounted Barlas, M. A., & Caliskan, O. (2006). Virtual
land deals, infrastructural assistance, tax discount, Space As a Public Sphere: Rethinking The Political
credibility and the sheer marketing weight of and Professional Agenda of Spatial Planning And
public policy makers can be advantageous to raise Design. METU Journal of Faculty of Architecture,
the profile of new eco-tech settlements by public 23(2), 1–20.
and private partnerships. With proper focus, plan-
Bauman, Z. (1998). Globalization: The Human
ning and policies, eco-tech cities can become the
Consequences. New York: Columbia University
centers of ICT-enabled innovation for sustainable
Press
growth. The future urban society will be happier,
less lonely, more prosperous, healthier and more B.G.D. Consulting Inc. (2002). Implementation
involved in decision-making. Options Report 2002. Retrieved July 28, 2004 from
Finally, science, which created technology, is http://www.milton.ca/execserv/ecotech_imple-
referred to bring the end of the world; however, it mentation.pdf
is again the science, which will save the world and
Bld, A. (n.d.). The features of the settlement.
ensure more livable places for human beings.
Retrieved May 5, 2005 from http://www.arco-
santi.orghttp://www.arcosanti.org/project/project/
future/arcosanti5000/main.html
referenCeS
Bogunovich, D. (2002). Eco-tech cities: Smart
Akca, H., Sayili, M., & Esengun, K. (2007). metabolism for a green urbanism. In C.A. Brebbia,
Challenge of rural people to reduce digital divide Martin-Duque and L.C. Wasdhwa (Ed.), The Sus-
in the globalized world: Theory and practice. tainable City II, (pp.75-84). London: Witpress.
Government Information Quarterly, 24, 404–413.
doi:10.1016/j.giq.2006.04.012 Callenbach, E. (1994). Ekotopya. Istanbul: Ayrinti
Yayinlari.
Amborski, D., & Lister, N. M. (2002). An Eco-
Tech Village for Milton: Considerations for Policy. Castells, M. (1989). The Informational City.
Commissioned by the Town of Milton, Toronto. Cambridge, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
Arapkirlioglu, K. (2003). Ekoloji ve Planlama. Clark, M. (2001). Domestic futures and sustainable
Planlama, 4-. residential development. Futures, 33, 817–836.
doi:10.1016/S0016-3287(01)00021-0
Arifoglu, A. (2004). E-Dönüşüm, Yol Haritası,
Dünya, Türkiye. Ankara:Yıldız Yayınları. Davis, M. (1992). Fortress Los Angeles: the
Militarization of Urban Space. In M.Sorkin, (Ed.),
Atabek, U. (2003). Iletisim Teknolojileri ve Yerel Variations on a Theme Park (pp.154-180). New
Medya için Olanaklar. Istanbul: IPS. York: Noonday Press.
Auge, M., & Howe, J. (1995). Non-Places: In- Drewe, P. (2000). ICT and Urban Form Urban
troduction to Anthropology of Supermodernity. Planning and Design- Off The Beaten Track,
London: Verso. Design Studio Study, Faculty of Architecture,
Bandyopadhyay, P. (2001). Application of Infor- Delft University of Technology, Delft.
mation Technology and Impact of Cyber Eco Cities
in New Millennium. In ISOCARP Prooceedings,
Utrecht, (pp. 68-77).
56
Ekostaden web site (n.d.). City of Malmö, Swe- htpp://wsis.org

den. Retrieved September 14, 2004 from http://
http://www.integerproject.co.uk/maidenhead.
www.ekostaden.com/pdf/en_hallbar_stad_eng.
html (05/05/2005).
pdf http://www.ekostaden.com/pdf/det_grona_
bo01_eng.pdf http://www.ekostaden.com/pdf/ http://www.integerproject.co.uk/project.html
vectura_eng.pdf
http://www.integerproject.co.uk/wolverhampton.
Ercoskun, O. Y. (2007). Ecological and Techno- html
logical (Eco-Tech) Design for A Sustainable City:
http://www.workraft.org.nz/WETA%20ac-
A Case Study on Gudul, Ankara. Unpublished
tion%20plan.pdf
doctoral dissertation, Gazi University, Ankara,
Turkey. Integer web site “Intelligent and Green Proj-
ects”
Firmino, R. J., Duarte, F., & Moreira, T. (2008).
Pervasive Technologies and Urban Planning in the INTELCITY. (2003). EU Final Report, VTT
Augmented City . Journal of Urban Technology, Finland.
15(2), 77–93. doi:10.1080/10630730802401983
Karaaslan, S., & Ercoskun, O. Y. (2006). Eco-Tech
Gauzin-Müller, D. (2002). Sustainable Architec- Planning for Turkish Cities. Paper presented at
ture And Urbanism. Berlin: Birkhäuser. 12th Annual Sustainable Development Research
Conference, Hong Kong.
Graham, S. (2002). Bridging Urban Digital Di-
vides? Urban Polarisation and Information and Logan, K. (2001). Seaside Turns 20. Architecture
Communications Technologies (ICTs). Urban Week, 0919, 1–2.
Studies (Edinburgh, Scotland), 39(1), 33–56.
Luke, T. (1994). The Politics of Arcological Uto-
doi:10.1080/00420980220099050
pia: Soleri on Ecology, Architecture and Society.
Graham, S., & Marvin, S. (1999). Planning Telos, 101(55).
Cyber-Cities? Integrating Telecommunications
Lynch, K. (1981). Good City Form. Cambridge,
into Urban Planning. The Town Planning Review,
MA: The MIT Press
70(1), 89–114.
Madden, P., & Weißbrod, I. (2008). Connected
Gregory, D., & Urry, J. (Eds.). (1985). Social
ICT and sustainable development, Forum for
Relations and Spatial Structures. London: Mac-
the Future. Menlo Park, CA: Sun Microsystems
millan.
Publication.
Hancock, T. (1993). Strategic Directions for
Madinipour, A. (1996). Design of Urban Space.
Community Sustainability”, publication of the
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
B.C. Roundtable on the Environment and the
Economy, Canada. Mahizhnan, A. (1999). Smart Cities the Singapore
Case. Cities (London, England), 16(1), 13–18.
Harvey, D. (1990) The Condition Of Postmoder-
doi:10.1016/S0264-2751(98)00050-X
nity. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Marras, A. (1999). ECO-TEC Architecture of the
Harvey, D. (2000). Spaces of Hope. Berkley, CA:
In-Between. New York: Princeton Architectural
U of California Press.
Press.
htpp://gen.ecovillage.org
57
MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Cen- Todd, N. J., & Todd, J. (1993). From Eco-Cities to
ter For Real Estate. (2005). New Century Cities: Living Machines; principles for ecological design.
Real Estate Value in a Digital World. Symposium Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.
Case Studies Report, 1-24.
Van der Ryn, S., & Cowan, S. (1999). Ecological
Nisancioglu, S. (2008). Climate Change and Design. Washington DC: Island Press.
environmental urban planning: Implementations
Velibeyoglu, K., & Gencel, Z. (2001). Urban
of Haringey Municipality. Paper Presented at the
Design in Changing Public Spaces of Information
International Conference on Ecological and Tech-
Age. Paper Presented at 1st International Urban
nological Cities, Gazi Uni. Ankara, Turkey.
Design Meeting, rendez-vous Istanbul.
Odendaal, N. (2003). Information and Com-
Velibeyoglu, K., & Gencel, Z. (2006). Reconsid-
munication Technology and local governance:
ering the Planning and Design of Urban Public
understanding the difference between cities in
Spaces in the Information Age: Opportunities &
developed and emerging economies . Computers,
Challenges, Public Spaces in the Information
Environment and Urban Systems, 6(27), 585–607.
Age. Paper Presented at 42nd ISoCaRP Congress,
doi:10.1016/S0198-9715(03)00016-4
Istanbul.
Ritzer, G. (2004). Enchanting a Disenchanted
Viikki- Science Park & Latokartano Guide. (2004).
World, (2nd Ed.). New York: SAGE Publishers.
City of Helsinki Planning Department, Town
Saleh, M. A. E. (2004). Learning from tradition: Planning Division, (pp. 1-10).
the planning of residential neighborhoods in a
Welsh, G. (1996). A review of Manuel Castells’
changing world. Habitat International, 28(4),
The Informational City. Department of Computer
625–639. doi:10.1016/S0197-3975(03)00031-6
Science and Information Systems, American Uni-
Sennett, R. (1992). The Fall of Public Man. New versity, Washington, DC.
York: W.W. Norton & Company.
WETA. (2004).Waitakere Municipality web
Singh, K. A. (2004). Bo01, A New Ecological Ur- site, Action Plan. Retrieved October 13, 2004
ban District in Malmö, Sweden, A Post-Occupancy from http://www.workraft.org.nz/WETA.htm
Assessment of The Area”, Unpublished Masters (13/10/2004)
thesis, IHS-HDM, Rotterdam, Lund.
Yalciner, O. (2002). Depreme Dayanikli Kentler
Slessor, C. (1997). Eco-tech: Sustainable Archi- icin Cografi Bilgi Sistemleri (Geographic Infor-
tecture and High Technology. London: Thames mation Systems for Earthquake-Resistant Cities).
& Hudson. Journal of Gazi University . Engineering and
Architecture Faculty, 17(3), 153–165.
Soja, E. (2000). Postmetropolis: Critical Studies
of Cities and Regions. Oxford: Blackwell. Zukin, S. (1995). Culture of Cities. Oxford, MA:
Blackwell Publishers.
Sorkin, M. (Ed.). (1992). Variations on a Theme
Park: The New American City and the End of
Public Space. New York: Hill and Wang.
enDnoteS
The Aalborg Charter. (1994). Charter of Euro-
pean Cities and Towns Towards Sustainability. 1
Oykos-living environment, logos-science
Copenhagen: Denmark. (Arapkirlioğlu,2003)
58
2
Tekne-production, skill, logos-science Callenbach’s ecotopia (ecology+utopia)
(Atabek, 2003) (Callenbach, 1994).
3
Techno-ecotopia, is a term introduced by
Bogunovich. He combines technology which
is abbreviated as techno with the term of
59
60
Chapter 4
ECORadar-Shakti:
An Interactive Knowledge Base
Contributing to the Greening
of an Indian Megacity
Martin Kreeb
Potsdam University of Management and Communication, Germany
Georg Dold
Potsdam University of Management and Communication, Germany
Hans-Dietrich Haasis
Bremen University, Institute for Production and Logistics, ISL, Germany
abStraCt
This chapter describes concept, design and future implementation of a knowledge based Internet por-
tal - ECORadar Shakti India - aimed at small and medium sized enterprises of the Indian megacity
Hyderabad. The portal sets out to use the simplest and most persuasive means to motivate and enable
sustainability management in those enterprises that have so far taken little or no interest in this aspect of
management. Hyderabad, a prime example of an emerging mega city, is a laboratory where the goal of
becoming a sustainable mega city faces of difficult challenges. The intention to work towards a sustain-
able future will be difficult to achieve without adequate data, tools and implementation strategies. The
research idea of this approach in Hyderabad was set up in a research program funded by the German
Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF).
introDuCtion and urban condensation of humankind is happening

at an enormous speed that challenges innovativeness
The trend towards urbanization and the increasing and strategic agendas of politics, economics and civil
number and size of metropolitan areas and megaci- societies. Metropolitan regions and megacities are
ties in all parts of the world but especially in the focal points of sustainable development because they
developing and newly industrializing countries is a give rise to massive problems in all three dimen-
striking example of global change. This restructuring sions of sustainability. At the same time, however,
opportunities arise for innovation strategies and
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch004
ECORadar-Shakti
for the support of efficient, compact and sustain- In the second chapter the original concept
able economic systems and lifestyles. Viewed and scope of ECORadar-Shakti as an interac-
from this perspective, such cities are more and tive, internet-based knowledge base to support
more becoming arenas of decision about global corporate sustainability management is shown.
sustainable development. Today’s megacities are The third part describes the results of the authors
of particular political interest because they offer research work on site in Hyderabad and derives
the chance for precautionary intervention and design concepts to be applied to an ECORadar
targeted urban development in order to prevent prototype which is planned to be implemented
economic, social and ecological crises and to in the city of Hyderabad. The last part evaluates
preserve or create scope for action. the project status and describes further steps of
Hyderabad, India’s fifth largest city is one of development.
these “megacities”. The SHAKTI1-project, funded
by the German Federal Ministry of Education and
Research aims to develop collaborative learning the Web-baSeD eCoraDar-tool
and planning processes to design and implement
sustainable solutions for urban infrastructure A large variety of research has been published in
(Schwaiger, Wall & Gotsch, 2007). Among other the field of environmental management during the
SHAKTI-initiatves, which aim directly at the last 20 years. The problem is the conversion of this
improvement of the urban infrastructure e.g. mo- knowledge into enterprise practice. Development-
bility or housing, the project “ECORadar-Shakti” target of the ECORadar-portal is to reduce the
is aimed at small and medium sized companies information costs of those SME enterprises, which
(SME) of the Hyderabad metropolis. It sets out are interested in environmental management. In
to use the simplest and most persuasive means to order to achieve this target, a strategic Community
motivate and enable sustainability management concept of the third generation has been developed
in those enterprises that have so far taken little or in order to build a knowledge-community in the
no interest in this aspect of management. SME sector (Kreeb 2002).
The concept and prototypical implementation The main emphasis of the ECORadar-com-
of ECORadar was originally developed in Ger- munity is on the knowledge field and the service
many. It was especially designed to help SMEs and project-areas. The community started as a
in Germany to enhance their corporate sustain- project-community. In the beginning, ECORadar,
ability management systems. The purpose of this as a classical research project, is measuring the
chapter is to describe the process of transferring success by certain criteria focusing on timeframe
ECORadar from a highly industrialized country and milestones (Bullinger 2002). An additional
- for whose needs it was originally developed - feature is the use of a virtual project team (sci-
to an area with very high rates of growth in all entists, consultants, entrepreneurs). A virtual
terms. The two geographical areas could not be cooperation has been realized by establishing a
more different from each other: Germany with specific editorship- and tele-cooperation system.
its very high standards in terms of environmental These project-communities represent the prelimi-
and social protection and advanced managerial nary stage on the way to a knowledge-community.
knowledge base on the one side. An Indian ECORadar is a knowledge network stretched
megacity counting 6.8 million inhabitants2, a beyond the limits of individual universities and
population growth rate of more than 3% per enterprises.
year, environmental and social standards com- Wenger & Snyder (2000]) describes the knowl-
paratively poorly developed. edge-community as a “flexible organizational unit,
61
ECORadar-Shakti
beyond official organizational resp. informal units. The original concept of portals was focused
The community is animated by the common interest on the private, individual Internet user. The idea
of the members in the field of knowledge. The par- of the portal is now increasingly focusing on in-
ticipation is voluntary. The motivation to participate dividual companies. This is called an “Enterprise
is a positive cost/benefit relation”. The collective Information Portal” (EIP). An EIP is focused both
benefit is categorized by Rheingold (1994, 2002) on internal users (employees and management) and
using the following three dimensions: external parties (customers, suppliers and other
stakeholders of the company). The internal focus
• Social use, identification by a common of the portal has increasingly been on knowledge-
goal management and the supply of software applica-
• Knowledge capital, use of knowledge from tions (i.e. inventory management, PPS, sales).
various sources The external focus has in addition also functions
• Community feeling, system of real con- for transactions like e-procurement, e-logistics and
tacts and experience backgrounds supply-chain-management. The internal interface
is sometimes referred to as “Workplace”, while the
The ECORadar-community understands itself external side is called “Marketplace”. The themes
as community of interests, with the following of a portal, like applications, content and services
features defined by Hagel & Armstrong (1997): can be designed to suit the needs of a specific geo-
graphical like the Hyderabad-region or enterprise
• Focus and emphasis on a specific interest and the themes can also be selected to cover the
• The ability to integrate contents and com- requirements of a specific task or problem. It is
munication (Reisch/Bietz/Kreeb 2007) also possible to mix a focus of a specific subject
• The use of information, supplied by the and a specific enterprise. The basic idea of ECO-
members Radar is the combination of “Enterprise Radar”
• The access to competing providers and “Surrounding Field Radar”. This is the ideal
basis to create a theme-related portal with a public/
The major task of the community-developers external side (“Marketplace”) to supply content
is the professional relations management between and services for all companies and individuals
the individual community-members. The goal of that are interested in “Sustainable Management”
the ECORadar-relation management is to integrate and an internal side (“Workplace”) to supply the
over 100 participants in the community process. enterprise with functions for “Environmental-
This means that anonymous co-worker will be trans- Management” with both strategic and operational
formed into active community-members. The socio- tasks (Kuhre 1998).
economic-group-dynamic processes together with
technological-organizational processes have abso- analytical framework of the
lute priority. It could be summarized as: Who makes eCoradar knowledge-Community
what with whom for which purpose? The German
content development of ECORadar was generated Modeling complex software like Community-
by several workshops with the users (esp. small and Portals is a challenging task. Standard design and
medium sized companies) and content developers analysis patterns can be helpful but don’t usually
(e.g. consultants and environmental scientists and show how to apply techniques or demonstrate
environmental administration) and ECORadar users, working examples that are similar to the prob-
which give information and knowledge, back via lem at hand. Lieberman (2007) pointed out that
virtual communication by using email. “Fortunately, you can use analytical frameworks
62
ECORadar-Shakti
Table 1. Business analysis framework of ECORadar (see Lieberman, 2007)
Element Description ECORadar Activity

Word processing, modeling software, document version Using a CMS (Imperia) and MSVisio to collect content
Tools
control
Industry-specific patterns, business systems patterns, Best practice of sustainability business leaders, scientists
Patterns
business organization structures and NGO
• What (Environmental Data)
• How (Function) Providing Tools & Information
• Where (Network): ECORadar-Virtual-Network (User
Model- Generated Content)
Zachman Framework
forms • Who (People): Important Sustainability Organizations
• When (Time): List of ECORadar Workshop Series/Events
• Why (Motivation): Business Goals/Strategies like Sup-
porting Sustainability Management
Observation, interviewing the ECORadar Network Mem-
Techniques Observation, interviewing, document study
bers during the workshops
Note-taking, active listening, meeting facilitation, team Dto.
Skills
leadership, critical thinking, reasoning by analogy
Improving ECORadar Business analysis framework by
Categori- Business process framework, department hierarchy, busi-
ECORadar business use cases like Benchmarking tools,
zation ness use cases, business-functional dependency graph
Transportation Indicator Tool etc.
to collect and organize analysis patterns, tools, • Categorized: content and services struc-
skills, organization techniques, examples, and the tured by categories
expertise of others who have solved similar mod- • Personalized: individually designed to
eling problems”. Table 1 describes the Business achieve 1:1 relationships with users/
analysis framework of ECORadar based on the customers.
Zachmann Framework concept (Inmon, Zachman
& Geiger, 1997). The users of ECORadar identify several de-
ECORadar as a workable internet-tool cre- mands how they can improve their environmental
ates interactive, creative opportunities for the performance. The ECORadar project community
user (examples: automatic generation of indexes developed IT Tools, to cover the information de-
on the basis of a personal database; form-filling mands of the user, which is interested in sustainable
assistance; checklist programs). The concept management issues (Lehmann-Waffenschmidt
of the web portal ECORadar has proven to be 2007). The demand was located in the areas of
useful to handle the overwhelming data avail- decision support to sustain decision processes. The
able on the Internet. A portal can structure the decision and information demand was matched to
information and is able to display the content the specific ECORadar screens like data, policy,
in a user-friendly layout. This is the basis for an organization, costs and technology. One example:
effective research by the business community. A the user identifies a demand in his transport man-
portal is a universal and comfortable system to agement system, how to improve the environmen-
access applications, content and services that are tal performance of the transport fleet respectively
focused on a specific topic. .So the ECORadar expert group (consultants
& scientists) begin to program a software-tool,
• Task-oriented: adaptable regarding the which can describe the environmental influence
tasks of users or customers of the transport activity of companies. The tool
63
ECORadar-Shakti
needs the basic data of transport like vehicle distribution is supported, both by a specifically
type, tonne kilometer, specific fuel consumption designed tele-cooperation system as well as by
and fuel sort etc. of the users. This tool is able the portal itself (Riedl, Böhmann, Rosemann &
to generate individual transport indicators for Krcmar, 2008). That tele-cooperation model and
the environmental corporate balance and gives the portal are regularly updated by the experts and
information how corporate transport management are supporting the knowledge preservation in the
system is improved. enterprise (Haasis & Kriwald 2001). In the later
course of the project it has to be assessed by the
knowledge management in experts whether an ontology-based knowledge
the eCoradar-Community evaluation can be realized. The evaluation research
in co-operation with enterprise practice and with
For the joint-project an expert set of 21 different the help of empirical methods has to ensure that
research institutions is involved. The expert set has the quality criteria that are pursued by ECORadar
the function to edit the relevant knowledge of the such as environmental discharge, target group
“community-environment” so that enterprises can orientation and in particular practice fitness are
transfer this expert knowledge into the practical actually respected and realized. The evaluation
environment-oriented management. The knowl- of enterprise practice will be performed by the
edge management model of ECORadar supports practice-community.
the creation of knowledge within the enterprise The development team of ECORadar confirms
on the basis of the external source of knowledge the experience of Davenport & Prusak (1998),
in the sense of the ontological knowledge spiral. that knowledge can exclusively be created in the
The expert knowledge helps to support the ac- brains of the knowledge carriers. The knowl-
quisition of external knowledge and the develop- edge carriers of ECORadar are scientific experts
ment of own knowledge. The actual knowledge and entrepreneurs, who cooperate within the
Table 2. Knowledge warehouse vs ECORadar knowledge network approach based on (Wallert 2002)
Criteria Knowledge Warehouse Knowledge Network

Philosophy Externalization of knowledge Direct communication, Reference to human experts
Range of application • Structured problem areas • Unstructured problem areas
• Given goal • Goal not given
• Known relevance of information • Unknown interdependencies
• Consequences of the decision foreseeable • Consequences of the decision unforeseeable
• Re-usable solutions • Limited reusability of solutions
Artificial Intelligence High Low
Knowledge requirements Rules and methods Not exactly specifiable
Moment of knowledge division At the beginning of the knowledge process On demand
Method to display knowledge Structured knowledge Reference to knowledge carriers as well as presenta-
tions of expert’s assessment
Knowledge transfer Knowledge conveyed by knowledge carrier Bilateral negotiating of the modalities for the sharing
(experts) of knowledge
Role of IT Storage and processing of knowledge Support of the information process and communica-
tion process
Access to knowledge Information Retrieval & Data Mining Creating of contact and communication with knowl-
edge carrier
64
ECORadar-Shakti
community-process. The primary focus is on the individually if preferred – to scan a company pro-
externalization of the expert’s knowledge. The file (Company Radar – ‘micro-level’) or the wider
know-how is transferred in an external information economic setting (Macro Radar – ‘macro-level’).
system (Knowledge Warehouse, CMS). External- The Company Radar is a system component that
ization of knowledge (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995) can be accessed from any ECORadar screen, en-
is especially suitable for standardizable knowledge abling users to systematically record and evaluate
(standards, laws, etc.). The recent experience of their company Environmental Data, Policy and
the ECORadar research project has shown that Goals. The Macro Radar, a similar system com-
direct communication in a Knowledge Network ponent that can be accessed from any ECORadar
is the best way to convey the expert’s knowledge screen, enables users to record and evaluate the
and experience. ‘macro-level’ on the basis of the latest research –
like global, national and regional Environmental
the eCoradar practice-Community Data and Environmental Goals.
Within the project ECORadar the internet-
Representatives of the joint project’s target group, portal is being created as environmental service.
enterprises in Germany, have already given it First, it is essential to embed information, refer-
broad approval in its start-up phase. Some 40 ences and checklists that have been already part
enterprises employing an estimated one million of the ECORadar-framework and former designs.
members of staff have made the decision to support In addition to these functions, the final version
production and development of the prototype. The will be able to support all interested by provid-
development of so-called ‘ECORadar’ screens is ing a virtual community. Further, it will also
to be carried out in eighteen workshops, hand in identify possibilities for cooperation between all
hand with business representatives and numer- participants. Finally, it is created to enable the
ous experts. The organization of the high-caliber integration of Environmental Management in
working groups has been taken on by Europe’s business processes. The first step is the creation
largest business-led environmental initiative, the of a user-friendly layout of the portal’s websites.
German Environmental Management Association The essentials are a clear graphical structure, easy
(BAUM e. V.), Hamburg. In addition, in summer handling and the direct access to the services that
2001 a representative written survey was con- are available within short download times.
ducted in around 9,000 enterprises. The survey
results reflect the state of the art in the field of portal Structure
sustainable management in German enterprises.
These results are integrated in the ECORadar de- Reflecting the development of a micro-macro-
velopment process in order to enable enterprises link respectively a link between company and
to identify relevant technical, political and eco- its surrounding the following eight screens has
nomic risks – but also market opportunities – in been selected each as theme-oriented platform for
the field of sustainability and environment much supporting services and information to business
earlier than their competitors (Bhattacharya, Sen and industry. The Company and the Macro Radar
& Korschun, 2008). represent the micro-macro-link in each screen.
The data are:
Content-model
The ECORadar system portal consists of eight

screens, which can be used as an ensemble – or
65
ECORadar-Shakti
Figure 1. ECORadar-portal-screenshot
environmental Data environmental policy
Environmental data are generally regarded as the The future environmental standards imposed on
‘oxygen’ of environmental policy and environ- enterprises are molded partly by their own en-
mental administration (Haastrup & Wurtz, 2007). vironmental policies but especially by national
The regional, national and global environmental governments and party programs. For example,
data provide a key basis on which companies can national environmental policy approaches for ac-
take action. Wherever the environmental situation tion form an important basis for the future use of
is monitored and observed, wherever citizens are ‘command-and-control’ instruments. In Germany,
surveyed on their subjective experience of envi- for instance, the ideas of the coalition parties, the
ronmental problems, this can provide the impetus opposition and the separate parties at national,
for action in environmental policy. Elementary federal state and municipal level are not the only
company environmental data, for example, might matters of importance. A considerable influence
be figures relating to energy, water, wastewater, is exerted on future environmental policy by the
waste, emissions and hazardous substances. Car- policy-making bodies of the European Union and
bon dioxide emissions would be one example of numerous other international organizations.
key global environmental data.
66
ECORadar-Shakti
environmental goals transfer in the environmental sphere is formed

by institutions such as the German Federal Envi-
While environmental data represent a significant ronmental Agency, the Federal Agency for Nature
basis on which to take environmental policy action, Conservation, the Federal German Foundation for
environmental goals provide principles for action, the Environment, and the International Transfer
which, for their part, form the basis for the future Centre for Environmental Technology. Likewise
application of environment policy instruments. the media, as environment policy opinion-formers,
Society should come together and use environ- play an important role in early detection.
ment quality objectives to define core elements
of environment policy action, working towards environmental Costs
sustainable management in years to come. A com-
pany’s own environmental targets, in contrast, are Monitoring and assessment of environmental costs
an element of the internal early detection system. in the widest sense (calculation of a company’s
Basically these should be geared to continuous pollution control costs, anticipation of external
improvement of environmental performance. costs and the costs of neglecting environmental
aspects, identification of potential cost reductions)
environmental organization is a permanent task within early detection. In par-
ticular, deducting – at least mentally – the costs
An effective environmental early-detection system of environmental degradation (today’s external
can only be incorporated successfully within the costs – tomorrow’s operating costs) is a strategic
enterprise once an efficient organization is in place element of eco-controlling.
for the structure and processes of environmental
performance. Because then, and only then, it is environmental market
possible to perform the target-performance com-
parisons which are necessary for early detection. Environmental protection has developed into a
Another important factor is to work closely with the significant economic factor over the past 30 years.
public environmental authorities and associations: In the year 2005 only, German private and public
environmental authorities are the pivotal interface sector spending on environmental protection was
between the letter of the law and its enforcement. around € 34,000 million. Studies predict that the
Enterprises that maintain good contacts with market for environmental technology and environ-
environmental authorities have swift access to mentally friendly products will continue to grow
information on new requirements according to internationally in the coming years. Admittedly
environmental legislation. Associations are seen as Germany still has a high market share in this area.
powerful environmental policy actors and can pass However, other industrial nations – notably the
on to their corporate members targeted advance USA, Canada and Great Britain – have developed
information on environmental performance, picked strategies for gaining targeted access to new
up during the course of their lobbying. markets and supporting exports of environmental
technology by their suppliers.
environmental knowledge
management environmental technology
Environmental know-how, both inside and outside Technical indicators play an important role in the
a company, is a central element of environmental early detection process. In particular, specialist
early-detection. A cornerstone for knowledge trade fairs and exhibitions not only create new
67
ECORadar-Shakti
contacts and stabilize business relationships but • Habits, Techniques and Content of
also provide advance information on technical Cooperation among Stakeholders in the
innovations. Delphi surveys are increasingly Area of Environmental Management
conducted as part of this technology foresight A preliminary prototype, showing basic
process, and these can serve to guide future stra- functionalities and content of today’s
tegic orientation. ECORadar was presented to selected inter-
view partners.
DeSigning eCoraDar for Summary of research results

the City of hyDerabaD
On the basis of our research on site in Hyderabad,
This chapter deals with requirements analysis three areas are of special interest were identi-
and design of ECORadar for the city of Hydera- fied:
bad (“ECORadar-Shakti”). First we summarize
the results of our preliminary research work in 1. The Role of Corporate
Hyderabad. In the first section we briefly describe Environmental Management Systems
our methodic approach. The second section sum-
marizes the results of our research work pertaining Benefits of corporate Environmental Management
the requirements of Indian SMEs. The third section Systems (EMS) like EMAS or ISO 14001 in Ger-
presents our design principles for an ECORadar- many are commonly seen in several categories. The
Shakti Prototype. subsequent table shows a brief summary of areas
of interest based on intensive research executed in
methodology Germany for the past years (Kreeb, 2005; Braun,
Russ, Schulz, Krcmar & Kreeb, 2005).
Whilst our visit to Hyderabad (7 Days), represen- Internally German SME benefit from imple-
tatives of relevant stakeholder groups, including menting EMS in terms of achieved improvements
NGOs like the local Chamber of Commerce & in ecological as well as financial performance
Industry or the Federation of Andhra Pradesh (Orlitzky, Schmidt & Rynes, 2003). This is mainly
Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FAPCCI), due to short- and long-term enhancement of mate-
the local city administration and selected managers rial- and energy efficiency of production processes.
and owners of SMEs of the industrial and com- In times of rising prices of globally sourced raw
merce sector were interviewed. The following materials, ecological and financial benefits of
topics were subject of these interviews: improved efficiency come hand in hand.
Green product innovations in terms of lowered
• Environmental and Sustainability ecological cost of carry for consumer of “green”
Management products and services are not seen to be much
Strategic role of EMS in domestic and export influenced by mainstream EMS. Marketing- and
business, Implementation of Management innovation departments of SME in most cases are
Tools, Technical and Organizational not linked to EMS in any way. General manage-
Knowledge-basis, Information- Demand and ment issues in terms of analysis and control of
Supply on various topics e.g. environmental business-processes can benefit from EMS in a
legislation etc. limited way. But still the material- and quality-
• Information & Communication- oriented views of EMS have some side effects
Infrastructure and -Usage on these issues.
68
ECORadar-Shakti
Table 3. Benefits of corporate environmental management systems
Category Sub-Category Description Importance indi-

cator (empirical)
Internal Ecological Performance Improving material- & energy-efficiency of internal processes High
and products
Financial Performance Reducing monetary cost of material and energy input High
Product Innovation Creation and marketing of eco-friendly products Low
General Management Objectives Enhancement of analysis and control of administrative- and Medium
production-processes
External Supply Chain Communication Certified Environmental Management Systems like EMAS or Medium, depend-
ISO 14.001 ff ing on branch
Deregulation of Environmental Replacement of legislative restrictions by voluntary implementa- Low, not as effec-
Legislation tion of certified EMS tive as expected
Externally the supply-chain communication 2. Information and Knowledge

is of some importance for EMS, depending on Demand and Supply
the branches. In automotive and other consumer-
oriented branches, EMS certificates like EMAS or SMEs as well as all other stakeholders have
ISO 14.001 play an important role in establishing a substantial demand for specific information
business relations. In other branches, more dis- in terms of theoretical knowledge as well as
tant to end-consumers, EMS certificates are of hands-on experience. This includes all areas
lesser importance and not seen as a prerequisite of expertise without exceptions (Kytle & Rug-
for business relations. The chance for substantial gie, 2005).
deregulation in the area of environmental legisla-
tion, meaning that legal authorities would replace 3. Cooperation among Stakeholders
specific legal restrictions for EMS certificates,
are not as profoundly realized as SMEs originally Cooperation among the stakeholders in the area
hoped for. of EMS is not very pronounced. Neither the
In the Hyderabad area as well as in all of India chambers of industry & commerce nor the city
(1250 EMS), 2004 the diffusion of EMS is not authorities are able to cover today’s information
very high, compared to Germany (6400 EMS) or demand from SMEs. Local or state authorities
the USA (3890 EMS). But stakeholder interviews are not very much accepted as potentially trusted
showed a clear interest of SMEs in this area. The sources of information.
managers and owners of companies had a very
pragmatic view on EMS and showed a special interpretation and evaluation
interest in the two areas “environmental and
financial performance” and “supply chain com- Looking at the situation in the above mentioned
munication”. Product innovation and deregulation three areas of special interest we conclude that
were of no special interest. Technical or organi- ECORadar-Shakti has some potential to be a
zational know-how in the areas of interest were valuable tool for SMEs as well as for supporting
quite low and help in any form would be more organizations e.g. relevant NGOs in the Hydera-
than welcomed by SMEs. bad area. But the success of ECORadar will be
strongly depending on some prerequisites:
69
ECORadar-Shakti
• Subject-specific content: Due to a Define the Role of Stakeholders

very pragmatic approach of SMEs to
Environmental Management the subject- For a successful and beneficial implementation
specific knowledge content offered on the of ECORadar five groups of stakeholders will be
platform is key to its success. It must be relevant as knowledge suppliers and demanders.
aligned closely to effective needs of the All of them are potential users and beneficiaries of
individual users and their entrepreneurial ECORadar. The subsequent table summarizes pur-
contexts. poses and relevant aspects of each role-group.
• Cooperation among SMEs: Besides the Above the aspects of role-groups are not
technical content provided by the platform, exhaustively outlined. The German ECORadar-
the cooperation of users is critical to its project has shown that knowledge-supply and
success. Due to the fact that Environmental –demand of stakeholders and thereby individual
Management for SMEs is not a critical is- users cannot be determined beforehand.
sue in a strategic sense, cooperation is ba-
sically helpful and economically sound. extend the Scope of knowledge-
• Cooperation with NGOs and local state Content to Social Sustainability
authorities: As expressed above, coopera-
tion between SMEs and local state authori- Actual information content on ECORadar is par-
ties is not very much developed or fruitful tially subject to supplier and demander’s interests
up-to-date. Is a difficult question whether and therefore cannot be fully controlled by its
ECORadar can positively influence this operator. The German project had a clear focus
situation at all. Cooperation with NGOs on environmental issues aiming to improve the
is much more likely to be beneficial for efficiency and effectiveness of corporate EMS in
the stakeholders involved. Some efforts terms of enhancing economical and environmental
should be made to support this type of performance. While social and health issues are
cooperation. strongly regulated and therefore are playing a
• Cooperation along the supply-chain: minor role in mature markets like Germany, in
Supply-Chain collaboration is a new top- India the situation is seen different. Considering
ic so far not emphasized in the German the strive for a sustainable development, the social
ECORadar project. Interviews with SMEs part within the sustainability triangle (economi-
have shown that transnational coopera- cal, social and ecological criteria in balance) has
tion along the value chain is of some in- to make up some ground. This will have to shift
terest. The potential benefit still has to be the current knowledge contents focus from envi-
evaluated. ronmental to social criteria.
The adequate selection and motivation of
extending the Scope of eCoradar suitable participants in the role-group of experts
could help to build an appropriate knowledge
Proceeding from these findings, the following base in this area of expertise. Recipients of this
section will discuss three major areas of develop- specialized content are SMEs as well as NGOs
ment of the ECORadar-Shakti project. The scope and local administration authorities. Above all,
extension must take into account the specific those stakeholders must be motivated to adopt a
situation found on-site. A 1:1 transfer of content new field of expertise so far fairly untapped.
and methods applied in the German project is
not feasible.
70
ECORadar-Shakti
Table 4. Role-groups and their relevant aspects on ECORadar
Role Group Main purpose of participation Knowledge supplied Knowledge demanded

SMEs Efficient implementation and running • Best practice guidelines (with • Rich knowledge-base, covering
of own EMS, thus gaining competi- support of NGOs) all relevant technical and economi-
tive advantage cal aspects of EMS
Local Government Efficient communication with subor- • Environmental Data & Regula- • Process-Know How of imple-
Authorities dinated SMEs tions mentation esp. regulations
NGOs3 Active support of member organiza- • Know-How of implementation, • Set-up of Cooperation
tions in terms of competitiveness & Best-Practice Guidelines • Aggregate Performance Measure-
sustainability performance • Aggregate demand of Stake- ment
holders • Benchmarking (Branch-specific)
• Practical Tools
Local Technical Participation in highly specialized • Know How of implementation • Set-up of Cooperation
Experts4 information market • Market-Data, Tools, etc. • Access to customers
Potential or actual “Greening” of own transnational • Know-How of implementation • Access to pioneering Indian
buyers of compo- supply-chain, thus reduction of envi- • Best-practice guidelines suppliers
nents (overseas) ronmental risk in supply chain • Performance data
• Environmental Reports
extend Collaborative functionalities exemplary scenarios of collaboration that are

likely to support the portals success.
As shown above, collaboration among stake-
holders, especially among local government
authorities and SMEs is much more difficult ConCluSion
than in Germany. But besides content, collabora-
tive functionalities will be key to ECORadar- The chapter outlined the basic concept of ECO-
Shakti´s success. Several different scenarios of Radar as a web-based knowledge base aimed
collaboration are taken into consideration. The to support and promote SME´s Environmental
subsequent table shows and summarizes three Management Systems in Germany. An extension
Table 5. Exemplary scenarios of collaboration in ECORadar-Shakti
Exemplary Scenario of Partners of collaboration Content & Benefits Tools

Collaboration
Enforcement of specific en- Responsible local & state • Publication and subscription of (tempo- • Server Push-Technology,
vironmental policies (water, authorities ⇔ SMEs rary) media- or branch specific restrictions SMEs as “Channel Sub-
air, waste etc.) (eventually facilitated by imposed by authority scriber”
NGOs) • Success control and aggregation reports
• Facilitation and acceleration of law en-
forcement process
Benchmarking of EMS SMEs ⇔ SMEs, (facili- • Interchange and aggregation of standard- • Structured, form-based
performance tated by NGOs) ized5 Key Performance Indicators (KPI) information exchange on
• Support of success control and Gap- Web-Platform
Analysis
Supply-chain collaboration SMEs ⇔ other domestic • Support of research process in terms of • Catalog- or search
SMEs or buyers overseas proven environmental or social performance engine-based research tools
standards • Publication portal
• Publication of environmental reports / KPI • RFP6- Marketplace
• E-mail communication
71
ECORadar-Shakti
of scope was proposed and roughly specified to referenCeS

deploy it as a tool to contribute to the greening of
an Indian megacity. It is obvious that prior to an Bhattacharya, C. B., Sen, S., & Korschun, D.
effective implementation of ECORadar-Shakti as (2008). Using Corporate Social Responsibility to
an offering for Indian SMEs (as primary address- Win the War for Talent. MIT Sloan Management
ees) and other stakeholders, major investments in Review, 49(2), 37–44.
scientific research, but also in (political) marketing Bleischwitz, R., & Hennicke, P. (2004). Eco-
and technology development would be necessary. efficiency, regulation, and sustainable business:
Since the success of such a platform is strongly towards a governance structure for sustainable
depending on the amount of participants and the development. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar
market share covered, a deepened cooperation with Publishing.
political stakeholders is essential – all the more
because a purely privately run system, depending Braun, R., Russ, M., Krcmar, H., Schulz, W. F., &
on monetary contributions of its users, is expected Kreeb, M. (2003). An Open-Source Community
to be difficult if not close to impossible to be real- for Building Ecological Tools. In Gnauck, A. &
ized.But a commercial implementation was not Heinrich, R. (Eds.) Umweltinformatik Aktuell,
the author’s aspiration. The objective was rather 17th International Conference Informatics for
to outline the fundamental possibilities of the tool, Environmental Protection Cottbus 2003. Part
may it be a system fully backed by politics or by 1: Concepts and Methods, (pp. 165-170), Mar-
a Public Private Partnership. Once implemented burg.
with a sufficient amount of users, the tool could be
Braun, R., Russ, M., Schulz, W. F., Krcmar, H., &
a valuable building block to push on the sustain-
Kreeb, M. (2004). Good-Practice-Examples and
ability strategy of the Hyderabad Megacity.The
Indicators: Internet-based solutions for the Sus-
proposed content and collaborative functionalities
tainable Management. In CERN (Eds.), EnviroInfo
surpass its German role model in some of its key
2004, 18th International Conference Informatics
aspects. While emerging market countries like
for Environmental Protection Genf 2004. Part 1,
India are less developed than western countries in
(pp. 24-32). Genf.
many domains, the utilization of innovative new
technologies is sometimes stunning, often surpass- Bullinger, H. J., Warnecke, H. J., & Westkämper, E.
ing the western level. This could also be true for (2003). Neue Organisationsformen im Unterneh-
the implementation of sustainability strategies on men: Ein Handbuch für das moderne Management.
a business or societal level. China markets a full Berlin: Springer.
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) in Eu-
Davenport, Th. H., & Prusak, L. (1998). Working
rope7, whereas leading German car manufacturers
Knowledge: How Organizations Manage What
are still in the mode of making announcements.
They Know. Boston: Harvard Business School
Against this background ECORadar-Shakti has
Press.
some potential, not only to improve the environ-
mental quality of the Hyderabad Megacity, but also Haasis, H. D., & Kriwald, T. (2001). Wissens-
to create a competitive advantage for the region management in Produktion und Umweltschutz.
and its resident companies. The regional expansion Berlin: Springer.
across India or other emerging market countries or
Haastrup, P., & Wurtz, J. (2007). Environmental
the vertical diversification to private consumers
Data Exchange Network for Inland Water. The
is another possibility to be considered.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science & Technology.
72
ECORadar-Shakti
Hagel, J., & Armstrong, A. (1997). Net gain - Reisch, L., Bietz, S., & Kreeb, M. (2006).
expanding markets through virtual communities. How to communicate sustainable lifestyles to
Boston: Harvard Business School Press. hard-to-reach consumers? A report on the large
scale experiment “balance-f”. In M. Charter &
Inmon, W. H., Zachman, J. A., & Geiger, J. G.
A. Tucker (Eds.), Proceedings of the SCORE!
(1997). Data stores, data warehousing, and the
Launch Conference “Sustainable Consumption
Zachman framework, Managing enterprise knowl-
and Production: Opportunities and Threats”,
edge. New York: McGraw Hill.
(pp. 39-52). Wuppertal, Germany: Wuppertal
Krcmar, H. (2003). Informationsmanagement. 3. Institute for Climate, Energy, and Environment, in
Aufl. Berlin: Springer. cooperation with the UNEP Centre for Sustainable
Consumption and Production (CSCP).
Kreeb, M., et al. (2005). Web Portals: A Tool for
Environmental Management. In L. Hilty, E. K. Reisch, L., Bietz, S., & Kreeb, M. (2007). An
Seifert, & R. Treibert, (Eds.), Information Sys- alternative to “preaching to the choir” - Com-
tems for Sustainable Development (pp. 213-228). municating sustainable lifestyle options to a low
Hershey, PA: IGI Global. interest target group. In Proceedings of the Inter-
national Society of Marketing and Development
Kuhre, W. L. (1998). ISO 14031- Environmental
and the Macromarketing Society Joint Conference
Performance Evaluation (EPE): Practical Tools
“Macromarketing and Development: Building
for Conducting an Environmental Performance
Bridges and Forging Alliances”, (pp. 187-193),
Evaluation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
June 2-5, 2007, Washington DC.
Hall.
Rheingold, H. (1994). Virtual Community: Home-
Kytle, B., & Ruggie, J. (2005). Corporate Social
steading on the Electronic Frontier. Boston:
Responsibility as Risk Management: A Model for
Addison-Wesley.
Multinationals, Social Responsibility Initiative
Working Paper No. 10. John F. Kennedy School Rheingold, H. (2002). Smart Mobs: The Next
of Government. Boston: Harvard University. Social Revolution. Cambridge, UK: Perseus
Publishing.
Lehmann-Waffenschmidt, M. (2007). Innovations
Towards Sustainability: Conditions and Conse- Riedl, C., Böhmann, T., Rosemann, M., & Krc-
quenses. Berlin: Springer. mar, H. (2008). Quality Management in Service
Ecosystems. Information Systems And eBusiness
Lieberman, B. (2007). Applying an analytical
Management, (accepted for publication) [Ranking
framework - Organize and reuse valuable tech-
WKWI: B]
niques, tools, and examples. BioLogic Software
Consulting, S. Houstoun. Schulz, W. F., & Kreeb, M. (2005). Cooperate
Social Responsibility. In Umweltmagazin, 35,
Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The Knowl-
Jg., Heft 1, Januar, 70.
edge-creating company. New York: Oxford
University Press. Schwaiger, B., Wall, A., & Gotsch, P. (2007).
Sustainable Holistic Approach and Know-how
Orlitzky, M., Schmidt, F., & Rynes, S. (2003).
Tailored to India, The SHAKTI-Project. Trialog,
Corporate Social and Financial Performance:
92/2007, 16–21.
A Meta-analysis. Organization Studies, 24(3),
403–441. doi:10.1177/0170840603024003910
73
ECORadar-Shakti
3
Wenger, E., & Snyder, W. (2000). Communities Local Chamber of Commerce & Industry &
of practice: the organizational frontier. Harvard the Federation of Andhra Pradesh Chambers
Business Review, (January-February): 139–145. of Commerce & Industry (FAPCCI)
4
Specialized Commercial or Academic Con-
sultants
5
NGOs are needed as facilitators
enDnoteS 6
= Request for Proposal
7
1
Sustainable Holistic Approach & Know-how Http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BYD_Auto,
Tailored to India http://www.byd.com.cn
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyderabad,_
Andhra_Pradesh
74
Section 2
76
Chapter 5
Philanthropy, CSR and
Sustainability
Arun Sahay
Strategic Management, Management Development Institute, Gurgaon, India
abStraCt
Despite business’s business being business, the business owners have been doing acts of benevolence de-
pending upon the owner’s religion, faith, values and beliefs. Establishment of temples, mosques, churches,
schools, hospitals etc. has been usual practice through which firms have shown their concern about the
society and made contribution to the social cause. However, of late, it is observed that progressive busi-
nesses, after understanding the nuances of sustainable development and its reporting, have moved from
philanthropic mode of contributing to society to the concept of Corporate Social Responsibity (CSR).
Some of them have gone beyond CSR and have entered the domain of Strategic CSR. In the process, a
new concept of Corporate Sustainability, which is based on Triple Bottom-line concept, has emerged in
strategic management literature. Thus, today CSR activities are being aligned with the business strategy
of the firm. In the developed countries, firms are increasingly integrating CSR with the core business
activities e.g. innovation, marketing, finance etc. This article attempts to look into firm’s CSR and cor-
porate sustainability with special reference to a developing country - India.
StruCture of the text rate social responsibility (CSR) and finally to the
concept of strategic CSR that was propounded and
The chapter, after the introduction of the subject, communicated before Brundtland’s definition of
digs into the roots of sustainability and describes sustainability appeared on the horizon and became
the processes through which sustainability, that known to the whole world. I have discussed the
we know today, has undergone. After dealing issues of national and international framework of
with industrial philanthropy, it moves to corpo- CSR before moving to sustainability, which is more
communicated rather than acted upon, by nations
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch005 or firms. Notwithstanding, after dealing with the
Philanthropy, CSR and Sustainability
general concept of sustainability, it delves into However, there was hardly any well-established
the issue of corporate sustainability and its report- linkage between those ethical or moral acts and
ing, especially by Indian industries. The author the business objectives. Further, they believed in
believes “Action speaks louder than words” and “doing” rather than “telling” it.
has therefore, concentrated on capturing CSR and With the advent of “industrial revolution”
sustainability actions of the firm rather than their business expanded its horizons connecting sup-
strategy and process of communication. pliers and buyers; sometimes across the national
boundary. Cost & Benefit Analysis of every ac-
tivity performed by business became essential.
introDuCtion In the ruthless race where industrialized nations
jostled to get ahead and overlooked the hidden
There was a time when religion preached for the as well as visible socio-environmental costs
welfare of the society and entrusted state with this acquired by it. In this era values lost sincere and
pious responsibility. Now the time has come when serious implementation and were not counted in
business joins hands with government in adding a powerful way by the firms.
value to the society right from “from cradle to It is interesting to note that at the same time
grave”. In earlier times religion had very crucial tangible reflection of embedded ethical values
and dominant role to play in human life. Religion were seen, when Indian industry was being set up
expresses itself both in an individual practices by the great business visionaries and entrepreneurs.
related to communal faith and in group sacra- It would be relevant to quote Jamsetji Tata who
ments and communication budding from collec- was more than merely an entrepreneur; who helped
tive commitment. The noble ideas of symbiosis, India take her place in the league of industrialized
co-existence, harmony, giving back to the society, nations. He was a patriot and a humanist whose
responsibility towards wellness of the environ- ideals and vision shaped an exceptional business
ment, sensitization of human beings towards conglomerate. The brick-and-mortar endeavors
protection and preservation of natural resources that Jamsetji planned and executed were but one
and innumerable other good ideas stemmed from part of grand ideas. How much of a man of the
almost all the religions. These ideas seem to have future he was can be gauged from his views about
universal acceptance despite all spreaded differ- his workers and their welfare. Jamsetji offered
ences in beliefs and faiths across the religions his people shorter working hours, well-ventilated
around the globe. As a highly influential system, workplaces, and provident fund and gratuity
religion rules over the minds of people giving the long before they became statutory in the west.
thought direction and act prescription. He spelled out his concept of a township for the
Business, being a part of the society, has al- workers at the steel plant in a letter he wrote to his
ways been influenced by it and its philosophies. son, Dorab Tata, in 1902, five years before even
From ancient times, business had been bearing a site for the enterprise had been decided;
cumulative social costs incurred by its own activi-
ties. Business adopted more philosophical way Be sure to lay wide streets planted with shady trees,
to be socially responsible following the value every other of a quick-growing variety, be sure that
and belief system established by any religion or there is plenty of space for lawns and gardens, and
philosophy. It trusted more on making temples, reserve large areas for football, hockey and parks.
mosques, churches; funding or running orphan- Earmark areas for Hindu temples, Mohammedan
ages and educational institutes and donating for mosques and Christian churches.
social cause.
77
He, then, would have hardly thought of corpo- recognizable change in social conditions. This
rate social responsibility or sustainability. It was, often necessitates large donations and financial
then, a cry of his heart rather than a hard-core busi- support sustained over time. The need for a large
ness strategy that is driven by not only economic financial commitment creates a distinction be-
issues but sustainability issues as well. Be it as tween philanthropy and charitable giving, which
it may, there was never a formal communication typically plays a supporting role in a charitable
about the same to the masses. They knew it only organization initiated by someone else. Thus, the
through the deeds of the firm and it went on doing conventional usage of philanthropy applies mainly
corporate philanthropy. to wealthy persons, and sometimes to a trust cre-
ated by a wealthy person with a particular cause
or objective targeted. Business, too, does acts
philanthropy of philanthropy, mainly through trust or society
and at times directly in response to their CSR/
Philanthropy is the act of donating money, goods, Sustainability activity.
time, or effort to support a charitable cause, usually Philanthropy responds to either present or
over an extended period of time and in regard to future needs.(Joseph and Matthew, 2005, Payton
a defined objective. In a more fundamental sense, Philanthropic Studies Library). The charitable
philanthropy may encompass any altruistic activ- response to an impending disaster is an essential
ity, which is intended to promote good or improve function of philanthropy. It offers immediate honor
human quality of life. Someone who is well known for the philanthropist, yet requires no foresight.
for practicing philanthropy may sometimes be Responding to future needs, however, draws on
called a philanthropist. Although such individuals the donor’s foresight and wisdom, but seldom
are often very wealthy, people may nevertheless recognizes the donor. Prevention of future needs
perform philanthropic acts without possessing will often avert far more hardship than a response
great wealth (Wikipedia, December 7, 2008). after the fact. For example, the charities respond-
As the society grew and organized businesses ing to starvation from overpopulation in Africa are
came into being, some of them, too, started acts afforded swift recognition (www.indiamond6.ulib.
of philanthropy. iupui.edu, December7,2008). Meanwhile, philan-
Philanthropy has been seen by the society thropists behind the U.S. population movement
through different lenses. Some equate it with of the 1960s and 1970s were never recognized,
benevolence and charity for the poor and needy and are lost in history. People are often supportive
while others hold that philanthropy can be any of philanthropic efforts. In many countries, those
altruistic giving towards any kind of social need who donate money to a charity are given a title
that is not served, underserved, or perceived as of good or one of great (Catherine the Great,
unserved or underserved by the market. Some Alexander the Great). Some governments are
believe that philanthropy can be a means to build suspicious of philanthropic activities as possible
community by growing community funds and grabs for favor, yet they allow for special inter-
creating vehicles for service to society. When est groups (and votes/power in democracies) of
communities see themselves as being resource portions of the population by non-governmental
rich instead of asset poor, the community is in a organizations. Philanthropists desire a government
better position to solve community problems. by the people who need them most and who have
By the conventional definition of philanthropy, the least say.
donations are dedicated to a narrowly defined Philanthropy attracts press and media coverage
cause and the donation is targeted to make a as big names are involved viz. rock star Bono’s
78
campaign to alleviate Third World debt to devel- the shareholders our own, and the health and
oped nations; the Gates Foundation’s massive welfare of the employees, the sure foundation of
resources and ambitions, such as its campaigns to our success.
eradicate malaria and river blindness; and billion-
aire investor and Berkshire Hathaway Chairman Swami Vivekananda, who was the greatest
Buffet’s donation in 2006 of $30 billion to the religious and social leader of the time, supported
Gates Foundation. Socially conscious entrepre- this philosophy of Jamsetji. Backing the idea he
neurs such as eBay founder Pierre Omidyar and wrote in 1899:
Google co-founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin
are trying to change philanthropy through unique I am not aware if any project at once so opportune
networks and new forms of giving. Google’s efforts and so far reaching in its beneficent effects has
are largely considered “for-profit,” meaning it will ever been mooted in India. The scheme grasps
not be constrained in how it spends by the 501(c) the vital point of weakness in our national well-
(3) section of the Internal Revenue Service code. being with a clearness of vision and tightness of
The feeling is also that it will not restrict itself to grip, the mastery of which is only equaled by the
conventional giving or old-line foundations when munificence of the gift that is being ushered to
it comes to social investments. Back home, the the public.
family of Tatas has created various foundations
to do the acts of philanthropy. But the case has not been the same for every
Jamsetji’s philanthropic principles were business endeavourer worldwide and there have
rooted in the belief that for India to climb out been severely negative consequences representing
of poverty, its finest minds would have to be darker side of industrial revolution such as; famine,
harnessed. Charity and handouts were not his health problems, noise, air, water pollution, poor
way, so he established the JN Tata Endowment nutrition, dangerous machinery, impersonal work,
in 1892. This enabled Indian students, regard- isolation, poverty, homelessness, and substance
less of caste or creed, to pursue higher studies abuse. Business, because of having a major hold
in England. This beginning flowered into the over people’s wealth, had to act in response to the
Tata scholarships, which flourished to the emerging problems.
extent that by 1924 two out of every five Indi-
ans coming into the elite Indian Civil Service
were Tata scholars. The objective of creating the paraDigm Shift
the Indian Institute of Science came from the
same source, Jamsetji pledged Rs. 30 lakh (Rs. The advocacy to make business responsible
3 million) from his personal fortune towards and responsive compounded with the dawn of
setting up the institute, drew up a blueprint “Globalization”. The ICT revolution converted
of the shape it ought to take, and solicited the the world into a ‘global village’ and the wave
support of everyone from the Viceroy Curzon, of globalization did not leave any portion of the
to Swami Vivekananda to turn it into reality. globe untouched. Along with this, problems such
Recalls Jamsetji: as pollution, poverty etc., earlier having limited
geographical existence, started obtaining global
We do not claim to be more unselfish, more gener- character. These conditions led to a specific set
ous or more philanthropic than other people. But of socially responsible practices, which are called
we think we started on sound and straightforward ‘reactive practices’. But the missing link with the
business principles, considering the interests of business goals and objectives pressurized business
79
to adapt ‘proactive strategies’ in place of reactive its business only when it meets all environmental
strategies. Commenting on corporate philanthropi- and social norms. CSR is not just meeting the
cal acts, Carly Fiorina, CEO of Hewlett- Packard norms but going beyond; bettering the quality of
(Business for Social Responsibility Annual Con- life and contributing to social and environmental
ference, Nov. 12, 2003), said: agenda not only of the nation but whole world.
There is no universally accepted definition of
For many years, community development goals CSR. Selected definitions by CSR organizations
were philanthropic activities that were seen as and actors include:
separate from business objectives, not fundamen-
tal to them, doing well and doing good were seen • “Corporate Social Responsibility is the
as separate pursuits. But I think that is changing continuing commitment by business to be-
what many of organizations that are represented have ethically and contribute to economic
here today are learning is that cutting- edge inno- development while improving the quality
vation and competitive advantage can result from of life of the workforce and their families
weaving social and environmental considerations as well as of the local community and so-
into business strategy from the beginning. ciety at large” World Business Council
for Sustainable Development [WBCSD,
Smaller organizations, too, have joined the 2000]
bandwagon. The concept of measurable life • “CSR is about how companies manage the
change, with direct investments and follow-up to business processes to produce an overall
track results, is gaining more recognition through positive impact on society.” (Mallen Baker,
small and medium Enterprises (SMEs) as well. 2007)
Philanthropy, now, is not always viewed as a uni- • “Corporate social responsibility is under-
versal good. Notable thinkers such as Friedrich taking the role of “corporate citizenship”
Nietzsche opposed philanthropy on philosophi- and ensuring the business values and be-
cal grounds, connecting it with the idea of the havior is aligned to balance between im-
weak sponging off the strong, a view sometimes proving and developing the wealth of the
endorsed by those who oppose government business, with the intention to improve so-
welfare programs (Wicks, 2007). Mother Teresa ciety, people and the planet” (Van Buren,
made a big impact and changed the thinking for 2006 and Business Respect – Oct 28,
doing social good through her famous message, 2007)
“Give the poor the fishing rod not the fish”. This • “CSR is a company’s commitment to oper-
started a debate on the purpose and process of ating in an economically, socially and en-
philanthropy and the firms started thinking in vironmentally sustainable manner whilst
terms of their responsibilities to the society and balancing the interests of diverse stake-
how to discharge them. holders.” (CSR Asia, December 5, 2007)
• “Corporate social responsibility is the com-
mitment of businesses to contribute to sus-
Corporate SoCial tainable economic development by working
reSponSibility with employees, their families, the local
community and society at large to improve
Corporate Social Responsibility is a component their lives in ways that are good for business
of sustainability of the firm, which has to be and for development.” International Finance
economically viable. Of course, it can operate Corporation [www.ifc.org]
80
• “A concept whereby companies integrate According to Indian authors, Shrivastava and

social and environmental concerns in their Venkateswaran (2000), if a business works obeying
business operations and in their interac- the legal framework of the land and pays due taxes
tion with their stakeholders on a volun- (Friedman, 1970) then the social responsibility is
tary basis.” European Commission[www. fulfilled for the firm. But they also pointed out that
ec.europa.eu] there are other views, like a socially responsible
• “There is one and only one social responsi- company is one that proactively takes up social
bility of business -to use its resources and issues and does well to the society and environ-
engage in activities designed to increase its ment on its own. Ingram (1978) observed that the
profits so long as it stays within the rules of nature of CSR activities undertaken by firms’ vary
the game, which is to say, engages in open over time and are dependent on the type of the
and free competition without deception or firm’s business activities. Business and Society
fraud.” (Milton Friedman, 1962) fields have many concepts and terms present, of
• “Corporate Responsibility is about ensur- which CSR is one of the most prominent one. A
ing that organizations manage their busi- researcher or scholar new to the Business and
nesses to make a positive impact on society Society field could get amazed by the number of
and the environment whilst maximizing terms present in this field (Valor, 2005).
value for their shareholders.” Institute of The first big impact, seminal conceptualiza-
Chartered Accountants in England & Wales tion of CSR came in 1979 from A. B.Carroll.
[www.icaew.com] He conceptualized CSR as “The Pyramid of
Corporate Social Responsibility”. This popular
Thus, it will be seen that the concept of CSR conceptualization of CSR, viewed CSR, as basi-
has raised more dust than it has settled. There have cally, businesses fulfilling four main responsibili-
been wide spread confusion regarding what is the ties: economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic.
nature and the extent of social responsibility of Business firms have to provide society (made up
business. Presently, there is a growing literature of customers as well) with goods and services it
attempting to define what it means for a company is meant to produce and be profitable to create
to be socially responsible. The problem with wealth for the shareholders. Businesses are ex-
figuring out an exact definition of CSR has been pected to carry out the production and delivery
a subject of contest and has been an evolving of goods and services while complying with the
debate over the last four decades amongst various rules, regulations and laws of the land (Carroll,
researchers (Meehan et al., 2006; McWilliams et 1979). This is the Legal responsibility of business.
al., 2006; Windsor, 2006 Leisinger, 2005; Valor, Above legal compliance, business should do its
2005; Acutt et al., 2004; Greenfield, 2004; Munshi, business while respecting and being accommo-
2004; Young 2004; BSR, 2003; Hills et al., 2003; dative and sensitive to the values and norms of
Ka¨rna etal., 2003; Frankental, 2001; Shrivastava the society. This is the ethical responsibility of
and Venkateswaran, 2000; Willums, 1998; Wad- business. The fourth and final responsibility is
dock, 2004). Till date, there is no single definition the philanthropic responsibility of business. This
available on CSR. Surprisingly Greenfield (2004) is the discretionary set of activities businesses
wrote that we don’t know what CSR stands for. undertake to address the social ills and problems,
McWilliams et al., 2006 wrote that the lack of so that the world becomes a better place to live
clarity in the theoretical and definitional aspects (Schwartz and Carroll 2003). Sethi (1979) had also
of CSR is impeding further theoretical develop- conceptualized CSR around the same themes. The
ment and measurement difficult. conceptualization of CSR by Carroll (1979) and
81
Sethi (1979) were foundational and all the CSR keeping stakeholders in mind. Here it becomes
explanations which came later were just variants necessary to clear that; CSR proponents never
of these (Karna et al., 2003). give undue importance to social responsibility
Unlike philanthropy which is characterized of the business over its indispensable economic
by a one-way, top-down (corporate-community) responsibility. Further, socially responsible firms
relationship approach, CSR has been increasingly can be as much or more profitable as compared to
seen as a continuous collaboration between the less socially responsible firms. However, the pre-
corporate house and the stakeholders community requisite of cost benefit analysis for undertaking
(Osborn and Hagedoorn, 1997; Boatright, 2000; CSR initiatives is very obvious and significant.
Altman, 1998; Waddock, 2004). Thus firm CSR The way businesses engage/involve the
activities are generally meant to be long-term lon- shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers,
gitudinal initiative unlike one time philanthropy governments, non-governmental organizations,
like doing charity or providing donations. CSR has international organizations, and at large society is
also been expected to benefit both the society as usually a key feature of the concept. As such, CSR
well as the corporation (Boatright, 2000; Pava and closely resembles the business pursuit of sustain-
Krausz, 1997; Garone, 1999; Steiner and Steiner, able development and the triple bottom line. In
1991). This is quite logical because business exists addition to integration into corporate structures and
and resides in society. A healthy society will be processes, CSR also frequently involves creating
better able to house a business. innovative and proactive solutions to societal and
With the increased use of stakeholders rather environmental challenges, as well as collaborat-
than shareholders in management literature, the ing with both internal and external stakeholders
conception of larger society got lodged. Though to improve CSR performance.
CSR is on agenda of most major corporations, Companies interested in advancing corporate
corporate executives still largely support the view social responsibility and in improving their social
that corporation should maximize the returns to and environmental performance as part of their
their shareholders. In past Friedmanian view “The business have a wide range of tools available for
social responsibility of business is to increase its application. Tools can vary widely in terms of
profits (Friedman 1970)” was largely accepted objectives, scope, costs, and levels of formality,
and admired by the business. However, from the partnerships, extent of stakeholder involvement,
last few years another position voiced by many and many other characteristics. These tools can
executives, that CSR and profits go together be applied to one or more of the planning, imple-
has become firmer. But it has been realized that mentation, checking, and improvement facets of
this position is not well supported by empirical corporate operations. The tools reflect activity at
evidences. Notwithstanding, Berle-Dodd debate the domestic and international levels as well as
on the concept of the corporation (Macintosh, initiatives by both the private and public sectors.
1999) has settled the issue that the companies In some cases the tools may be focused on one
work not only for shareholders but also for all element of CSR such as Environmental Protection
stakeholders. and in others may be more comprehensive such as
The inductive concept of Corporate Social Per- the Global Reporting Initiative. For the exhaustive
formance (CSP) receives its foundational inputs study purpose in proposed project CSR tools can
from CSR program’s performance. For fulfilling be clustered into the four following groups:
the criteria of CSP, business goes for Corporate Ellkington (1994) championed the concept
Social Reporting. Corporate Social Reporting is a of Triple Bottom Line (TBL), which meant that
CSR activity communication output mechanism- corporations should focus not just on the economic
82
value that it adds but also to the environmental practices are becoming prerequisites for any busi-
and social value it destroys or adds. Henriques ness to be successful. A primary goal of CSR is to
and Richardson, (2004) believe that it is all add value and achieve a reasonable and equitably
about 3P (People, Planet and Profits). 3P or TBL distributed level of economic well being that can
encompasses Win- Win -Win business strategies be perpetuated among all the stakeholders. Com-
for business - society – environment. New terms bined with this, pressure is mounting on business
also reflect this philosophy like Corporate Social to respond strategically for ‘doing well for being
Opportunity (CSO). CSO is seen as “commercially good’ rather ‘doing well for looking good’.
viable activities, which also advance environ- In a seminal article in the Harvard Business
mental and social sustainability” (Grayson and Review, Craig Smith (1994) identified “The New
Hodges, 2004). This concept of TBL, 3 P and Corporate Philanthropy” describing it as a shift
CSO hammered in an important point that there to making long term commitment to the specific
are corporate benefits that can be achieved form social issues and initiatives; providing more than
managing CSR affairs. cash contributions, sourcing funds from business
units as well as philanthropic budgets; forming
strategic alliances; and doing all of this in a way
StrategiC CSr that also advances business goals.
Earlier to 1990s generally corporations were
Securing business benefits from CSR became more into allocating funds to a number of orga-
an emergent theme in the CSR knowledge and nizations as their gesture towards embedded core
practice domains. CSR activities which pro- ethical values and act of philanthropic efforts.
vided business and strategic benefits is termed But there have been few pitfalls allied with the
as Strategic CSR (Porter and Kramer, 2006 and philanthropic approach as Kotler et al. (2005)
2002; Crawford and Scaletta, 2005; Salzmann et recognizes them;
al., 2005; Meehan et al., 2006; Friedman, 1970;
Kotler and Lee; 2005,Windsor, 2006; Altman, • Short term basis,
1998; Waddock, 2000; Ricks, 2005; Perrini, 2005; • Avoidance of those issues which might be
Stead, and Stead, 2000; Jones et al., 2005; Lewis, associated with core business products,
2003; Bhattacharya et al., 2004; Carroll, 2001; • Steering clear of major and often contro-
Burke and Logsdon, 1996; Marsden, 2000; Lantos, versial social issues such as AIDS, judging
2001; Quester and Thompson, 2001; Ricks, 2005; that these were best handled by govern-
McAlister and Ferrell, 2002). mental or non profit organizations,
Conventional wisdom suggests that there is • Decisions regarding issues to support and
a conflict between the goals of environmental organizations to sponsor were heavily in-
protection, CSR and economic competitiveness. fluenced by preferences or wishes of senior
But proactive industry leaders argue that this is management than by need to support stra-
not true as long as state policy creates a level tegic business goals and objectives,
playing field (Sahay, 2004). In fact, business is • ‘Do good as easily as possible’ as a rule of
becoming more and more responsible in present thumb was followed while developing and
scenario as CSR policies are knotted with all the implementing specific initiatives resulting
three strategies (Corporate, Business and Execu- in a tendency to often give donations,
tive) of a number of global conglomerates as well • Donors were satisfied with being one of the
as national enterprises. Due to the increased level many corporate sponsors although those
of awareness in society, environment friendly acts were not linked their business goals,
83
• Strategic CSR practices were perhaps also In present business scenario, a number of firms
overlooked or were rarely developed be- identify CSR practices with the core strategy and
cause it would have required extra efforts policy of the company based on the importance
to integrate and coordinate giving pro- given to (Bryan W. et al. 2007):
grams with other corporate strategies and
business units such as marketing, human 1. Defining a plan for social action,
resources and operations, 2. Intensity of investment in social programs,
• ‘Trust’ was simple approach followed to 3. Commitment of employees,
evaluate the outcomes of philanthropic 4. Perceived impact of social action on com-
CSR efforts; generally it was assumed that petitive position, and
good happened. 5. Measuring outcomes of programs.
To answer effectively to the above mentioned The business and society interact continuously.
shortcomings it became necessary economic In fact society has much greater effect on the
growth and social development go hand in hand. business than the business on society. A schematic
It requires the development of an innovative vision diagram of interaction is shown in Figure 1.
of the world leading to the incorporation of exter- Recent research efforts seek to recuperate the
nalities and a positive contribution to the social utility of planning in complex, dynamic environ-
context. If CSR is embedded in an organization, ments (Grant, 2002). Companies need to answer
it can be at the heart of the business, linked to to two aspects of their operations. These are:
every business propositions and added value in
the value chains of various stakeholders.
Figure 1. Source www.mallenbaker.net
84
1. The quality of their management - both in environmental management – the management

terms of people and processes (the inner of natural resources i.e. air, water, land, flora and
circle) fauna (Sahay 2006 a).
2. The nature and quantity of their impact on The present day increased awareness of CSR
society in the various areas has also come about as a result of the United Na-
tions Millennium Development Goals, in which
To be economically triumphant and to be so- a major goal is the increased contribution of
cially accountable have become dual purposes of a assistance from large organizations, especially
firm since early 1970s as argued by researchers in Multi-National Corporations, to help alleviate
the field of business and society. However, in the poverty and hunger, and for businesses to be more
1980s this view was critically examined with the aware of their impact on society. There is a lot
wave of corporate downsizing and reengineering. of potential for CSR to help with development in
In the middle to late 1990s a new business model poor countries, especially community-based initia-
emerged; one that blends economics and social tives. Along with the corporations nations across
responsibility in a sophisticated fashion. In the the world have also recognized that a national
second half of 1990s discussion of the concept of sustainable development strategy (NSDS) can
“corporate citizenship” thrived in the corporate be an effective tool to allow countries to achieve
sector. The corporate citizenship concept evokes their sustainable development goals.
many meanings, among corporations acting Consequently, many countries are implement-
ethically, socially responsibly and proactively to ing their NSDSs as recommended in Agenda 21,
jointly further the interests of external constituen- the action program adopted at the United Nations
cies or stakeholders. In recent years corporations Conference on Environment and Development in
have begun programs promoting citizenship goals, Rio de Janeiro (1992). In doing so, countries are
both domestically and internationally. Many cor- also fulfilling their commitment made in 2002 in
porations are noting an association between these the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, adopted
programs and their strategic goals. at the World Summit on Sustainable Development,
to take immediate steps to make progress in the
formulation and elaboration of national strategies
CSr in national & for sustainable development as well as to begin
international frameWork their implementation by 2005. Splendidly, in some
European countries a separate ministry/department
Environmental Management (part of CSR) in India has been launched for CSR. These strategies, which
is as old as its history, its social and cultural milieu. are being followed by nations, give tremendous
Our forefathers used to worship the mountains, support and impetus to the CSR policies to be
the rivers, the forests and even the animals. Hi- strategically embedded by the firms.
malayan Mountains, Ganga River, Pipal tree etc.
have been worshipped since times immemorial. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is the com-
Elephants and cows are worshipped even today. mitment of businesses to contribute to sustainable
The concept of bio-diversity and the green cover economic development by working with employ-
are age old in India. The social and religious fabric ees, their families, the local community and society
was woven around the concept of Environment at large to improve their lives in ways that are
Protection and Promotion. It was somewhere on good for business and for development.
the way to economic development that we went
astray and have started looking to the west for International Finance Corporation
85
Corporate CSR activities raise many ques- country uses the concept of Gross National Hap-
tions for a firm, such as; whether doing CSR do piness (GNH), instead of Gross National Product
well to the firm financial performance? Do firms (GNP), to measure the achievements and impact
engaging in CSR outperform firms not doing it? of development. GNH includes all the regular
What is the nature and direction of CSR literature indicators of economic development, ecological
available discussing CSR with firm financial security, cultural promotion and spiritual values.
function? This article first attempt to look into GNH also includes good governance as additional
these questions based upon the extant literature parameter to measure whether development en-
available from the developed countries. India is hances human happiness or increases human
one of the fastest growing economies of the world. misery (GNH Report, July 1999).
At the same time India is a country, which needs Sustainable development is a pattern of re-
widespread socioeconomic development, as it source use that aims to meet human needs while
is home to the one of the worlds most poor and preserving the environment so that these needs
illiterate population. Firm CSR initiatives can be can be met not only in the present, but also in
a medium of progress in developing countries like the indefinite future. It ties together concern for
India (Shekhar and Sahay, 2007). the carrying capacity of natural systems with the
social challenges facing humanity. As early as the
1970s “sustainability” was employed to describe
SuStainable Development an economy “in equilibrium with basic ecologi-
cal support systems” (Stivers, 1976). Ecologists
The harmony between man and nature and man- have pointed to the “limits of growth” (Meadows,
kind has been disturbed. In number of uses the 1971) and presented the alternative of a “steady
mankind has inflicted irreversible loss on nature state economy” (Daly, 1973) in order to address
in its greed to make rapid economic develop- environmental concerns.
ment. With change in concept and definition of Although the concept of sustainability has been
economic development, the growth of GNP Per around for a long time, it became more widely
capita income is not a single index of development used in the 1980s. Back in 1983, the Secretary-
of a country (Pandey and Sahay, 2008). Since General of the UN established a commission
the Second World War, nations are engaged in called the World Commission on the Environment
development but till recently development meant and Development. This commission is frequently
economic development. However, development referred to as the Brundtland Commission, after
does not mean only increase in per capita income Gro Harlem Brundtland, the head of the commis-
but also the wellness of people, which can be sion and formerly the Prime Minister of Norway.
achieved through both qualitative and quantita- The commission was asked to look at the world’s
tive transformation of whole society. This is a environmental problems and propose a global
shift from traditional thinking and relates to new agenda for addressing them. She put together a
methods of production and distribution. Quality team that went around the world and talked to
of life includes happiness and satisfaction and people in all walks of life: fishermen, farmers,
can be termed as subjective well being of society homemakers, loggers, school teachers, indigenous
but there is additionally in quality of life such as people and industry leaders. They asked what
nutrition, a non-hazardous environment and a long peoples’ environmental concerns were and how
and healthy life (Philips, 2006). In fact, Bhutan, they should be addressed. The commission came
a small nation, has suggested a method to make out with a definition of sustainable development
development human and nature-centered. This as under:
86
Figure 2.
..Development that meets the needs of the pres- that will be needed in the future. Business and
ent without compromising the ability of future industry have a crucial role to play in helping not
generations to meet their own needs (United only the company but also the nation as a whole
Nations. 1987). to become more sustainable and competitive. As a
result, firms world over, are responding by reduc-
The schematic diagram of sustainable developing their environmental impacts and risks through
ment concept is given below. improved environmental management practices
The field of sustainable development can and efficient use of natural resources.
be conceptually broken into three constituent Though the definition of sustainable develop-
parts: ment was in the context of “Earth”, it automatically
got extended to the nations. The nations found
• Environmental sustainability that the earth cannot be saved for future genera-
• Economic sustainability tion to meet their needs just by creating laws,
• Sociopolitical sustainability rules and procedures but the citizen, including
corporate citizen, have to actively participate.
The business world found in this concept not
Corporate SuStainability only a contribution to the national efforts but
a strategic element for their own sustainability
Sustainability is pervasive and is practiced at all and competitive advantage. Thus, some of the
levels; global, national, municipal and even at companies created a set up for sustainability
firm level. Corporate sustainability encompasses management and some even started publishing
strategies and practices that aim to meet the needs sustainability report. The concept of sustainable
of stakeholders today while seeking to protect, sup- development given below is equally applicable
port and enhance the human and natural resources to the business houses where the word “develop-
87
ment” means “growth”. To ward of risks against difficult for business to thrive in isolation in the
growth, firms even started taking environmental face of growing social inequity. ITC had created
insurance. However, environmental situation can business models whereby there was enmeshing
improve if Insurance Companies come forward of social well-being and shareholder value. He
with products which deal with poverty in devel- also suggested that a new stock exchange could
oping countries and also directly contribute to be created for developing `trust’ marks to denote
poverty alleviation through their resources which a Firm’s sustainability achievements.
would help them discharge their corporate social
responsibility (Sahay, 2006 b). Problems such as
pollution, poverty etc., which earlier had limited SuStainability anD
geographical existence, have started obtaining a itS reporting
global character. These conditions led to a specific
set of socially responsible practices, which were Corporate Sustainability is the capacity of an
reactive in character. But the missing link with the enterprise to maintain economic prosperity in the
business goals and objectives pressurized business context of environmental responsibility and social
to adapt ‘proactive strategies’ in place of reactive stewardship. It is a business approach that creates
strategies (Sahay, 2009). long-term stakeholder value by embracing op-
Even in developing country like India, Bombay portunities and managing risks deriving from eco-
Stock Exchange is planning to evolve a corporate nomic, social and environmental developments.
sustainability index on the lines of Dow Jones Corporate sustainability leaders (Knoepfel, 2001)
Sustainability Index (DJSI), which performs better achieve long-term stakeholder value by gearing
than Dow Jones Index (DJI). Such an index exists their strategies to harness the market’s potential
in Brazil also. BSE Managing Director and CEO, for sustainability products and services as well
Rajnikant Patel stated this view during a panel as reducing and avoiding sustainability costs and
discussion on “Are corporate sustainability and risks. Leading sustainability companies display
social sustainability interdependent,” held under high levels of competence in addressing global
the aegis of the Institute of Company Secretaries of and industry challenges in variety of areas. Their
India (ICSI). However, the process of assessment strategy is to integrate long-term economic, social
was complicated and a robust framework would and environmental aspects in their business while
have to be evolved. It required co-operation from maintaining global competitiveness (Cornelius,
the companies and they would have to volunteer 2003) and green brand equity (Davis, 1991).
information. Mr. Patel’s announcement came on The sustainability reporting varies from orga-
the back of a remark made by Mr. Deveshwar, nization to organization, making it difficult for the
Chairman, ITC Ltd., that markets have failed to stakeholders to evaluate the company for their
reward companies that were looking at sustain- investment and other decisions. Various reporting
ability issues. This comment found its resonance methods have been propounded from time to time
in the observation by speakers like Harshavardhan by different agencies. Important among them are
Neotia, Chairman, Ambuja Realty Develop- Responsible Care (1988), Coalition for Environ-
ment, who said that there was need to evolve a mentally Responsible Economies (1989), ICC
mechanism by which stock markets recognized Business Charter (1990), Global Environmental
companies that laid emphasis on the triple bot- Management Initiative (1990), CBI Environment
tom line concept. Emphasizing on the need for Business Forum (1992), Rio Business and Indus-
convergence of societal sustainability and business try Agenda (1992), Eco-Management and Audit
sustainability, Mr. Deveshwar said that it would be Scheme (1992), European Chemical Industry
88
Council (1993), Global Environmental Charter global reporting initiative

(1993), Public Environmental Reporting Initiative SuStainability guiDelineS
(1993), World Business Council for Sustainable
Development (1995), ACBE Guide (1997), Guide Use the Principles to prioritize selected topics and
to Environmental and Energy Reporting and Ac- decide which will be emphasized.
counting (I997), ISO 14031 (1999) and Global The specific methods or processes used for
Reporting Initiative (GRI 2000, 2002, 2005). Of assessing materiality should:
various approaches, GRI recommendations re-
vised from time to time, the GRI – III has become a. Differ for, and can be defined by, each
popular among the business firms. organization;
b. Always take into account the guidance and
tests found in the GRI Reporting Principles;
gri reporting frameWork and
c. Be disclosed.
The Guidelines contain principles and guidance,
protocols, standard disclosures as well as sec- In applying this approach:
tor supplements including indicators to outline
a disclosure framework that organizations can a. Differentiate between Core and Additional
voluntarily, flexibly, and incrementally adopt. Indicators. All Indicators have been de-
At the outset, it defines what to report and how veloped through GRI’s multi-stakeholder
to report that. The broad Global Reporting Initia- processes, and those designated as Core
tive Sustainability Guidelines are depicted in the are generally applicable Indicators and are
figure below. assumed to be material for most organiza-
The following is the framework provided in tions. An organization should report on these
GRI Reporting Initiative Sustainability Guide- unless they are deemed not material on the
lines.
• Identify the topics and related Indicators Figure 3. Source GRI Framework
that are relevant, and therefore might be
appropriate to report, by undergoing an
iterative process using the principles of
materiality, stakeholder inclusiveness, sus-
tainability context, and guidance on setting
the Report Boundary.
• When identifying topics, consider the rele-
vance of all Indicator Aspects identified in
the GRI Guidelines and applicable Sector
Supplements. Also consider other topics, if
any that are relevant to report.
• From the set of relevant topics and
Indicators identified, use the tests listed
for each principle to assess which topics
and Indicators are material, and therefore,
should be reported.
89
basis of the Reporting Principles. Additional evaluation of EHS policies and procedures, sup-
Indicators may also be determined to be plier compliance, technology transfer, charitable
material. contributions, transportation impacts, local noise
b. The Indicators in final versions of Sector and odor issues, new acquisition and divestiture
Supplements are considered to be Core processes, animal testing, pharmaceutical residu-
Indicators, and should be applied using the als in the environment, genomics, bio-safety, and
same approach as the Core Indicators found bio-prospecting.
in the Guidelines. DuPont, Canada demonstrates a commit-
c. All other information (e.g., company specific ment to employee health, not only by reporting
Indicators) included in the report should be on injuries and illnesses resulting in lost time, but
subject to the same Reporting Principles also by reporting on employee physical fitness
and have the same technical rigor as GRI levels. In its 1998 EHS report, DuPont provides
Standard Disclosures. data on rates of smoking, cholesterol levels,
d. Confirm that the information to be reported blood pressure and obesity among its employees.
and the Report Boundary are appropriate by Benefits claims costs (as a percentage of pay-
applying the Principle of completeness. roll costs) are included as an EHS performance
indicator. In addition, DuPont reports on the
availability of on-site fitness facilities, on-site
global exampleS of nutritional and health counseling, and health
SuStainability reporting information seminars, to demonstrate the link
between its policy and actions with regard to
The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is a multi- employee health.
stakeholder collaboration among the Coalition Electrolux has also reported on the life cycle
of Environmentally Responsible Economies analysis of a number of their products. A strong
(CERES) and numerous organizations, united impetus for the appliance industry to offer products
to develop a common framework for global sus- with reduced environmental impact is the fact
tainability reporting. Issues reported using these that the main environmental impact is usually
guidelines are not limited to environmental per- greater in product use than during production, and
formance, but also include social and economic furthermore is closely connected to the individual
indicators. As a member of the GRI Steering Com- household economy. A life cycle assessment of a
mittee, General Motors is pilot testing the draft washing machine, for example, shows that about
GRI guidelines in its report. Bristol-Myers Squibb, 80 percent of the total environmental impact during
Electrolux, Proctor and Gamble and Norsk Hydro the life of the machine consists of water, energy
have also followed some of the GRI guidelines in and detergent consumption. A similar analysis of
the preparation of their reports. In India, a number the total cost of the entire life cycle of the machine
of firms including Jubilant Organosys, Tata Steel, shows that the cost of water, energy and detergent
ITC, etc. are following GRI guidelines for their consumption exceeds the initial purchase price.
sustainability reporting. Norsk Hydro has applied life cycle assessment
Bristol-Myers Squibb goes beyond the (LCA) to the workings of the entire company. The
traditional one-line statement to include a com- aggregated data allows for a striking overview of
prehensive look at the all the issues that have company’s consumption of natural resources and
an impact on operations and stakeholders (both pollutant emissions in light of annual profits. LCA
local and global). BMS’ overview of sustain- has also been completed for each major company
ability includes policy statements on external division.
90
Ontario Power Generation, in its Towards inDian Context

Sustainable Development report, includes a de-
scription of the benchmarking study conducted Environmental and social Management in India
by a consultant to compare OPG’s corporate is as old as its history, its natural, social and cul-
environmental management practices and pro- tural milieu. Our forefathers used to worship the
cesses to those of best-in-class organizations. mountains, the rivers, the forests and even the
The consultant’s report affords OPG a third-party animals. Himalayan Mountains, Ganga River,
evaluation of both strengths and weaknesses in its Pipal tree etc. have been worshipped since times
corporate environmental practices and processes, immemorial. Elephants and cows are worshipped
and an essential baseline for measuring its prog- even today. The concept of bio-diversity and the
ress. A synopsis of the findings is provided and green cover are age old in India. The social and
OPG also outlines its response. religious fabric was woven around the concept of
Procter and Gamble builds credibility and Environment Protection and Promotion. Hindu
uses resources most effectively by providing religion followed by the majority preached for
detailed data on areas of greatest concern to the sacrifice for others. The age-old businesses were
company. In their Sustainability Report emphasis based on social equity and service to the mother
was placed on water quality and use and on health earth. There are a number of shlokas (verses) in
and hygiene. Other more general indicators of Vedas and Epics. Dhana (wealth) was meant for
progress were also reported upon but the detailed Dharma (religion) leading to Sukha (happiness).
assessment in two areas gives the impression that It was somewhere on the way to economic de-
the company is looking for triggers of improve- velopment that we went astray and have started
ment in areas where they are needed the most. looking to the west for sustainable development
Rio Tinto includes an excellent graphic to and corporate social responsibility – the essence
illustrate responsibilities and information flow of contributing to the upliftment of society and
relating to the preparation of the company’s Social enhancement of natural resources i.e. air, water,
and Environment Report. The reporting structure land, flora and fauna.
makes it apparent that Rio Tinto understands the
importance of bringing corporate policy makers
together with operational managers to produce SuStainability reporting
a report that has meaning inside and outside of
organization. In India, Jubilant Organosys Ltd became the
first company to be the registered organizational
Stakeholder of Global Reporting Initiative. This
is both a recognition and acknowledgement of
Figure 4. Source Rio Tinto
91
adherence to providing a safe working environ- they think that economics and technology are
ment to employees and the communities around their only concern. IT sector in India has got three
areas of operation. Jubilant Organosys Limited is a main sub-sectors namely hardware, software and
composite pharmaceuticals industry player, offer- IT enabled services. While hardware facilities
ing products and services to pharmaceuticals and seem to be environmentally aware, their report is
life sciences industry. This is one of the country’s scarce. Software and IT enabled services sectors
leading Contract Research and Manufacturing do not consider environment to be an aspect of
Services (CRAMS) & Active Pharmaceutical their business. Contrary to this, Paharpur Business
Ingredients (API) companies, having business Center (2003), a software technology infrastruc-
interests in Pharmaceuticals & Life Science ture provider, has reported its Environmental
Products, Performance Polymers and Industrial Performance based on triple bottom line and is
Products, and believe in sustainability of growth. planning next report in GRI format. The leading
Its approach to sustainable development focuses software units like TCS (2003), INFOSYS (2003)
on the triple bottom lines of Economics, Environ- and WIPRO (2003) have been reporting their
ment and People. performance more on social than environmental
The author had conducted a survey of lead- counts. The findings of some other sectors, where
ing companies belonging to automobile, bank- Environment has been considered as a business
ing, cement, chemical & fertilizer, engineering, concern, are given below.
FMCG, IT, mining & metallurgy, pulp & paper,
pharmaceutical, power, and telecom sectors automobile
with regard to their annual reporting, especially
environmental, social and sustainability report- With the liberalization policy of Indian govern-
ing. The survey was based on secondary data, ment, almost all multinational automobile com-
published reports, a questionnaire and personal panies have entered this market. However, the
interview of the executive looking after CSR/ top slot, both in 4wheeler as well as 2wheeler,
Environmental management in the company. It is occupied by joint venture companies and
revealed that conservation of energy finds place the second position by the Indian companies.
in the Directors report, presumably because of Automobile units are having ISO 14001 certific
the provisions of Indian Company Law. Some ation and are, thus, having a defined environmen-
companies have reported their social and envi- tal management system. The exhaust emission
ronmental performance but sustainability report is (regulated since 1965 in developed countries but
scarce. The Environmental/Social/Sustainability since 1991 in India) is their major environmen-
reports, if provided, were mostly unsystematic tal concern. Aggressive steps initiated towards
and varied in content & character, the emphasis introduction of cleaner fuels, Inspection and
varying from sector to sector. Maintenance, Stringent Emission Standards,
Some of Banking, Telecom and IT sector units Traffic Management and Good governance in Air
belong to billion-dollar club but none of them Quality issues have yielded good environmental
have reported their sustainability, environmental results. Reduction of CO by 68.5%, hydrocarbon
or social performance. State Bank of India, the by 68.5% and Nox by 55.5% has already been
biggest player in the banking sector, has hardly achieved since then. They are working closely
reported its environmental responsibility and so with oil and gas industry for development of better
is the case with other bankers. The telecom com- fuel and lubricants while continuously improving
panies are not different as far as environmental engine design. These units have their web site
reporting is concerned. This is, perhaps, because where environmental performance is reported but
92
more on product performance rather than on over mining & metallurgy

all business performance. Their manufacturing
plants are meeting legislative requirement and the Both mining and metallurgical industries are
same is being extended across the supply chain considered dirty. They are energy intensive and
and service organizations. A study conducted environment damaging. Iron and Steel forms the
by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE, backbone of this Sector. Primary steel produc-
2001) on Environmental practices in automobile ers have shown concern for environment and
sector clearly shows that they have still to drive have reported their environmental performance
long way in green direction as the over all rating in different ways. The leading steel producer,
of automobile sector was 2 leaves (score 31.4%) SAIL (2003), has reported reduction in particulate
only against 5 leaves for the best possible per- matter emission by 60%, water consumption by
formance. 47%, effluent discharge quantity by 32%, and
energy consumption by 9% and an increase in
Chemicals and fertilizer solid waste utilization by 14%. TISCO (2003), the
most cost effective Steel Company has reported
The chemicals & fertilizer sector is environmen- its environmental performance in GRI format,
tally very sensitive. The industry is of a peculiar which has been duly verified by Pricewaterhouse
nature in that pollution at plant level is minimal Coopers (PWC). The company has exceeded
but peaks the moment the products leave the regulatory compliance standards. It has achieved
plant. They have no control over the products a reduction in Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions
they manufacture. The life cycle assessment also by 9.0% (against a target of 5%), specific energy
becomes difficult because it undergoes continu- consumption by 1.8% (against a target of 4%),
ous change from one form to another. They come raw material consumption by 10.8% (against
under red category and, therefore, are closely a target of 5%), water consumption by 10.2%
monitored by pollution control boards. Bhopal (against a target of 5%) and has increased waste
unit producing methyl isocynide belonged to this reuse and recycling from 70.2% to 72.6% (against
category of industry. The environmental disaster a target of 72%) during the year. The Company
took a toll of more than 4,000 lives and crippled has also undertaken a CDM project. In the min-
the whole surrounding. The gas leak constituted ing sector, NALCO’s (2003) bauxite mine has
the first International environmental case pursued won environmental award but its reporting looks
in numerous courts in India and U.S.A. The com- more a publicity matter rather than data based for
pensation was settled in an Indian court at $495 continual improvement.
million but thousands are still suffering and the
poison effects will spill over to generations. The oil & gas Sector
incidence exposed the environmental credibility
of multinational companies especially with respect The players in this sector rank high in Economic
to their plants in developing countries. Green Times survey and carry great environmental risk
Rating for Caustic-Chlorine Sector (CSE, 2002) even though the oil refineries have been merrily
found that the environmentally best performing producing diesel with such high levels of sulphur
company had scored 46.6% in green rating. The in it as are unacceptable in any developed country
study reported that the performance swings from (Sahay, 2007). Most of their facilities are ISO
as good as the global best to as bad as it could 14001 certified. In fact Koyali-Ahmedabad pipe-
be. No company, however, qualified for the five line of Indian Oil Corporation (2003) was the first
leaves award - the highest rating. pipeline in the world to get ISO 14001 certification.
93
They have generally reported their Environmental NOx, discharge of effluents and their hydrogen
Policy and environmental performance over the ion concentration, free chlorine, COD & BOD
years. Environmental aspects in their processes levels, coal consumption, ash generation, specific
and products have been recognized and revealed. oil consumption etc. They also have reported
This sector has done and reported laudable work in plantation of tree saplings, pisciculture in their
forestation, development of ecological parks and water ponds (hydro stations), pollution control
protection of heritage. Social aspect like ten point equipments, electrostatic precipitators, height
program for Taj trapezium (a world heritage) has of chimneys, trial solar energy plants and wind
been over emphasized by the companies working power projects. Bombay Suburban Electric Sup-
in that area. The environmental aspects of process ply has even appointed a committee of Directors
(exploration, production, refining and blending) on Environment. They have created facility for
like levels of liquid effluents, gaseous emissions online analysis and monitoring of SOx, NOx and
and hazardous wastes have been reported and SPM in the flue gas duct, automatic weather
compared with standards rather than target set monitoring station for monitoring weather condi-
under continual improvement clause of EMS. As tions, ambient air quality monitoring stations and
far as products are concerned, low sulfur diesel, mobile environment monitoring van to monitor
lead free petrol and development of bio-degradable the emission parameters in nearby area. Nuclear
lubricants find special mention though not evalu- power plants are of different species having very
ated against target. The sector, despite good work, strict safety requirement. They are reporting more
has yet to report their environmental performance on safety than on environmental aspects. Hydel
in globally recognized format. power plants were observed to be reporting more
on social aspects.
power
pharmaceutical
Indian power sector (2003) is dominated by ther-
mal power having a share of 71.94% followed Pharmaceutical sector, of late, is gaining impor-
by hydel (25.09%), nuclear (2.59%) and wind tance worldwide because of the new intellectual
(1.44%). The other non-conventional sources of property rights regime under WTO. The two
energy like solar, geothermal, tidal etc. are non Indian players Ranbaxy (2003) and Dr. Reddy’s
significant. National Thermal Power Corporation Laboratories (2003) in this sector have taken great
(Sahay, 2008), a central Public Sector Enterprise, initiatives. Multinationals operating in India and
is the biggest player in thermal power sector. Indian units in this sector are environmentally con-
Power plants of State Electricity Boards are scious. At Ranbaxy, regulatory consents, compli-
other major players. Companies like Tata Power ance with consent conditions, adequate resources,
(2003) and Bombay Suburban Electric Supply environment-impact assessment and EMS form
(2003), Private Sector Units, are also significant the five absolutes for achieving corporate objec-
players. Besides these, there are captive power tives defined by their EH&S policy. Environment
plants of energy intensive industries. Thermal Impact Assessment Studies are carried out periodi-
Power plants are the biggest greenhouse gas cally to assess the effect on local environmental
emitter. They (other than those of State Electricity conditions affected by various plants. Dr. Reddy’s
Boards) have been reporting their environmental Lab has a two-pronged investment strategy. One
performance but it is in non-standard format suit- in pollution control devices & safety equip-
ing their own requirements. The reports include ment and the other in the management systems.
the trend in emission of particulate matters, SO2, They have reported that their operations can be
94
sustainable only if safety, health & environment sions of their activities (processes), products,
(SH&E) management is integrated into production and services. The GRI incorporates the active
processes and manufacturing practices. Learning participation of representatives from business,
to do more with less, their focus has shifted to accountancy, investment, environmental, human
process improvements for yield improvement rights, research and labor organizations from all
from a traditional “end-of-pipe” approach of waste over the world. Started in 1997 by the Coalition
treatment. The reports, however, are unsystematic for Environmentally Responsible Economies
and haphazard. (CERES), the GRI became independent in 2002.
It is an official collaborating center of the United
pulp & paper Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and works
in cooperation with Global Compact (UNIDO et
The pulp & paper sector is an expanding sector al, 1999). The latest reporting system, known as
at the cost of denudation of forests. It uses many GRI 3, was issued in 2007.
hazardous chemicals and also releases hazardous
waste. Green Rating Project (CSE, 1999) in India
was launched in this sector only. A life cycle ap- CSr anD SuStainability
proach beginning from raw material procurement ConneCtion
to product recycling was adopted. It was observed
that paper and pulp industry is a big consumer Gone are the days when accusations of socio-eco-
of natural resources like water, wood fiber and nomic and environmental non-friendly practices
energy. During production and disposal stages, used to be the key driver for the business to be
a large portion of these resources comes out as philanthropic or to set apart in budget a portion
waste. The best Environmental performer in the of profit for CSR activities. Now they recognize
sector had a score of 42.75 out of 100. There is paramount value of embedding CSR in the core
a big difference in environmental performance strategy of the company.
between Indian Pulp & Paper industry and those The responsibilities are being converted by
in the developed world mainly on account of aggressive strategies of corporate warriors. This
technology level and the size of the plant. This trend may better be expressed through seven steps
sector is not conscious about environmental report- process prescribed by David Grayson and Adrian
ing and has been more or less dwelling upon the Hodges (2004).
minimum levels of environmental performance. This model provides a methodology to show
The recycling is increasing but mainly under the how to generate revised or potentially new busi-
pressure of user industries, which want to reduce ness strategies to capitalize on spot business op-
their waste level. portunities. Entrepreneurs are increasingly fram-
Among the sustainability reporting systems ing company’s strategy in which CSR is a major
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is becoming component. Along with it, they do report annually
popular. GRI is a multi-stakeholder process, about their corporate sustainability initiatives link-
which, of late, is gaining acceptability worldwide. ing these with fundamental principles, goal and
It is an independent institution whose mission objectives of the business organization.
is to develop and disseminate globally appli- Triumph of this need reflects in the conscious-
cable Sustainability Reporting Guidelines. These ness and commitment coming from the world
Guidelines are voluntary in nature but getting community. Recently The World Business Council
popular among organizations for reporting on for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and the
the economic, social, and environmental dimen- International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) has
95
Figure 5. From CSR to Corporate Social Opportunity: 7 Steps, Grayson et al. (2004)
jointly organized a Global Business Day dur- ConCluSion

ing the 13th Conference of the Parties (COP) to
the United Nations Framework Convention on From the instances stated above, it will be clear
Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Bali. The name that corporate philanthropy existed for centuries.
of the event, ‘Tri Hita Karana’, is derived from However, the movement of majority of the firms
the Balinese philosophy of life. Tri Hita Karana from philanthropy to Corporate Social Respon-
emphasizes that happiness can only be attained if sibility is a phenomenon of 20th century. It was
the Creator, people and nature live in harmony with generally not voluntary. In many cases, the firms
each other. It reflects the objectives of responsible were forced to adapt good CSR practices either
business, balancing people, the planet and profit because of regulatory requirements or social pres-
as the basis for sustainable development. The Bali sure or in their own business interest. Cases like
Global Business Day (10 December 2007) brought Nike, which faced extensive consumer boycott
together 200-300 decision makers from compa- because of abusive labor practices by its suppli-
nies, governments, and inter-governmental and ers, or Shell Oil, which had to swallow a bitter
non-governmental organizations. It demonstrated pill as the Greenpeace protests brought their sales
the capacities and commitments of leading com- drastically down forcing them to change their
panies and business sectors to provide solutions decision to dump Brent Spar oil rigs in north sea
to the sustainability issue. Let us wait and watch despite approval from the British Government, or
how the business houses world over get tuned to Coca-Cola, which was facing injunction in India
sustainability and how firmly they embed CSR because of poor water extraction and utilization
in their corporate/business strategy! are glaring examples of such involuntary CSR.
Worse was Union Carbide, which had poor safety
96
practices that resulted in the death of many workers Cohen, D. V., & Altman, B. W. (2000). Corporate
and people residing in the vicinity resulting in the Citizenship in the New Millennium: Foundation
closure of the plant; putting a question mark on for an Architecture of Excellence. Business and So-
its own sustainability. Later, the parent company ciety Review, 105(1), 145–168. doi:10.1111/0045-
itself had to be sold in distress. 3609.00069
Smarter global companies like Bristol-Myers
Cornelius, P. & Kogut, B. (2003). Creating the
Squibb, DuPont, Canada, Electrolux, Norsk
Responsible Firm: In Search for a New Corporate
Hydro, Ontario Power Generation, Procter and
Governance Paradigm. German Law Review, 4
Gamble, Rio Tinto etc. took early steps in this
(1).
direction and started sustainability reporting thus,
communicating their actions not only to their Daly, H. E. (1973). Towards a Steady State
shareholders but public at large. They quickly Economy. San Francisco: Freeman.
ingrained good CSR practice in their core business
Daly, H. E. (1991). Steady-State Economics (2nd
and strived to become a good corporate citizen.
ed.). Washington, DC: Island Press
They understood the issues of their reputation,
moral obligation, social approval to operate, need Friedman (1962). Capitalism and Freedom. Uni-
to protect and enhance natural environment and versity of Chicago Press.
above all the issue of their own sustainability. In
Grayson, D., & Hodges, A. (2004). Corporate
India Jubilent Organosys, Tatas, ITC, etc. are such
social opportunity!: 7 steps to make corporate
examples. CSR has been part of their corporate/
social responsibility work for your business
business strategy and forms a prominent part of the
Greenleaf Pub. Sheffield
Board Agenda. They scout for the CSR activities
required by the society in which they operate and Gross National Happiness (1999). Report of the
align it with their core business activities. Some Centre for Bhutan Studies, Thimphu, Bhutan.
of them identify the strategic CSR activities those
Izza, M. (2007). An overview of Corporate Re-
become part of their strategy to be pursued to create
sponsibility - Institute of Chartered Accountants
value for both the company as well as the society.
in England & Wales, July, 2007
Though their CSR/sustainability acts speak for
themselves, their communication of the same in Jonker, J., & Witte, M. (Eds.). (2006). Manage-
GRI format, both in hard and soft versions, adds ment models for corporate social responsibility.
further value to the firms. Heidelberg: Springer Publication.
Kotler, P., & Lee, N. (2005). Corporate social
referenCeS responsibility: doing the most good for your
company and your cause. Hoboken, NJ: John
Altman, B. W. (1998). Transformed Corporate Wiley Publication.
Community Relations: A Management Tool for Macintosh J.C.C (1999). The issues, effects
Achieving Corporate Citizenship. Business and and consequences of the Berle-Dodd debate.
Society Review. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 24(2),
139-153(15).
Marlin, A. & Tepper, J. (2003).
97
McWilliams, A., Siegel, D. S., & Wright, P. Sahay, A. (2008). Perception of Pollution and
M. (2006). Corporate social responsibility: Exprctation from NTPC’s Talcher Sper Thermal
strategic implications. Journal of Management Plant. In Progress in Industrial Ecology, (inder-
Studies, 43(1), 1–18. doi:10.1111/j.1467- science, UK), 5(5/6), 536-554.
6486.2006.00580.x
Sahay, A. (2009). Organization: Structures,
Meadows, D., Meadows, D. L., Randers, J., & Frameworks. Reporting Business Management
Behrens, W. (1971). The Limits to Growth. New and Environmental Stewardship (pp. 138 – 154).
York: Universe Books. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Munshi, K. (2004). Social Learning in a Hetero- Shekhar, S., & Sahay, A. (2007). Firm financial
geneous Population: Technology Diffusion in the management and Corporate Social Responsibility:
Indian Green Revolution. Journal of Development A literature review of and perspectives for India.
Economics, LXXIII, 185–215. doi:10.1016/j. Journal of Social and Environment Policy, 4(2).
jdeveco.2003.03.003
Shrivastava, H., & Venkateswaran, S. (2000). The
Pandey, N. & Sahay, A. (2008). Towards a New Business of Social Responsibility: The Why, What
Paradigm of Sustainable Development. Interna- and How of Corporate Social Responsibility in
tional Journal of Environment and Development, India, Partners in Change, New Delhi, India.
June, 2008.
Smith, C. (1994). The New Corporate Philanthro-
Pava, M. L., & Krausz, J. (1997). Criteria for py. Harvard Business Review, 72(3), 105–116.
evaluating the legitimacy of corporate social
Steiner, G., & Steiner, J. (1991). Business, Gov-
responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 17,
ernment and Society: A Managerial Perspective
337–347. doi:10.1023/A:1017920217290
(6th Ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Philips, D. (2006). Quality of Life: Concept, Policy
Stivers, R. (1976). The Sustainable Society: Ethics
and Practice. New York: Routledge
and Economic Growth. Philadelphia: Westminster
Sahay,A.(2004). Indian Corporate Environmental Press.
and Financial Performance: Empirical Relation-
Sustainable Development Strategies New York,
ship between them.
(2007, November).
Sahay, A. (2006 a). Environmental Management
UNDSD. “Addressing climate change in national
in India: Its Social, Economic and Legal Aspects.
sustainable development strategies –common
Journal of the Social Sciences, 1(2).
practices” Background Paper, Expert Group
Sahay, A. (2006 b). Environmental Insurance: The Meeting on Integrating Climate Change into
Need of the Hour, Pravartak. Journal of National National University of New Mexico Management
Insurance Academy, 2(Jan). Presentation, Van Buren, 2006
Sahay, A. (2007). Euro IV Norms in India: So- United Nations (1987). Report of the World
cial Historical and Legal Background. Vikram- Commission on Environment and Development.
shila Journal of Social Sciences, 4(1), January General Assembly Resolution 42/187. Retrieved
– June. December 16, 2008.
98
Valor, C. (2005). Corporate Social Respon- http://www.emeraldinsight.com/, December 9,

sibility and Corporate Citizenship: Towards 2008
Corporate Accountability. Business and Society
http://www.environment.gov.au/, December 9
Review, 110(2), 191–212. doi:10.1111/j.0045-
2008
3609.2005.00011.x
http://www.globalreporting.org/, December 7,
Waddock, S. (2004). Parallel universes: compa-
2008
nies, academics and the progress of corporate
citizenship. Business and Society Review, 109(1), http://www.icaew.com/, December 10, 2008
5–42. doi:10.1111/j.0045-3609.2004.00002.x
http://www.ic.gc.ca/, December 7, 2008
WBCSD. (2000). Corporate Social Responsibil-
http://www.ifc.org/, December 10, 2008
ity: Making good business sense. World Business
Council for Sustainable Development. http://www.jstor.org/, December 10, 2008
Windsor, D. (2006). Corporate social responsibil- http://www.mallenbaker.net/l, December 7,
ity: three key approaches. Journal of Management 2008
Studies, 43(1), 93–114. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
http://www.tata.com/, December 7, 2008
6486.2006.00584.x
http://www.thesullivanfoundation.org/, December
Young, P. (2004). Understanding NLP Principles
7, 2008
and Practice. Carmarthen, UK: Crown House
Publishing Ltd. http://www.wbcsd.org/, December 9, 2008
http://www.wikipedia.org/, December 7, 2008
www.unglobalcompact.org/, December 10,
Web-linkS
2008
http://arno.unimaas.nl/, December 7, 2008
http://www.ec.europa.eu/, December 10, 2008
99
100
Chapter 6
Tools for Corporate Assessment
of Sustainable Development
Cecilia Mark-Herbert
Department of Economics, The Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Jonas Rorarius
Department of Economics, The Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
abStraCt
Corporate needs to assess, evaluate and communicate sustainability efforts are evident in the increasing
use of management tools. A selected set of commonly used sustainability management tools are compared
in this study with a key question in mind: how well does each of them provide grounds for assessing
and communicating corporate sustainability ambitions? Each of the tools reflects different aspects of
responsible conduct; expressed in economic, environmental, social and temporal & spatial terms. They
represent a partial foundation for ex ante assessment and ex post evaluation and, as such, grounds for
providing information and communicating. Selecting suitable tools for making sustainability manage-
ment assessments presupposes an awareness of a need to integrate the perspectives on sustainability as
well as finding a suitable marketing tool mix.
SuStainability neeDS with an ambition of responsibility, in a long-term

perspective refers to operationalizing the term
The current interest in environmental, social and eco- “sustainability”. It implies re-thinking old models,
nomic problems of the world is a shared challenge finding new methods in production and distribution,
for scholars, businesses, and politicians - humans new ways of living – and, perhaps most importantly,
in every day life all over the world. Examples of a new way of evaluating and communicating all of
problems we all face include global climate change, the above.
population growth, loss of biodiversity, and social Sustainable development issues are increasingly
inequalities. These problems are not necessarily new given attention and publicity, not just by govern-
phenomena – but embracing all of these changes ments, but also in the private sector and especially
multi-national companies. Sustainability matters
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch006 have become central parts of into consideration
Tools for Corporate Assessment of Sustainable Development
in corporate decision-making processes (Bell & grounds for a message, which in this case is the
Morse, 1999). Reasons for this development are result of a sustainability assessment. Selected,
seen in, for example, tightened environmental commonly used, tools for making such assess-
laws imposed by governments (Dobers, 1997) ments are being compared in this chapter. The
and pressure from conscious consumers (Welford, presented tools may be used as a part of a larger
1998) pushing for corporate responsible conduct. “tool kit”, for example an ISO 14001 management
However, actions, taken in the name of corporate system. Each tool may also be used separately, for
responsibility, communicated by companies are example when alternatives for a large investment
not always as good as their intentions appear on are being assessed.
paper (Schwartz, 2004). One of the reasons for Tools that allow for an ex ante assessment as
the shortcomings is that management tools are opposed to an ex post evaluation, are desirable for
limited in what support they may provide and many reasons; the primary reason being that of
which stakeholders access the channel through costs and challenges in changing procedures once
which the information is provided. Manage- a direction is taken. Ultimately, the ambition of ex
ment system tools, such as ISO 14001 provide a ante assessment indicates a corporate willingness
structure for addressing environmental aspects of to take responsibility above and beyond what is
corporate conduct in a continuous improvement required currently by law. These tools provide
framework – but they do not set any objectives or grounds for internal communication as well as a
provide guidance in assessing strategic corporate dialogue with external stakeholders. The ambition
options. is to present a comparison of corporate forecasting
Yet, another root for the problems of lacking tools for predicting long term consequences and
sustainability communication stems from ideo- particularly possible effects on different aspects
logical connections that determine not only which of sustainable development.
issues that are raised, but also the vocabulary for The chapter starts with a brief presentation of
verbalizing possible views. Fiske (1990) refers different perspectives on corporate practices for
to these limitations as “codes”. In the prevailing addressing and communicating sustainability.
market-economy paradigm, profit-maximization These perspectives are implicit is the subsequent
criteria, with a short-term perspective, dominates parts of the chapter where a comparison of a few
at the expense of non-monetary values and long- commonly used management tools for assessing
term perspectives (Rikhardsson & Welford, 1997; corporate sustainable development are presented.
Söderbaum, 2000; Gillespie, 2001). Additional It is assumed that tools that are successfully used
challenges relate to sustainable development as- will make way for a wider application and they
pects in decision-making and communication may even become a standardized way of estimat-
processes as it proves difficult due to a large ing and communicating sustainable development.
information flow (Alvesson & Willmott, 1996) Each of the tools is analyzed and presented in a
and lack of explicit tools for evaluating impacts of modified triple bottom line framework for analysis.
communicated corporate policies and strategies. Finally, we conclude by returning to our starting
This chapter presents a critical view of how point: The established tools, before they get too
corporations currently use management assess- far in a legitimization process, “how well do these
ment tools aimed at sustainability for communi- tools cover our needs for communicating sustain-
cating policies, plans and programs, which are ability measures”?
assessed prior to their implementation (ex-ante).
It questions neo-classical models and it focuses on
the basis for sustainability communication – the
101
Figure 1. Sustainability objectives refer to finding solutions that encompasses economic, environmental,
social, cultural, spatial and temporal objectives
Divergent perSpeCtiveS on tainability assessment and communication tools

SuStainable Development (Figure 1). He argues that human behaviour, for
example, should be addressed from microeconom-
There is no generally accepted specific scien- ics and sociology perspectives.
tific definition of what sustainable development In order to capture a complex phenomenon,
encompasses. In fact, there are vast numbers of such as sustainable development, there is a need
different interpretations and terminologies (Hardi, for a number of disciplinary perspectives to be
2007). Some dominant perspectives and terminol- represented in the values, vocabularies, models
ogies have gained a lot of attention and gradually and tools used for evaluation and communica-
made their way to become parts of a standardized tion. Assuming that communication is regarded
vocabulary (Jacobsson, 2000) for capturing values as an exchange of information between two or
in economy in general – including values for the more parties (Fiske, 1990), the dialogue builds
complex phenomena sustainable development. on words and symbols where meaning is created
This vocabulary refers to classical economics and (Figure 2).
business economics as disciplines, based on neo- The meaning (Figure 2) is expressed in diverge
classical economics. A brief discourse analysis is vocabularies and perspectives offering a vast
presented in Appendix 1. number of possible starting points for finding a
A need for a broadened vocabulary above and tool that resolves a current corporate problem.
beyond economic values is expressed by a number Each of the tools that are presented in this chapter
of scholars, for example, Elkington, (2004) in his started as s solution to a local problem of making
“triple bottom line” framework. an assessment, which gradually has grown into a
Rotmans (2006) support this notion, of a more commonly known tool that we now know by
growing awareness and need to include various name, such as Environmental Impact Assessment,
disciplines as building blocks for developing sus- EIA. A shared meaning of the interpretation of what
102
Figure 2. Messages and meaning in a dialogue (Fiske, 1990, 14)
an EIA refers to is possible thanks to a dialogue are more straightforward scientific assessment
(Fiske, 1990). The process of developing a com- tools; they do not involve stakeholder participa-
monly accepted tool to assess an environmental tion and are thus value judgement free. Sector and
problem and even “the way of doing something” country-related assessment tools, such as Strategic
may be seen as a standardization process (Brunson Environmental Assessment (SEA), were excluded
& Jacobsson, 2002). Assuming that the set of tools due a limited corporate use. Moreover, different
we have for assessing sustainability in a corporate kind of indicators and indices, such as Ecological
setting are starting points for such a standardization Footprint (EF), are also excluded since they are
process – do they suffice? Do they provide grounds not ex-ante assessment tools. They are, however,
for communicating sustainability efforts? important in the follow-up assessment process.
Recent development of new tools for assess-
ing sustainability has given rise to two tools that
toolS for aSSeSSment are included in this comparison, Sustainability
anD CommuniCation Impact Assessment, SIA and Integrated Sustain-
ability Assessment, ISA. So far work on these
There are several assessment tools for evaluat- sustainability assessment tools has been targeted
ing different aspects of sustainability. A broad towards a government and EU policy level, yet
overview over currently used tools is provided in they are included in the study, as we believe they
Appendix 2. In this presentation, corporate tools provide valuable insights for corporate level sus-
that are well established and frequently used are tainability assessments in the future. Also, multi
given priority (Vanclay, 2004). These tools are national corporations operating in many places and
for example Cost Benefit Analysis, CBA, Envi- cultures; influencing various people, communities
ronmental Impact Assessment, EIA, and Social and even governments - their role could very well
Impact Assessment, sIA. be compared to action taken at a governmental
The main reason for omitting some of the cur- policy level. The use of ISA and SIA, however,
rently used tools are that we want to compare tools vary quite a bit. There is not a uniform standard-
that will provide a basis for an ex ante evaluation; ized way of using and interpreting SIA. Instead,
in other words forecast the value, as opposed to various EU countries have developed their own
a follow up analysis once the investment, trans- versions of procedures and interpretative grounds.
action or action has been made. Product-related ISA, on the other hand, has a more standardized
assessment tools, such as Life-Cycle Analysis procedure, largely based on European Commis-
(LCA), were not included in the study as these sion funded study called Methods and Tools for
103
Table 1. Selected assessment tools* and dimensions of sustainable development
ASPECTS & CONCEPTS OF SELECTED EXISTING CORPORATE NEWER SUSTAINABILITY ASSESS-

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ASSESSMENT TOOLS (CBA, EIA, sIA) MENT TOOLS (SIA, ISA)
Economic
Environmental
Social and cultural
Temporal and spatial
* Each of these tools is presented and discussed more in detail in Rorarius (2007, 2008).
Integrated Sustainability Assessment (MATISSE) hoW SuStainable are the

but has not yet become institutionalized as a part of SuStainability toolS?
a commonly used corporate tool box. In part, this
is explained by the fact that they are not adapted The term sustainability implies an indefinite
to corporate needs. time frame. It is clear that our understanding of
The selected tools are analyzed in a comparison sustainability by no means is complete, so we
where four aspects of sustainable development are will simply have to assume that there is a need to
taken into account (Table 1) and are based on so- develop tools to meet the needs of a more com-
cial sciences sustainable development discourses. plex understanding than the previous generation
The three aspects (economic, environmental and of models was based on. Keeping this in mind,
social) are the most well known framework of we may look more closely at the commonly used
sustainable development, as identified in the assessment tools and the newer sustainability tools
Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987) and reaffirmed that are under development. Each of the tools is
in Agenda 21 (www, UN, Agenda 21, 2004). considered from a social science discourse point
Temporal and spatial aspects were included to of view with a stand in a triple bottom line frame-
provide intra- and intergenerational dimensions work aiming at sustainable development (Table
as identified by the Brundtland Report. Z). Ethical dimensions in each of these aspects of
Sustainability assessment, in general, can be sustainability are integrated, but they could very
understood as a combination of impact assessment well be regarded as aspects of their own, using a
process tools. It refers to a combining evaluation whole set of ethical terms and models (Bonnedahl
tools to cover different aspects of sustainable de- et al., 2007; Donaldson & Werhane, 2008; Ketola,
velopment (CBA, EIA & sIA). The newer tools, 2007; Mackie, 1977).
sustainability assessment tools (SIA & ISA) differ The first aspect, economy, seems obvious, but
from the established assessment tools as they do the different perceptions even within one subject
not separate economic, environmental and social call for some clarifications. With regard to eco-
aspects but rather treats them as a whole. The pres- nomic aspects, social scientists emphasize long-
ent development of these tools is primarily aimed term economic growth rather than short-term profit
at governmental needs for forecasting develop- maximization. Preserving resource availability
ment with sustainability as a primary target. They and at least efficiency, preferably sufficiency, are
emphasize interconnection and interdependence also stressed. In this sense, minimum consump-
of these different aspects of sustainable develop- tion of resources, a so-called “lean production”
ment (Pope et al., 2004). is prioritized among many of them.
In terms of environmental aspects, social scien-
tists stress the complexity and interconnectedness
104
of ecosystems. Thus, ecological biodiversity and project. Moreover it is a useful tool for assessing
prevention is given priority as a part of the objec- the efficient way of allocating resources (Hanley
tives to achieve the functions of ecosystems. & Shoran, 2005). Thus, in principle, CBA aims
When considering social and cultural aspects, for efficiency rather than sufficiency. The main
social scientists highlight the importance of cher- problem of CBA is that it simply monetize all pres-
ishing socio-cultural diversity and human well ent human values (Boardman et al., 2001), which
being in general. In this sense, a multi-stakeholder does not give weight to values of general interest,
approach and understanding ideological as well that of the ecosystems, and societal interests in
as cultural orientation of individuals is essential. terms of democracy and freedom (Söderbaum,
Other key concepts stressed include justice, equity 2000). CBA is based on neoclassical economic
and transparency. perspectives and since neoclassical thinking is
Temporal and spatial aspects, emphasized by the prevailing market paradigm it is easy to see
the social scientists, include intra-generational why it has been such a popular tool. In fact, CBA
and also inter-generational concepts. Moreover, is probably the most standardized assessment
it should be understand that sustainable develop- method available.
ment is a continuous process, which is shaped In the turn of 1970s, when environmental
along the way. problems were given more attention, it became
In overall, social scientists stress the impor- rather evident that CBA was not sufficient enough
tance of considering all of the aspects mentioned for addressing environmental aspects. EIA, En-
above, as parts of a whole (Table 2). Focusing on vironmental Impact Assessment, was believed to
one aspect at the time would not imply recogniz- fill the gaps. Generally speaking EIA focuses on
ing trade-offs (see e.g. Welford, 1998; Paehlke, biophysical impacts. It does also include socio-
1999; Henriques & Richardson, 2004) between economic aspects (Stolp, 2003) but not to same
different aspects of sustainability. Focusing on extent as CBA. In fact, EIA is more concerned
one aspect at the time one would increase the risk with aspects such as fiscal policy, employment
of sub-optimization by missing out on objectives and wealth of the community. Nevertheless, EIA
from other aspects of sustainability. can show alternative ways of achieving the same
The comparison of the selected sustainability objectives with better environmental ends and
tools, presented in Table Z shows that each tool socio-economical impacts (Wathern, 1995).
covers different aspects of sustainability, which Similarly, it can be said that sIA, Social Im-
in turn creates a basis for decision-making and pact Assessment, also considers socio-economic
communication. The grounds for assessment and aspects in the assessment but again it does not
communication, in using these tools are further try to simply monetize impacts. Emphasizes is
discussed in the following sections. laid on wellbeing of individuals as well as wealth
and prosperity of the community as a whole (van
Communicating economic aspects Schooten, et al., 2003).
of Sustainable Development
Communicating environmental
CBA, Cost Benefit Analysis can arguably be said aspects of Sustainable Development
to be useful for evaluating policies, plans and
programs in monetary terms. This assessment In the CBA, Cost Benefit Analysis, there is no
becomes also valid for corporation as CBA could consensus of how to “value negative environ-
rather easily predict financial cost and more pre- mental impacts as a part of the attempt to find
cisely cost and benefits of, for example, a proposed an optimal level of pollution control through
105
Table 2. Comparison of assessment tools and their sustainability aspects
ASPECTS & CONCEPTS OF SELECTED CORPORATE ASSESSMENT NEWER SUSTAINABILITY ASSESS-

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT TOOLS (CBA, EIA, sIA) MENT TOOLS (SIA, ISA)
Economic
-Long-term growth CBA: resource allocation and efficiency main SIA: proposal effectiveness to economic
-Resource availability concern aspect, resource availability,
-Efficiency/sufficiency EIA: socio-economic (employment, fiscal ISA: considering overall effects from long-
-Minimum consumption policy) included into some extend term perspective
sIA: economic impacts related to well-being of
individuals/ community
Environmental
-Ecological diversity and prevention CBA: basically just environmental optimaliza- SIA: impacts to ecological diversity
-Maintaining ecosystems tion ISA: considering overall impacts from long-
EIA: environment quality and diversity included term perspective
sIA: environmental impacts related to human
health/well-being
Social and cultural
-Socio-cultural diversity CBA: basically just social optimalization SIA: stakeholder participation included
-Multi-stakeholder approach/dialogue EIA: includes measurable aspects ISA: strong stakeholder participation, defin-
-Ideological and cultural orientation sIA: all well covered in terms of individuals, ing sustainability together
-Justice, equity and transparency community thinking lacking
-Human well-being
Temporal and spatial
-Intergenerational thinking CBA: static assumptions, temporal aspects SIA: short-term focus, general spatial dimen-
-Intragenerational thinking questionable sions, single project
-Continuing process EIA: intragenerational aspects, weak long term ISA: long-term vision, overall spatial dimen-
thinking sions, cyclical process
sIA: intra- and intergenerational aspect consid-
ered, ongoing process
marginal analysis” (Söderbaum, 2000:12). to humans. This can be seen due to the nature of
CBA is therefore not sufficient as a sole tool sIA, which is mostly people-oriented.
for assessing environmental sustainability or
creating grounds for environmental commu- Communicating Social and Cultural
nication. In addition, pollutant sinks such as aspects of Sustainable Development
the atmosphere and watercourses are regarded
as external costs and thus are not included in CBA, Cost Benefit Analysis, is supposed to bring
the analysis (Wathern, 1995). This tool clearly solutions that are optimal form a societal point of
does not consider the environmental aspects of view. It aims for finding best alternative in terms
sustainability sufficiently. of net benefits. In other words, optimal choice
Environmental sustainability in the sIA, Social would be the one in which potential ‘losers’ would
Impact Assessment, process is concerned with be compensated by the ‘gainers’ and they both
environmental impacts and their effects on social would still be better off (Boardman et al., 2001).
aspects, such as human health and well-being, as Moreover, these are determined in monetary
well as on cultural aspects, such as archaeologi- terms based on willingness to pay concept. In
cal and community dimensions. Thus, it is not reality, however, there are different ideological
directed to biophysical aspects of the environment orientations among stakeholders and these might
but rather possible environmental impacts linked be difficult to measure in money (Söderbaum,
106
2000). In general, CBA is not appropriate tool for to pay for large number of stakeholders, including
assessing social and cultural impacts as it fails to non-human stakeholders is difficult to carry out
capture their intangible connection to each other (Boardman et al., 2001). Such arguments indicate
(Srinivasan & Mehta, 2003). More particularly, that inter- and intra-generational thinking is hard
cultural differences are not necessarily accounted to implement. CBA also makes an assumption
for, especially in cases in which no data/survey of that future impacts are applied at one point in
willingness to pay concept has not been carried time, as opposed to gradual or unevenly distrib-
out. In fact, CBA disregards different views posed uted changes and effects over time (Söderbaum,
by stakeholders (Boardman et al., 2001) 2000). In reality, uncertainty and complexity of
EIA, Environmental Impact Assessment, on the ecosystems for example, makes it hard to make
other hand is supposed to include social and cul- such basic assumptions as they presuppose a static
tural aspects in the assessment. Examples of these context. At the end, CBA is more a once-off proj-
include aesthetical and health-related aspects. It is, ect meaning that continuance of the assessment
however, argued that EIA actually fails to address process is ignored.
them properly (Vanclay, 2004). Reasons for this Spatial and temporal aspects in EIA, Envi-
can be seen due to its technocratic-orientation in ronmental Impact Assessment, depend of the
which aspects that are measurable such as employ- nature of the assessment (Glasson et al., 2005).
ment are only accounted (Stolp, 2003). In terms In general, it can be done at a local, regional or
of public participation in the assessment process, national level and even at global level (e.g. mea-
such participation involvement is included in the suring CO2 emissions). Thus, it can be stated that
EIA and thus indicating that interests and opinions intra-generational thinking is included. In terms
of various stakeholders are heard (Glasson et al., of time scale of impacts EIA is normally taken
2005). However, in general, stakeholder participa- to consider current impacts, up to 10-20 years.
tion is left to few meetings at most. This time scale might not be appropriate enough
Socio-cultural impacts are the main concern to include and consider future generations. Newer
in the sIA, Social Impact Assessment, process EIAs does, however, have follow-up assessments
(Stolp, 2003). However, even with sIA there and thus it can be said that they have a continuing
has been criticism that cultural aspects are not process with a feedback system.
well included. Reasons for this can be seen due Intra-generational –and intergenerational
to emphasize laid on the impacts of individuals equity principles are seen being part of the sIA,
while impacts on society as a whole have been Social Impact Assessment (Vanclay, 2003). These
given lesser attention (Vanclay, 2004). Neverthe- can be seen in terms of wide collaboration with
less, stakeholder participation is argued to be well stakeholders and concerns of future impacts to
included in sIA process (Baines et al. 2003). people. It is also an ongoing process allowing
feedback from different stakeholders (Baines et
temporal and Spatial aspects al., 2003).
of Sustainable Development In summary, the concept of sustainable de-
velopment involves not only a great number of
In the CBA, Cost Benefit Analysis, there are dimensions. Each of these dimensions can be esti-
some problems of including temporal and spatial mated in a number of ways – and it is when these
aspects with regards to sustainable development. estimates are aggregated in a complex analysis
The problems stem primarily from the difficulty that the true challenges arise. How do we compare
of estimating unborn future generation’s willing- present values and needs in comparison to future,
ness to pay. Similarly, measuring the willingness forecasted, ditto? How can we account for values
107
Figure 3. Each of the tools, marked in bold inside the illustration, provide grounds for partial sustain-
ability communication, but none of them give satisfactory grounds for sustainability communication.
The tools, SIA and ISA, outside the illustration, if adapted to corporate needs may serve as tools for
communicating sustainability objectives.
that are not a part of a traditional anthropocentric Having discussed the need for integrating
worldview? Temporal and spatial aspects further objectives in order to make a sustainability as-
emphasize the needs to include cultural and politi- sessment, the illustration above gives us a visual
cal dimensions in the ongoing dialogues aimed at answer to the question of communication needs.
sustainable development (Attfield, 1999). This comparison points at a need for developing
new tools or adapting the current SIA & ISA-
tools.
CommuniCational
ChallengeS anD SolutionS • None of the established tools alone (CBA,
EIA & sIA) would fulfill the requirements
A corporate need to communicate sustainability ob- for assessing and communicating sustain-
jectives, measures and results is a fact. The challenges ability efforts sufficiently. They give in-
associated with an assessment as well as reporting dications of environmental, economic or
and communicating are verified by academia (for social aspects – but they do not offer guid-
example by Cerin, 2002; Gray & Milke, 2002; ance in finding solutions that take all of the
Weeler & Elkington, 2001) as well as by corporate above into account.
representatives from various industries. • Corporate needs are sustainability-orient-
Complex issues and questions require some- ed. Emphasizes in the assessment process
what complex answers. The different assessment should be then laid on meeting the sustain-
tools and their potentials for including these as- ability aspects by integrating these differ-
pects should be treated as possible implications ent assessment tools. In general this means
of their assessment processes (Figure 3). considering economic, environmental,
108
socio-cultural, spatial and temporal as- general acceptance. As clarified by Schwartz in

pects of sustainability in their assessment her study of corporate environmental strategies:
processes as well as in communicational “Organizations whose patterns of behavior become
efforts. Integrating the assessment in a institutionalized gain increased legitimacy, which
shared understanding (strategies, policies can then be pursued both internally and externally
and plans) of corporate objectives requires in future control attempts” (2006, 14).
a transparent communication system. The change process from using ad hoc assess-
• The tools aimed at sustainability, ment tools to an established method and estimate
Sustainability Impact Assessment (SIA) can be seen as a standardization process. It cre-
and Integrated Sustainability Assessment ates grounds for comparison and it simplifies
(ISA), are at a stage of development where communication. But, as argued by Brunson &
they are of limited corporate use, primar- Jacobson (2002, 130- 133) it also enhances the
ily explained by resource requirements risk of adverse effects as the consequences of an
and complexity. When these tools have inappropriate use of a standard is more severe.
been used and modified at an industrial This further emphasize the needs for a transparent
or national level, a second generation of dialogue regarding aspects, indicators and ways
sustainability tools may offer grounds for of making measurements in using various tools
large corporations and at a later stage yet geared towards ex ante assessment of dialogue
for medium size and small businesses. regarding corporate sustainable development.
• Most tools lack indicators that ensure spa-
tial and temporal dimensions of sustain-
ability, which may lead to over all sub- referenCeS
optimization since the outcome at different
times and in different geographical loca- Alvesson, M., & Willmott, H. (1996). Making
tions are not given weight in the analysis. Sense of Management. London, UK: Sage Pub-
lications Limited.
Corporate needs to find uniform tools for ex Attfield, R. (1999). The Ethics of the Global
ante assessment as well as for ex post evaluations, Environment. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh Uni-
geared towards sustainability, are expressed in versity Press.
search of tools as well as in participation in third
party standardization programs. These tools are Baines, J., McClintock, W., Taylor, N., & Buck-
intended to simplify a complex reality, which enham, B. (2003). Using local knowledge. In H.
enables various stakeholders to participate in the Becker, & F. Vanclay, (Eds.) The International
dialogue of sustainable development. The lack of Handbook of social Impact Assessment (pp. 26-
apparent sustainability indicators (see Appendix 41). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publish-
2) opens up for new initiatives. Successful use ing.
of a tool may lead the way for a shared meaning
Bell, S., & Morse, S. (1999). Sustainability Indica-
(Fiske, 1990) in a dialogue that leads to further
tors. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
development, establishing consistency in use of
one specific tool; a standardized way of making Bisset, R., & Tomlinson, P. (1995). Monitoring and
an assessment. Early adaptors of a new tool are auditing of impacts. In P. Wathern, (ed). Environ-
caught in a double responsibility, that of being mental Impact Assessment: Theory and Practice.
critical of the tool it self and that of communicating (pp. 117-128). London, UK: Routledge.
the use of the particular tool in order to achieve a
109
Boardman, A., Greenberg, D., Vining, A., & Epstein, M. (2008). Making Sustainability Work:
Weimer, D. (2001). Cost-Benefit Analysis: con- Best Practices in Managing and Measuring
cepts and practice (2nd ed). Upper Saddle River, Corporate Social, Environmental and Economic
NJ: Prentice Hall. Impacts. Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf Publishing
Limited.
Bonnedahl, K. J., Jensen, T., & Sandström, J.
(2007). Ekonomi och moral – vägar mot ökat Fiske, J. (1990). Kommunikationsteorier. En intro-
ansvarstagande. Liber, Malmö. duction. Wahlström & Widstrand, Stockholm.
Boulding, K. (1966). The Economics of the Com- Friedman, M. (1970, September 13). The social
ing Spaceship Earth., Reprinted from H. Jarrett, responsibility of business is to increase its profits.
Environmental Quality in a Growing Economy. New York Times Magazine.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press.
Gillespie, A. (2001). The Illusion of Progress:
Brunson, N., & Jacobson, B. (2002). Standardiza- Unsustainable Development in International Law
tion and Uniformity. In N. Brunson, B. Jacobson, and Policy. London, UK: Earthscan Publications
et al (Eds.) A World of Standards (pp. 127 137). Ltd.
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Glasson, J., Therivel, R., & Chadwick, A. (2005).
Cerin, P. (2002). Communication in Corporate Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Reports. Corporate Social Re- (3rd ed.). London, UK: Routledge.
sponsibility and Environmental Management, 9,
Gray, R., & Milke, M. J. (2002). Sustainability
46–66. doi:10.1002/csr.6
Reporting: Who’s kidding whom? Chartered
Dobers, P. (1997). Organising Strategies of En- Accountants Journal of New Zealand., 81(6),
vironmental Control: towards a decentralisation 66–70.
of the Swedish environmental control repertoire.
Hardi, P. (2007). The long and winding road of
Stockholm, Sweden: Nerenius & Santérus För-
sustainable development evaluation In C. George,
lag.
& C. Kirkpatrick, (Eds). Impact Assessment and
Donaldson, T., & Eerhane, P. (2008). Ethical Issues Sustainable Development – European Practice
in Business, A philosophical approach, (8th ed.). and Experience (pp.15-30). Cheltenham, UK:
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
Dryzek, J. (2005). The Politics of the Earth: En- Hardin, G. (1967). The Tragedy of Commons. In
vironmental Discourses (2nd ed). Oxford, UK: D. VanDeVeer, & C. Pierce, (Eds.) The Environ-
Oxford University Press. mental Ethics & Policy Book (2nd ed.). London,
UK: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Elkington, J. (1999). Cannibals with Forks: The
Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Henriques, A., & Richardson, J. (Eds.). (2004).
Oxford, UK: Capstone Publishing Limited. The triple bottom line: does it all add up? Earth-
scan: London, UK.
Elkinton, J. (2004). Enter the triple bottom line.
In A. Henriques & J. Richardson, (Eds.) The Jacobsson, B. (2006). Standardization and Expert
triple bottom line Does it all add up? Assessing Knowledge. In N. Brunsson, & B. Jacobsson, et al
the sustainability of business and CSR (pp.1-17). (Eds) A World of Standards (pp. 40-49). Oxford,
Earthscan: London. UK: Oxford University Press.
110
Ketola, T. (Ed.). (2007). Paradigms of corporate Rorarius, J. (2007). Existing Assessment Tools
Sustainability. Vaasan Yliopisoto. Report 146. and Indicators: Building up Sustainability Assess-
Proceedings of Track 16, International Develop- ment (Some Perspectives and Future Applications
ment Research Conference 2007. for Finland). Helsinki, Finland, Project paper
for Finland’s Ministry of the Environment. Re-
Luke, T. (2005). Neither Sustainable nor Develop-
trieved from http://www.ymparisto.fi/download.
ment: Reconsidering Sustainability in Develop-
asp?contentid=73204&lan=en
ment. Journal of Sustainable Development, 13,
228–238. doi:10.1002/sd.284 Rorarius, J. (2008). Assessing Sustainability from
the Corporate Perspective: An interdisciplinary
Mackie, J. L. (1977). Ethics. Inventing right and
approach. Uppsala, Sweden: Department of Eco-
wrong. Penguin Group: London, UK.
nomics, SLU, thesis vol. 530.
Paehlke, R. (1999). Towards Defining, Measuring
Rotmans, J. (2006). Tools for Integrated Sustain-
and Achieving Sustainability: Tools and Strate-
ability Assessment: A two-track approach. The
gies for Environmental Valuation. In E. Becker,
Integrated Assessment Journal, 6, 35–57.
& T. Jahn, (Eds.) Sustainability and the Social
Sciences. A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Sachs, W. (1999). Planet Dialectics: Explorations
Integrating Environmental Considerations into in Environment and Development. London, UK:
Theoretical Reorientation (pp 243-263). London, Zed Books.
UK: Zed Books.
Schwartz, B. (2006). Environmental Strategies
Pearce, D., & Turner, R. (1990). Economics of as Automorphic patterns of Behaviour. Business
Natural Resources and the Environment. Balti- Strategy and the Environment . Retrieved from,
more, MD: John Hopkins University Press. 2006. doi:.doi:10.1002/bse.567
Pearce, D., & Warford, J. (1993). World without Söderbaum, P. (2000). Ecological Economics: A
End: Economics, environment and sustainable de- Political Economics Approach to Environment
velopment. New York: Oxford University Press. and Development. London, UK: Earthscan Pub-
lications Limited.
Pope, J., Annandale, D., & Morrison-Saunders, A.
(2004). Conceptualising sustainability assessment. Srinivasan, B., & Mehta, L. (2003). Assessing
Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 24, gender impacts. In H. Becker, & F. Vanclay, (Eds).
595–616. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2004.03.001 The International Handbook of Social Impact
Assessment (161-178). Cheltenham, UK: Edward
Prugh, T., Costanza, R., & Daly, H. (2000). The
Elgar Publishing.
Local Politics of Global Sustainability. Washing-
ton DC: Island Press. Stolp, A. (2003). Citizen values assessment. In
H. Becker, & F. Vanclay, (Eds). The International
Rikhardsson, P., & Welford, R. (1997). Clouding
Handbook of Social Impact Assessment: Concep-
the Crisis: the Construction of Corporate Envi-
tual and Methodological Advances (pp. 231-257).
ronmental Management. In R. Welford, (Eds.)
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Hijacking Environmentalism. Corporate Response
to Sustainable Development (pp. 40-62). London,
UK: Earthscan Publications Limited.
111
Thin, N. (2002). Social Progress and Sustainable Vanclay, F. (2004). The Triple Bottom Line and
Development. London, UK: ITDG Publishing. Impact Assessment: How do TBL, EIA, SEA and
UN, (n.d.). Agenda 21: Chapter 8, Integrating EMS relate to each other? Journal of Environ-
environment and development in decision-making. mental Assessment Policy and Management, 6(3),
Retrieved April 4, 2008 from http://www.un.org/ 265–288. doi:10.1142/S1464333204001729
esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agen-
Wathern, P. (1995). An introductory guide to EIA.
da21chapter8.htm
In P. Wathern, (Ed.), Environmental Impact Assess-
van Schooten, M., Vanclay, F., & Slootweg, R. ment: Theory and Practice (pp. 3-30). London,
(2003). Conceptualizing social change processes UK: Routledge.
and social impacts. In H. Becker, & F. Vanclay,
Weeler, D., & Elkington, J. (2001).The end of the cor-
(Eds), The International Handbook of Social Im-
porate environmental report? Business Strategy and
pact Assessment: Conceptual and Methodological
the Environment, 10(1), 1–14. doi:10.1002/1099-
Advances (pp. 74-91). Cheltenham, UK: Edward
0836(200101/02)10:1<1::AID-
Elgar Publishing.
BSE274>3.0.CO;2-0
Vanclay, F. (2003). Conceptual and methodologi-
Welford, R. (Ed.). (1998). Corporate Environmen-
cal advances in social impact assessment. In H.
tal Management Systems and Strategies, (2nd ed.).
Becker, & F. Vanclay, (Eds), The International
London, UK: Earthscan Publications Limited.
Handbook of Social Impact Assessment: Con-
ceptual and Methodological Advances (pp. 1-9). World Commission on Environment and Develop-
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. ment. (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press.
112
appenDix 1
Development of Sustainability perspectives from Different Disciplines
Newer vocabularies, such as ecological and institutional economics have emerged in response to criticism
towards mainstream (classical-based) economics. Other social sciences offer vocabularies and models
for including additional non-monetary values. Political- and socio-sciences represent such broadened
perspectives. An overview of social science disciplines and examples of authors are presented in the
table below.
Table 3. Disciplines and examples of social scholars representing different perspectives
DISCIPLINE AUTHOR/S
Economics
• neo-classical economics - Boulding (1966); Friedman, (1970)
• environmental economics - Pearce & Turner (1990); Pearce & Warford, (1993)
• business economics - Elkington (1999); Epstein; (2008), Rikhardsson & Welford (1997); Welford, (1998)
• ecological/institutional economics - Prugh, Costanza & Daly (2000); Söderbaum (2000)
Social sciences (other than economics)
• social anthropology - Thin (2002)
• sociology - Sachs (1999)
• political sciences - Dryzek, (1997); Luke, (2005); Paehlke. (1999)
• international law - Gillespie (2001)
• environmental philosophy/ethics - Attfield (1999)
Each of these scholars may address issues that tie to sustainable development, with very different
vocabularies and underlying assumptions about human behaviour. They serve as examples from each
discipline as the list of scholars in each discipline can be made quite extensive.
113
appenDix 2
Table 4. Different assessment tools* and their dimensions (modified from Rorarius, 2007:12)
D ASSESSMENT TOOLS
I
Indicators/Indices Product-Related Project-Related Sector and Country-
M
Assessment Assessment Related Assessment
E
N
S
I
O
N
Environmental Environmental Pressure Life Cycle Assessment Environmental impact Environmental
Indicators (EPIs) (LCA) assessment (EIA) Extended Input-Output
Ecological Footprint (EF) Material Input per Service Environmental Risk (EEIO) Analysis
Environmental Sustain- (MIPS) Unit Analysis (ERA) Strategic Environmental
ability Index (ESI) Substance Flow Analysis Assessment (SEA)
(SFA)
Economic Gross National Production Life Cycle Costing (LCC) Cost-Benefit Analysis Economy-Wide Material
(GNP) (CBA) Flow Analysis (EW-MFA)
Full Cost Accounting Economic Input-Output
(FCA) (EIO) analysis
Social Human Development Social Impact Assessment Social Input-Output (SIO)
Index (HDI) (sIA) analysis
Sustainable Sustainable Development Sustainability Impact As-
Development Indicators (SDI) sessment (SIA)
(all three dimen- Integrated Sustainability
sions considered) Assessment (ISA)
114
115
Chapter 7
Communicating Environmental
Information on a Company and
Inter-Organizational Level
Elke Perl-Vorbach
Institute of Systems Sciences, Innovation and Sustainability Research, Karl Franzens University Graz,
Austria
abStraCt
The collection, managing and communication of environmental information are nowadays seen as an
essential prerequisite for sustainable development. However, ways of generating and exchanging envi-
ronmental information differ within and between companies. Moreover, the use of highly sophisticated
environmental information systems can still be seen at in its infancy. The aim of this chapter is thus
to assess ways of the application of environmental information systems for sustainable development,
both within and between organizations, can be supported. An empirical analysis of those barriers and
obstacles, which inhibit the implementation of environmental information systems, is also carried out.
Additionally, we also pay attention to forms of industry wide environmental protection, and take exist-
ing cooperation and relationships, sustainable supply chains, and recycling networks into account. For
this purpose, basic conditions for the inter-organizational exchange of environmental information are
investigated. This provides the basis for identifying means to strengthen the position of environmental
protection in connection with inter-organizational exchange of environmental information. Improved
methods of implementing environmental information systems within and between companies are devel-
oped, thus promoting greater cooperation for sustainable development.
introDuCtion information now plays a vital role in environmental

protection, for example via production and process-
In the present time, it is obvious that information and ing techniques, pollution control, waste management
communication technologies have great potential in etc. In former times, internal company activities were
supporting sustainable development. Environmental the main object of focus in the search for overall
sustainable development. Nowadays however, envi-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch007 ronmental protection and sustainable development
Communicating Environmental Information on a Company and Inter-Organizational Level
reach well beyond company borders, although it information systems within companies and in
has to be admitted that these concepts are still not inter-organizational cooperation, in order to en-
yet widely spread and companies are currently hance industrial environmental protection.
not as aware of the environmental advantages of
interorganisational cooperation as they should aims of the Chapter
be. Such cooperation demands that companies
include business partners and stakeholders in The aim of this chapter is to identify the barriers
environmentally related activities. For example, and obstacles inhibiting the implementation of
close cooperation with suppliers, customers and operational environmental information systems
public authorities provides for far more effective in companies – both technical and organizational.
environmental protection. Here, environmental Based on an empirical survey of Austrian industry,
information has become an indispensable factor, the demands for and the use of specific systems
especially in the design and conception phases of operational environmental information systems
of inter-organizational cooperation. Furthermore, are identified. Possible inconsistencies between
this specific kind of information is also important theoretical approaches and scientific knowledge
for communication with customers. Developing and practical applications are thus investigated.
accessible information is thus a key priority, not Furthermore, the questions of how the exchange
only for the companies themselves, but also for of environmental information now takes place and
their partners along the supply chain, and for of how appropriate current company systems are
all customers and business partners in general. is also discussed.
However, to date, the potential available remains The second overall goal of the chapter is the
largely unexploited (see also Hilty et al., 2006). extension of the implementation concept for op-
On looking more closely at the managing and erational environmental information systems to
communication of environmental information, it include the inter-organizational level. Here, the
becomes apparent that theory and science in the necessity of company awareness regarding the
field of information systems are currently highly potential of cooperation in overall inter-organi-
sophisticated activities. The same is true concern- zational sustainability is investigated. For this
ing the supporting communication systems of purpose, the basic conditions, and the needs and
environmental information. Matters become ever demands with respect to the inter-organizational
more complicated when implementation involves exchange of environmental information are in-
more than one company or organisation since vestigated. Finally, the question of the extent
the collection, handling and communication of to which companies already use environmental
environmental information on such an overarch- information to support their sustainable activities
ing level are still in their early stages. Therefore, is also considered.
conscious action has to be taken to promote the
usage of environmental information systems in methodology
order to support environmental protection. The
present chapter thus deals with the rather new An extensive literature review concerning the
scientific field concerning the exchange of envi- characteristics of environmental information and
ronmental information on a company-wide and information systems and how they can contribute
inter-organizational level with a view to facilitating to sustainable development provided the start-
close relationships in sustainable development. ing point for this chapter. The results were then
Thus, this chapter is dedicated to the topic of analysed with respect to their suitability for inter-
supporting the communication of environmental organizational communication of environmental
116
information. In addition, an extensive review of environmental information

information systems in cooperative activity forms anD information SyStemS
the foundation for the investigation of environ-
mental information exchange in chapter 3. general aspects of
We thus arrive at a research approach that is environmental information
a combination of case analysis and descriptive
study. The literature review forms the basis for Communicating information and environmental
the research hypothesis on environmental informa- information in and between companies is becom-
tion and environmental information systems, and ing an important and necessary factor in everyday
in particular, on the exchange of environmental business. Taking rational behavior in the business
information in inter-organizational cooperation. environment (at least to some extent), as given,
Technical and organizational aspects of implemen- the existence of appropriate information forms
tation are also considered, particularly with a view the basis for sound management and reasonable
to overcoming implementation barriers. decisions. Moreover, Ansett also emphasizes
Such a descriptive analysis of inter-organi- the importance of collecting and analyzing key
zational cooperation and information exchange information outside and inside the organization
can then be used to conduct action research and in order to enable the business to make informed
to identify the opportunities and potential barriers decisions (Ansett, 2007, p. 300).
of environmental information exchange in order When now dealing with specific issues of
to finally support the establishment of sustainable information for industrial ecology and the pursuit
inter-organizational cooperation. Since the set of environmental goals, the term environmental
of independent observations within the survey information has to be defined exactly, so as to
is relatively small, data analysis remains largely avoid confusion. The exchange of information
descriptive. between companies can be more complex with
Inconsistencies between theoretical ap- respect to environmental information since it
proaches and their practical applications are also covers a huge spectrum. Environmental data for
investigated. This, together with the identification example provide information about the current
of barriers and demands in the implementation of state of soil, water, air, emissions etc. Not until
environmental information systems on an opera- they are linked together in a technical context and
tional and inter-organizational level, subsequently related to space and time can they be considered
can form the basis for further research on the as true environmental information (Rautenstrauch,
implementation of environmental information 1999, p. 8). In the chapter at hand, environmental
systems for sustainable development. information includes all available information
By analyzing initial forms of partnerships that is decision-relevant, that applies to individual
and emphasizing promising ways of dealing economic units, and that provides deeper infor-
with the obstacles to information exchange, it mation on biological and spatial environments
is to be hoped that this approach may add to (Behrendt, 2000).
better understanding of management in sustain- In the industrial context, additional environ-
able cooperation. This may help motivate other mentally related information is needed. Although
companies to reorganize co-operative activity on this kind of information is not directly linked to
a more sustainable level. the environment, it can indicate after-effects,
deviations, reciprocal effects etc. Due to the fact
that environmental data, environmental informa-
tion and environmentally related information
117
are vital, and considering that the managing of Monetary assessment: Since an aggregation of
the different types of information does not differ the information is often not possible, generalized
widely, they are all subsumed here under the term monetary assessment of environmental informa-
‘environmental information’. Additionally, when tion can be highly problematic. Furthermore, a
talking about sustainability, social effects also have comparison of different data can be complicated,
to be considered. It is thus of importance to add and monetary valuation of environmental informa-
information on aspects of social sustainability to tion can lead to a distorted picture of reality.
environmental information. For a company, environmental information
The question now arises why such specific has to serve a wide variety of recipients (Ra-
tools and instruments are needed when dealing utenstrauch, 1999, p.8). Internally, while the
with environmental information in order to im- management board as well as the owners needs
prove the efficiency of communication. This will environmental information for strategic decisions,
be clearer when looking at the characteristics of departments of companies need environmental
environmental information (Müller-Christ, 2001; information for their daily business. In this con-
Behrendt, 2000). nection, environmental information is needed
Mulidisciplinarity: environmental information for example for the planning, development and
is mostly related to many different disciplines such control of environmentally relevant activities. In
as chemistry, biology, sociology, law, business ad- procurement for example, environmental infor-
ministration etc. It is thus impossible to assign en- mation is needed to help purchase raw material
vironmental information to only one discipline. with the least environmental impact. In research
Weak structuring: direct connections in the and development, environmental information is
cause and effect chain are often not obvious. needed for environmental product and process
Different aggregation levels: For the commu- design. And in addition, employees will need
nication of environmental information, different environmental information, especially in terms of
levels of aggregation are needed, e.g. very de- occupational health and safety decisions (Müller,
tailed data for public authorities or more general 1995, p.63; Schulz, 1989). On an external level,
information for strategic decisions concerning, customers for example need environmental infor-
for example, the selection of suppliers. mation in order to purchase environmentally sound
High level of complexity: Environmental products. In recent studies for example, the cor-
information, especially that relating to cause relation between the existence of environmental
and effect chains is very often complex. As a information and personal consumption has been
consequence, simple instructions and guidelines investigated. Although there are also many other
for managing environmental problems cannot be different factors that can have an influence, it is
easily generated. clear that environmental information can have a
Different forms of presentation: Environmental positive impact on the consumption patterns (Bar-
information can be presented in many different tiaux, 2008). Furthermore, industrial customers
forms, as legal text, in numerical and statistical require environmental information if they need it
form, or in cartographical and graphical form. for their own environment management system.
Hence, it is difficult to merge the different forms Environmental supply chains as an example can-
of information. not be established without the relevant data on
Exact allocation of environmental information: materials, energy etc.
Environmental information often exists in differ- What is also of importance to mention is that
ent information systems, in different departments, inter-organizational environmental communica-
and is thus very decentralized. tion is not obligatory, it nevertheless remains a
118
vital factor in implementing transactions, and the are that such systems allow for cost reductions in
exchange of environmental information within identifying operational potential within the com-
such bilateral cooperation can often be fairly pany, in storage, documentation and publication
standardized. This is particularly true for very of environmental information, and in aiding bet-
long-term transactions where communication ter control of environmentally related activities
between companies is more highly regulated (Zil- (Haasis 1997; Harmsen et al., 1998).
lig, 2001). These aspects are even more important Consequently, we focus here on systems us-
when taking the managing of environmental ining electronic media. While paper systems for
formation in environmental information systems environmental information can be as efficient as
into account. other systems, research of such systems is quite
complex and complicated due to lack of data.
environmental information Systems What is also important to notice is the fact that
although the concept of environmental information
In this section we investigate ways how environ- systems has existed since the mid 1990s, practical
mental information can efficiently be collected, application is still in its infancy (see Perl 2006).
stored and converted. Here, several types can be A boom in such software systems was seen at the
identified: operational environmental information beginning of this century. For example, in the
systems, municipal environmental information German-speaking world, more than one hundred
systems and geographical information systems such software systems existed (see for example
(Behrendt, 2000). Furthermore, metadata systems Perl, 2006 and the literature and websites men-
and semantic web can also be used for the han- tioned there). Additionally, it has to be noted this
dling of environmental information (Pillmann et vast amount of software comprises many systems
al. 2006, p.1523). However, within this chapter, for data exchange of legal requirements as well as
we concentrate on operational environmental very small software systems with only one pilot
information systems. implementation. This leaves about 20 information
Operational environmental information sys- systems for companies to use in handling environ-
tems are organizational and technical systems that mental information. On the whole, user-oriented
are used for managing environmental information and self-structured systems based on common
in an operational context. This covers the collec- software such as Microsoft Excel are very com-
tion of operational environmental impacts and mon in the collection, storage and handling of
supporting for the planning and implementation of environmental information. However, it has to be
environmental measures (Hilty & Rautenstrauch, stated that the market for environmental software
1995). These environmental information systems systems is rapidly changing, and studies of existing
may or may not be supported by electronic sys- systems provide nothing but snapshots.
tems. Within the processes and departments of a
company, the operational environmental informa- inter-organizational environmental
tion system serves to link eco-controlling with information Systems
the processes of environmental management.
Furthermore, it has to be noted that environmental Before we discuss environmental information system
information systems can employ specific meth- on an inter-organizational level, we first have to
ods and tools such as environmental checklists, describe how such cooperation between companies
material and energy balances, environmental for sustainable development can look like. In the
performance measurement systems, product line chapter at hand, we concentrate here on typical forms
analysis and assessment tools. Further advantages of cooperation for sustainable development,
119
For overall sustainable development, Kor- hence enables the integration of separate opera-
honen (2002) distinguishes two different types tions into a unified system capable of responding
of inter-organizational sustainable development. to customer needs, to changes in market conditions
First, regional activities can be taken into account. and to the needs of an overarching corporate direc-
Within this more or less geographical approach, tion (Lin, Tseng 2006; Schary & Skjøtt-Larsen,
networks of local companies aiming to reduce 2001, pp.291ff). Advances in information and
environmental impact such as eco-industrial parks communication technologies also promote new
(Lowe 1997) and recycling networks (Schwarz and possibilities for managing cooperation (Fredendall
Steininger 1997; Schwarz 1994; Strebel 1995) may & Hill 2001, p.215). However, it has to be men-
be mentioned. Second, a more life-cycle oriented tioned that information, information exchange, and
approach exists, which also integrates products information technologies, are merely enablers with
and services from production of raw material respect to conscious exploitation of cooperation
up to consumption and reuse or recycling. This for sustainable development.
product oriented approach leads to the question Another important aspect for the inter-orga-
of how primarily economically oriented supply nizational exchange of environmental informa-
chains may contribute to inter-organizational sus- tion is that partners may fear that information be
tainable development (Seuring & Müller, 2008; leaked to competitors or used to exploit them in
Seuring, 2004) Furthermore, in literature other future. In the context of information sharing, as
concepts such as sustainability networks where elsewhere, trust is found to increase the amount
the goal of the cooperation is an overall sustain- of information exchanged (Childerhouse et al.,
ability can be identified (Posch, 2006). Last but 2003, 493; Weiling & Kwok-Kee, 2008, p.227).
not least networks for environmentally sound Partner reliability is also important, since sharing
design (Ryan, 1999; Zwan & Bhamra, 2003) have and exchanging information along the supply chain
to be mentioned, as these networks are appropri- introduces new risks of vulnerability (Andaleeb,
ate means for sustainable product and process 1995; Weiling & Kwok-Kee 2008, p.229). It is thus
development as well. These forms of cooperation important to discern exactly how such information
have all been described intensively in the litera- exchange takes place.
ture. However, while informational aspects are an Considering now the exchange of information
important requirement for successful cooperation in cooperation, it is important to note that such
for sustainability, thorough discussion of their systems cover both the hardware and software
contribution remains lacking and environmental system (Sahay & Gupta, 2003, p.98). Furthermore,
information systems in particular have received how and how much information is to be exchanged
relatively scant attention. However, it is exactly in such an inter-organizational information system
in the complex field of sustainability-oriented is a matter of values and perspective. The matter
cooperation that the benefits of environmental cannot be seen in a narrow technical sense since
information systems are greatest. (Childerhouse it transforms business operations. Numerous
et al., 2003, p.500; Yu et al., 2001, p.115 Gattorna barriers exist, cultural, financial, organizational
& Walters, 1996, pp.148ff, pp.269ff; Sahay & (question of teamwork, change, management,
Gupta, 2003, p.106). plans and vision, business process management
Moreover, a lack of integration and information and development, project management, monitor-
sharing is seen as one of the major causes of unsuc- ing and review) that may hinder the installation
cessful cooperation (Weiling & Kwok-Kee, 2008, of effective information exchange in cooperation
p.224). A structured and systematic exchange of for sustainable development (on various barriers
information in the form of information systems see Childerhouse et al. 2003, p.493). As Andraski
120
(1994) has already stated, 80% of the problems supply chain (see for example Helo & Szekely,
in information exchange arise due to people, not 2005; Sahay & Gupta, 2003; Lyons et al., 2004,
technology. This also applies to the exchange of p.665; Gulledge, 2006, p.8).
environmental information. As a consequence, However, beside all these more or less sophis-
technological barriers, software development and ticated systems for the communication of envi-
testing, and hardware issues are only relatively ronmental information, Olhager & Selldin (2004,
minor considerations. Complex organizational p.360) found out in their surveys that telephone,
change cannot be overcome by using technical fax and e-mail were all prevalent means of com-
solutions alone (McAdam & Galloway 2005, munication in cooperation (especially in supply
p.283). And new technology is not needed for its chains). More advanced means of communication
own sake, yet IT solutions often remain on a purely such as EDI, internet-based extranets etc. are still
technological level. There is clearly an urgent in their infancy. In the near future there will be
need for careful management of organizational a trend towards more sophisticated tools, which
change issues (Mason-Jones & Towill 1997, p.140; will replace the classic forms of communication
McAdam & Galloway 2005, p.288). such as letter, phone and fax. However, both the
Consequently, on an inter-organizational common use of such systems and the utilization for
level, no specific environmental information environmental means is not very widespread.
systems can be identified for the exchange of To sum up, despite its advantages, exchange
environmental information. However, well- of information in inter-organizational coopera-
established systems for inter-organizational tion remains an enormous challenge. Sufficient
communication in networks, supply chains, knowledge, access to information, and the abil-
clusters etc. can be utilized for the communica- ity to manage the information are vital factors in
tion of environmental information. One example dealing with environmental issues and in enabling
is electronic data interchange, EDI, where com- cooperative sustainable development (Hall, 2000;
munication of common business data between Lamming & Hampson, 1996; Walley & White-
companies is largely standardized. However, head, 1994).
for the communication of environmental infor-
mation some flexibility is needed, especially
when the information is very weakly structured. empiriCal analySeS of
Groupware systems can be an alternative for the SuStainability iSSueS anD
exchange of environmental information, although inter-organizational
these tend to be more suitable for communication information exChange
between employees than for standardized com-
munication of environmental information. On a research Design
process level, workflow management systems
can help to support the exchange of environmen- The goals of these research studies are to exam-
tal information, especially for processing and ine the status quo of operational environmental
material data. Nonetheless, these systems are information systems in Austrian industry and the
mostly used internally; an inter-organizational extent to which they are supported. Barriers in
application is not very common. Furthermore, implementing such systems are also identified. An
supply chain software systems can to some additional aim of this investigation is identification
extent also be appropriate for the exchange of of essential conditions for successful implemen-
environmental information, but are obviously tation of environmental information systems in
limited to environmental measures along the cooperation for sustainable development and to
121
analyze the general suitability of such networks appropriate source concerning these issues. Since
for intensive inter-organizational environmental the response distribution regarding the number of
communication. employees and sales volume, is nearly equal to
In detail, the research aims at answering the that of the whole population, the sample can be
following research questions. seen as representative, even though the response
rate is not that high.
• Research question 1: Do the companies
see the importance of cooperative activi- importance of inter-
ties in meeting the needs and demands of organizational Cooperation for
sustainability (see for example Korhonen Sustainable Development
2002 and 2004, Lowe 1997; Posch 2006,
Schwarz and Steininger 1997, Seuring, S. To analyze general attitudes towards sustainability
2004) and close cooperation, the companies were asked
• Research question 2: How is the commu- for their opinion on specific aspects of sustainabil-
nication of environmental information in ity in such cooperative activity. Table 1 gives an
companies organized (see Perl 2006 and overview of their answers based on a Likert scale
above)? from 1 – very unimportant – to 5 – very important.
• Research question 3: Is the exchange of As can be seen, the grouped median is between 3
environmental information in cooperation and 5, the companies thus rate the issues as rather
based on less sophisticated means such as important. Aspects such as employee safety and
mail, telephone, email (as found in Olhager quality are rated as very important. However,
& Selldin 2004, p.360)? aspects specific to sustainable supply chains such
• Research question 4: Do companies use as environmental protection at supplier sites are
environmental information to support their rated as not very important. Overall, companies
sustainable activities (according to Young, consider sustainability as quite important, but
2000)? individual perceptions vary considerably.
Another important aspect in this respect is the
To collect appropriate data, we surveyed question whether companies are aware of any
manufacturing companies in Austria. The Austrian inter-organizational cooperation for sustainability
Federal Ministry supported the empirical analysis issues. It is thus important to know companies’
for Traffic, Innovation and Technology. An 8-page attitudes towards cooperation and the aspects
questionnaire was used. Three experts and busi- mentioned above. Companies were asked for
ness managers examined the suitability of the their perceptions regarding the advantages of
survey questions. The questionnaire was sent out inter-organizational cooperation for sustainabil-
in Spring 2004 to 1,480 companies of more than ity. The answers, on a Likert scale from 1 – very
100 employees (representing all companies of this unimportant to 5 – very important can be seen in
size and branches). 138 companies answered the Table 3. In contrast to the companies’ perception
survey, representing 9.8% of the manufacturing about the importance of these issues, the correla-
industry. The respondents were asked to evaluate tion of these issues with cooperation and inter-
the items on a 5-point Likert scale. For reasons organizational activities is not really clear for the
of cost and time the questionnaire was only sent companies. Hence, they do not rate these issues
to the environmental managers, even though this for cooperation as highly as sustainability issues
might result in informant biases. However, the in general (see Table 2). For example, coopera-
environmental manager seems to be the most tion for environmental protection in product use
122
Table 1. Importance of sustainability
Grouped Me- Mini- Maxi- 25% Per- 75% Per-

N Median dian mum mum Range centile centile
Environmental protection at supplier site 136 3.48 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
Respecting human rights throughout the value chain 134 3.81 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 5.00
Comprehensive environmental protection in your
production units 136 4.30 4.00 2.00 5.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Support of disadvantaged groups (the elderly, handi-
capped persons etc.) 136 3.40 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
Employee safety/security 136 4.57 5.00 2.00 5.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Regional responsibility as an employer 136 4.10 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 5.00
Ensuring high quality and safety of your products 135 4.82 5.00 3.00 5.00 2.00 5.00 5.00
Environmental protection in the use and disposal of
your product 136 4.07 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 5.00
Statistical significance (Friedman test)
N 133
Chi-Square 326.69
df 7.00
Significance 0.0000
and disposal, or high quality and safety, are rated field of sustainability, in realizing the benefits of
considerably lower than their importance indicated cooperation.
in Table 1. Hence, the investigation reveals that A close correlation between the results of Table
significant potential remains, especially in the 1 and Table 2 can also be seen in Figure 1 (respec-
Table 2. Sustainable activities in cooperation
Grouped Mini- Max- 25% Per- 75% Per-

N Median Median mum imum Range centile centile
Environmental protection at supplier site 129 3.19 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 4.00
Respecting human rights throughout the value chain 130 2.88 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 4.00
Comprehensive environmental protection in your
production units 130 3.55 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
Support of disadvantaged groups (the elderly,
handicapped persons etc.) 128 2.69 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 3.00
Employee safety/security 130 3.64 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.25
Regional responsibility as an employer 129 3.20 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 4.00
Ensuring high quality and safety of your products 130 3.61 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
Environmental protection in the use and disposal
of your product 130 3.65 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
N 127
Chi-Square 159.09
df 7.00
Significance 0.0000
123
Table 3. Factors against an organizational environmental information system
Grouped Mini- Maxi- 25% Per- 75% Per-

N Median Median mum mum Range centile centile
Software too expensive 75 3.92 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 5.00
Software too detailed 79 3.52 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
Software not common for branches 62 3.03 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 4.00
Software cannot be integrated 60 2.59 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 4.00
Software does not provide additional help 78 2.84 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 4.00
Software provides no cost savings 83 3.78 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
Implementation too time-consuming 76 3.65 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
Employee resistance 89 2.10 2.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 3.00
Environmental information already integrated 94 2.77 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 4.00
N 42
Chi-Square 36.63
df 8.00
Significance 0.0000
tive medians are represented by the crossed lines). χ²=155.70, p<0.001) are found to be statistically
The vertical axis represents whether the companies significant (see also Posch, 2007, p.87). It is no
see the advantages of inter-organizational coop- surprise that companies rate economic aspects
eration. On the horizontal axis the importance for such as high product quality (g) and occupational
sustainability issues is pictured. health and safety (e) as very high. Furthermore,
Further, the dots illustrate the correlation be- environmental protection at own production plant
tween the importance of sustainability issues and (c), as well as environmental protection in product
the advantages of inter-organizational cooperation usage and disposal (h), are also of great importance.
for specific aspects of sustainability in cooperation. Companies can thus clearly see the relevance of
Namely, these are the environmental protection close cooperation in sustainable supply chains.
in the production of raw materials, the human Surprisingly, environmental protection in the
rights along the supply chain, the environmental production of raw materials (a) is seen as being
protection at the production plant, the promotion of low or medium importance. While this should
of deprived groups, the responsibility as regional be a clearly dominant issue in sustainable supply
entrepreneurs, the product quality, occupational chains, the advantages of inter-organizational
health and safety and the environmental protection cooperation in this area are not seen as very im-
in the use and disposal phase. All these activi- portant. The same holds true for issues relating
ties represent means to realize sustainability on to compliance with human rights throughout the
both a company and inter-organizational level as whole supply chain (b) (Posch, 2007). So here,
described above. once again, there is need for appropriate persuasion
As a result of this investigation, it can be seen in order to achieve overall sustainable develop-
that both the relative importance of sustainability ment in inter-organizational cooperation.
issues (n=137, χ²=335.04, p<0.001) and the advan-
tages of inter-organizational cooperation (n=131,
124
Figure 1. Sustainable issues and advantages of inter-organizational cooperation (Posch 2007, 88)
organization of environmental grams offer. Companies also utilize the functions,

Communication within Companies mostly for the drawing of reports, monitoring legal
compliance and analyzing material flows, but
Empirical research revealed the following data also for analyzing environmental indicators and
concerning research question 2; i.e. the form of risk analysis. Moreover, companies also see the
environmental communication within compa- economic advantages in using these systems.
nies. A major noticeable finding is that only 12 The question now arises as to why the appli-
companies indicated having a specific, internal cation of environmental information systems in
environmental information system. Further- companies is still in its infancy. Those companies
more, databases are neither very well known nor not using environmental information systems
much used in the companies. Only programs for were thus asked their reasons for not making use
spreadsheet analysis such as MS Excel are popular of environmental information systems in their
and used by more than 70% of the companies to company-wide communication. Most noticeable
handle environmental information. Nevertheless, here, is the fact a great number of companies
those companies that admitted using specified indicated that they cannot answer the questions.
environmental information systems also indicated For example, 52 companies could not answer the
that they predominantly use systems, which are question concerning the possibilities of integrat-
integrated in other company wide software, thus ing such software in existing software solutions.
isolated environmental software systems hardly Most companies (only 20 companies answered
exist. What is also noticeable is the fact that the “do not know”) were able to answer whether en-
companies already using environmental informa- vironmental information was already integrated.
tion systems are highly conscious of the numerous An overview of responses on factors inhibiting
possibilities and functionalities the software pro- implementation of operational environmental
125
information systems can be seen in Table 3. Most environmental information system. Companies
of the companies see the software as too expen- also expressed their willingness to install such
sive and too complex. Furthermore, they see no systems if the environmental regulations become
correlation to cost savings and the work entailed more complex or if customer demands for such
in implementing the software is too excessive. information increase. Detailed responses to this
Employee opposition does not appear to be a question can be seen in Table 4.
significant barrier. Summing up, it can be seen that costs are the
Additionally, companies were questioned primary factor leading to the neglect of envi-
concerning those factors, which are seen to sup- ronmental information systems. This is strange
port the implementation of environmental infor- considering the fact that those companies that have
mation systems. All companies that could not already implemented such systems nearly always
answer the earlier question concerning barriers emphasize their ability to generate cost savings.
to environmental information could not answer Many companies also assume that the software
this question either. Factors favoring applica- as too sophisticated and detailed for their own
tion of environmental information systems are needs. While employee attitudes appear to exert
the expected decline in parallel workload in the no great influence one way or another regarding
handling of the information, and the possibility of system selection, they are relevant for successful
integrating environmental information systems in implementation of the software system (see also
the operational information systems used in the Childerhouse et al., 2003).
companies. Moreover, if the environmental law
will be become more complex or the customers
demand it the companies will install such an
Table 4. Changing aspects for an improved implementation of organizational environmental informa-

tion systems
Grouped Me- Mini- Maxi- 25% Per- 75% Per-

N Median dian mum mum Range centile centile
Costs for environmental protection rise 93 3.09 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 4.00
Environmental protections becomes more important 102 3.23 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 4.00
Systems can be fully integrated in IT system 91 3.80 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 5.00
Parallel workload in data generation avoidable 95 4.05 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 5.00
Operational sequences get more complex 94 3.57 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 5.00
Implementation of EMS 99 3.25 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 5.00
Legal compliance gets more complex 102 3.69 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
Positive attitude of employees 94 2.41 2.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 4.00
Customers demands the system 100 3.37 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 3.00
N 44
Chi-Square 46.74
df 8
Significance 0.0000
126
Table 5. Means of communication of environmental information
Communication with suppliers N Positive answer Percentage

Oral 88 13 14.8
Telephone 88 35 39.8
Mail 88 42 47.7
Email 88 47 53.4
Specific programs 88 4 4.6
Communication with waste recipients
Oral 42 31.3
Telephone 107 79.9
Mail 13 9.7
Email 47 35.1
Specific programs 0 0.0
means of environmental information Regarding the reasons for and against the
in inter-organizational Cooperation implementation of environmental information
systems on an inter-organizational level, responses
First of all, the question concerning the core condi- are similar to those for company-wide commu-
tions needed for information exchange has to be nication of environmental information. Many
dealt with. The exchange of environmental infor- companies could not answer the question. The
mation between companies and their suppliers is remaining companies answered that if suppliers
particularly important. According to the empirical and customers do not have corresponding systems,
investigation, most of the companies which exchange then they will not implement such a system at
their environmental information (88 companies) do their own company site. As in company-wide
this by email (see Table 5). Many of the companies, communication of environmental information,
47%, communicate in written form. Also worthy the software appears to be too expensive for
of note is the fact that only 5% of the companies inter-organizational exchange of environmental
communicate via specific programs, e.g. specific information.
supply chain programs, EDI or specific ERP pro- To conclude, on the inter-organizational level,
grams. Unsurprisingly, programs such as Microsoft the influence of suppliers and recipients is rather
Excel are used predominantly for intra-company high. If suppliers and recipients do not have ap-
communication (instead of specific environmental propriate software standards, the companies see
information systems such as Umberto®, GaBi® or no point in implementing environmental informa-
Sima Pro®). Analysis of communication with waste tion systems in their own company1. This brings
recipients reveals a similar picture; telephone and us to the question how all these problems can be
emailing are the dominant means of communication. overcome when implementing environmental
This is also relevant concerning further enlargement information systems both within and between
of supply chains and the establishment of recycling companies. Thus this chapter addresses these is-
networks, since the application of sophisticated com- sues and presents an implementation concept for
munication systems for environmental information environmental information systems.
does not seem to enhance the probability of sustain-
able cooperation.
127
Table 6. Use of environmental information for sustainable activities
Grouped Mini- Maxi- 25% Per- 75% Per-

N Median Median mum mum Range centile centile
Environmentally friendly product design 125 2.82 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 4.00
Environmentally friendly process design 125 3.16 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 4.00
Recycling activities 126 3.14 3.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 4.00
Sustainable waste management 126 3.73 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
Selection of sustainable input materials 126 3.67 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 2.75 4.00
Life cycle assessment 124 1.69 1.00 1.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 3.00
N 121
Chi-Square 139.71
df 5.0000
Significance 0.0000
the usage of environmental noticeable. Additionally, the use of environmental

information for Sustainability issues information for recycling activities is also not
that common. Here, adequate clarification on the
Another interesting question concerns the use significance of inter-organizational sustainable
of environmental information for activities in cooperation is highly necessary.
cooperation for sustainability. Table 6 illustrates The correlation between the importance of
responses in terms of the grouped medians. The measures for sustainable development and the
most important aspect for the companies surveyed usage of environmental information for the ac-
is sustainable waste management. This produced tivities can be seen in table 6. Taking the Kendall
a median around a value of 4. In addition, the use Tau b as a measure for the depth of the relation
of environmental information for the selection of between these two aspects, the value of 0.4 was
sustainable input material is also of importance. only reached once, indicating slight correspon-
This is a typical issue for sustainable supply chains. dence. The companies that rated environmental
According to the results, the use of environmental activities as very important do not automatically
information for other activities is negligible. The use appropriate environmental information for
low consideration of environmental information executing related policies in their companies.
for life cycle assessment, a typical activity that can Here, once again, appropriate enlightenment
be done in sustainable supply chains, is particularly is needed to convince the companies of both the
Table 7. Relation between sustainable activities and the use of environmental information
Information from suppliers and customers on sustainable activities

Kendall Tau b
Activities concerning Environmentally friendly product design 0.389

sustainable development Environmentally friendly process design 0.271
Recycling activities 0.351
Sustainable waste management 0.205
128
necessity of measures for sustainable development can be seen in the empirical investigation. If their
and of the usefulness of information, especially suppliers and customers do not have appropriate
environmental information, for the execution of software standards as well, the companies see no
these measures. point in implementing environmental information
systems in their own company.
DiSCuSSion
The empirical analysis reveals that companies in the ConCluDing remarkS

Austrian production industry are largely unaware
of the advantages of cooperation in implementing The results of this chapter have theoretical as well
sustainable development. An ongoing process of as practical implications.
awareness building will thus be necessary to mo- The exchange of environmental information
tivate companies to undertake inter-organizational is an important prerequisite in initiating a change
activities for sustainable development. However, in thinking and acting towards more sustainable
it is exactly these aspects, which are essential development and in the configuration of sustainable
for the generation of sustainable development in cooperation. Nonetheless, a clear lack of research
cooperation. concerning the exchange of environmental infor-
The results illustrated above, lend support to the mation in inter-organizational cooperation still
research statement that at the time the survey was prevails. A structured and systematic process for
carried out more sophisticated means of exchang- the gathering, preparation and storage of informa-
ing information were still in their infancy, both at tion is required. However, companies hardly utilize
an intra- and inter-organizational level (as is also these systems although specialized environmental
claimed by Olhager & Selldin, 2004). Although software systems exist. Unfortunately, systemic
knowledge concerning the existence of highly constraints in the survey samples preclude the pos-
sophisticated software systems for the commu- sibility of generalizing the results described here.
nication of environmental information is clearly On a more practical side, further awareness
available (see for example Helo & Szekely, 2005; concerning the contribution of inter-organizational
Hilty, 2007; Sahay & Gupt, a 2003), practical ap- cooperation to overall sustainable development is
plication remains wanting. needed. Companies are currently not aware of the
According to Young (2000), information in gen- advantages of sustainable development, nor of inter-
eral and environmental information in particular, is organizational cooperation in reaching sustainabil-
both vital enablers for sustainable cooperation. In ity. As the survey reveals, both the integration of
other words, it is normally taken for granted that sustainable activities and the exchange of adequate
companies are aware of this informational necessity. environmental information are in their infancy.
To some extent, the survey reveals a quite different Inter-organizational relationships can go a long
picture. Although, to a certain degree, companies way towards improving and integrating economic,
see the importance of sustainable activities in ecological, and social considerations.
inter-organizational relationship, they do not use To sum up, the chapter reveals the need for
environmental information at all well. The argument further research in answering the question of
that companies use environmental information to how sustainable development in company and
support their sustainable activities is thus weakened. increasing and intensifying the exchange of ap-
Moreover, on the inter-organizational level the in- propriate environmental information can support
fluence of suppliers and recipients is rather large, as inter-organizational cooperation.
129
referenCeS Gulledge, T. (2006). What is integration . Indus-

trial Management & Data Systems, 106(1), 5–20.
Andaleeb, S. (1995). Dependence relations and doi:10.1108/02635570610640979
the moderating role of trust: implications for be-
havioral intentions in marketing channels. Inter- Haasis, H.-D. (1997). Ein Überblick über Betrie-
national Journal of Research in Marketing, 12(2), bliche Umweltinformationssysteme. uwf 3/97,
157–172. doi:10.1016/0167-8116(94)00020-O 4-6.
Andraski, J. (1994). Foundations for successful Hall, J. (2000). Supply Chain Dynamics. Journal of
continuous replenishment programs. International Cleaner Production, 8(6), 455–471. doi:10.1016/
Journal of Logistics Management, 5(1), 1–8. S0959-6526(00)00013-5
doi:10.1108/09574099410805036 Hall, J. (2006). Environmental supply chain in-
Ansett, S. (2007). Mind the Gap: A Journey to novation, In J. Sarkis (Ed.). Greening the supply
Sustainable Supply Chains. Employ Response chain, (pp. 233-249).
Rights Journal, 19(4), 295–303. doi:10.1007/ Harmsen, D.-M., Hiessl, H., Lang, J., Matuschews-
s10672-007-9055-x ki, A., & Zoche, P. (1998). Betriebliche Umwelt-
Bartiaux, F. (2008). Does environmental informa- informationssysteme: Entwicklungstrends und
tion overcome practice compartmentalisation and Anwenderbedarf zur Unterstützung des betriebli-
change consumers’ behaviours? Journal of Clean- chen Umweltmanagements, unpublished research
er Production, 16, 1170–1190. doi:10.1016/j. report, Karlsruhe.
jclepro.2007.08.013 Helo, P., & Szekely, B. (2005). Logistics infor-
Behrendt, I. (2000). Umweltinformationssysteme mation systems – An analysis of software solu-
als informelle Basis strategischer Planungen: tions for supply chain co-ordination. Industrial
Eine Gestaltungsempfehlung zur Architektur von Management & Data Systems, 105(1), 5–18.
strategischen Umweltinformations¬systemen, doi:10.1108/02635570510575153
Gießen. Hilty, L. (2007). Nachhaltige Informationsge-
Buxmann (2002). Strategien von Standardsoftwar- sellschaft: Einfluss moderner Informations- und
eanbietern: Eine Analyse auf der Basis von Netzef- Kommunikationstechnologien. In R. Isenmann,
fekten, zfbf Nr. 54, August 2002, 442-457. M. v. Hauff (Ed.), Industrial Ecology: Mit Ökolo-
gie zukunftsorientiert wirtschaften, (pp. 189-208).
Childerhouse, P., Hermiz, R., Mason-Jones, R., München.
Popp, A., & Towill, D. (2003). ‘Information flow in
automotive supply chains – identifying and learn- Hilty, L. (2006). The relevance of information
ing to overcome barriers to change’. Industrial and communication technologies for environ-
Management & Data Systems, 103(7), 491–502. mental sustainability – A prospective simulation
doi:10.1108/02635570310489197 study. Environmental Modelling & Software, 21,
1618–1629. doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2006.05.007
Fredendall, L., & Hill, E. (2001). Basics in Supply
Chain Management. Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie
Press.
Gattorna, J. & Walters, D. (1996). Managing the
Supply Chain: A Strategic Perspective. Hamp-
shire.
130
Hilty, L. M., & Rautenstrauch, C. (1995). Betrie- Lin, C., & Tseng, H. (2006). Identifying the pivotal
bliche Umweltinformatik, In B. Page, L. Hilty, M. role of participation strategies and information
Lorenz (Ed.), Umweltinformatik: Informatikmeth- technology application for supply chain excellence.
oden für den Umweltschutz und Umweltforschung, Industrial Management & Data Systems, 106(5),
(2nd Ed., pp. 295-312). Handbuch der Informatik 739–756. doi:10.1108/02635570610666476
Band 13.3, München, Wien, Oldenbourg.
Lowe, E. (1997). Creating by-product resource
Hsu, L. (2005). Supply chain management exchanges: strategies for eco-industrial parks.
effects on performance for interaction be- Journal of Cleaner Production, 5(1-2), 57–65.
tween suppliers and buyers. Industrial Man- doi:10.1016/S0959-6526(97)00017-6
agement & Data Systems, 105(7), 857–875.
Lyons, A., Coleman, J., Kehoe, D., & Coronado,
doi:10.1108/02635570510616085
A. (2004). Performance observation and analysis
Korhonen, J. (2002). Two paths of industrial of an information re-engineered supply chain:
ecology: applying the product-based and geo- a case study of an automotive firm. Industrial
graphical approaches. Journal of Environmen- Management & Data Systems, 104(8), 658–666.
tal Planning and Management, 45(1), 39–57. doi:10.1108/02635570410561645
doi:10.1080/09640560120100187
Mason-Jones, R. & Towill, D. (1997). Informa-
Kulp, S., Ofek, E., & Whitaker, J. (2004). Supply- tion enrichment: designing the supply chain for
Chain Coordination: How Companies Leverage competitive advantage. Supply chain manage-
Information Flows to Generate Value. In T. Har- ment, 2(4), 137-148.
rison, H. Lee, & J. Neale (Ed.), The Practice of
McAdam, R., & Galloway, A. (2005). Enter-
Supply Chain Management: Where Theory and
prise resource planning and organisational in-
Application Converge, (Part 2, pp. 91-107). New
novation: a management perspective. Industrial
York.
Management & Data Systems, 105(3), 280–290.
Lamming, R., & Hampson, J. (1996). The en- doi:10.1108/02635570510590110
vironment as a supply chain management is-
Müller, A. (1995). Umweltorientiertes betriebli-
sue. British Journal of Management, 7, 45–62.
ches Rechnungswesen, (2nd rev. ed.). Munich,
doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.1996.tb00147.x
Vienna.
Lang, C. (2000). Betriebliche Umweltinforma-
Müller-Christ, G. (2001). Umweltmanagement:
tionssysteme auf dem Prüfstand – ein Forschun-
Umweltschutz und nachhaltige Entwicklung,
gskonzept. In L. Hilty & R. Schulthess (Ed.),
Munich.
Strategische und betriebsübergreifende Anwend-
ungen betrieblicher Umweltinformationssysteme, Nissinen, A. (2007). Developing benchmarks
Marburg, (pp. 47-58). for consumer-oriented life cycle assessment-
based environmental information on products,
Letmathe, P., Schwarz, E., & Steven, M. (1996).
services and consumption patterns. Journal of
Grundlagen der Umweltberichterstattung. UE,
Cleaner Production, 15, 538–549. doi:10.1016/j.
4, 415-443.
jclepro.2006.05.016
131
Olhager, J., & Selldin, E. (2004). Supply chain Schary, P. & Skjøtt-Larsen T. (2001). Managing
management survey of Swedish manufactur- the Global Supply Chain. Copenhagen.
ing firms. International Journal of Production
Schreyögg, G. (2001). Wissen, Wissenschaftstheo-
Economics, 89, 353–361. doi:10.1016/S0925-
rie und Wissensmanagement. In G. Schreyögg
5273(03)00029-X
(Ed.), Wissen in Unternehmen: Konzepte, Maß-
Perl, E. (2006). Implementierung von Umweltin- nahmen, Methoden, Berlin, (pp. 3-20).
formationssystemen: Industrieller Umweltschutz
Schulz, W. (1989)... Betriebliche Umweltinfor-
und die Kommunikation von Umweltinformation-
mationssysteme. UE, 6, 33–99.
en in Unternehmen und in Netzwerken, Graz.
Schwarz, E., & Steininger, K. (1997). Implement-
Picot, A., Reichwald, R., & Wigand, R. T. (2003).
ing nature’s lessons: the industrial recycling net-
Die grenzenlose Unternehmung – Information,
work enhancing regional development. Journal of
Organisation und Management: Lehrbuch zur
Cleaner Production, 5(1-2), 47–56. doi:10.1016/
Unternehmensführung im Informationszeitalter,
S0959-6526(97)00009-7
(5 rev. ed.), Wiesbaden.
Seuring, S. (2004b). Industrial ecology, life cycles,
Pillmann, W., Geiger, W., & Voigt, K. (2006).
supply chains: differences and interrelations.
Survey of environmental informatics in Europe.
Business Strategy and the Environment, 13(5),
Environmental Modelling & Software, 21, 1519–
306–319. doi:10.1002/bse.418
1527. doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2006.05.008
Seuring, S., & Müller, M. (2004). Beschaf-
Posch, A. (2006). Zwischenbetriebliche Rück-
fungsmanagement und Nachhaltigkeit – eine
standsverwertung: Kooperationen für eine nach-
Literaturübersicht. In M. Hülsmann, G. Müller-
haltige Entwicklung am Beispiel industrieller
Christ, & H. Haasis (Ed.), Betriebswirtschaft-
Verwertungsnetze, Wiesbaden.
slehre und Nachhaltigkeit – Bestandsaufnahme
Posch, A. (2007). Nachhaltigkeitsorientierte Sup- und Forschungs¬programmatik, Wiesbaden,
ply Chains – Voraussetzungen und potentielle 117-170.
Maßnahmenbereiche. In M. Tschandl, & S. Bäck
Seuring, S., & Müller, M. (2008). From a literature
(Ed.) Einkauf optimieren: Effizienz und Effektiv-
review to a conceptual framework for sustainable
itäten in Einkauf und Logistik, Kapfenberg, (pp.
supply chain management. Journal of Cleaner
84-90).
Production, 16, 1699–1710. doi:10.1016/j.
Rautenstrauch, C. (1999). Betriebliche Umwelt- jclepro.2008.04.020
informationssysteme: Grundlagen, Konzepte und
Steinle, C., & Reiter, F. (2002). Mitarbeitere-
Systeme. Berlin Heidelberg.
instellungen als Gestaltungsgrundlage eines
Ryan, C. (1999). Information Technology ökologieorientierten Anreizsystems. uwf, 10(1),
and DfE: From Support Tool to Design Prin- 66-70.
ciple. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 3(1), 5–8.
Sterr. T. (1998). Aufbau eines zwischenbetriebli-
doi:10.1162/108819899569359
chen Stoffverwertungsnetzwerks im Heidelberger
Sahay, B., & Gupta,A. (2003). Development of soft- Industriegebiet Pfaffengrund, Heidelberg.
ware selection criteria for supply chain solutions.
Strebel, H. (1995). Regionale Stoffverwer-
Industrial Management & Data Systems, 103(2),
tungsnetze am Beispiel der Steiermark. Um-
97–110. doi:10.1108/02635570310463429
weltwirtschaftsforum UWF, 3(4), 48–55.
132
van der Zwan, F., & Bhamra, T. (2003). Alternative Yu, Z., Yan, H., & Cheng, T. (2001). Benefits of in-
function fulfilment: incorporating environmen- formation sharing with supply chain partnerships.
tal considerations into increased design space. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 101(3),
Journal of Cleaner Production, 11, 897–903. 114–119. doi:10.1108/02635570110386625
doi:10.1016/S0959-6526(02)00161-0
Zillig, U. (2001). Integratives Logistikmanage-
Walley, N., & Whitehead, B. (1994). It’s not easy ment in Unternehmensnetzwerken: Gestaltung
to be green. Harvard Business Review, (May- interorganisatorischer Logistiksysteme für die
June): 46–53. Zulieferindustrie, Wiesbaden.
Weiling, K., & Kwok-Kee, W. (2008). Trust and
Power Influences in Supply Chain Collaboration.
Operations Research & Management Sciences, enDnote
119(1), 223–239.
1
Regarding the implementation of software
Wiegand, M. (1996). Prozesse organisationalen systems this is also known as “pinguin ef-
Lernens, Wiesbaden. fect“ (see Buxmann 2002).
Young, R. (2000). Managing residual disposition:
Achieving economy, environmental responsibility,
and competitive advantage using the supply chain
framework. Journal of Supply Chain Management,
36(1), 57–66. doi:10.1111/j.1745-493X.2000.
tb00070.x
133
Section 3
135
Chapter 8
Communicating in
Multicultural Firms:
Boundary Creation, Fragmentation
and the Social Use of ICT
Jakob Lauring
Department of Management, Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus University, Denmark
Anders Klitmøller
Department of Management, Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus University, Denmark
abStraCt
Based on a qualitative study of 14 knowledge intensive companies, this chapter suggests that multi-
cultural and multilingual firms are faced with certain challenges in the attempt to fruitfully utilize the
diverse background of their workforce. Firstly, through informal settings, the employees to create social
boundaries within the firm use native languages strategically. Secondly, even though the introduction
of English as cooperate language might solve some communication issues, it tends to render the com-
munication less nuanced, thereby reducing the use of human resources within the firm. Thirdly, ICT does
not necessarily solve communication problems within a given company. It can even be used as a social
‘tool’ to uphold social boundaries or social fragmentation. It is suggested that in order to address these
challenges, the management should seek to reward not only individual employees, but also expand the
notion of performance to include the collectivity of the workplace.
introDuCtion Much like all other human interaction, communication

is at the center of ICT. And communication is what
ICT, or Information Communication Technology, has seems to be one of the major managerial tasks that
come to play a larger role in contemporary business companies working in globalized markets are faced
communities due to the increased internationalization with. Therefore, managing interaction across national
of companies worldwide (Griffith, 2002; Palmer- and linguistic boundaries has become a daily issue for a
Silveira, Ruiz-Garrido, & Fortanet-Gómes, 2006). growing number of managers (Maznevski & Chudoba,
2000; Welch, Welch & Marschan-Piekkari, 2001).
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch008
Communicating in Multicultural Firms
In the management of multicultural groups, At the theoretical level, the impact of multilin-
the varied nature of the group has often been gualism has been examined mainly in relation
described as a competitive advantage in the cre- to language management, which conceives of
ation of information and other human resources language as a facilitator providing for the acqui-
(Adler, 1997; Miller, Fields, Kumar, & Ortiz, sition and transmission of information through
2000; Paulus, 2000). Nonetheless, the success of social interaction (Dhir & Góké-Paríolá, 2002;
the diverse groups is not given, and managerial Feely & Harzing, 2003; Vaara et al. 2003b). In
challenges should not be taken lightly (Leonard comparison, empirical studies have focused on
& Swap, 1999). A number of studies indicate that the manner in which language differences create
communication management is especially impor- a complicated managerial situation, with great
tant (Distefano & Maznevski, 2000; Loosemore implications for the practice of intercultural
& Lee, 2002; Maznevski, 1994). And since ICT communication (Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, &
is the basis of much internal and inter-unit com- Welch, 1999a; Marschan-Piekkari, Welch &
munication in multicultural firms, the relation Welch, 1999b; Vaara et al. 2003a). With specific
between diversity management, communication reference to culturally diverse groups, Distefano
and ICT is an important topic in the understanding and Maznevski (2000) have found language dif-
of international business. ferences to have a negative impact on relationship
Communication is central to management building. Furthermore, research by Lagerström
since, in one way or another, challenges to and Andersson (2003) indicates that a condition
communication have an effect on all manage- of multilingualism may challenge the socialization
rial processes (Cheney, Thøger, Zorn & Ganesh, of team members. Henderson (2005) proposes
2004). Furthermore, communication is the basis an alternative approach to language diversity, by
of all employee collaboration. In a multinational examining possible sources of communication
context, linguistic and cultural differences make failure within the global workplace. The research
communication even more of a concern (Beamer relies on a distinction between problems relating
& Varner, 2005; Loosemore et al., 2002). In re- to the transmission and reception of messages, and
lation to this, the main managerial challenge of to difficulties in the area of interpersonal percep-
the diverse group is that efficient communication tions and attitudes, which arise from interlocutors’
actually occurs (McDonough, Kahn & Barczak, encounters with the unfamiliar practices of alien
2001). If group members do not communicate speech communities. Thus, Henderson (2005)
well, cultural and linguistic diversity will most argues that communication failure should be read
likely become unfavorable (Distefano et al., 2000; as a socio-cultural rather than a purely linguistic
Hambrick, Davison, Snell & Snow, 1998). There- phenomenon.
fore, the arguments presented in this chapter rely In this Chapter, language use is considered to
on the fundamental premise that communication be the way the linguistic medium is used in com-
is necessary in all coordination and organization munication. To further define the concept, it is the
of human resources. Accordingly, fostering a main argument of the chapter that language use
rich communication flow within a multicultural should be understood as a dynamic and dialectical
organization is an important source of competi- communicative process involving both relation-
tive advantage, thus nurturing social and cultural ship building and knowledge sharing between
sustainability within the company and society as different groups and individuals (Cooren 2006,
a whole. Vaara et al. 2005). In addition, language should be
Language diversity is a theme that has received understood as socially and historically constituted
very little scholarly attention (Henderson, 2005). in line with other human practices (Bourdieu 1977,
136
Bourdieu 1991). Language, then, is not only a (Simons, Pelled & Smith, 1999), the interest in
means of understanding and communication, but diversity has increased rapidly during recent years
also an object of action (e.g. Austin 1975, Taylor (van Knippenberg, De Dreu & Homan, 2004).
2006). The communicative process is then to be Three dominating theoretical perspectives are
understood, in a broader sense, as the transfer of relevant to the understanding of communication
information as well as the organization of social processes in organizations that consist of cultur-
relationships thought patterns and actions (Ro- ally diverse groups.
bichaud 2006, Wittgenstein 1996). The focus of
this chapter is on expressed discourses on verbal the information and Decision
dialogue as it happens in face-to-face interaction making perspective
or by the use of ICT.
Cultural diversity is here generally related to The literature on information and decision-making
variance of national affiliation as it is done by has a traditional functionalist view on cultural
most authors in this field (e.g. Adler 1997, Dis- diversity - most often limited to static notions of
tefano & Maznevski 2000). However, differences national cultural differences. In this perspective
in nationality as such do not create differences it is argued that the potential advantage of diverse
between individuals. It is the variety of identi- groups over homogeneous groups lies in the greater
fications, behavioral patterns, linguistic skills pool of distinct task-relevant information to which
and bodies of knowledge linked to growing up diverse groups may have access (Hambrick, Cho
in different regions that provide the potential for & Chen, 1996; Harrison & Klein, 2007; Page,
human diversity (Roberson 2006). This chapter 2007). Homogeneity, according to these authors,
attempts to explore discourses on communication has been mentioned as being in danger of lead-
processes as individuals describe them in cultur- ing to ‘groupthink’, in which everyone assumes
ally diverse organizations. Furthermore, we wish that since they all believe the same thing, it must
to direct attention to social processes linked to be a good idea (Adler, 1997; Miller et al., 2000;
face-to-face and ICT communication that may Triandis, Hall & Ewen, 1965). As opposed to ho-
affect the utilization of human resources. Finally, mogeneity, cultural differences are thus assumed
it is the aim of the chapter to include the language to lead to differences with regard to information
theme in the discussion as a novel contribution and perspectives (McLeod & Lobe, 1992; Watson,
to the understanding of culturally diverse groups, Kumar & Michaelsen, 1993). This, according to
communication and ICT. This will be illustrated by this research tradition, implies that multicultural
data from 14 multicultural ‘knowledge intensive’ groups, if managed correctly, should be more
Danish organizations. resourceful compared to more homogeneous
groups (Distefano et al., 2000). In other words,
the different cultural perspectives are believed
uSing the reSourCeS to foster innovation and creativity through con-
of human DiverSity structive conflicts of perspectives, heuristics and
knowledge (Fiedler, 1966; Millikin & Martins,
Human differences are a challenge to the academic 1996; Paulus, 2000; Richard & Shelor, 2002;
community, and for the last fifty years researchers Simons et al., 1999).
have struggled to develop theories and methods While such ideas on information and decision-
to conceptualize and study those differences making are intriguing, diverse groups in organiza-
(Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). While results have tions, regrettably, often fail to realize the potential
been far from reaching any consistent conclusion (Stewart, 2006). According to Klein and Harrison
137
(2007), the weakness of the theory is related to the affiliation (Tsui, Egan, & O’Reilly, 1992).
fact that the organizational reality of interpersonal While the socio-psychological approach to
and group processes is much more ‘messy’ than diversity does include the ‘messy’ reality of group
often accounted for in the literature (e.g. Page, processes, there is a tendency to explain those
2007). In other words, social barriers may hinder aspects of diversity only by the psychological
the interaction processes. needs of the individual. By focusing heavily on the
role of the individual in the group, the literature
the Social Categorization avoids looking into the continuous struggle to
perspective obtain resources and recognition among differ-
ent groups (Bourdieu, 2004; Konrad, 2003; Liff,
Another theoretical perspective relevant to under- 1996; Struch & Schwartz, 1989). Consequently,
standing communication in diverse organizations the socio-psychological explanation for the lack
is more concerned with social categorization as a of communication is limited to the extent that it
barrier that impedes cooperation and knowledge does not adequately include inherent power rela-
sharing in diverse groups (Tajfel, 1982; Tajfel tions between different groups.
& Turner, 1979; Williams et al., 1998). In this
line of research, the difference of knowledge the inequality and
or perspective is not always enough to improve power perspective
decision-making (Homan et al., In print; van
Knippenberg et al., 2004). The distinct group Most of the literature on inequality and power
member must also be able to win the approval of relations in diverse organizations takes a political
others with the new solution (Klein et al., 2007). stance against liberal notions of the management
It is argued that individuals tend to communicate of diversity, as a neutral improvement of informa-
mostly with those who are most similar to them tion processing and decision-making (e.g. Essed,
(Zenger & Lawrence, 1989). Accordingly, Mor- 1996; Kelly & Dobbin, 1998; Liff & Wajcman,
Barak, Cherin, and Bergman (1998) maintain that 1996). Litvin (2002) argues that these diversity
dissimilarities are likely to be negatively related management initiatives should be perceived as
to group involvement because distinct individu- an ‘iron cage’ that prevents real changes in the
als are in danger of being excluded from relevant power distribution within diverse organizations.
information networks. In this way diversity can Similarly, Foldy (2003) argues that diversity initia-
disturb communication processes, because the tives often ignore the identity formation among
emergence of subgroups may hinder the use of employees, thus assuming that useful individual
available information (van Knippenberg et al., knowledge and perspectives can be applied with-
2004). out interference from group domination. In a
In the literature of social categorization, the recent publication by Squires (2008) it is argued
negative effects of diversity have often been that diversity management which encourages em-
explained as psychological processes of inter- ployers to recognize cultural differences between
personal attraction (Webber & Donahue, 2001). employees may de-politicize social relations and
The similarity-attraction hypothesis asserts that contain equality objectives within a utilitarian
similarity in attitudes is a major source of attrac- market model. This, according to Squires, may
tion between individuals (Byrne, Clore & Worchel, bring only short-term benefits for some minority
1966). Consequences of high interpersonal attrac- groups and entrench cultural stereotypes in the
tion may include frequent communication, high process by assuming, for instance, that national-
social integration, and a desire to maintain group ity or ethnicity can be directly associated with
138
certain characteristics. Authors working with with non-Danish backgrounds who are living in
organizational inequalities and power relations Denmark for other reasons.
are concerned that the mainstream literature on This chapter is based on data generated in
diversity issues does little to give voice to or a qualitative study of 14 Danish multicultural
promote the problems of relatively powerless companies. The selection of the companies was
identity groups. They mainly conclude that dif- based on the percentage of employees with a
ferential rewards given to various groups form the national background other than Danish, and they
material bases for group conflicts – which might represent some of the most culturally diverse
prevent communication. organizations in Denmark (e.g. Lauring, 2005).
However, none of these studies are based on The chosen organizations were all internation-
empirical evidence. Accordingly, this exploratory ally knowledge intensive, aiming to achieve an
study provides an empirically based discussion of innovative and creative environment by the use
social obstacles to communication in culturally of diversity management. All organizations used
diverse organizations. English as their corporate language.
The study has set out to provide an overall
picture of expressed discourses on communication
reSearCh DeSign issues in culturally diverse Danish companies,
and so, rather than an in-depth study of one or
In Denmark, managing cultural diversity has two specific sites, a broad range of organizations
become popular, especially after the arrival of have been chosen. This enables the researcher to
a large number of immigrants and refugees dur- develop a taxonomy of the challenges faced by
ing the 1990s (Hagedorn-Rasmussen & Kamp, managers in the chosen organizations, which adds
2003). These people now account for approxi- to the understanding of intercultural communica-
mately seven percent of the Danish population. tion as a social practice. The limitation is that even
However, for the most part they have not been though the researcher will gain a broad picture of
integrated into the knowledge intensive part of the informant’s conception of intercultural com-
the labor market (e.g. Hedetoft, 2003; Hervik, munication, in practice the actual interaction will
1999). As such, Denmark is still trying to create only be observed to a limited extent.
social and cultural sustainability for this group, The data for this study was generated through
and even though most of the immigrants and semi-structured research interviews. In coop-
refugees living in Denmark are not integrated eration with organizational gatekeepers, key
in knowledge intensive jobs, the rhetoric on the informants were identified on the basis of their
benefits of diversity management has been very experience with cultural diversity (Bernard, 1995).
positive, stating that “the differences between Out of a total of 82 interviews with managers and
people are an overlooked goldmine in Danish employees, 43 of the informants were Danish,
companies” (Jacobs, Lûtzen & Plum, 2001: while 39 represented other nationalities. Most
5) (authors’ translation). While the statements non-Danish informants were living in Denmark
concerning the use of human resources through on a more or less permanent basis. However, only
diversity management can be found in all types five of them came from countries from which
of organizations, large and small, public and Denmark traditionally accepts refugees or im-
private, the actual practices of using diversity migrants. About 60 percent of the informants had
constructively are more or less reserved to com- managerial responsibilities. The interviews were
panies that employ foreign experts or expatriates performed in Danish as well as in English. With
from subsidiaries, as well as other individuals a single exception, all English interviews were
139
conducted with non-native speakers. The native reSultS

languages of these informants were Polish, Rus-
sian, Rumanian, Italian, Dutch, French, Mandarin, This section deals with communication issues
Hindi, and Arabic. linked to the social practices of the multicultural
The interviews took the form of a dialogue be- and multilingual organizations. Two kinds of social
tween the researcher and the informants, in which barriers can be described as formed by 1) bound-
questions were asked about the effects of cultural ary creation and 2) social fragmentation. Finally
diversity on communication and knowledge shar- the use of ICT is related to the social practice of
ing (see preliminary interview guide1). This way communication within the companies.
the main themes of the investigation were not
selected before entering the setting. They slowly boundary Creation
developed through the process of interacting with
the informants. That also meant that the interview To most informants, the formation of social groups
guide changed during the extent of the project. based on the national affiliation of the members
Some questions were added and others deleted constituted a central issue in the organizations.
(Alvesson, 2003; Fontana & Frey, 1994). At first, However, the introduction of an international
communication and language use were only two of environment and a common corporate language
a number of themes to be investigated. However, was, in all cases, implemented to counter the
after a while it became apparent that especially problems of communication between the differ-
language in one way or another seemed to be re- ent individuals and groups creating innovative
lated to all other intercultural issues put forward knowledge sharing. Yet, sometimes the common
by the informants. Initially, language use emerged language was not used consistently. As outlined
from the data as a means to boundary creation. by a French Canadian employee:
But in subsequent analyses and interviews, con-
tinuously the social fragmentation became more I was in a meeting and we were some English,
apparent. The study of ICT was not a part of the some Canadians, and Swedes, and Danes, and
original research design. Nonetheless, ICT seemed within half an hour the Danes were speaking
to be important in the informants’ conception of Danish and the Swedes were speaking Swedish.
communication processes as they unfolded in the And after some time I said – I am leaving! And
organization. In this way, the research project ap- finally people started speaking English. After
plied an iterative approach by processing incoming that, I actually found out that no one had actually
information in a circular fashion, allowing for the understood each other before. The people from
continuous integration of new questions in the Aarhus didn’t understand what the Swedes were
interview guide (Kvale, 1996; Spradley, 1980). saying and we didn’t understand much of the
In this case, the perception of language used as Danish at all (Employee, North America).
the dominant obstacle to intercultural interaction
and the role of ICT could not have been predicted Altogether, foreign informants frequently
from reviewing the literature on the subject of accused Danes of exercising exclusive behavior
managing cultural diversity. because of their tendency to stay together in a
Danish-speaking group and thereby isolate mem-
bers of other groups:
People get together and speak Danish. If you do

not, then you will not be invited. You will not be
140
put in the active discussion. It is the social things she replied that she had not been invited. ‘They
that are the problem. It is very hard to become part said, but we were standing here speaking loudly
of it. If you start a conversation in English, people and clearly about going… but it might not have
cut you short. (Employee, Southern Europe). been the right language’. She concludes from
this that non-Danish speakers risk developing
This kind of boundary creation is particularly weaker social ties to co-workers, thus limiting
important in relation to the employees’ social in- their involvement in knowledge sharing:
tegration into the workplace, because employees
with limited Danish language skills find them- It is not just personal stuff you miss out on, but
selves unable to participate in social events. business relations too. If something is going on,
if nobody directly tells you, you are not going to
I don’t think the technical side is a big problem. know. I would say yes, you could work here without
But if you don’t know the language, you get put in speaking any Danish. You can do your job. But all
a box. Some of my colleagues are put in a box. If I the learning and what is going on around you, you
say no to learning or speaking Danish, the effect would miss (Employee, North America).
would be that I would be isolated. (Employee,
Northern Europe). As could be registered from interviews, more
or less consciously, the dominating speech com-
Exclusion from informal settings is an im- munity limits the possibility of communication
portant problem felt by non-Danish informants. and, subsequently, acting and relating as well.
They might find themselves shut out from social Nonetheless, the Danish community may not be
interaction when it is carried out in Danish. This aware of the effect of their communicative prac-
may prove damaging to the use of their resources. tice. Often Danish organizations are represented
Sometimes informal gatherings can be important as being much more tolerant and international
contributions to the innovative capacity, because than they actually are. This can sometimes lead
different viewpoints are shared in an unconven- to the disillusion of non-Danish organizational
tional fashion. A Polish informant describes the members:
situation as follows:
When I came here I was so disappointed. We al-
The small talk is always in Danish. And sometimes ways heard talk about the Nordic countries and
the small talk gives a lot of information. It gives the expectations were very high. Like this com-
you an idea of what is really happening. It is some- pany. I thought it was more international when I
thing I really miss, to be able to really feel part first came here. I asked them before – do I have
of the conversation. I don’t think my knowledge to speak Danish and they said no, no, we are an
is used properly because I don’t know the small international company and we speak English. But
talk (Employee, Eastern Europe). they cannot say that it is an international company
and that English is the company language. It is
A Canadian employee describes a similar just a Danish company with a lot of foreigners
experience, underlining how a lack of Danish lan- (Employee, Southern Europe).
guage skills might unintentionally isolate foreign
employees from social exchanges with colleagues. Exclusion from the sharing of ideas due to
Returning one afternoon from an informal gath- language differences could be found in many
ering, a group of colleagues confronted her to places. Thus, the creation of social boundaries
ask why she had not joined them for a beer, and linked to categories that are strengthened by lan-
141
guage can be identified as an important obstacle ing an internationalized environment by mainly

to the use of human resources in culturally diverse using English for everyday communication. This
organizations. Furthermore, the lack of social manager has the impression that even though com-
commitment noted by several informants points munication is conducted in English, it still results
to a second obstacle that impedes the constructive in the disappearance of some interaction:
use of cultural diversity. This will be explored
further below. There are a number of Danes who have actually
left the organization because they find it is no
Social fragmentation longer the same place to work. There is no longer
the same consensus. The culture has been shaken.
As indicated by some studies, the lack of social I don’t know if this is because of the market or
coherence can sometimes be the undesired result because the company has grown or because of the
of cultural diversity (Bassett-Jones, 2005). This foreigners. It may have something to do with the
may be the effect of individuals who feel more joking and the way we communicate (Manager,
comfortable when associating with others who Denmark).
are similar to themselves, sharing the same be-
liefs, values, language, and other traits (Miller et Other informants observe how foreigners con-
al., 2000). Communication in culturally diverse duct their everyday tasks without any knowledge of
organizations is, then, different from communica- the Danish language and thus miss out on ‘all the
tion among national peers. As one of the Danish social stuff and all the small-talk across the lunch
managers tells the researcher: ‘Communication table’ (Employee, Northern Europe). Non-native
has to be much more clear than if we were all employees often characterize their conversations
Danes. We now have to formulate the orders as less detailed or ‘deep’, which may be due to
in more plain and precise words’. In this way, the disappearance of humor from communica-
daily communication in a second language has tion. As a result, communication becomes more
an influence on interaction. As one of the Danish formal and task-oriented. However, as a Canadian
informants mentioned ‘then one keeps to oneself employee describes it, this does not necessarily
the little remarks that would otherwise be more improve communication:
natural - for good or bad’’. In many cases, this
resulted in less dialogue and more focus on getting One problem, though, is that if people tell you
the job done. As outlined by a Danish Manager: something, you often get a too neat version.
You can’t really function in this country without
Because of the diversity, you focus more on the speaking and reading some Danish. We had a
professional. You don’t think about from where colleague from Canada who spoke only English,
people come, but only whether they contribute their and I could hear that when people talked to her, it
best no matter how they feel among themselves. always came out in a too neat version (Employee,
You don’t focus on people’s mindset but on the North America).
result. Whether people get on socially or not is
unimportant. In that respect, only being together The formalization of communication endan-
with Danes probably gives you more strings to gers the social coherence and integration of the
play (Manager, Denmark). organization. As one Danish manager observed:
‘Much of the informal interaction derives from a
Another Danish informant describes the situa- strong organizational culture that is valuable to
tion of a company that has done well in establish- us’. When speaking to other nationalities, employ-
142
ees find that it becomes more difficult to uphold the impact of cultural barriers in the international
the same level of communication. business community, especially due to English as
lingua franca. Many researchers closely link ICT
It is most often easier with only Danes. The meet- to the rise of a knowledge-based economy and
ings become more formal when conducted in Eng- globalization (Roberts, 2000). As such, ICT has en-
lish rather than Danish. There is less ping-pong abled data and information to cross great distances,
across the table - less informal talking. That is a thereby effecting a movement from organizations
bit negative. It can be good to have the informal physically contained single-sited units to multi-sited
talk because it strengthens the group socially global networks (Hängst & Sol 2001). This has
(Manager, Denmark). made researchers argue that ICT, due to stronger
cross-national coordination and communication,
The introduction of an international environ- enhances homogenization (Gabberty & Thomas
ment with a common language might prevent 2006). Even though this might be the case on an
the kind of social categorization described in the inter-organizational and global level, our research
previous section. In addition, according to the suggests that ICT may have social consequences
results of this study, communication tends to be also on the local organizational level. In this way
more explicit, thus facilitating the integration of ICT could enhance the creation of boundaries and
non-native employees in the working routines. social fragmentation in everyday face-to-face com-
Nonetheless, the internationalized environment munication of the work force.
does not solve all communication problems. This, we believe, has to do with the double-
In this exploratory research project, two main sidedness of the globalization process, in which
obstacles to the use of human resources have been we include ICT. As it has long been promoted by
identified. On the one hand, cultural and social social scientists, the expansion of the capitalist
boundaries are created, which prevent communi- mode of production whereby all economies have
cation between employees that are categorized as been included in the global economy, has led to a
belonging to different groups. On the other hand, homogenization in goods and services. Nonethe-
a social fragmentation may result in less effective less, this process has also led to fragmentation
communication with employees abstaining from and national boundary creation on the group and
informal interaction when speaking a second individual level (Friedman 1994). That is, what is
language. These obstacles to communication taken as signs of globalization, such as ICT, is used
may have a vital impact on the possibility of strategically on the local level as a counter reaction
using differences in human resources construc- to uphold identity markers such as nationality. In
tively. Furthermore, as will be elaborated in the this study what we found was that ICT seemed to
following, the boundary creation and the social be used as a ‘social tool’ for creating these group
fragmentation that characterized the face-to-face boundaries and social fragmentation.
contact of the informants was reinforced through The companies in this research were all heavily
the use of ICT in the companies. dependent on the use of ICT in the everyday com-
munication of the employees. Especially email
iCt and the Construction seemed to have substituted a great part of what
of group boundaries and would formerly have been face-to-face interaction.
Social fragmentation As such, it was more common to send a joke via mail
than to tell it face to face. Furthermore, some of the
As Welch et al. (2001) and Feely and Harzing employees only referred to each other by their initials
(2003) propose, it could seem that ICT can minimize or ‘user-names’, and not by their real names:
143
Nobody has a name here, only initials […] of ICT and face-to-face communication, is not
sometimes I feel not insulted but uneasy. It is a within the scope of this project to determine.
different style from what I am used to (Employee, Rather it should be noted that these perceptions
Eastern Europe). of communication outline group boundaries in
which the employees either feel included or ex-
Our observations indicate that communica- cluded, and that these perceptions have an impact
tion through the use of ICT did not remove on workplace behavior.
existing barriers of communication. Rather, ICT seemed also to create an environment
ICT - in this case the use of initials in face-to- in which there was less space to create personal
face communication - was used strategically relations and networks. As argued, this form of
to uphold existing group boundaries, exclud- social fragmentation is especially problematic
ing the non-native Danes from participating in knowledge intensive industries, since ‘ping–
in social interaction, and including the Danes. ponging’ seems crucial in the development of new
This way ICT further contributed to the cre- ideas. The use of email and phone in the workplace
ation of social boundaries in the multicultural seemed to create a certain perception of what was
companies. In addition, it is interesting to note considered effective working time;
how ICT affected the face-to-face interaction
of the employees. The employment of ‘user Even if you sit next to someone, you would send
names’ in everyday interaction created a feel- them an email. I even do it myself (Employee,
ing of uneasiness among certain non-Danish Denmark.)
employees, which affected their willingness
to participate and contribute to personal and The employees would rather use their computer
professional discussions. As such, the strategic as the primary tool for communication, especially
use of ICT by native Danes hindered the flow because sitting at the desk signalized that they were
of information and communication between the working, and they therefore seemed more effec-
culturally diverse groups within the workplace. tive. One could argue that the use of ICT created a
When asked whether this was a deliberate strat- work environment and a form of communication
egy used to exclude non-Danes from the social that was more fragmented and individualistic than
group, an informant replied: would otherwise be the case. Such a perception of
work might be suitable for traditional industrial
I have heard that some of them don’t like it, but firms, but it is less suitable for knowledge intensive
I really don’t think about it. I just do it because corporations in which innovation is a hallmark
I have gotten use to it and it’s easier (Employee, for survival in a globalized economy. One of the
Northern Europe). problems with communicating through ICT has
to do with knowledge transfer. Robert (2000)
As such, the study did not indicate that it was a agues that communication through ICT favors
deliberate and conscious strategy from the Danes; knowledge, which can be codified and reduced to
however, it seemed that this group was not willing data. Tacit knowledge, which is crucial in creating
to change their behavior in order to address the an innovative workplace, might be problematic.
resentment experienced by the non-Danes. Especially where face-to-face interaction is actu-
In consequence, the national boundaries ally possible, since the employees are physically
were upheld through an unwillingness to change located together.
behavior. Whether this led to an overall increase We found that even though ICT is crucial
or decrease in communication, through the use in multicultural firms, there may also be some
144
problematic consequences. It can be used to may not solve these problems, but can instead be
uphold existing linguistic and national barriers, used as a social ‘tool’ that reinforces the dominant
thereby reducing communication between these social categorization and fragmentation within the
groups. Furthermore, it might individualize the company, thereby upholding existing structures
workplace, thus reducing the transfer of tacit of social difference.
knowledge that is crucial to more knowledge Three different theoretical perspectives have
intensive industries. In other words, ICT seems been mentioned to contribute to the understanding
to enhance certain elements of social behavior as of communication in multicultural firms.
exercised in multicultural firms. Firstly, the literature applying the information
and decision-making perspective puts emphasis on
the variety of differences in bodies of knowledge
DiSCuSSion (Distefano & Maznevski, 2000; Page, 2007).
However, as our case showed, information does
Cultural diversity has often been described as not always flow undisturbed in organizations.
providing an important constructive potential to Human resources may be embedded in particular
firms. This potential, however, cannot be activated social communities. Brown and Duguid (2000)
without the mutual interaction of the different argue that communities of practice enable people
groups and individuals in the organizations. Ac- to communicate the more implicit elements of
cordingly, communication across cultural bound- knowledge on how to act successfully in the
aries becomes one of the basic preconditions for organization. This implies that the membership
the development of a resourceful environment. of these communities can be essential to commu-
Unfortunately, communication in multicultural nication. The notion of communities of practice
firms is often a complicated matter. could provide further inspiration for researchers
To handle daily collaboration, diverse groups dealing with communication in multicultural firms
need to have a good flow of communication. from an information and decision-making per-
When describing obstacles to communication in spective. This perspective is also highly relevant
multinational teams, most studies refer only to to understand the social use of ICT that allows
differences in language and national culture as communities to span physical settings.
leading to misunderstandings and group conflict Secondly, researchers operating in the so-
(e.g. Beamer et al., 2005; Hambrick et al., 1998). cial categorization paradigm put emphasis on
However, in this study we suggest that com- boundaries between groups created along lines of
munication practices may be a more complex similarity attraction. The argument is that similar
matter than some studies of culture diversity and individuals interact more with each other than with
communication have indicated. We have argued non-similar organization members (Tsui, Egan,
that certain social elements in communicative & O’Reilly, 1992). However, the case material
behavior have great effect on the use of differ- shows that focus should not only be put on group
ences in human resources. And in addition to boundaries, but also on the socially fragmented
that, we argue that ICT can enhance some of the internationalized environment where individuals
observed problems. have less in common and speak different natural
This research project has outlined how the languages. Turner (1987) argues that if the group
perceptions of communication can affect two membership is unsatisfactory, members will
social processes, which, on the one hand, may attempt to leave that group. And if that is not
create boundary formation, and, on the other physically possible, individuals may engage in
hand, social fragmentation. Furthermore, ICT other forms of reduced attachment, such as psy-
145
chologically withdrawing from the community. from the management regarding the value of
Such reduced group attachments are difficult to interaction and teamwork. Furthermore, ICT can
detect if much of the communication takes place be used positively if it is not only seen as a simpli-
by use of ICT. Social fragmentation should there- fied solution to the communication issues that are
fore be of particular concern for researchers and dominant in multi-cultural companies. While the
practitioners working with communication and use of ICT provides a different platform for com-
ICT in multicultural firms. munication compared to face-to-face interaction,
Thirdly, the literature focusing of inequality this form is not detached from social processes.
and power relations stresses the importance of And some uses of ICT may create problems that
recognizing that some identity groups tend to can affect the social environment and subsequently
dominate others. In our case it was obvious that the constructive use of differences in human
the Danes were in a dominant position. This also resources. Hence, managers should make a clear
affected communication when applying ICT. Here statement about which forms of communication
the dominating Danish styles seemed to exclude are suitable for ICT, and which should be handled
members of other nationals groups. on a face-to-face basis.
The argument of this chapter is that perceptions
of communication and language use is intertwined
with other social practices, and that cultural and referenCeS
linguistic diversity increases the complexity of
interaction. The results of these processes are dif- Adler, N. J. (1997). International dimensions
ficult to predict, and when ICT is added it becomes of organizational behavior. Cincinnati: South
even more complicated. Consequently, managing Western Publishing.
communication in diverse environments by use of Alvesson, M. (2003). Beyond neopositivists,
ICT should depart from a locally grounded notion romantics, and localists: A reflexive approach to
of interaction patterns. interviews in organizational research. Academy
While practical implications for multicultural of Management Review, 28(1), 13–33.
organizations wanting to improve the utilization of
diverse human resources by means of improving Austin, J. L. (1975). How to do things with words.
communication may be somewhat premature due Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
to the exploratory character of the study, some
Barth, F. (1971). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries:
initial guideline can be provided.
The Social Organization of Cultural Difference.
To encourage communication in multinational
Bergen: Universitetsforlaget.
organizations, managers not only need to reward
measurable individual performance, they also Bassett-Jones, N. (2005). The paradox of diversity
need to expand the concept of performance to management, creativity and innovation. Creativ-
include contributions toward strengthening the ity and Innovation Management, 14(2), 169–176.
collective human resources of the organization. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8691.00337.x
One way of promoting communication is for
Beamer, L. (1998). Bridging Business Cultures.
management to make official the contribution
The China Business Review, 25(3), 54–58.
to collective knowledge as dispersed by ICT or
other means. Thereby, individuals will start to Beamer, L., & Varner, I. (2001). Intercultural
see communication as valuable and as a valued Communication in the Global Workplace. New
contribution to the organization’s productivity. York: McGraw-Hill Irvin.
This has to be backed by unequivocal messages
146
Beamer, L., & Varner, I. (2005). Intercultural Dhir, K. S., & Góké-Paríolá, A. (2002). The
Communication in the Global Workplace. New case for language policies in multinational
York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. corporations. Corporate Communications:
An International Journal, 7(4), 241–251.
Bernard, R. H. (1995). Research Methods in
doi:10.1108/13563280210449822
Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Ap-
proaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Distefano, J. J., & Maznevski, M. L. (2000). Cre-
ating value with diverse teams in global manage-
Bonache, J., & Brewster, C. (2001).
ment. Organizational Dynamics, 29(1), 45–63.
Knowledge Transfer and the Management
doi:10.1016/S0090-2616(00)00012-7
of Expatriation. Thunderbird International
Business Review, 43(1), 3–20. doi:10.1002/1520- Essed, P. (1996). Diversity, Color, and Culture.
6874(200101/02)43:1<3::AID- Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
TIE2>3.0.CO;2-4
Feely, A. J., & Harzing, A.-W. (2003). Language
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a Theory of Prac- management in multinational companies. Inter-
tice. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University national Journal of Cross Cultural Management,
Press. 10(2), 37–53. doi:10.1108/13527600310797586
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic Fiedler, F. E. (1966). The effect of leadership and
power. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. cultural heterogeneity on group performance:
A test of the contingency model. Journal of
Bourdieu, P. (2004). Distinction: A Social Critique
Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 237–264.
of the Judgment of Taste. London: Routledge.
doi:10.1016/0022-1031(66)90082-5
Byrne, D. E., Clore, G. L. J., & Worchel, P. (1966).
Foldy, E. G. (2003). Managing diversity: Power
The effect of economic similarity-dissimilarity as
and identity in organizations. In I. Aaltio, & A.
determinants of attraction. Journal of Personality
Mills (Eds.), Gender, Identity and the Culture
and Social Psychology Quarterly, 4, 220–224.
of Organizations, (pp. 92-112). London: Rout-
doi:10.1037/h0023559
ledge.
Cheney, G., Thøger, L. C., Zorn, T. E. J., & Ga-
Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (1994). Interviewing:
nesh, S. (2004). Organizational Communication
The art of the science. In N. Denzin, & Y. Lincoln
in an Age of Globalization. Long Grove, IL:
(Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research, (pp.
Waveland Press.
361-376). London: Sage.
Cooren, F. (2006). The organizational world as
Friedman, J. 1994. Cultural Identity and Global
a plenum of agencies. In F. Cooren, J. R. Taylor,
Process. London: Sage Publications.
& E. J. Van Communication as Organizing. (pp.
81-101). London: LEA. Gabberty, J. W., & Thomas, J. D. E. (2006).
Modeling Creativity For The Multinational Firm.
Cronin, M. A., & Weingart, L. R. (2007). Rep-
International Business & Economics Research
resentational gabs, information processing, and
Journal, 5, 73–76.
conflict in functionally diverse teams. Academy
of Management Review, 32(3). Goodall, K., & Roberts, J. (2003). Only connect:
teamwork in the multinational. Journal of World
Business, 38, 150–164. doi:10.1016/S1090-
9516(03)00008-7
147
Griffith, D., A. (2002). The role of communication Homan, A. C., Hollenbeck, J. R., Humphrey, S.
competencies in international business relation- E., van Knippenberg, D., Ilgen, D. R., & Van
ship development. Journal of World Business, 37, Kleef, G. A. (In print). Facing differences with
256–265. doi:10.1016/S1090-9516(02)00092-5 an open mind: Openness to experience, salience
of intra-group differences, and performance of
Hagedorn-Rasmussen, P., & Kamp, A. (2003).
diverse work groups. Academy of Management
Mangfoldighedsledelse: mellem vision og ledelse.
Journal.
København, Denmark: Socialforskningsinsti-
tuttet. Jacobs, B., Lûtzen, D. C., & Plum, E. (2001).
Mangfoldighed som virksomhedsstrategi - På vej
Hambrick, D. C., Cho, T. S., & Chen, C. C.
mod den inkluderende organisation. København,
(1996). The influence of top management team
Denmark: Nordisk Forlag.
heterogeneity on firms’ competitive moves.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 41, 659–684. Janssens, M., Lambert, J., & Steyaert, C. (2004).
doi:10.2307/2393871 Developing language strategies for international
companies: The contribution of translation stud-
Hambrick, D. C., Davison, S. C., Snell, S. A., &
ies. Journal of World Business, 39, 414–430.
Snow, C. C. (1998). When Groups Consist of Mul-
doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2004.08.006
tiple Nationalities. Organization Studies, 19(2),
181–206. doi:10.1177/017084069801900202 Jenkins, R. (1997). Rethinking Ethnicity - Argu-
ments and Explorations. London: Sage Publica-
Hängst, M., & Sol, H. G. (2001). The Impact of
tions.
Information and Communication Technology on
Interorganizational Level. International Confer- Kelly, E., & Dobbin, F. (1998). How Affirmative
ence on System Sciences, Hawaii, 2001. Action Became Diversity Management - Employer
Response to Antidiscrimination Law, 1961 to
Harrison, D. A., & Klein, K. J. (2007). What’s
1996. The American Behavioral Scientist, 41(7),
the difference? Diversity constructs as separation,
960–984. doi:10.1177/0002764298041007008
variety, or disparity in organizations. Academy of
Management Review, 32(4). Kim, Y. Y. (2005). Inquiry in intercultural and
development communication. The Journal
Hedetoft, U. (2003). The Global Turn - National
of Communication, (September): 554–577.
encounters with the World. Aalborg, Denmark:
doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02685.x
Aalborg University Press.
Klein, K. J., & Harrison, D. A. (2007). On the
Henderson, J. K. (2005). Language diversity in
Diversity of Diversity: Tidy Logic, Messier Re-
international management teams. International
alities. Academy of Management Review, 32(4),
Studies of Management and Organization, 35(1),
26–34.
66–82.
Konrad, A. M. (2003). Defining the domain
Hervik, P. (1999). Forskellighedens logik:
of workplace diversity scholarship. Group
Fremstillingen, forestillingen og forskningen.
& Organization Management, 28, 4–16.
In P. Hervik (Ed.), Den generelle forskellighed:
doi:10.1177/1059601102250013
Danske svar på den stigende multikulturalisme,
(pp. 15-50). København, Denmark: Hans Reitzels Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews - An Introduction
Forlag. to Qualitative Research Interviewing. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
148
Lagerström, K., & Andersson, M. (2003). Creat- Marschan-Piekkari, R., Welch, D. E., & Welch,
ing and sharing knowledge within a transnational L. S. (1999b). Adopting a common corporate lan-
team: The development of a global business sys- guage: IHRM implications. International Journal
tem. Journal of World Business, 38, 84–95. of Human Resource Management, 10(3), 377–390.
doi:10.1016/S1090-9516(03)00003-8 doi:10.1080/095851999340387
Lauring, J. (2005). Når organisationen bliver Maznevski, M. L. (1994). Understanding our dif-
mangfoldig - om vidensdeling og interaktion i ferences: Performance in decision-making groups
etnisk mangfoldige organisationer. Århus, Den- with diverse members. Human Relations, 47(5),
mark: Handelshøjskolen i Århus. 531–553. doi:10.1177/001872679404700504
Lauring, J., & Ross, C. (2004). Cultural Diversity Maznevski, M. L., & Chudoba, K. M. (2000).
and Organisational Effiency. New Zealand Journal Bridging Space over Time: Global Virtual
of Employment Relations, 29(1), 89–103. Team Dynamics and Effectiveness. Organiza-
tion Science, 11(5), 473–492. doi:10.1287/
Leonard, D., & Swap, W. (1999). When Sparks
orsc.11.5.473.15200
Fly: Igniting Creativity in Groups. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard Business School Press. McDonough, E. F., Kahn, K. B., & Barczak, G.
(2001). An investigation of the use of global,
Liff, S. (1996). Two routes to managing diver-
virtual, and colocated new product development
sity: individual differences or social group char-
teams. Journal of Product Innovation Manage-
acteristics. Employee Relations, 19(1), 11–26.
ment, 18(2), 110–121. doi:10.1016/S0737-
doi:10.1108/01425459710163552
6782(00)00073-4
Liff, S., & Wajcman, J. (1996). ‘Sameness’
McLeod, P. L., & Lobe, S. A. (1992). The effects
and ‘Difference’ revisited: Which Way For-
of ethnic diversity on idea generation in small
ward for Equal Opportunity Initiatives? Jour-
groups. Academy of Management Executive, Best
nal of Management Studies, 33(1), 79–94.
Papers Proceedings, (pp. 227-231).
doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.1996.tb00799.x
Miller, M., Fields, R., Kumar, A., & Ortiz, R.
Litvin, D. R. (2002). The business case for diversity
(2000). Leadership and organizational vision
and the iron cage. In B. Czarniawka, & H. Hopfl
in managing a multiethnic and multicultural
(Eds.), Casting the Other: The Production and
project team. Journal of Management Engineer-
Maintenance of Inequalities in Work Organiza-
ing, 16(6), 18–23. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0742-
tions, (pp. 20-39). London: Routledge.
597X(2000)16:6(18)
Loosemore, M., & Lee, P. (2002). Communication
Millikin, F. J., & Martins, L. L. (1996). Searching
problems with ethnic minorities in the construc-
for common threads: Understanding the multiple
tion industry. International Journal of Project
effects of diversity in organizational groups.
Management, 20, 517–524. doi:10.1016/S0263-
Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 402–433.
7863(01)00055-2
doi:10.2307/258667
Marschan-Piekkari, R., Welch, D., & Welch, L.
Mor-Barak, M. E., Cherin, D. A., & Berk-
(1999a). In the shadow: the impact of language
man, S. (1998). Organizational and personal
on structure, power and communication in the
dimensions in diversity climate. The Journal
multinational. International Business Review, 8,
of Applied Behavioral Science, 43(1), 82–104.
421–440. doi:10.1016/S0969-5931(99)00015-3
doi:10.1177/0021886398341006
149
Page, S. E. (2007). Making the difference: Apply- Simons, T., Pelled, L. H., & Smith, K. A. (1999).
ing a logic of diversity. The Academy of Manage- Making use of difference: Diversity, debate, and
ment Perspectives, 21(4), 6–21. decision comprehensiveness in top management
teams. Academy of Management Journal, 42,
Palmer-Silveira, J. C., Ruiz-Garrido, M. F., &
662–673. doi:10.2307/256987
Fortanet-Gómes, I. (2006). Facing the future
of intercultural and international business com- Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant Observation.
munication. In J. C. Palmer-Silveira, M. F. Ruiz- New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
Garrido, & I. Fortanet-Gómes, (Ed.), Intercultural
Squires, J. (2008). Intersecting Inequalities:
and International Business Communication. Bern,
Reflecting on the Subjects and Objects of
Switzerland: Peter Lang.
Equality. The Political Quarterly, 79(1), 53–61.
Paulus, P. B. (2000). Groups, teams, and creativity: doi:10.1111/j.1467-923X.2008.00902.x
The creative potential of idea generating groups.
Stewart, G. L. (2006). A meta-analytic review of
Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49,
relationships between team design features and
237–262. doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00013
team performance. Journal of Management, 32,
Richard, O. C., & Shelor, M. (2002). Link- 29–54. doi:10.1177/0149206305277792
ing top management team heterogeneity to
Struch, N., & Schwartz, S. H. (1989). Intergroup
firm performance: Juxtaposing two mid-
aggression: Its predictors and distinctness from
range theories. International Journal of Hu-
in-group bias. Journal of Personality and Social
man Resource Management, 13(6), 958–974.
Psychology, 56, 364–373. doi:10.1037/0022-
doi:10.1080/09585190210134309
3514.56.3.364
Roberson, Q. M. (2006). Disentangling the mean-
Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup
ings of diversity and inclusion in organizations.
relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 1–39.
Group & Organization Management, 31, 212–236.
doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.000245
doi:10.1177/1059601104273064
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative
Roberts, J. (2000). From Know-how? Question-
theory of intergroup conflict. In S. Worchel, &
ing the Role of Information and Communication
W. G. Austin (Eds.), The social psychology of
Technologies in Knowledge Transfer. Technol-
intergroup relations, (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA:
ogy Analysis and Strategic Management, 12(4),
Brooks/Cole Publ.
429–429. doi:10.1080/713698499
Taylor, F. (2006). Coorientation: a conceptual
Robichaud, D. (2006). Steps toward a relational
framework. In F. Cooren, J. R. Taylor, & E. J. Van
view of agency. In F. Cooren, J. R. Taylor, & E. J.
Every (Eds.), Communication as Organizing, (pp.
Van every (Eds.), Communication as Organizing,
141-157). London: LEA.
(pp. 101-115). London: LEA.
Thomas, D. A., & Ely, R. J. (1996). Making dif-
Robichaud, D. (2006). Steps toward a relational
ference matter: A new paradigm for managing
view of agency. in F. Cooren, J. R. Taylor, & E. J.
diversity. Harvard Business Review, (Sep-Oct):
Van every (ed.), Communication as Organizing,
79–90.
(pp. 101-115). London: LEA.
Roosens, E. E. (1989). Creating ethnicity. Lon-
don: Sage.
150
Triandis, N. C., Hall, E. R., & Ewen, R. Varey, R. J. (2006). Accounts in interactions: Im-
B. (1965). Member homogeneity and dy- plications of accounting practices for managing. In
adic creativity. Human Relations, 18, 33–54. F. Cooren, J. R. Taylor, & E. J. Van every (Eds.),
doi:10.1177/001872676501800104 Communication as Organizing, (pp. 181-197).
Tsui, A., Egan, T., & O’Reilly, C. (1992). Being dif- Watson, W., Kumar, K., & Michaelsen, L. K.
ferent: Relational Demography and Organizational (1993). Cultural diversity’s impact on inter-
Attachment. Administrative Science Quarterly, action process and performance: Comparing
37, 549–579. doi:10.2307/2393472 homogeneous and diverse task groups. Acad-
emy of Management Journal, 36, 560–602.
Vaara, E., Risberg, A., Søderberg, A.-M., & Tien-
doi:10.2307/256593
ari, J. (2003a). Nation talk: The construction of
national stereotypes in a merging multinational. Webber, S. S., & Donahue, L. M. (2001). Im-
In A. Søderberg & E. Vaara (ed.), Merging across pact of highly and less job-related diversity on
borders: People, cultures and politics, (pp. 61- work group cohesion and performance: A meta-
86). analysis. Journal of Management, 27, 141–162.
doi:10.1016/S0149-2063(00)00093-3
Vaara, E., Tienari, J., Piekkari, R., & Säntti, R.
(2005). Language and the circuits of power in a Welch, D., Welch, L., & Marschan-Piekkari, R.
merging multinational corporation. Journal of (2001). The Persistent Impact of Language on
Management Studies, 42, 595–623. doi:10.1111/ Global Operations. Prometheus, 19(3), 193–209.
j.1467-6486.2005.00510.x doi:10.1080/08109020110072180
Vaara, E., Tienari, J., & Säntti, R. (2003b). Williams, K., & O’Reilly, C. A. (1998). Demog-
The international match: Metaphors as ve- raphy and diversity: A review of 40 years of re-
hicles of social identity-building in cross-border search. In B. Staw, & R. Sutton (Eds.), Research in
mergers. Human Relations, 56, 419–451. organizational behavior, (pp. 77-140). Greenwich,
doi:10.1177/0018726703056004002 CT: JAI Press.
van Knippenberg, D., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Ho- Wittgenstein, L. (1996). Philosophical Investiga-
man, A. C. (2004). Work group diversity and group tions. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
performance: An integrative model and research
Zenger, T. R., & Lawrence, B. S. (1989). Orga-
agenda. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(6),
nizational demography: The differential effects
1008–1022. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.6.1008
of age and tenure distributions on technical com-
munication. Academy of Management Journal,
32, 353–376. doi:10.2307/256366
151
1
Semi-StruCtureD intervieW guiDe, DiverSity
management in Denmark.
Subject Time
1) Work background
Employed by Years of employment
Position
2) Personal background Prior cross-cultural experience
Language experience
3) What expectations did you have before entering the organisation?
4) What does cultural diversity mean to your everyday work assignments?
5) In which ways have you adapted to the situation?
6) Is there anything you would like to change?
7) What formal guideline does your organization have with regard to diversity?
8) Do other rules or guidelines affect the role of cultural diversity?
9) What effect does cultural diversity have on the social environment?
10) What characterizes a valuable employee?
11) In which ways are human differences employed in the organization?
12) What problems do human differences lead to in the organization?
13) How do human differences affect communication?
14) How do you feel when different languages are spoken in daily work situations/social situations?
152
153
Chapter 9
Communication in Global
Development Projects:
Objectives, Mechanisms
and Interpretations
Maria Adenfelt
Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University, Sweden
Katarina Lagerström
Department of Business Administration, School of Business, Economics and Law, University of
Gothenburg, Sweden
abStraCt
Globalization trends make the task of revisiting the nature of the organization of global development
projects (GDPs) within MNCs imperative. In this study, GDPs are viewed as contemporary ventures
that seek scale economies in response to opportunities and threats posed by globalization trends. Our
focus is to obtain a better understanding of how communication is managed and organized in GDPs.
The study is of a GDP with the aim of developing a common global product to be used by all subsidiaries
in an MNC, but with openings for local market adaptations. The empirical findings show that: (1) the
management had two goals with the project, which were conveyed and understood differently depend-
ing on organizational level and organizational belonging, (2) the administrative heritage of the MNC
influenced the use of information communication technology for sharing information and knowledge,
and (3) the impact of frequency and structure of communication for information processing.
introDuCtion of economic and social interdependencies among

various countries is constantly increasing.
Every era has a trend that captures popular imagina- In this chapter, we refer to globalization as grow-
tion and, as the end of the second millennium drew ing economic interdependencies among countries as
to a close and the new one began, the overwhelm- reflected in increasing cross-border flows of three
ing trend was globalization. It is suggested that distinctive processes: goods and services, capital
the world is becoming a global village as the level and knowledge (Govindarajan & Gupta, 2000). This
implies that a multinational corporation’s competi-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch009 tive position in one specific country is dependent
Communication in Global Development Projects
on its competitive positions in other countries. Such a strategy would require managing operations
Today, globalization has not only become increas- interdependently, exploiting scale economies,
ingly feasible, but also more desirable, leading seeking coordination at the same time as giving
managers in multinational corporations (MNCs) leeway for local market adaptations (cf. Adenfelt
to take actions for increased globalization by & Lagerström, 2007; 2008). Studies have thus
implementing different organizational tools and shown that this seemingly straightforward solu-
mechanisms for catering cross-border flows of tion to establishing GDPs with members from
knowledge in common product development dispersed subsidiaries working for a common
agendas (Adenfelt & Lagerström, 2006; 2007; global product solution is afflicted with a high
Atamer & Schweiger. 2003; Mazenevski & Chu- level of complexity when it comes to organizing
doba, 2000; Snow, et al., 1996). In MNCs, global and managing these projects.
development projects (GDPs) are increasingly Consequently, we pursue two research ob-
employed to develop global products for use in jectives in this chapter. First, we delineate the
multiple markets around the globe. GDPs are dimensions of the GDPs in MNCs and link the
viewed as contemporary ventures that seek scale discussions to how communication and coordina-
economies in response to opportunities and threats tion are means of global product development.
posed by the globalization trends. This means that Second, we use empirical data from a case study
organizing in global development projects puts of a GDP in an MNC in the communication- and
high demands on achieving efficient coordina- business intelligence industry to demonstrate the
tion and communication among the concerned difficulties in organizing and managing a GDP for
members from different subsidiaries. Our main global product development, with the focus on co-
focus is to obtain a better understanding of how ordination and communication within the GDP. In
communication is managed and organized in GDPs the following sections, we describe the theoretical
for the development of global products. framework and the relevant literature, as well as
Such an understanding is compelling for at the research method followed by a presentation
least two reasons. First, globalization trends are, as of the case and a discussion of the results.
mentioned, increasingly more critical for instilling
a sense of urgency among MNC managers to take
advantage of the knowledge potential among the theoretiCal frameWork
dispersed subsidiaries in common development
agendas (Foss & Pedersen, 2002; Mudambi, 2002). In this section, we link what we have learnt about
Second, management is under an increasing pres- how the increased pressure of globalization on
sure to develop globally integrated products to MNCs has lead to the development and imple-
achieve efficiency across geographically dispersed mentation of different organizational mechanisms
subsidiaries, by ensuring the use of the capabili- to take advantage of the dispersed subsidiaries’
ties of all employees (Yamin & Otto, 2004). As knowledge in global product development. Par-
such, we argue that the challenge for the MNC ticular focus will be given to global development
is not to obtain complete homogeneity across projects and the two elements: coordination and
markets, but rather in finding a balance between communication.
local adaptations and global optimization (e.g.
Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1989; Nohria & Ghoshal,
1997; Martinez and Jarillo, 1991). This often
implies a need for management to formulate and
implement coordinated processes across markets.
154
multinational Corporations and A GDP is defined as a temporary, cross-

global Development projects border organizational mechanism composed
of individuals of different nationalities, work-
Today, corporations throughout the world are ing in different units and functions, who are
challenged to not only be strategically competi- brought together for developing global products
tive in their home market, or even in few distinct to meet demands in several markets (Gupta &
markets, but globally. Strategically competitive Govindarajan 2001; Subramaniam & Venkatra-
corporations have to learn to apply competitive man, 2001). Traditionally, headquarters appoint
insights gained locally on a global scale. But participants from different subsidiaries to take
acting as if one solution fits all markets does not part in the project to ensure the use of special-
lead to any sustainable or viable development ized knowledge at the dispersed units. The
in the long run. Corporations that have success- knowledge of the participants can overlap or
fully handled both the threats and opportunities, be complementary, thus giving rise to clearly
following the increased globalization, have recognized benefits of combining the knowl-
realized that imposing homogenous solutions edge of several subsidiaries (Zander, 1998).
into a pluralistic world is not the solution to At the same time as GDPs offer the potentials
sustainable development. It is rather a question of simultaneously tapping and combining the
of nourishing both local and global knowledge knowledge of several units, their performance
development, encouraging cross-border flows is associated with problems due to the lack of
of knowledge by establishing supporting or- shared knowledge among project participants
ganizational tools and mechanisms as well as (cf. Durnell Cramton, 2001; Hoopes & Postrel,
realizing the need to allow for local market 1990; Nelson & Cooprider, 1996) as well as
modifications when applying the knowledge in problems arising from geographical distance,
different countries. These new ways of organiz- cultural differences, language and behavioral
ing are often built on the notion of arranging divergences among participants. All in all,
events in broader cross-border structures with these issues are destined to lead to difficulties
participants from the globally dispersed units in cooperation, coordination and communica-
in the MNC. They are used for various tasks tion. However, today there seems to be a com-
and among the set of different organizational mon understanding that the advantages widely
mechanisms, we have seen a constant increase surpass the disadvantages of organizing global
in the use of global projects (Adenfelt & Lager- product development tasks in GDPs (e.g. Aden-
ström 2006; Schweiger et al., 2003), and then felt & Lagerström, 2008; Atamer & Schweiger,
not the least for global product development 2003; Hambrick et al., 1998; Subramaniam &
tasks. Global development projects (GDPs) are Venkatraman, 2001).
actually becoming one of the primary vehicles
for coordinating joint efforts in global product Coordination and Communication
development. Such projects have the potential of
not only serving to accomplish the corporations’ Assuming that GDPs are good mechanisms for ac-
development agenda, but also as development complishing global product development, success-
forum for the participants. A study by Subra- ful coordination of activities across subsidiaries
maniam and Venkatraman in 2001 concludes becomes an important organizational issue (Faraj
that the use of such development projects had & Sproull, 2000). While the GDP participants work
a dramatic effect on the innovation capability together on the fundamental aspects of a common
of the entire organization. product, many activities are delegated to differ-
155
ent sub-projects or even individual participants, professional differences, serve as other obstacles
based on existing knowledge and interests (Hoegl to communication (Chen, et al., 2006; Hambrick
& Gemunden, 2001). et al., 1998).
Coordination is usually a means of achieving Research on cross-country communication has
an agreement of effort among different units within identified a variety of communication mechanisms
organizations (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967, Marti- such as information communication technologies
nez & Jarillo, 1991). GDPs typically use a variety (ICT), that is, e.g. e-mail, enterprise software
of coordination mechanisms to manage temporal applications, and company databases, face-to-
problems, such as scheduling, synchronization and face meetings, telephone and videoconferences
allocation of resources (Montoya-Weiss, et al., (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999; McDonough et al.,
2001). Coordination usually concerns resolving 1999; McDonough & Kahn, 1996). Robb (2002)
resource and expertise dependencies (Ancona & refers to e-mails and conference calls as first gen-
Caldwell, 1992; Faraj & Sproull, 2000), since eration ICTs. Second generation ICTs are video
managing these dependencies is of significance tools, online tools and power point presentations
for project performance (Hoegl & Weinkauf, whereas third generation technologies are web-
2005). While coordination occupies a great deal enabled shared workspaces via the intranet and
of the literature on project management, global the Internet. Studies on the use of ICTs show that
product development requires a great deal more the use of advanced technologies is relatively
of the organization and the individuals involved, uncommon in GDPs. First generation technolo-
for example for solving a larger variety of prob- gies such as e-mail seem to be the most common
lems and for ensuring that the components – often mechanism (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002; Gibson &
developed separately from each other – of the Cohen, 2003).
global product work properly together. Dimensions of the actual communication pro-
The linkage mechanism whereby participants cess are frequency, structure, and content (Gupta &
of a GDP coordinate activities with one another Govindarajan, 1994; Hoegl & Gemuenden, 2001).
is communication (e.g. Griffin & Hauser, 1992; Frequency refers to how often project participants
Fulk & DeSanctis, 1995; Thompson, 1967). communicate, whereas structure describes how
Communication is the process through which informal versus formal communication within
information flows (Mohr & Nevin, 1990; Mohr the GDP is. Informal communication is, for ex-
et al., 1996) and in a GDP, it needs to be handled ample, spontaneous e-mails or telephone calls.
despite geographical and cultural distances, differ- Formal communication requires a large amount
ences in language as well as strategies, incentives of preparation or planning before it occurs, e.g.
and technical capabilities between members from scheduled meetings and written reports. Content is
MNC units (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Govin- simply what information and knowledge that flow
darajan & Gupta, 2001). Geographical distance and they can be of various degrees of richness,
reduces the amount of real time interactivity defined as the ability of information to change
as well as opportunities for spontaneous intra- understanding within a time interval (Daft &
team communication (McDonough et al., 1999). Lengel, 1986).
Similarities in culture maximize communication Received theory suggests that organizations
efficiencies as the project participants are more process information to reduce uncertainty and
familiar with each other’s system of meaning and equivocality (cf. Galbraith, 1973; Weick, 1979).
behavior (Gudykunst & Kim, 1997; Kim, 1991; Li, In a project setting, uncertainty reduction involves
1991). Variations in language skills and ways of collecting information relevant to the GDP ob-
communicating, often stemming from cultural and jective in order to attain an acceptable level of
156
performance. Additional data is not the solution tutes the basis for global product development
for reducing equivocality; it rather involves for the (cf. Durnell Cramton, 2001; Hoopes & Postrel,
project participants to define and create a collective 1999; Subramaniam & Venkatraman, 2001).
and common interpretation of information. Coordination of activities through the establish-
In response to the need to exchange informa- ment of well functioning means for handling
tion and knowledge within GDPs, the different communication thus becomes a necessity for
communication mechanisms cater for the different global product development.
dimensions of the communication process as the
mechanisms vary in their capacity and degree to
process rich information and manage uncertainty methoD
and equivocality. Face-to-face media, such as
group meetings, facilitate equivocality reduction In order to study how global product develop-
by making it possible for project participants to ment tasks are coordinated and communicated
overcome different frames of reference and pro- with in GDPs, a case study approach was chosen
viding the capacity to process complex, subjective in order to capture perceptions and views by
messages. Information that is well-understood and concerned employees in depth (cf. Yin, 1993).
collective among project participants is, however, The use of GDPs is a recent, albeit important,
preferably shared using different types of docu- phenomenon for the corporation studied as it is
ments since this is more efficient (Lengel & Daft, recognized as an efficient mode for organizing the
1984). In GDPs, the most common communication product development of several corporate units
mechanisms are ICTs and a common denominator and pursuing a global strategy. The GDP chosen
for these is that they poorly handle information was considered to be suitable based on a set of
uncertainty and equivocality. criteria. In order to be selected, the project had
to encompass units and participants from several
Summary countries, and the outcome – a new product of-
fering – was planned to be launched at multiple
Globalization opens up for new possible ways units. The GDP also had to have completed the
in which to compete. Much has been written and initiation phase in order to study a project that had
a great deal of research has been done on the defined its objective and thereto-related activities
need for MNCs to meet the trends of globaliza- (cf. Faraj & Sproull, 2000).
tion, but less is known about how global strate- Case study research can make use of several
gies are implemented and the obstacles related means of data collection. In this study, we con-
thereto. Global product development and launch ducted semi-structured and open-ended interviews
are commonly organized in GDPs, which, in with members of the GDP. The interviews lasted
themselves, both serve as means for developing from one hour to two hours and a half. A total of
a global product but also to establish a global ten interviews were performed. For the analysis,
mindset. Commonly, the former is stressed in the data collected was classified into two groups,
research at the expense of the latter. As global based on role and responsibility in the GDP (see
product development is contingent on combining Table 1). The groups were project management
knowledge of different subsidiaries within the and project members. The classification was
MNC (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Subramaniam et made in order to detect differences within and
al., 1998; Subramaniam & Venkatraman, 2001), between individuals in each group and enlighten
we argue that the extent to which knowledge is the phenomena studied from different perspectives
simultaneously shared and understood consti- (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
157
Table 1. Classification of interviews
Project management Project members

No. of interviews 4 6
In analyzing the data, the interviews were iaries varied a great deal, mainly depending on
read, and information relevant for the purpose was if they were greenfield or acquired units, which
extracted. Thereafter, the data was categorized also influenced the subsidiaries’ view on the role
according to the theoretical framework. The case of headquarters.
study, although presented as a coherent whole, The competitive strengths of Madenfield
includes measures taken to enable discretion of were the widespread geographic coverage, and
views held by the two groups of interviewees or the ability to offer products in different areas of
specific interviewees. Any view expressed by two communication and business intelligence. Re-
individuals or more in a group is presented with cently, the need for increased integration between
the group name e.g., “project management”. Any the different subsidiaries and products had been
opinion of importance raised by a single individual acknowledged as competitors were increasingly
is presented as “one of the project members” or offering products that simultaneously target sev-
“a member of project management” for example. eral markets. The differences between subsidiaries
Quotations are used to emphasize important points hampered the possibility of utilizing knowledge
and issues that shed some light on the research and products across countries. Different projects
question. were conducted that were in line with the efforts of
increasing integration, but the GDP studied − the
InfoGlobal project − was the first project where
preSentation of Madenfield had decided to establish a project
the CaSe StuDy where several subsidiaries were to take part in the
development of a product that was to be launched
background: the Company at multiple markets. In this project, members from
madenfield1 five different subsidiaries as well as headquarters
were appointed to participate. The benefits of
Madenfield – a company in the communication organizing the development of the product in a
and business intelligence industry – was a multi- GDP were, according to project management, the
national company with operations in 13 countries. possibilities of involving employees who could
Over the last ten years, the company had witnessed convey their knowledge of the different custom-
a fast expansion through the acquisition of 22 ers’ needs and requirements.
companies, resulting in an increase in employees
from 165 to about 2,600. The focus had for a long overview of the infoglobal project
time been on building a market-leading position
with international reach at the expense of inte- In the fall of 2003, people from IT and business
gration. The subsidiaries were semi-autonomous development at headquarters initiated discus-
within the corporation and local adaptations to sions to develop the global product, based on
individual markets were quite extensive. However, two existing product offerings. Soon thereafter,
the relations between headquarters and subsid- five subsidiaries became involved, as their cur-
158
rent product offerings did not meet the market backgrounds; information analysis, business de-
demands or functionality requirements. The scope velopment or information technology. Project
of InfoGlobal was to develop a global product that management was located at headquarters and
was to be launched on a global scale. A guiding headed by a project manager who had extensive
principle in developing the product was to establish experience of working with business develop-
a common core that allowed for smaller adapta- ment. As the development of InfoGlobal was
tion to country-specific requirements, e.g. legis- technically advanced, a technical project manager
lation and local customers’ needs. The planned was assigned to specifically deal with these is-
outcome of the GDP was perceived by corporate sues. The project members were appointed from
management as being of strategic importance for subsidiaries that were to commercially launch the
the company, which was reflected by involving product as the first group of subsidiaries, while
top management in the steering committee of the the remaining eight subsidiaries were planned
project. By launching a product like InfoGlobal, to follow. The project management’s point-of-
the market position − vis-à-vis competitors − was view was that the manner in which the GDP was
anticipated to improve. There were actually four organized ensured that project members took
different factors driving the initiation of the In- responsibility for project activities at the local
foGlobal project. First, the changes in the market level. Project management went as far as stating
place with competitors introducing web-based that: “Each unit has to be able to meet the local
and integrated products. Second, the current demands, therefore the project members have to
products were difficult to adapt to local market make sure that it becomes possible to do so, but
requirements and integrate with each other at the still the product has to have a common global
same time as they were developed on different platform and only the necessary adaptations are
technical platforms. Third, there was a need to going to be allowed”.
improve the functionality and capacity of the Project management was responsible for the
product offerings in order to serve larger volumes overall architecture of InfoGlobal and the actual
of customers. Fourth, there was a need to meet development activities were divided within the
the global customers in a more coherent way by GDP on a subsidiary basis, each subsidiary be-
means of offering global products, the InfoGlobal ing responsible for developing one specific part
product being the first. of InfoGlobal. The project was organized in such
The GDP was planned to run for 18 months a way that most of the information passed by
but was delayed for 12 months. Both existing project management before it was communicated
and new customers welcomed the final launch to the whole project. Project management also
of the new product. InfoGlobal turned out to be coordinated all development activities. According
a success in terms of market performance. There to project management, by strictly dividing the
was a consensus within the GDP that, by means activities between subsidiaries, interdependencies
of InfoGlobal, Madenfield reached a new group were minimized and the development process was
of customers with a subsequent increase in busi- expected to become more efficient. A member of
ness volumes. the project management described this as: “The
way the project activities are organized aims at
managing and Coordinating minimizing interdependencies between the differ-
the infoglobal project ent subsidiaries. The worst thing you can ask of a
subsidiary is to halt because another subsidiary
The GDP consisted of members from five coun- needs to finish a module of the product.” How-
tries. The project members had different functional ever, this way of organizing the development
159
work turned out to create problems later on in the product, which often resulted in additional requests
project as not all subsidiaries managed to follow or even the detection of “bugs”.2 Several aspects
the time plan and did not communicate this to the of the development process were highly techni-
rest of the project team. But the most problematic cal and project members with a non-technical
outcome of the decision to minimize coordination background had difficulties in interpreting and
among participants might have been that it did not giving feedback during the development process.
become known to the project management and As stated by one of the project members: “As I
the rest of the project group until very late that do not have the right background, it is difficult
the project members from one of the participating for me to discuss technical details of the product.
subsidiaries lacked the necessary knowledge to I agree to certain things without knowing what
solve the task they had been assigned. The project the options are. Another problem is that I have a
members neglected to inform the rest of the project limited understanding of what costs are associated
of their problems and to ask for assistance. Instead, with the requests for the alterations or enhance-
they continued to work on their own to solve their ments that I make.”
tasks: “We felt that we had to deliver and tried to In the initial phase of the project, the project
do so, but a better overview and more collabora- management and the project members agreed
tion would probably have helped a lot”. on a “sign-off” procedure to facilitate commu-
A critical phase in the project was to compile nication and coordination of activities within
the country-specific business requirement and the GDP. The idea of the sign-off procedure
agree on an overall design of the product. Proj- was that project members should reach agree-
ect management headed this phase by gathering ments on product specifications. Nevertheless,
input from the different project members in the the sign-off procedure caused problems rather
different countries. This procedure was new to than facilitated the progress of the GDP. On
many of the project members. One of the proj- many occasions, the project members did not
ect members said: “The manner in which the approve or give feedback on the delivered speci-
InfoGlobal-project is set up is new to us. In the fications as they felt that they did not have the
past, headquarters developed the products for competencies required to do so, or they did not
us whereas now we were asked to come up with realize the implications of not approving of the
a list of requirements. They said: “Tell us what specifications. It often resulted in the develop-
you want and we will give it to you”. The problem ment activities proceeding without approval,
is that we do not have the skills or resources for which had repercussions on the deliveries of the
doing so.” The skills in how to address business actual product. Some of the project members
requirements differed between project members expressed some concerns regarding the disparity
and the project management received business in communicating within the GDP: “We were
requirements mainly focusing on functionality. given certain bits of information to work with
In most cases, the project management then had and use for developing product specifications,
to complete the design and technical performance which were then not signed off. We now have a
requirements. situation where we are in discussions, putting it
The actual product development was performed politely, concerning what should be in the system
in an iterative and incremental manner in order and what should not.” These concerns were also
to ensure that the final solution would match the acknowledged by the project management as it
requirements of each subsidiary while, at the same lead to discrepancies in solutions delivered by
time, having a common core. The project members the subsidiaries so they did not match which, in
reviewed and tested the delivered module of the turn, lead to delays in the project.
160
It was actually not until the phase of commer- to specific customer requests. The dual goals of
cial launch that project management realized the the GDP were affirmed by project management,
consequences of having organized and coordinated as well as the decision not to share the strategic
the activities in the manner chosen. Problems intent with project members “…the global mindset
arose concerning how to integrate the deliveries goals are not directly communicated to the project
into a final product, with the desired global base. members or to management at the units to which
In order not to delay the launch of the product they belong. We speak with forked tongues and
too much, the first version of the product was a work to homogenize the products as much as pos-
limited edition of the actual product stipulated in sible at the same time as we know that the units
the original scope of the InfoGlobal project. One don’t want to homogenize at all, but want to have
of the project managers remarked: “It would have products that fit their customers in every detail.
been better if we had worked together, instead of Here, we have decided that we at headquarters
separately, in specifying the requirements and will strive to build a global solution. The reason
so forth. The outcome would have been a more for this is that we are convinced that it won’t lead
competitive product for every party involved.” to any good telling everyone about our intentions
The need to coordinate the activities more was as they will then automatically believe that the
also recognized by the project members. whole project will become bureaucratic.” It is
thus interesting that even if the project members
Conveying the project Scope were not fully aware of the dual goals; a change
towards increased global product offerings was
The scope of the GDP was shared to various recognized at the subsidiary level as important for
extents as well as in different ways in the MNC. the MNC. As one project member said: “We need
At the corporate management level, there was a to meet our global customers in a more uniform
consensus that the goals of the GDP, and the pos- manner world-wide”. A similar view was also
sible outcomes, had to be in line with the larger expressed by another project member, even if he/
strategic intent or objective of the corporation. she acknowledged some of the problems linked
The strategic intent was to develop this particular to the GDP: “This was a new way for us to work
global product, but also to establish a common and we made a lot of mistakes as we did not know
ground for future GDPs, to achieve economies what headquarters wanted. We thus realize that we
of scale and not to re-invent the wheel in every have to work to develop products that can serve
market by exploiting generic needs, that is, needs customers globally”.
that are common for several markets. The manner in which the scope of the project
The agenda for developing a global product was was shared within the GDP was by having kick-off
to some extent known by the project participants, meetings with the project members independently
but they still believed that the product would, to at each subsidiary, instead of one common kick-off
a high degree, meet the specific demands of their meeting for all project participants. One member
local market customers, that is, that the product of the project management described the basic
would be locally adapted to a high degree. Project plan behind the decision as: “It would have been
management was less open to the project mem- impossible to have one kick-off meeting involving
bers concerning the agenda for instilling a global every project member. It would have been wrong
mindset regarding the future product offerings, to start with a kick-off meeting ... it would also be
implying that this GDP was seen as an exception wrong to meet because of the project … there must
to the regular working procedures where devel- be such a tradition in place first. We do not have the
opment projects were only started in response practice of sharing knowledge or technical solu-
161
tions”. The views at the subsidiary level did thus Communication within the gDp
diverge as several of the project members pointed
out that a common meeting would certainly have The means of communicating within the GDP
been helpful, both for establishing a shared view of were mainly e-mail and telephone. E-mail cor-
the project outcome and for getting to know each respondence across subsidiaries was actually the
other. However, most project members still thought main tool used for communicating and sharing
that they had successively got to know each other information. In the subsidiaries, it was more or
and had become united around the common goal less standard that all project members were copied
even if, initially, it was rather difficult. Another in on all communication, that is, on all e-mail
outcome of how the different kick-off meetings correspondence among project members in their
serve as a means of providing information about the own subsidiary, with project management as well
project scope was that the major part of the project as with other project members.
members were not aware of the more strategic The project manager and the project members
scope, and believed that the project was only about had telephone conferences on a regular basis, in
developing one common global product. order to discuss the progress in developing the
Many issues related to the coordination and in- global product. All project members could access
tegration problems in the GDP were also related to the project management database which covered
how information about the scope of the project had a wide range of topics related to the project, such
been shared by the project management.As expressed as memos from meetings of the steering com-
by the technical project leader: “The scope of the mittee, those of the project management and the
project has been communicated with two voices. We, whole project team, project plans and technical
at headquarters, are used to handling the various documentation. The project management database
expectations from the subsidiaries worldwide, and, thus functioned as a means of sharing informa-
on basis of that, to work homogeneously, which tion. The project members mentioned the need
means working from the same platform whilst the for an updated database as a necessity in this
subsidiaries do not harmonize a bit.” It is possible project, especially as they worked internation-
to conclude that the sharing of future intentions ally, a database into which all project members
with the subsidiaries had been poorly handled by uploaded all relevant information for the rest of
headquarters and project management since rather the team to access. They also mentioned the need
than stating uniformly: − “This is the future! This for thorough reporting procedures as they found it
is how we will work in the future”, the sharing of important to document all important steps in the
the overall strategic intent had been handled on development of the global product. “There are a
a one-to-one basis. Not conveying the complete lot of people involved from different countries;
intent at an overall level during the project period therefore we need to document everything we
resulted in a low degree of preparation and readi- do on a detailed level. You cannot take anything
ness from the subsidiaries to accept and own the for granted even if we are supposed to follow
final solution. Project management even admitted the overall plan. I think that we could have done
that most difficulties in the InfoGlobal project as this a little bit better, but it takes time and a lot of
well in the overall strategic intent derived from the things you take for granted that everyone knows.”
neglect to share the intent: There are lessons to be The need for better documentation as well as an
learnt from this project. Most of the problems with increased sharing of information across subsidiar-
the InfoGlobal project are related to the open-ended ies were also mentioned by project management,
scope of the project and the different understandings but they saw this need for an increased flow of
of the overall scope. information and knowledge across subsidiaries
162
in a longer perspective as the InfoGlobal project standing between subsidiaries of the different
in their perspective was only the first GDP: “As business needs and requirements, which is the
time passed in the project we realized that more local or global customer and his/her needs, and
direct communication across project members so forth. There are a lot of things in the grey
at the subsidiaries would probably have been area.” Cultural differences also became evident
needed. But since we had started off by saying the in what was considered to be most important when
less dependence between the different parts of the it came to delivering to project management as
project the better, we decided not to take the fight pointed out by one project manager: “I can see
to increase communication and coordination in a need for being clearer about what our priori-
this GDP but instead bring that knowledge with ties are when working in GDPs. One subsidiary
us to future projects.” for example always made sure to deliver on time
Important to note is thus that the project group even if they must have know that the quality was
thought that the tools used for communication, deficient, while another subsidiary just could not
that is, e-mail, telephone and the database, were let anything through without checking it perhaps
quite well organized, even if they saw room for one time too many – in that country they are just
further improvements, not the least an increase thorough and quality aware.”
in personal face-to-face meetings. One project Several of the project members also men-
member said: “I tend to be copied on most of the tioned misunderstandings directly related to
e-mail communication, but direct communication lack of English language skills, English being
is not that frequent.” the corporate language in Madenfield but, at
The problems and interruptions in the GDP the same time, they recognized that it was a
were rather connected to how communication problem that would successively decrease in
was carried out, the frequency in communication importance. The geographical distance per se
and how the activities were coordinated. As one was also mentioned as a possible barrier to
project member said: “Communication within the communication as it made it difficult for project
project has been complicated and time consuming members to meet in person, but both project
as people are geographically dispersed and there managers and project members were cohesive
are so many different people and units involved. in their view that it was not one of the major
You often got the feeling that information was problems in this GDP due to the organization
lost somewhere along the line”. Another project of the activities in this project.
member said on the issue of communication: It is important to note that how the develop-
“At the beginning of the project we had regular ment activities were coordinated within the GDP
teleconferences that worked well but for the past did neither encourage nor require communication.
six months there have been less meetings … ev- Only occasionally did the project members in
erybody has been developing their own part of the different countries contact each other to discuss
product. Maybe this is the cause of the integration matters concerning InfoGlobal. According to
problems we now have.” one project member: “Project members at the
Geographical distance and differences in different subsidiaries tended to do what they
language skills, mainly stemming from cultural were assigned to without giving much thought
differences, were indicated as affecting commu- to the overall global project”. Another project
nication. This can be exemplified by a statement member added that: “The development process
by one of the project members who said: “We could have benefited from a continuous and shared
have had a lot of communication issues. Within dialogue, especially during the initial phase of
the global project group there is a lack of under- the project”.
163
On the whole, the project members expressed and at the corporate management level, the need
frustration about poor communication and the for and the advantages of global products along
lack of shared understanding within the GDP. with a global mindset were clearly understood
The project members at the different subsidiar- and shared. At the subsidiary level, it was only
ies did not understand how their part of the GDP the first mentioned goal that was actually shared,
contributed to achieving the overall project scope. and that the project members from the subsidiaries
A contributing factor to the poor communication worked towards accomplishing. The empirical
was the manner in which project management findings also show that as the different subsidiaries
coordinated the activities as it did not encourage even interpreted the first goal in different ways,
communication or interaction directly between they acted differently. As a consequence, when
project members as all information was to go the project members entered the GDP, they only
through project management. An additional fac- had the first goal in mind and there were then
tor also seemed to be that the project members also variations across subsidiaries concerning the
did not know the common route mapped out by extent to which they viewed the global product
project management and headquarters, not only for as a common solution for all subsidiaries in the
this GDP, but also for the corporation as a whole, MNC. Since the project members were not aware
namely to try to instill a global attitude among all of the other goal, no efforts were or even could
employees to become more competitive. be made towards achieving such a goal.
The main reason for not conveying both goals to
subsidiary management and project members was
DiSCuSSion anD ConCluSion that headquarters did not trust in the subsidiaries
having the potential and interest to grasp the bigger
This study shows how the use of a GDP served as picture relating to becoming a global corpora-
a means for realizing global product development tion. Headquarters perceived that the subsidiaries
(cf. Subramaniam et al., 1998). The scope of the would oppose the idea without knowing for a fact
GDP was to develop a product with a common that they would. Interestingly, the information in
global core that allowed for only smaller but the case does not support this preconception by
necessary adaptations to local market needs. The headquarters; rather the opposite became evident
empirical study shows that there was also a second during the study. This implies that if both goals
scope; to instill a global mindset in the corpora- had been conveyed, there would have been a
tion over time. Reaching the dual objectives of reasonable possibility for both of them being ac-
the GDP proved to be related to communication complished, at least to some extent. Instead, the
and coordination to a greater extent than project neglect to share the second goal of the GDP with
management acknowledged and thus acted upon, all parties concerned lead to two major negative
with clear implications for the progress of the consequences for the MNC; the first being delays
development process. in the development of the global product per se
Based on this case study, we have three main since the project members became uncertain about
findings relating to communication and coordi- what the goals of the GDP really were, and the
nation within GDPs. The first issue concerns the second being that the strategic intent to build a
extent to which the dual goals of the GDP were foundation for instilling a global mindset among
fully conveyed and understood within the MNC; managers was not fulfilled.
communication processes that were clearly re- The second issue concerns the capability of
lated to organizational level and belonging. The different communication mechanisms to process
project was established and run by headquarters information and knowledge within the GDP. The
164
dominating communication mechanisms were livered and, naturally, delays in the development
ICTs, which proved not to be suitable for pro- process. Project management did not realize
cessing complex and subjective information and the need for a high and continuous frequency
knowledge within the GDP (Daft & Lengel, 1986). in communication, trusting in both formal and
The project members perceived the channels of in- informal communication directly among project
formation as involving too many people and feared members throughout the whole project process.
that information was lost somewhere along the Project management saw itself as the main and
way. In addition, the project members perceived central hub for all information, not realizing that
that the information transmitted lacked contextual there is a need for all participants to define and
details; which is common for technology-mediated create a collective and common interpretation
communication (e.g. Crampton & Hinds, 2004). of the information necessary for developing and
This finding corroborates with received theory agreeing upon a common solution to the task at
on the use of ICTs for knowledge integration and hand (cf. Daft & Lengel, 1986). An unexpected
sharing (cf. Adenfelt & Lagerström, 2007, 2008; empirical finding in relation to the frequency and
Durnell Crampton, 2001; Lagerström & Anders- structure of communication in the GDP is that it
son, 2003). The common explanation for choosing was only the scarcity in formal communication
ICTs as the dominating mechanisms for supporting that was recognized as being a problem among
and managing knowledge and information sharing project participants but, once more, we assume
is based on economic/financial considerations. In this to be the result of the administrative heritage
this study, the reliance on ICTs was founded upon in the MNC in terms of the subsidiaries not being
the administrative heritage of the corporation (e.g. used to communicating and sharing information
Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989). The tradition within and knowledge in between them.
the corporation was not to encourage or support The contribution of this study to received theory
cooperation or sharing of knowledge and informa- on the pursuit of a global strategy in MNCs is
tion across subsidiaries, which resulted in a project twofold. First, we found that the implementation
structure and coordination of activities that strived of a global strategy − on an overall level − was
for independence between subsidiaries and project influenced by two factors as they affected the
members and communication mechanisms that actual rollout; i) the history and tradition of the,
minimized interaction. As the knowledge of the often diverse, subsidiaries, and ii) the subsidiar-
GDP was highly complex and innovative, there ies’ insights into and/or awareness of the need for
was a mismatch between the communication change and adaptation. The history and tradition
mechanisms employed and the communication of the subsidiary partly determine the degree of
mechanisms needed for efficient and effective autonomy enjoyed by a subsidiary and hence, the
information and knowledge flows. degree of integration with the rest of the MNC.
The third issue is tightly intertwined with the Other factors influencing the degree of autonomy
second issue addressed above, but pinpoints two are the knowledge and the market position of the
other important aspects of communication, namely subsidiary. For example, the more embedded the
frequency and structure (cf. Hoegl & Gemuenden, subsidiary is in its local market, the better its ac-
2001). In this particular GDP, it became appar- cess to knowledge about local customers’ needs.
ent that neither the frequency nor the structure A subsidiary with a strong market position is
of the communication process were sufficiently important from headquarters’ point of view, not
developed to fill the need for information and only in terms of being a revenue contributor but
knowledge sharing among project members, also in terms of its knowledge potentials. Thus,
causing non complementarities in what was de- it becomes a delicate issue for headquarters to
165
communicate the need for subsidiaries not only by headquarters. Throughout this study, we have
to adopt a global product concept but also to take tried to provide some additional understanding of
on a global mindset. The adaptations relating to these phenomena, but since this study is limited to
embracing a global mindset also require both the study of one GDP in one corporation, there is
an insight into the need to change as well as a plenty of more work to be done in the field, espe-
willingness among subsidiaries to change and cially since the use of such a project has outpaced
adapt to the new competitive arena, requiring our understanding of its dynamics.
increased integration in response to threats and
opportunities following the globalization trend.
The study discloses that the awareness is much referenCeS
more widespread among subsidiaries than what is
perceived by headquarters. But, more importantly, Adenfelt, M., & Lagerström, K. (2006). Enabling
the study indicates that too little time is devoted knowledge creation and sharing in transnational
to communicating goals, strategies and expected projects. International Journal of Project Man-
outcomes in the MNC as a whole and therefore, no agement, 24(3), 191–198. doi:10.1016/j.ijpro-
common position can be obtained for the overall man.2005.09.003
strategy of the corporation. Adenfelt, M., & Lagerström, K. (2007). Knowl-
The second contribution to received theory is edge development and sharing: the case of a
the difficulties in communicating goals, which centre of excellence and a transnational team.
in itself is nothing new. However, we shed some International Business Review, 15(4), 381–400.
new light on the issue by bringing some intrigu- doi:10.1016/j.ibusrev.2006.05.002
ing issues to light. Communication within MNC
is a multi-level phenomenon, and it is a process Adenfelt, M., & Lagerström, K. (2008). The de-
occurring over time, as well as a process that velopment and sharing of knowledge by centres of
needs to involve all parties concerned. Thus, all excellence and transnational teams: a conceptual
possible means for handling communication must framework. Management International Review,
be utilized to not only bridge the obvious problems 48(3), 319–338. doi:10.1007/s11575-008-0018-
connected with cross-border communication such 8
as geographical, language and cultural barriers,
Ancona, D., & Caldwell, D. (1992). Bridging
but also the barriers between headquarters and
the boundary: external activity and performance
subsidiaries.
in organizational teams. Administrative Science
As this study is set out as an attempt to explic-
Quarterly, 37, 634–665. doi:10.2307/2393475
itly capture and provide a deeper understanding of
communication and coordination issues in GDPs, Atamer, T., & Schweiger, D. (2003). Transna-
but also of the implementation of new strategic tional horizontal project teams. Journal of World
intents in corporations, we wish to inspire more Business, 38(2), 81–83. doi:10.1016/S1090-
research in at least two areas. First, with the rapid 9516(03)00002-6
increase in the use of GDPs, there is still a gap in
Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal, S. (1989). Manag-
our knowledge of what factors affect the effec-
ing across borders. Boston: Harvard Business
tiveness of communication and coordination in
School Press.
GDPs. Second, how to implement a global mindset
among employees by trusting in participation by all
concerned parties in the whole process, instead of
making it a top-down process controlled and run
166
Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002). A typolo- Griffin, A., & Hauser, J. R. (1992). Patterns of
gy of virtual teams: implications for effective lead- communication among marketing, engineering
ership. Group & Organization Management, 27(1), and manufacturing – a comparison between two
14–36. doi:10.1177/1059601102027001003 new product teams. Management Science, 38(3),
360–373. doi:10.1287/mnsc.38.3.360
Chen, S., Geluykens, R., & Choi, C. J. (2006).
The importance of language in global teams: a Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (1997). Com-
linguistic perspective. Management International municating with strangers: an approach to in-
Review, 46(6), 679–695. doi:10.1007/s11575- tercultural communication (3rd Ed). New York:
006-0122-6 McGraw-Hill.
Crampton, C. D., & Hinds, P. J. (2004). Subgroup Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2000). Knowledge
dynamics in internationally distributed teams: flows within multinational corporations. Strategic
ethnocentrism or cross-national learning? In B. Management Journal, 21, 473–496. doi:10.1002/
Staw, & R. Kramer, (Eds.) Research in Orga- (SICI)1097-0266(200004)21:4<473::AID-
nizational Behavior (pp. 213-263). Greenwich, SMJ84>3.0.CO;2-I
CT: JAI Press.
Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2001). Converting
Daft & Lengel. (1986). Organizational informa- global presence into global competitive advantage.
tion requirements, media richness and structural The Academy of Management Executive, 15(2),
design. Management Science, 32(5), 554–571. 45–56.
doi:10.1287/mnsc.32.5.554
Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2001). Building
Durnell Cramton, C. (2001). The shared knowl- an effective global business team. Sloan Manage-
edge problem and its consequences for dispersed ment Review, (Summer): 63–71.
collaboration. Organization Science, 12(39),
Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2002). Cultivating
346–371. doi:10.1287/orsc.12.3.346.10098
a global mindset. The Academy of Management
Faraj, S., & Sproull, L. (2000). Coordinating Executive, 16(1), 116–126.
expertise in software development teams. Manage-
Hambrick, D., Davison, S., Snell, S., & Snow, C.
ment Science, 46(12), 1554–1568. doi:10.1287/
(1998). When groups consist of multiple nation-
mnsc.46.12.1554.12072
alities: towards a new understanding of the im-
Foss, N. J., & Pedersen, T. (2002). Transferring plications. Organization Studies, 19(2), 181–205.
knowledge in MNCs: the role of sources of sub- doi:10.1177/017084069801900202
sidiaries knowledge and organizational context.
Hoegl, M., & Gemuenden, H. G. (2001). Team-
Journal of International Management, 8, 49–67.
work quality and the success of innovative
doi:10.1016/S1075-4253(01)00054-0
projects: a theoretical concept and empirical
Fulk, J., & DeSanctis, G. (1995). Electronic evidence. Organization Science, 12(4), 435–449.
communication and changing organizational doi:10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635
forms. Organization Science, 6(4), 337–349.
Hoegl, M., & Weinkauf, K. (2005). Managing
doi:10.1287/orsc.6.4.337
task interdependencies in multi-team projects:
Galbraith, J. (1973). Designing complex organiza- a longitudinal study. Journal of Management
tions. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Studies, 42(6), 1287–1308. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
Company. 6486.2005.00542.x
167
Hoopes, D. G., & Postrel, S. (1999). Shared Maznevski, M., & Chudoba, K. (2000). Bridging
knowledge, “glitches” and product develop- space over time: global virtual team dynamics
ment performance. Strategic Management and effectiveness. Organization Science, 11(5),
Journal, 20, 837–865. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097- 473–492. doi:10.1287/orsc.11.5.473.15200
0266(199909)20:9<837::AID-SMJ54>3.0.CO;2-
McDonough, E. III, & Kahn, K. (1996). Using hard
I
and soft technologies for global new product de-
Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Leidner, D. E. (1999). Com- velopment. R & D Management, 26(2), 241–253.
munication and trust in global virtual teams. Or- doi:10.1111/j.1467-9310.1996.tb00959.x
ganization Science, 10(6), 791–815. doi:10.1287/
McDonough, E. III, Kahn, K., & Griffin, A.
orsc.10.6.791
(1999). Managing communication in global
Kim, Y. Y. (1991). Intercultural communication product development teams. IEEE Transactions
competence: a systems-theoretic view. In T-S. on Engineering Management, 46(4), 375–386.
Toomey & F. Korzenny (Eds.), International and doi:10.1109/17.797960
intercultural communications annual, (pp. 259-
Mohr, J., Fischer, R., & Nevin, J. (1996). Col-
275). Newbury Park, CA: Sage publications.
laborative communication in interfirm relation-
Lagerström, K. (2001). Transnational projects ships: moderating effects of integration and
within multinational corporations. Uppsala, control. Journal of Marketing, 50, 103–115.
Sweden: Department of Business Studies, Uppsala doi:10.2307/1251844
University.
Mohr, J., & Nevin, J. (1990). Communicating
Lagerström, K., & Andersson, M. (2003). Creation strategies in marketing channels: a theoretical
and sharing knowledge within a transnational perspective. Journal of Marketing, 54(4), 36–51.
team – development of a global business sys- doi:10.2307/1251758
tem. Journal of World Business, 38(2), 84–95.
Montoya-Weiss, M. M., Massey, A. P., & Song,
doi:10.1016/S1090-9516(03)00003-8
M. (2001). Getting it together: temporal coordi-
Lawrence, P., & Lorsch, J. (1967). Organization nation and conflict management in global virtual
and environment: managing differentiation and teams. Academy of Management Journal, 44(6),
integration, Boston, MA: Graduate School of 1251–1262. doi:10.2307/3069399
Business Administration.
Mudambi, R. (2002). Knowledge management
Li, H. Z. (1991). Communicating information in in multinational firms. Journal of Interna-
conversations: A cross-cultural comparison. Inter- tional Management, 8, 1–9. doi:10.1016/S1075-
national Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(3), 4253(02)00050-9
387–409. doi:10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00003-6
Nelson, K. M., & Cooprider, J. G. (1996). The
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Contribution of Shared Knowledge to IS group per-
inquiry. London: Sage Publications. formance. MIS Quarterly, (December): 409–432.
doi:10.2307/249562
Martinez, J. I., & Jarillo, J. C. (1991). Coordination
Demands of International Strategies. Journal of Nohria, N., & Ghoshal, S. (1997). The dif-
International Business Studies, 22(3), 429–444. ferentiated network: organizing multinational
doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490309 corporations for value creation. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Inc. Publishers.
168
Robb, D. (2002). Virtual workplace. HRMagazine, Weick, K. E. (1979). The social psychology of
47(6), 105–110. organization. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company.
Schweiger, D., Atamer, T., & Calori, R. (2003).
Transnational project teams and networks: mak- Yamin, M., & Otto, J. (2004). Patterns of knowl-
ing the multinational organization more effec- edge flows and MNE innovation performance.
tive. Journal of World Business, 38(2), 127–140. Journal of International Management, 10, 239–
doi:10.1016/S1090-9516(03)00006-3 258. doi:10.1016/j.intman.2004.02.001
Snow, C., Snell, S., Davison, S., & Hambrick, D. Yin, R. K. (1993). Case study research: design and
(1996). Use transnational teams to globalize your methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
company. Organizational Dynamics, 32(Spring),
Zander, I. (1998). The evolution of technological
30–32.
capabilities in the multinational corporation – dis-
Subramaniam, M., Rosenthal, S., & Hatten, K. persion, duplication and potential advantages from
(1998). Global new product development pro- multinationality. Research Policy, 27(1), 17–35.
cesses: preliminary findings and research propo- doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(97)00068-1
sitions. Journal of Management Studies, 35(6),
773–796. doi:10.1111/1467-6486.00119
Subramaniam, M., & Venkatraman, N. (2001). enDnoteS
Determinants of transnational new product devel-
1
opment capability: Testing the influence of trans- Fictitious names are used in order to guar-
ferring and deploying tacit overseas knowledge. antee anonymity.
2
Strategic Management Journal, 22, 359–378. A software bug (or just “bug”) is an error,
doi:10.1002/smj.163 flaw, mistake, failure, or fault in a computer
program that prevents it from behaving as
Thompson, J. D. (1967). Organizations in Action. intended (e.g., producing an incorrect re-
New York: McGraw-Hill. sult).
169
170
Chapter 10
The Relation Between
ICT and Environmental
Management Practice in a
Construction Company
Mattias Jacobsson
Umeå School of Business, Umeå University, Sweden
Anneli Linde*
Umeå School of Business, Umeå University, Sweden
Henrik Linderoth
University of Skövde, Sweden
abStraCt
The aim of this chapter is to draw attention to the use of ICT in the building and construction industry
with a special interest in the day-to-day activities of those companies that are working to develop more
environmentally friendly and sustainable production processes. The chapter is based on a comprehensive
survey of ICT use and attitudes to environmental related issues in middle and large sized construction
companies in Sweden and two case studies: One of ICT use in a larger Swedish building and construc-
tion company and one of communication, coordination, and decision making processes in a construction
project. Based on the empirical data we argue that in order to enhance a more environmentally friendly
building and construction industry there is a need for a more genuine cooperation and knowledge
sharing between different actors both in crossing project boundaries as well as overriding contractual
limitations. Decisions in a construction project must be taken earlier in the process and construction
companies need to focus more on those processes over which they actually do have power.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch010
The Relation Between ICT and Environmental Management Practice in a Construction Company
introDuCtion environmental management remains inadequate

and also in need of further research.
This chapter will address some important contem- According to Gluch (2000, 2006) environ-
porary challenges facing the construction industry mental management systems in general are not
related to the demands on the industry to become used as an adequate support for environmental
more sustainable. The scope of the problem is and “green” decisions. Moreover, it is claimed
immense, encompassing wide-ranging challenges that there are large discrepancies between strate-
- from those at the level of national strategy to gies and practice when it comes to sustainability
those, which concern the practice of individual and green decisions (Gluch, 2006). Hence, it
organizations. In this chapter we will narrow the appears there is a gap between the use of ICT for
scope and focus on environmental management coordination, communication and management of
insofar as it is related to communication and “general” information flows, and the use of ICT
information practice in construction companies. for coordinating and managing issues related to
The centre of attention is the day-to-day activi- sustainability.
ties of actors at different levels in the companies, The aim of this chapter is therefore to draw
whose decisions, supported by ICT systems, set attention to the use of ICT in the building and
environmental and sustainability visions and strat- construction industry with a special interest in
egies into action. Although this is only one small the day-to-day activities of those companies that
part of the sustainability challenge in the industry, are working to develop more environmentally
it is however, a very important one and – as we friendly and sustainable production processes. In
argue – it is a part of the process that previously the chapter we will scrutinize both the line- and the
has been given little or no attention. Even taking project organization in order to identify, describe,
account of both environmental management in the and analyze communication and information
construction sector as well as the sector’s use of flows, how sustainable decisions are made, and
modern ICT, little of this effort has been noted, how ICT is used in relation to these activities.
explored or questioned.
Over the last decade the construction industry
has often been criticized for being slow when it Some empiriCal eviDenCe
comes to “renewal” (Ekstedt et al. 1992), lag- from the SWeDiSh
gard in adoption of new information technology ConStruCtion SeCtor
(Mitropoulos et al. 1999), and also uninterested
in attending to issues of sustainability (Femenias, A vast variety of empirics from a comprehensive
2004; Gluch, 2006). However, although the research project on “ICT as a strategic resource
acceptance and adoption rate of ICT has been for facilitating competitiveness and sustainabil-
slow, a major increase in both the scope and ity in the building and construction sector” are
depth of usage has been identified (Samuelson, used to support the discussion and analysis in
2001, 2002, 2008). Today, the use of ICT among this chapter. In this research project (executed
large building and construction companies is an from 2006 to early 2009) three main studies
essential part of the coordination and manage- were conducted. The first study concerned ICT
ment of information flows as well as supply use and decision making related to sustainability.
chain management, planning, control, and cost The data was collected via a survey in Swedish
estimation (Dainty et al. 2006; Molnár et al. construction companies focusing on ICT use and
2007; Samuelson, 2008; Cutting-Decelle et al. formal decision-making structures. The aim of the
2007). Nevertheless, the use of ICT in regard to study was to inquire how, where and by whom
171
sustainability related decisions are made, and is distributed; the centrality of communication to
the possibilities for transferring the information its performance; its organization around particular
and knowledge necessary for decision making projects; the collaboration upon which construc-
among project actors via ICT solutions (see also tion work is based, including the importance of
Isaksson et al. 2009). The second study is a case inter-organizational relations. From the perspec-
study of a major Swedish construction company, tive of the single company, activities are managed
which encompassed the entire organization, from in a traditional (single firm) sense, acting in its
top management to single projects, in order to own interest and sometimes at the expense of oth-
understand how different ICT solutions are actu- ers (Harty, 2005). However, from the perspective
ally used in it. In the study an emphasis was put of the building and construction process there is
on the creation of an understanding of structures a big difference. Contrastingly, the construction
and processes in the company and how these af- process is fragmented, organized as projects, with
fect ICT use and the management of sustainability its many different actors having different cultural
issues (see also Linderoth & Jacobsson, 2008). backgrounds, tasks and responsibilities. In relation
The third study is a longitudinal case study, which to ICT-adoption, this form of organizing, providing
scrutinized a specific construction project in depth. as it does a large degree of flexibility, is therefore
The aim of that study was to gain a deeper un- a central contextual influence to take into consid-
derstanding of communication, coordination, and eration. The flexible and autonomous nature of
decision-making processes from an intra-project projects and their significant discontinuities in the
perspective (see also Jacobsson, 2008a, 2008b, flow of personnel, material and information, have
2009; Linderoth & Jacobsson, 2008). previously been shown to create difficulties when
it comes to developing routines that will support
the flow of information and knowledge between
the ConStruCtion Context projects or to the permanent organization (see
anD the uSe of iCt e.g. DeFilippi & Arthur, 1998; Gann & Salter,
2000). Moreover, the need to incorporate various
If an enhanced understanding is to be reached interests from different professional groups has
concerning ICT’s potential to facilitate sustain- been identified as a hindrance in the adoption and
ability in the building and construction sectors, use of ICT (Wikforss & Löfgren, 2007), which in
a more developed and nuanced picture of ICT- turn also may lead to difficulties in co-operating
adoption must be provided. According to previous (Söderholm, 2006).
research on ICT’s capacity to transform organi- Thus, when conducting research on ICT-
zational structures, processes and trajectories, it related issues in the building and construction
is crucially important to take into consideration industry, it is important to make a distinction
the context in which the ICT-induced transforma- between the project-based organization, where
tion process is embedded (see Markus & Robey, operations are managed, and the line organiza-
1988; Orlikowski & Robey, 1991; Orlikowski, tion (see also Rowlinson, 2007). In the project
1992; Ciborra & Lanzara, 1994). Hence, first and based organization the use of ICT for intra- and
foremost we need to take a look at the context and inter-organizational coordination and information
characteristics of the industry. exchange in the planning, design and production
According to Harty (2005) there are a few processes has been limited even if it is claimed to
central aspects that have to be kept in mind in be of recognized potential (see e.g. Wikforss &
order to grasp the challenges of the contemporary Löfgren, 2007). Linderoth and Jacobsson (2008)
construction context. These are: the way power even claim that the organizing of operations as
172
projects is one condition that has constrained the life cycle costing approaches (Gluch & Baumann,
use of ICT in operations, and that the ICT used is 2004), alternative-building components, new de-
mainly directed towards governance and control sign standards, and renewal-engineering methods
of projects. The use of ICT as a means for gover- are examples of contemporary research interests
nance and control is however not unique for the (see e.g. Kibert, 2007). Furthermore, it is well
building and construction sector. On the contrary, established that the construction of infrastructure
a common claim by scholars in the IS field is that and buildings brings about a substantial ecological
one main idea behind the implementation of ICT load, both in terms of energy consumption and
is to increase to possibilities for governance and the materials used (Spence & Mulligan, 1995),
control of the organization (see Monteiro, 2003). an insight that is also recognized by the compa-
Thus, contextual conditions like the organizing nies themselves. Companies in Sweden regard
by project, the fragmentation of the industry, the energy use, waste and air pollution as the most
lack of integration between design and produc- problematic aspects to manage. (Baumann et al.
tion process (Dainty et al. 2006), along with 2003). Hence, the importance of environmental
informal communication and information flows management and the sustainable aspects of the
(Wikforss & Löfgren, 2007) have had, and will work cannot be overestimated even if sustainable
have, a crucial impact on the deployment of ICT construction is claimed to be more expensive
in the industry. then traditional construction (Andrews, Rankin
Taken together, the given contextual conditions & Waugh, 2002).
are essential to bear in mind and to scrutinize Focusing on environmental management sys-
further when we proceed with the analysis and tems and the previously mentioned importance
discussion of whether, and how, ICT can contribute of distinguishing between the project organiza-
to more sustainable production processes in the tion and the line organization, consequences for
building and construction industry. By focusing sustainability and environmental management
on the context, it will be possible to reveal issues have also been identified. As mentioned, there
concerning the management and decision making is claimed to be a large discrepancy between
related to sustainability in production processes, strategies and practice regarding sustainability
and thereby show what role ICT and the prevail- and environmental management (Gluch, 2006).
ing environmental management system play in There is seemingly also a gap between the use
this process. However, before we continue to the of ICT for coordination and management of
empirical part of this chapter we need to address “general” information flows, and the use of ICT
sustainability and environmental management for coordinating and managing issues related to
within construction and its relation to ICT. sustainability. The discrepancy between strategy
and practice has been described as a problem of
alignment, “projects are not aligned with centrally
environmental management controlled and generic environmental practice”
in the ConStruCtion inDuStry (Gluch, 2005:57), and it is also argued that the
temporary perspective of projects is out of align-
The overall principles and importance of envi- ment with the long-term principles of sustainable
ronmental management and sustainable construc- development and sustainable construction. That is,
tion have been of substantial interest in previous decisions in practice have an impact through all
research (Hill & Bowen, 1997; Ofori, 1998; stages of the building process and beyond (Sobotka
Sjöström & Bakens, 1999; Bon & Hutchinson, & Wyatt, 1998; Wenblad, 2001). This implies a
2000). New construction technologies including complex chain of integrated decisions regarding
173
production, resources, work environment, and pecially wanted to identify how environmental
standard/quality of living. Hence, there is a need systems were perceived and used in relation to
for simultaneously integrated solutions and envi- other management systems. In addition, we were
ronmental consideration from both a process view seeking knowledge about the level of decision-
and a resource view if high levels of quality of making influence and power people in different
life, and social, economic, or cultural values are roles perceived as available to them during a
to be attained in such a fragmented contextual set- project. That is, we were concerned with how
ting. It is therefore highly challenging for a single they perceived their own as well as other actors’
construction company or actor to control or even possibilities for influencing and taking decisions
identify the important processes and activities, about matters related to the environment. These
particularly if we also include the need for short types of decisions concern production processes,
as well as long-term forecasts of effects. material, and suppliers.
Consequently, there is a necessity for substan- This knowledge gave us a base and a frame-
tial and adequate environmental information to work for exploring the “practice in action”, that
support the decisions taken in every part of the is, the different actors’ day-to-day activities. The
construction and building process. According to results from this next step of the study, when the
Gluch (2000, 2006), such decisions are not today questionnaire results were contextualized, are
adequately supported by the environmental man- presented in two stages: 1) looking at the context
agement systems at hand. from the line managers’ point of view; and 2)
taking the managers’ point of view in the project
settings. Both perspectives are provided in order
the fielD StuDy: from a to give some illustration of the reality manager’s
general perCeption to face in the project and how that reality influences
SpeCifiC aCtivitieS environmental decisions.
In this following section we will present some of empirical findings from

the findings from our studies that can be linked to the Questionnaire
communication and decision-making about issues
related to the environment. As described earlier, The questionnaire was distributed as a web ques-
the material analyzed and discussed originates tionnaire to decision makers at different levels
from three different but interrelated studies. The of construction companies around Sweden. The
questionnaire – presented first – gives the broad identified decision makers consisted of superin-
picture of the area whilst the case studies give tendents, head managers at the regional offices,
details and depth. The analysis and presentation division managers, site managers, foremen, pur-
of the findings are organized as follows. chasers, estimators, and project managers. This is,
The first part focuses exclusively on the re- all managers who, according to their job descrip-
sults from the questionnaire where we analyze tions, are able and also likely, to take decisions
statistics based on information gathered from related to environmental issues. Some respondents
middle and large sized construction companies were identified from an Internet search of Swed-
all over Sweden. The questions to which we were ish construction companies, while somewhere
seeking an answer are related. They can be sum- identified with the help of regional offices from
marized as: “In general, to what extent and how one of the major construction companies. In the
are ICT solutions used and what are companies’ latter case the work of identifying respondents
general perceptions of those systems?” We es- and the specific company handled sending out
174
Table 1. Respondents by position

ence nor hostility to technology seems to be the
Position % cause of any problems associated with the use of
Superintendent (at the office) 12%
strategic information and communication systems.
Purchaser, estimator etc 27%
ICT is used on a daily basis at all levels in the
Site manager 31%
organizations, a trend that is very much in line
with what previous studies have shown (se e.g.
Asst. Site manager (foreman) 28%
Samuelson, 2008). Close to 100 percent (98-97
Other 3%
percent) of the respondents used their own (not
Sum 100%
shared) computer with Internet access, email and
a mobile phone (supported by their employer). A
total of 37 percent also used a hand held PDA or
the surveys. Because of the structure of the data
smart phone in their job. Frequent ICT use was
collection method it is not possible to assess a
however not limited to the boundaries of their
precise response rate of our sample. However,
firm. A vast majority of the managers also used
from the Internet search we were able to identify
computers and Internet at home. Almost 80 percent
a total of 215 managers and received a response
of the respondents said that they very frequently
from 89 of them (giving in that case a response
(4 or 5 on a scale from 1 to 5) used Internet con-
rate of 41 percent). The internal loss was quite
nected computers at home. Notable also is that
high, since some respondents did not answer all
23 percent of the respondents claimed that they
the questions. In total 733 persons responded, at
never used their home computer for work tasks
least in part, to our questionnaire and 466 persons
while 10 percent said that they used their home
completed the questionnaire in full. Out of the
computer every day for such tasks.
total respondents, 86 percent were male and 14
One further thing the results emphasized was
percent were female. In total 36 percent had a
a lack of technology hostility or any problems
university degree and approximately 45 percent
with ICT management in the companies. The
were technical college graduates. In table 1 the
managers in general were very satisfied with their
respondents are illustrated by (management)
companies’ ICT strategies and policies. We can
position in the company, in actual numbers and
also conclude that the number of different systems
by percentage:’
and ICT applications that are implemented in con-
struction companies in Sweden today (see Figure
perception and use of internal
1) is the same, as you would expect to find in any
iCt Systems and applications
industry. However, there are huge differences
related to these applications and systems insofar
The initial part of the questionnaire focused on
as frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and
identifying the frequency of ICT use in general,
efficiency are concerned, as well as in attitudes
both at work and at home. More specifically, it
towards the different systems or applications.
focused on what precise communications technol-
In the figure above we can see, among other
ogy was used and what ICT based systems were
things, that environmental management systems
implemented in the organization as well as the
are the ICT systems that are used least frequently
frequencies of use of different management sys-
by the decision-makers. Only 13 percent of our
tems, and the attitudes towards and perceptions
respondents indicated that they used environmen-
of those systems.
tal management systems often or very often. The
One conclusion that can be drawn from this
results from this question can be linked to other
section of the survey is that neither lack of experi-
questions and are discussed below. Environmental
175
Figure 1. The use of ICT-applications in construction companies. The figure illustrates the ICT-systems/
applications that are used most frequently by managers in construction companies.
management systems are probably tailored to the section of the questionnaire will be related in the
obvious environmental decisions (for example, discussion to the next questionnaire section which
handling chemicals/hazardous substances) and concerns how managers perceive the usefulness
such decisions are much more uncommon than of different available ICT applications - that is,
the day-to-day decisions that the other ICT sys- whether the systems/applications help them in
tems support. their decision making.
The obvious, as well as logical, implication
the power to influence — Decision identifiable from the figure above is that the
making and attitudes towards frequency of decision-making is very high. The
Specific iCt applications most common decision is related to the choice of
production methods (69 percent of the respondents
In the following section we analyze those results indicated that they have made such decisions
from the questionnaire that concern perceptions of during the last week). The lowest in the deci-
the possibility of influencing or taking decisions sion intensity list, it can be noted, are decisions
that are part of environmental management or related to energy consumption (9 percent), and
otherwise affect it. Managers at all levels in the the selection or handling of chemicals/hazardous
construction companies were asked if they had substances (9 percent). Even though this list is
taken any decisions concerning a spectrum of by no means an exhaustive one, it shows that the
areas ranging from production methods to han- kinds of decisions that have immediate and clear
dling chemicals (results in Figure 2). Further on sustainability implications (hazardous substances,
we explore their perception of their own as well for example) are rather limited compared with
as their colleagues’ power over these decisions. everyday decisions (such as selecting materials).
That is, we consider to what extent they thought This discrepancy can potentially explain why
they could affect them. The results from this many individuals do not always recognize that
176
Figure 2. Environment-related decisions made by the respondents during the past week of answering
the questionnaire. The number is percentage of respondents that said that they made such a decision.
This question is further used for the index about the intensity of decision making.
they are involved in decisions that could have an of their colleagues. That is, we tested the extent
environmental impact. The problems with this to which they thought that they could influence
became even clearer when looking into managers’ choice of materials, production processes, etc.
perceived power to influence. (see Tables 2 and 3). A surprisingly large num-
In examining this issue, we explored both the ber of actors perceive themselves to have a high
managers’ own perception of power as well as that influence on some decisions. The decisions that
Table 2. Managers’ own perceptions of power to influence the decision to choose materials, suppliers, or
production processes. On a scale from 1 (practically none) to 6 (to a very high degree). Hence, the score
is the average on this scale. The ranking illustrates, in descending order, which actors are perceived to
have the highest influence.
Decision-maker Materials Suppliers Production methods Total

Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
Site manager 3 4,28 1 4,70 1 5,26 1 4,75
Customer 1 5,26 4 3,97 6 3,24 2 4,17
Superintendent 5 3,52 3 4,15 3 3,95 3 3,87
Purchaser 4 3,81 2 4,63 7 2,99 4 3,82
Architect 2 4,95 7 2,99 5 3,25 5 3,74
Ass. Site manager 6 3,27 5 3,40 2 4,50 6 3,73
Estimator 7 3,12 6 3,19 4 3,33 7 3,21
Average 4,03 3,86 3,79 3,90
177
Table 3. Summary of respondents’ own perception of their power to influence decision and respondents’
perception of other groups’ power to influence. Averages on a scale from 1 (practically none) to 6 (to
a very high degree).
Position Own Super- Estimator Purchaser Site manager Ass. Site

Perception intendent manager
Superintendent 4,9 4,6 3,5 4,1 3,8 4,9
Estimator 3,9 4,0 3,6 3,9 3,5 4,6
Purchaser 3,9 4,1 3,1 4,3 3,5 4,8
Site manager 4,7 3,7 3,1 3,7 3,9 5,0
Ass. Site manager 3,6 3,7 3,1 3,6 3,9 4,6
All 4,0 3,9 3,2 3,8 3,7 4,8
they especially felt they could influence were the of these answers is illustrated in the five columns
choice of suppliers and the production processes. in Table 3. This can be compared to the results
The choice of material seems to be perceived as a presented in Table 2, (where the average of the
decision made by a person outside the construc- perceptions related to material production method
tion company, however only to a slightly higher and suppliers is illustrated in the column “own
degree than a person inside the company. perception”). Hence, Superintendents had the
In the ranking above the scale was from 1 highest perception of their own influence (4,9),
(practically not at all), to 6 (to a very high degree). while foremen had the lowest (3,6). The bottom
In general it seems like the entire collective of line gives a summary of all respondents’ perception
actors believe that they have the highest degree of the others’ power to influence decisions.
of influence regarding the choice of materials (on The results show clearly that managers at all
average 4,2) and lowest influence on the choice of levels of the organization perceive that they have
production processes (3,6). It is also interesting to a great deal of power and that they all take a large
note the difference between the individual groups number of decisions concerning choice of mate-
of actors. Site managers, on the one hand, receive rial, production processes, and choice of suppliers.
the overall highest influence ranking (5,2) and this This means that they all clearly have the capacity
group is also perceived to have the highest influ- to affect environmental decisions and choices.
ence on production processes. The architects, on Furthermore, it can be noted that the companies
the other hand, are perceived to have the highest have implemented a broad range of management
influence on choice of materials. The interesting systems and applications to support managers
results here though concern the degree to which and to control production. It should therefore
other managers are also perceived to have signifi- be of major importance that these systems are
cant influence over those aspects. perceived as useful and helpful in the decision
Respondents were in the first instance asked to making process.
judge their own power to influence the decision to
select a) materials, b) suppliers and c) production attitudes towards the
methods. In a second set of questions, respondents functionality of the Systems
were asked to judge other decision makers’ power
to influence decisions regarding a) materials, b) Table 4 gives a comprehensive picture of at-
suppliers and c) production methods. The average titudes towards the functionality of the com-
178
Table 4. Attitudes on the companies’ environmental management system (EMS), quality management
system (QMS), and project management system (PMS). Likert scale from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally
agree). In the table 1 and 2 is categorized as “do not agree”; 3 as “uncertain” and 4 or 5 as “agree”.
Cells with grey filling indicate the system within each statement that received the lowest “agree” score
and the highest “do not agree” score. N = 390.
Statement System Do not agree Uncertain Agree

(1-2) (3) (4-5)
Is well suited to the construction industry’s conditions. EMS 10% 34% 55%
QMS 10% 32% 57%
PMS 7% 31% 62%
Works generally very well. EMS 13% 33% 54%
QMS 10% 33% 57%
PMS 6% 32% 63%
Gives me often relevant information when I need it. EMS 16% 36% 49%
QMS 11% 36% 53%
PMS 8% 34% 58%
Is well integrated with the company’s other IT systems. EMS 19% 40% 41%
QMS 14% 37% 49%
PMS 12% 36% 51%
Often helps me in my decision making. EMS 29% 39% 33%
QMS 22% 40% 38%
PMS 16% 40% 44%
Contains too little information. EMS 35% 44% 21%
QMS 48% 37% 15%
PMS 42% 43% 15%
Lacks a lot of important functions. EMS 39% 44% 16%
QMS 45% 37% 18%
PMS 47% 37% 16%
pany’s quality system, project management environmental management systems do not seem
system and environmental management system. to help managers with their decisions. Moreover,
In the first five statements a rank of 4 or 5 in- nearly 60 percent of the respondents do not per-
dicates a positive attitude towards the system ceive the systems as well integrated.
(for example, that “the system helps me”). The In the following section we will continue by ana-
last two statements have a reversed scale. That lyzing our respondents’ perception of the effects of
is, a high score reveals a negative attitude or the increased environmental considerations to which
functionality of the system. the building and construction industry is exposed. We
In summary, the primary conclusion from gave the respondents a scale of 1-5 and asked them
these results is that all systems and applications to react to a number of statements measuring how
have huge potential for improvement. There is increased environmental considerations will affect
an obvious uncertainty about the efficiency and various aspects of the firm’s operations. The state-
usefulness of the systems, and in particular, the ments and the answers are illustrated in Table 5.
179
Table 5. Answers to statements about how the requirements for increased environmental considerations
(sustainable buildings) generally affect the projects. Numbers indicate the percentage of responses to a
scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Statement Do not agree Uncertain Agree

(1-2) (3) (4-5)
Increased environmental considerations lead to higher costs 21% 31% 48%
Increased environmental considerations lead to reduced costs 53% 37% 10%
Increased environmental considerations lead to lower quality 62% 24% 14%
Increased environmental considerations lead to longer production times 30% 36% 34%
Environment-friendly production creates goodwill for the company 3% 9% 87%
Environment-friendly production is beneficial for the end user 6% 22% 72%
We often lack the knowledge to make environmentally friendly choices 39% 30% 31%
The most important effect of increased environ- them and highlighting some important aspects
mental friendliness that our respondents perceive that have been identified.
is that it creates goodwill for the company: 87
percent agreed (4-5) with that statement. There
also seems to be quite a large consensus that the Context for DeCiSion
while increased environmental considerations making anD SyStem uSe
are costly and potentially time-consuming, they
do not lead to lower quality and are beneficial As argued in the beginning of the chapter the
for the end-user. contextual elements are of major importance. This
The significant results from the survey can be section therefore describes the context in which
summarized as follows: decisions are made at the studied company Alfa,
along with the systems and applications used there.
•
A large number of decisions are made on lower As a point of departure the description will start
levels in the hierarchy; with issues that are on line managers’ agenda - that
•
Many ICT-systems have a high frequency of is, issues that are dealt with by managers who are
use; not directly involved in the daily operations at
•
The environmental management system has a the project level. Thereafter the project setting is
low frequency of use; described, using a few episodes from a construc-
•
Decisions are made with the same frequency on tion site in order to create a deeper understanding
site as at the office. of decision-making and system usage. Finally,
we describe the work of trying to take decisions
Moving on from the more static presentation before, or earlier, in the production process.
of the questioner and the broad picture of the at-
titudes and opinions of the construction companies, a Cost Driven business
we now present some standpoints and some more
in-depth episodes from selected construction As showed in the results from the survey, cost and
companies. These standpoints and episodes are quality considerations were the highest ranked
based on the case studies and will strengthen the factors when decisions are made about material
questionnaire results, in some cases explaining purchase and production methods. This is not sur-
180
prising since operations are organized by projects However, the topic is not forgotten. When it
with set budgets and timelines. Furthermore, costs comes to aspects of sustainability the CEO stated
and the reduction of costs have come into closer that the industry is just at the beginning of this
focus in the industry during recent years. Alfa’s process and these issues will probably climb higher
CEO stated in an interview that cost control and on the agenda quite soon. The manager referred to
cost reductions are one of his major concerns for a published article in the Harvard Business Review
several reasons. The major problem in the industry, (Lockwood, 2006) and reflected that when a well-
he said, is the increase in building costs, cannot known business magazine publishes an article on
more be pushed to the customers. He argues that this topic, it will probably receive higher attention
a continuous increase of costs in the industry will in the near future. Other managers interviewed
mean that potential investors - private, corporate stated that the industry tries to work proactively
and public - will choose to spend their resources with regard to materials and chemicals that can
on other products and services where they perceive cause damage to the health and environment. For
higher value for invested money. Therefore a goal example, the industry has developed the so-called
to reduce costs annually by 5 percent per year until “Basta list” that contains materials and chemicals
2012 has a high priority. In order to reach this goal that not should be used. Furthermore, the energy
a number of activities are mentioned in interviews consumption in accomplished buildings has come
with managers on different levels and in public into increased focus. This is primarily due to new
material presenting Alfa’s strategies for reducing state regulation, but as one manager claimed, the
costs. For example, the head of a region and head contractual form also plays a significant role re-
of business district discussed how the supply chain, garding the attention paid to a building’s energy
operations and planning of operations can be re- consumption. We did moreover not find anything
organized in order to decrease costs. Furthermore, in our interviews that contradict the results from the
attention is paid to purchases, and especially pur- questionnaire concerning the managers’ percep-
chases abroad of products and services, an activity tion of the companies’environmental management
which is undertaken at all managerial levels. The policies. Respondents are seldom critical of them.
contractor’s focus on reducing costs for purchases is However, they do admit that with the exception of
self-evident. A rule of thumb in the industry is that chemicals, they do not have specific knowledge
approximately 70 percent of a contractor’s cost is to choose the most sustainable production process
purchases of material and sub-contractors in cases or material. Information about chemical products
where the contractor is responsible for purchases is often to be found in the company’s EMS.
and accomplishment of the whole project. The
focus on purchases abroad is actually visualized in an action-Centered Context
one of Alfa’s regional news magazines by a chart,
which publicizes cost data as the standings in a Visitors to construction sites soon realize that this
“competition” between business district manag- is a context focused on immediate action on several
ers. The chart shows the percentage of the total levels and that consequently a huge amount of
value of purchases originating from abroad. This decision-making occurs at a high frequency and
extreme focus on costs could be in direct conflict in a hurry by all managers. A manager explains
with efforts to increase the focus on sustainability the essence of life at a construction site:
since it is clear from our study that managers at all
levels in those organization perceived an increased If three or four construction workers and an exca-
environmental consideration as something that will vator working together run into a problem, they
cost both money and time. want an immediate solution to it. The managers
181
concerned try to solve the problem immediately, contractors have to follow established checklists. If
even if on many occasions it would have been a subcontractor has not made the self assessments
better to stop the activity and communicate the agreed upon at a certain point in time, 15 percent
problem with other disciplines and even actors of the invoiced value will be subtracted until all
involved in that stage of the project. necessary controls are accomplished. For the
contractor this procedure caused some problems.
Another manager stated that his work is While the construction workers wanted to do the
“structured unstructured”. In one sense it can be self-assessment with regard to the established
claimed that managers’ work is unstructured in checklist, their representatives did not want to
order to facilitate a smooth structured process for take this responsibility. Instead they reported a
the construction workers. The following episode detected error to a manager who then had the
illustrates this point. At a weekly Monday morning responsibility for taking action and correcting
production meeting, a carpenter came suddenly it. However, the manager responsible for quality
into the room, furious because there were no scissor control stated that self-control is the normal qual-
lifts available and the demanding the deputy site ity control procedure in other industries. Thus,
manager find one IMMEDIATELY. The manager incentives for expanding quality control into a
called the local outlet of the machinery and equip- more comprehensive regime for encompassing
ment rental firm and 45 minutes later the lift was environmental impacts are really weak.
delivered. After the incident the manager said that The demand for immediate action is, however,
he thought that it is good that people are engaged not only a concern for construction workers and
in their work and always want the process to something that is only connected to quality con-
move forward. However, when directly after the trols. In an interview, a development manager
delivery we discovered another lift on the floor stated that more time should be spent on planning
below where it was needed, he added that people in general before the production starts, but in
sometimes needed to spend some extra minutes practice this is often not be the case. Instead the
and communicate with each other in order to find focus is usually on immediate action, which the
out if the missing equipment is somewhere else manager illustrated with the following example. A
at the site. This episode can on one hand be seen client could see no excavators on site, concluded
as an expression of engagement in the project’s that production had not yet started, and called the
progression, but on the other hand, as an expression business area manager to ask why. The business
of how the structure of wages shapes the sense area manager asked the site manager why they
making of events and reinforces certain behavior. have not yet have started to excavate. The site
In the Swedish construction sector, piece wages manager took action for action’s sake, by ordering
dominate, with the effect that all occurrences an excavator to dig a hole, even though the hole
and activities not included in the piecework can may not have been correctly excavated. Such a
be regarded as real or potential threats to the habit of taking immediate action in practice could
achievement of higher wages. account for the results in the questionnaire showing
It can be claimed that piece wages based on that decisions on all kind of aspects were taken
the accomplishment of tasks on time, or faster, with the same frequency, whether it was at the
can be problematic if environmental and sustain- office during the planning stage, or during the
ability considerations need to be incorporated into production stage at the construction sites.
the construction process. In the studied building However, even if the layout of the construc-
project, quality controls are accomplished by tion and its components has been decided upon,
self-assessment where the contractors and sub- problems can arise, since actors sometimes lack
182
the capability to take the whole picture and the decision-making. However, consciousness of the
consequences of changes into consideration. One problem is high among managers as is awareness
manager described an incident with a sprinkler that standardization is one solution.
tube that was moved half a meter because the in- In order to increase the degree of standardiza-
stallation engineer thought that the new direction tion, Alfa is currently working on a project aimed
made his work easier. This resulted in three to four at standardizing production methods for differ-
other professional categories becoming involved ent kinds of buildings. Undertaking such work
in order to work out how make alternative place- implies that production methods and materials
ments of components. The manager concerned should be evaluated and decisions made earlier
stated that the new direction of a sprinkler tube in the process. A wide variety of issues come
caused at least 30 hours of extra work to be spent into focus when considering standardization of
on this compensatory activity. This is yet another processes. For example, standardization of ceil-
example of the flow on effects of the habit of ing height when apartments are built under own
wanting immediate solutions to problems. management, standardization of design stages for
certain kinds of building, predefinition of design
transforming Decision and equipment of office buildings. Furthermore,
making in practice? is it decided that selected production methods;
materials etc. should be tested in order to guarantee
A head of a business district mentioned the com- their quality and sustainability. Furthermore, in
monly used expression “to be solved at construction interviews it was emphasized that standards should
site”, which is used as a consequence of the fact not be fixed at the outset; rather experiences and
that all details are not solved during the design knowledge gained should be incorporated when
stage and that the practical solutions are delegated methods and materials are selected. Moreover, it
to the actors at the construction site. The manager can be argued that scandals related to inappropri-
also claimed that a generally tighter time schedule ate choices of methods and materials originate
in the design stage implied that more tasks are from an insufficient validation of those methods
delegated to the construction site to be solved and materials. In an interview with the CEO, we
there. A site manager mentioned windows as one claimed that the building and construction sector
example among hundreds of a lack of standards. is the antipode to the health care sector when it
He stated that on every construction site there is comes to validation of methods and materials.
always a search for special solutions for making In the health care sector new treatment methods
windows and other components watertight. An R and drugs need to undergo a rigorous scientific
& D manager, working on standardization issues validation before either methods or drugs can
linked to the introduction and use of 3D-based be used in practice. The CEO admitted that the
building information models, stated that more than building and construction sector will never come
3000 types of windows exist on the Swedish market, close to the health care sector in terms of valida-
when 300 would be enough to satisfy the need. tion of methods used, but steps are needed in that
Adding another element for consideration - envi- direction and at least a few should be taken. This
ronmental and sustainability criteria - to the large change is especially necessary to achieve the vi-
number of different materials and components, from sions described in the industry’s environmental
which choices must be made, would complicate polices. Thus, theoretically, standardizing produc-
the decision-making process even further. This is tion methods and choices of material implies that
probably one explanation for why environmental environmental and sustainability aspects could be
aspects do not achieve higher attention in everyday factors that would be systematically taken into
183
consideration and not be delegated to managers at like these place extraordinary demands on the both
the construction site to decide upon with limited the decision-making and the information flows at the
available information. construction site and among other actors involved.
Intertwined with the process of standardiza-
tion is the launch of 3D-based building informa-
tion models, which is also an example of how the relation betWeen
new ICT continues to develop and be adapted to iCt anD environmental-
the industry. The managers concerned with the management praCtiCe
development and use of these models state that
there is a heavy workload of inscribing standard- The aim of this chapter has been to draw attention
ized components and work methods into these to the construction company, and in particular,
models. However, some of the sub-contractors’ how ICT is, or could be, related to their day-to-day
consultants, in the project studied, already work efforts to develop more environmentally friendly
with 3D-based tools. For example, the ventilation and sustainable production processes.
consultant stated that he draws everything in 3D, A well functioning and efficient information
and about 90% of components needed are avail- and communication flow is the heart of a construc-
able in 3D and supplied by material suppliers. tion company. Construction projects are complex
Thus, the emergence of 3D-based building and and involve a very large number of actors both
information models and attempts to standardize within the company as well as outside it. All these
work processes and choices of materials, can also actors are related to one other in a multifaceted
be aligned with environmental and sustainability system of information flows and decision-making
issues. First, the amount of rework and number processes in what appear on paper to be a strict
of errors detected after a building has been ac- and clear power hierarchy. However, the picture
complished can be decreased. Decisions regarding is much more blurred when it comes to managers’
choices of materials and production methods are own perceptions of power and their actual influ-
made earlier and will not be dependent on the ence on the process. When it comes to decisions
information that single actors have at hand when related to managing the environment, it is evident
decisions are made. that this ambiguity can be a problem.
To summarize, site observations make it possible In these companies and projects, technology
to claim that the complexity of the interrelations is an essential part of the information and com-
between activities and components at a construc- munication flow. All managers, at all levels in
tion site put demands on the information flow the offices as well as on the construction sites,
and the forward planning for all parties involved. use computers on a daily basis. In addition, a
Participation in meetings of the different groups surprisingly large number of different ICT ap-
revealed that after a certain point of time there is plications are implemented and used although
no space for changes. At the design stage there is different groups use different systems. We can also
still space for discussions and negotiations about observe a clear relation between the frequency of
how different solutions should be accomplished. decision-making and the frequency of using ICT.
However, many interviewees and participants in The ICT systems used are mainly for controlling
meetings declared that a contemporary problem in projects, or facilitating the control of project pro-
the industry is the short time span between design/ cesses. 3D-systems created to coordinate different
preparation and production. It is not unusual that a stages in the project and different actors are still
part of the construction that is discussed in a design not fully integrated, especially not over project
meeting is produced a few days later. Circumstances and company boundaries. What is noteworthy
184
and somewhat worrisome is that we can observe related decisions at the construction site.
a tendency for the environmental management However, the main problem is still not the ICT,
systems to be the least used and the ones perceived rather we should focus on factors such as unclear
as least useful and effective. On the other hand, power structures, blurred responsibilities, and a
most managers do not miss them. However, we general lack of knowledge and real awareness
can also conclude that managers at all levels in concerning environmental issues in the sector. In
Swedish construction companies are fairly satis- a money and time focused business with vague
fied with their company’s ICT strategies and also demands from customer and society as a whole,
with their company’s environmental management the incentives on a project level for taking sustain-
strategies and policies. ability issues into consideration, beyond current
The same study made it clear that in day-to- legal requirements, are not strong enough. Single
day practice in a fragmented working situation managers are torn between private efforts to be
environmental decisions do not come high on ”environmentally friendly” and a work situation
the agenda. However, the problem in a construc- where they do not know how to achieve that in that
tion project concerning decisions related to the practice. It is especially clear in our cases that they
environment is not, as previous claimed, directly lack information or feel powerless. However, as
related to inefficient ICT, even though the potential has been noted, some of the contemporary trends
for improvement is large. We have observed that in the sector, such as the introduction of building
managers on a level, that should not be forced information models, standardization and focus
to do it, often take decisions that affect environ- on quality issues, can also be viewed as vehicles
mental issues at all levels in the organization. for raising issues of sustainability higher on the
This situation is caused by circumstances such as agenda. In any event, environmental topics should
deviations from original plans and/or inadequate not merely be regarded as ”window dressing”.
project-related documents and contracts and it We strongly believe that in order to enhance
almost always occurs under time pressure. How a more environmentally friendly building and
these decisions are taken care of in such situations construction industry there is a need for a more
is closely related to the attitudes of single actors. genuine cooperation and knowledge sharing
Notable is the site manager’s role, which seems between different actors both in crossing project
to deviate from the official one. Ideally, many of boundaries as well as overriding contractual limi-
those decisions that are made at the site by the tations. Decisions in a construction project must
site managers should have been made earlier. be taken earlier in the process and construction
Moreover, we argue that there are some clear companies need to focus more on those processes
problems with the knowledge and information over which they actually do have power. To be able
that is available for those managers at the time to do that, common ICT solutions, standardized
the decisions have to be made. platforms for information and knowledge sharing
The implemented ICT application seldom sup- among all actors in a construction project, includ-
ported such a decision process due to the simple ing across company borders is a necessity and a
fact that information is often missing but also since challenge for the sector as a whole.
the dimension of co-coordinating and supporting
complex information flows might have come to the
foreground in the ICT systems used. Consequently, aCknoWleDgment
they do not support knowledge creation of complex
communication patterns to a sufficient degree, This research project is funded by the Swedish
especially not when it comes to environmentally research fund for environment, agricultural sci-
185
ences, and spatial planning (Formas). The authors DeFilippi, R. J., & Arthur, M. (1998). Paradox
also wish to acknowledge Dr Anders Isaksson and in project-based enterprises: the case of film
Vladimir Vanyushyn for their extensive contribu- making. California Management Review, 40(2),
tion to the survey study and for their contribution 125–140.
to this chapter.
Ekstedt, E., Lundin, R. A., & Wirdenius, H.
(1992). Conceptions and renewal in Swedish
construction companies . European Management
referenCeS
Journal, 10(2), 202–209. doi:10.1016/0263-
Andrews, A., Rankin, J. H., & Waugh, L. M. 2373(92)90070-K
(2006). A framework to identify opportunities Femenías, P. (2004). Demonstration projects for
for ICT support when implementing sustainable Sustainable Building: Towards a strategy for
design standards. ITcon - . Electronic Journal Sustainable Development in the building sector
of Information Technology in Construction, 11, based on Swedish and Dutch experience. Disser-
17–33. tation thesis, Chalmers University of technology,
Baumann, H., Brunklaus, B., Gluch, P., Kadefors, Sweden.
A., Stenberg, A.-C., & Thuvander, L. (2003). Gann, D. M., & Salter, A. (2000). Innovation
Byggsektorns Miljöbarometer 2002. Sweden: in project-based, service-enhanced firms: the
Chalmers University of technology . ESA Report, construction of complex products and systems.
2003, 2. Research Policy, 29(7-8), 955–972. doi:10.1016/
Bon, R., & Hutchinson, K. (2000). Sustainable S0048-7333(00)00114-1
construction: some economic challenges. Build- Gluch, P. (2000). Managerial Environmental Ac-
ing Research and Information, 28(5-6), 310–314. counting in Construction Projects - Discussions
doi:10.1080/096132100418465 on its Usability and Role in Decision Making.
Ciborra, C. U., & Lanzara, G., F. (1994). Formative Göteborg, Sweden: Chalmers University of
contexts and information technology, Accounting Technology.
. Management and Information Technology, 4(2), Gluch, P. (2005). Building green – Perspectives
61–86. doi:10.1016/0959-8022(94)90005-1 on environmental management in construction.
Cutting-Decelle, A.-F., Young, B. I., Das, B. Dissertation thesis, Chalmers University of tech-
P., Case, K., Rahimifard, S., Anumba, C. J., & nology, Sweden.
Bouchlaghem, D. M. (2007). A review of ap- Gluch, P. (2006). Effektivare miljöinformation i
proaches to supply chain communications: from byggprojekt – Illustrationer från ett tunnelprojekt.
manufacturing to construction. ITcon - . Electronic Göteborg, Sweden: Chalmers Repro.
Journal of Information Technology in Construc-
tion, (12): 73–102. Gluch, P., & Baumann, H. (2004). The life cycle
costing (LCC) approach: a conceptual discussion
Dainty, A., Moore, D., & Murray, M. (2006). Com- of its usefulness for environmental decision-mak-
munication in construction: Theory and practice. ing. Building and Environment, 39(5), 571–580.
Oxon: Taylor & Francis. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2003.10.008
186
Harty, C. (2005). Innovation in construction: Lockwood, C. (2006). Building the green way.
a sociology of technology approach. Building Harvard Business Review, 84(6), 129–137.
Research and Information, 33(6), 512–522.
Markus, M. L., & Robey, D. (1988). Informa-
doi:10.1080/09613210500288605
tion technology and organizational change:
Hill, R. C., & Bowen, P. A. (1997). Sustainable con- Causal structure in theory and research. Man-
struction: principles and a framework for attain- agement Science, 34(5), 583–598. doi:10.1287/
ment. Construction Management and Economics, mnsc.34.5.583
15(3), 223–239. doi:10.1080/014461997372971
Mitropoulos, P., & Tatum, C. B. (1999). Technol-
Isaksson, A., Linde, A., & Vanyushyn, V. (2009). ogy adoption decisions in construction organiza-
Environmental management in construction tions. Journal of Construction Engineering and
companies: Decisions, technologies and effects. Management, 125(5), 330–339. doi:10.1061/
Proceeding of 5th Nordic Conference on Construc- (ASCE)0733-9364(1999)125:5(330)
tion Economics and Organisation, 1, Reykjavík,
Molnár, M., Anderson, R., & Ekholm, A. (2007).
Iceland (pp. 193-204)
Benefits of ICT in the construction industry –
Jacobsson, M. (2008a). Samordning och kom- Characterization of the present situation the house
munikation i ett anläggningsprojekt – Mellan en building processes. In D. Rebolj, (Ed.) Proceeding
laminerad A3-karta och ett dike. Sweden . BA- of CIB 24th W78 Conference Maribor - Bringing
Publications, 2008, 201. ITC knowledge to work. Maribor, Slovenia, (pp.
423-428).
Jacobsson, M. (2008b). Liaison devices in an in-
formation reduction process - Observations from Monteiro, E. (2003). Integrating health informa-
a Swedish case stud, EDEN seminar and Summer tion systems: A critical appraisal. Methods of
Workshop in Project Management. Lille, France, Information in Medicine, 42, 428–432.
18-22 Aug. 2008
Ofori, G. (1998). Sustainable construction: prin-
Jacobsson, M. (2009). Understanding project ciples and a framework for attainment - comment .
communication in a construction process: The Construction Management and Economics, 16(2),
importance of project liaisons, Proceeding of 5th 141–145. doi:10.1080/014461998372448
Nordic Conference on Construction Economics
Orlikowski, W. J. (1992). The duality of technol-
and Organisation, 1, Reykjavík, Iceland, (pp.
ogy: Rethinking the concept of technology in or-
155-166).
ganizations. Organization Science, 3(3), 398–427.
Kibert, C. J. (2007). The next generation doi:10.1287/orsc.3.3.398
of sustainable construction. Building Re-
Orlikowski, W. J., & Robey, D. (1991). Informa-
search and Information, 35(6), 595–601.
tion technology and structuring of organizations.
doi:10.1080/09613210701467040
Information Systems Research, 2(2), 143–169.
Linderoth, C. J. H., & Jacobsson, M. (2008). doi:10.1287/isre.2.2.143
Understanding adoption and use of ICT in con-
Rowlinson, S. (2007). The temporal nature
struction projects through the lens of context,
of forces acting on innovative IT in major
actors and technology. In L. Rischmoller, (Ed.),
construction projects. Construction Man-
Proceeding of CIB W78, Improving the manage-
agement and Economics, 25(3), 227–238.
ment of construction projects through IT adoption.
doi:10.1080/01446190600953698
Talca, Chile, (pp. 203-212).
187
Samuelson, O. (2001). IT-Barometern 2000 – Spence, R., & Mulligan, H. (1995). Sustain-
En undersökning om IT-användning i bygg- och able Development and the Construction In-
Fastighetsbranschen, IT Bygg och Fastighet 2002. dustry. Habitat International, 19(3), 279–292.
Sundbyberg, Sweden: BodoniTryck AB. doi:10.1016/0197-3975(94)00071-9
Samuelson, O. (2002). IT-Barometer 2000 - The Wenblad, A. (2001). Sustainability in the Con-
use of IT in the Nordic construction industry. ITcon struction Business - A Case Study. Corporate En-
- . Electronic Journal of Information Technology vironmental Strategy, 8(2), 157–164. doi:10.1016/
in Construction, 7, 1–26. S1066-7938(01)00096-3
Samuelson, O. (2008). The IT-barometer - a Wikforss, Ö. (Ed.). (2006). Kampen om kom-
decade’s development of IT use in the Swedish munikationen: Om projektledningens Informa-
construction sector. ITcon - . Electronic Journal tionsteknologi. Sweden: Research report, Royal
of Information Technology in Construction, 13, Institute of Technology.
1–19.
Wikforss, Ö., & Löfgren, A. (2007). Rethink-
Sjöström, C., & Bakens, W. (1999). CIB Agenda ing communication in construction. ITcon - .
21 for sustainable construction: why, how and Electronic Journal of Information Technology in
what. Building Research and Information, 27(6), Construction, 12, 337–345.
347–353. doi:10.1080/096132199369174
Sobotka, A., & Wyatt, D. P. (1998). Sustain-
able development in the practice of building enDnote
resources renovation. Facilities, 16(11), 319–325.
*
doi:10.1108/02632779810233584 Corresponding author
Söderholm, A. (2006). Kampen om kommu-

nikationen. In Ö. Wikforss (Ed.), Kampen om
kommunikationen - Om projektledningens In-
formationsteknologi. Sweden: Research report,
Royal Institute of Technology.
188
189
Chapter 11
The Need for Accounting
in Dialects:
Making the Special Competitive Culture
in Family-Run Companies Sustainable
Per Forsberg
University of Borås, Sweden
Mikael Lind
University of Borås, Sweden
abStraCt
This chapter deals with the challenge of ensuring and sustaining cultural competitiveness in a globa-
lised world where control and management tend to be made at a distance. The authors illustrate this by
arguing that family-run businesses have a special culture that makes them good at creating and taking
part in innovative networks. Today this culture is however threatened. Implementation of technologies
for controlling and governing at a distance destroy this special family-run business culture. As a solu-
tion to this problem the authors suggest that new technologies of communication have the potential to
strengthen the ability to create innovative networks. New technologies of communication do this when
they give rise to alternative forms of communication and thus complement management based on “con-
trolling and acting at a distance”.
the Challenge of enSuring with bigger firms are created or when a family-run
anD SuStaining Cultural company itself becomes larger. Such technologies,
CompetitiveneSS as for example standardized accounting systems,
often tend to leave out the informal accounting
Family firms have a special culture that makes them that is important for the special family firm culture.
good at creating and taking part in networks. But, The question then is how this special culture can be
there is a risk that this culture is destroyed when made sustainable? Questions like these have been
technologies for controlling and acting at a distance discussed in accounting research before, see for
are implemented, as often is the case when alliances example Bebbington et al. (2007); Boyce (2000);
Brown (2008); Forsberg (2009); Gray (2002): Gray
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch011
The Need for Accounting in Dialects
et al. (1997); Macintosh and Baker (2002); Mor- able people to cooperate. Moreover, the fact that
gan (1988); O’Dwyer (2005) and Towley et al. a person belongs to a family, a community and a
(2003). In these studies an alternative accounting place directs his/her actions towards what is good
form that stimulates democracy and deliberation in the long run, which in turn entails that others
are discussed. Therefore, accounting that is more know “where they have you”.
informal, dialogical and include oral accounts Mutual interest and sympathy (sympathy that
have been suggested. explains actions that are based on empathy and
It is against this background that we in this what are considered to be good actions in the
chapter explore how different “communication eyes of others) instead of individual interest and
technologies” affect the competitiveness of family- individual rationality increase the company’s
run business. As stated above, smaller family-run capability to create and take part in networks.
companies have a special culture that gives them Our presentation of sympathy builds on Adam
a special competitiveness. This culture is espe- Smith’s theory of moral sentiment (Smith 1759,
cially beneficial for creating networks. Below we Otteson 2002).
describe three conditions that are required for the However, problems arise when these rather
successful joining and creating of such networks small family-run companies expand by themselves
under three different headlines: or if they are bought and incorporated into a larger
group of companies. When this happens it is com-
1. Informal ways of decision-making and a mon that new technologies for governance are
non-hierarchical organization, implemented and an external decision center starts
2. Being an agent of a community, family and to manage and control the local company from
place, distance. People at these decision centers often
3. Mutual interest and sympathy face problems that have to do with access to good
information about what actually is going on. The
Our argument that informal ways of decision- local communities (in the family company) that
making and less hierarchy are prerequisites for work close to the costumer make use of informal
innovative networks is based on theories about accounts that hardly can travel to the external
industrial networks (Gadde, et al. 2003) together center. Another problem occurs when an external
with theories on the strategies of development center is governing from a distance - it might
companies and what might happen to small com- crowd-out the informal ways of decision-making
panies that are incorporated into big companies together with the informal way of organizing, the
(Jönsson 1973). But we also discuss negative connection to a place, community and family
effects that companies may experience when together with the role of sympathy.
they to an increasing degree are managed and It is against this background that new technolo-
controlled from a distance (Robson 1992, Latour gies of communication must be explored. Can such
1987, Preston 2006) and when financial incentives technologies give rise to, not one standardized
create “agents of economy”. language developed in order to make controlling
The ability to join and create networks also and acting from a distance possible - but account-
depends on the actions of the management. Net- ing in dialects in order to make cooperation and
working is facilitated if the management in the networking possible, and thereby strengthen the
words of Wendell Berry (2005) acts as an agent competitiveness of family-run business?
“of a place, a family and a community” rather To summarize our argument:
than as an “agent of an economy”. In communi-
ties virtues and qualities are developed that en-
190
1. Family-run businesses have a special culture 4. A desire for good relations with neigh-
that makes them good at creating and taking bors, clients, suppliers and the broader
part in networks. community.
2. This culture is threatened when technologies
for controlling and governing at a distance are Miller and Le Breton-Miller have studied
implemented or when the informal decision rather large family companies. But, the competi-
making is formalized, as often is the case tive factors mentioned above certainly hold true
when the companies become bigger or when also for smaller family-run businesses. However,
they are merged into other companies. they do not capture the specific advantage that
3. The special family firm culture can be made small companies have when it comes to joining
sustainable with new communication tech- and creating networks.
nologies if they allow accounts in dialects, According to Wincent (2006), companies
which stimulate democratic deliberations. can increase their competitiveness by joining
networks. The companies that succeed best in
networks are the ones that share their ideas and
family-run firmS anD have time to be engaged in the network. Beside
their CompetitiveneSS this, management needs to have a great deal of
self-confidence and tolerance for uncertainty.
Family-run business can be found in many differ- The reason that family-run companies do better
ent countries and different industries. In Sweden then those who are not is that they have more and
they are most frequent in the agriculture and forest better networks and thereby manage to get good
industry, but they are also dominating in indus- information (Gudmunson et. al., 1999)
tries as retailing, manufacturing, building, and What we know from research on family-owned
transport (Emling, 2000). They are an important companies and competitiveness in family-run
part of the Swedish national economy, 54.5% of business is that community-based innovative
the companies in Sweden are family-run business networks play an important role. This can be
(defined as at least one succession has occurred). exemplified with a common attitude in the Swed-
This importance of family-run business can also ish shipping industry. In the shipping trade there
be found in the rest of Europe (Emling, 2000). are those who consider goals and control - that
Previous studies (Miller & Le Breton Miller, comes from the stock market – to be a hamper
2005) of family-run companies have shown that on the entrepreneurial spirit. Torsten Rinman
this type of business has certain competitive ad- (1999), former editor for Svensk Sjöfarts Tidning
vantages that have to do with: (Swedish Shipping Gazette), has written about the
characteristics of successful archipelago shipping
1. The management being independent and companies. He writes that these companies do
enjoying a high degree of ability to act on not fit the stock market and refers to the fact that
its own, ship-owners belong to an entrepreneurial type who
2. The management striving towards survival often feels hampered by the respect they have to
of the business in a long-term perspective, pay to stockowners, stock-exchange quotations
3. A strong feeling among the employees of and rules. Rinman writes that ship-owners of
belonging to a community (inside the com- companies noted on the stock exchange often
pany), which makes them focused on fulfill- need to invest a lot of time in “talking up” the
ing the mission of the company. Incentives or stock price. Stockowners are often ignorant of the
bureaucracy does not create this attitude. shipping trade and merely take the general market
191
trends into consideration. During periods when basis for the good development of the businesses
the price of the stock is low, a shipping company in these regions.
on the stock market risks being purchased by The importance of the special culture in family-
its competitors. The consideration a shipping run business can be found in different industries
company listed on the stock market has to take and countries. Below we will give some examples
often conflicts with the operational economics of empirical studies to clarify this.
that characterizes most archipelago shipping Elmhester (2008) studied the difference be-
companies (Rinman 1999). tween larger and smaller firms (in Sweden) when
From a Swedish perspective it seems as if it comes to what networks mean to companies
shipping companies that do better over time are in the wood product-manufacturing sector. Her
all anchored in the local shipping trade cultures conclusion is that it might be easier for smaller
and have a management that is very well defined companies to establish social networks, but also,
in terms of a family that is engaged in its everyday that an active manager seems to be more important
operation. The Scandinavian Shipping Gazette has for successful networking than a highly developed
published a special issue on the theme of “Ship- formal organization.
ping communities”1. Here are a number of local Based on a case studies of three wine firms and
shipping trade cultures that have been significant one firm in the spirits industry (two from Italy and
for the emergence of shipping companies empha- two from Switzerland), Salvato & Melin (2008)
sized. One example of this is Donsö, an island in argue that there is a strong relationship between
the southern Göteborg archipelago. An additional value creation and social capital and that family
example is that of Skärhamn, where 50% of the companies are especially successful when it comes
Swedish commercial fleet is run. There are also to create social and professional networks. Further-
the Norwegian regions of Haugesund and Vestfold. more, mutual trust between the family members
In Denmark there is Marstal, and in Finland there together with the firms’ reputation and external
is Åland. In these regions there is a strong ship- networks makes it easier to adapt to a changing
ping tradition and its practice is said to be more environment and transfer knowledge inside the
than a business. The particular lifestyle that the firm and between different firms.
people of these cultures maintain, together with Research about family-run business in Middle
their experiences at sea, has to them a value of East (Kuwait and Lebanon) has confirmed the view
its own. People who have grown up in shipping that family-run business is not a phenomenon that
trade cultures do often not contend themselves only can be found in western countries. There are
with being employed but would like to have their a lot of similarities in how retail managers and
own boat to run. Usually these companies have salespersons in Middle East and Western family-
chosen to finance their operation in other ways run business behave (Welsh and Raven, 2006).
than being noted on the stock market. In the few Moreover, “Being smaller and more flexible,
cases, at least in Sweden, when companies from family-run retailers should be able to understand
such regions are listed on the stock exchange, the their customers and fulfill their needs much more
family usually has a clear majority of the shares efficiently than can global retailers. Their competi-
and is actively running the business (Rinman tive advantage cannot be found in the huge buying
1999). power and extensive research capabilities, but in
Since way back, several constellations of col- their ability to intimately know their customers
laboration are developed in these shipping trade and their needs. Price competition is unlikely to
cultures – and it seems as if it is the very ability to be their advantage, but service can be …” (Welsh
join and create innovative networks that form the & Raven, 2006, p. 44).
192
In a study of family-run business in China the owners in West Germany seem to be more about
importance of families when it comes to ‘collective supporting the family welfare. However, even if
values, centralized authority, conformity and the the entrepreneurial spirit is not that strong in West
importance of reputation achieved through hard Germany as in East Germany, West Germany has
work’ (Pistrui, 2006, et. al., p. 483) are emphasized. an environment that is more supportive for small
But it is not only the families that influence these companies.
Chinese firms but also traditions of Confucianism But, it is important to note that there are also
and Guanxi (a Chinese term for personal network studies in where it is argued that smaller compa-
that is based on mutual trust and understanding). nies are more affected by the industrial sector and
The family business seems to dominate the en- their geographical location compared to bigger
trepreneurship in China. companies (Wiklund, 1998).
Thus, research of family-run business in To conclude, there are cultural differences and
Europe and Middle East and Asia highlight the differences between family-run companies in the
importance of family business for the national same culture. But what has been called the “family
economies but also indicate that family controlled ownership logic” are claimed to be valid for the
business gives better performance. major part of family-run business. Big family-run
However, a different picture of the importance businesses at the global market or small ones that
of family-run business for the national economy operate at a small and local market share a com-
can be found in studies from the Balkan coun- mon set of values. (Brundin, et al., 2008)
tries. Poutziouris et al. (1997) argue that the However, while a lot of research about fam-
relative few small and mid-size companies in ily competitiveness has been about identifying
post-soviet countries as Bulgaria and Romania strengths and how the environment can be made
“inhibits the development of industrial capacity, more supportive for family business we will in
creating employment, generating innovations, this chapter concentrate on how communication
and drawing companies into the marketing pro- technologies can hinder but also facilitate the
cess.” (Poutziouris et al. 1997, pp. 239-240). It is competiveness of family firms.
therefore important to facilitate the institutional
infrastructure that facilitates entrepreneurships
and family-run business in order to make the the ability to Join anD
economy growing. Create netWorkS
In Pistrui et al. (1997) the Romanian society
is said to rely on family and personal networks. Parallel to the belief that control and management
The authors claim, “the family has developed from a distance creates added value is the belief
networks based on kinship and friendship, which that participating in a network does the same.
banded together to offer socioeconomic support” Networks are significant, for example when it
(p. 236). comes to development and innovations, which
In a study of entrepreneurship and the role of often requires collaboration and dialogues between
the family-run business in East and West Germany several actors. For small businesses, networks
some important differences could be identified can lead to cooperation and generate access to
(Pistrui et. al. 2000). The owners of small firms large-scale benefits and other coordination profits
in East Germany are more engaged and involved that they would not have been able to achieve on
and find more enjoyment in their work and are their own. Even the relations to the customers can
more inclined to support the surrounding com- be described in terms of a network. A long-term
munity. The most important to the company customer relation is not characterized by exploita-
193
tion and short-term profit maximum, but is about social dimensions are important in networks.
mutual gain. (For a discussion about hostile take (Gadde, et al. 2003)
over of family firms and what consequences it Gadde, et al. (2003) states that: “The com-
has on the family firm’s network see Steen & pany must analyze its situation in terms of its
Welch, 1998) relationships and their connections. It is crucial
Below, we will introduce theories, divided that a company relates its activities to those of
into three aspects, which help explain why small other firms in order to enhance its performance,
family companies’ competitive advantages work and it is through the continuous combining and
in networks. By illustrating these it is possible to recombining in business relationships that new
increase knowledge about what the competitive resource dimensions are identified and further
force of small companies consist of and what developed.” (p. 363).
potential they have to grow without loosing it. This speaks for small un-hierarchical (family-)
First, we will look closer at the strength of businesses having competitive advantages that
the non-hierarchical structure of the family-firm might disappear if strong hierarchies together with
organization and at informal and fast decision- control and management from external centers
making procedures. Second, we will look into the are introduced.
advantages of acting as an agent of a community, In a network, no company should have a
family and place. Third, we will focus on the fact dominant position; there should be no company
that the management that gets involved in networks that acts as the center of the network. In such
and various collaborative constellations and act cases the network will become less innovative.
as an agent of the family, community and place, Gadde, et al. writes:
ground their decision on sympathy and mutual
interest rather than calculations of individual A centrally controlled system is based on a lim-
benefits. ited view of the entire network, which makes a
´pluralistic’ network better able to respond to
un-hierarchical forms of organizing changing conditions. The greater the influence
as advantages in networking exercised by a company on its relationships, the
more restricted will be the responses from the
Networks can make it easier for businesses to come network. (Gadde, et al., p. 361)
up with or generate innovations and improvements
(c.f. e.g. Albinsson et al, 2007). But it is impor- Gadde, et al. (2003) emphasize that companies
tant that the networks are dynamic. Gadde, et al. often should take part in several value-creating
(2003) claim that the dynamics of a network is chains at the same time. But, a company that has its
kept alive when different members of the network strategy determined by an external center (focused
”constantly interacting and [trying] to influence on single value-chains) may lose the dynamics
each other” (Gadde, et al. 2003). required of business in industrial networks. The
Each individual company, which is involved in strategy needs to be influenced by a variety of
the network, must be focused on mutual interests collaborating partners.
instead of individualistic goals. In a well work- In an unstable environment, it is beneficial with
ing network the companies constantly interact- an “organic system of management” (Jönsson,
ing with each other and continuously search for 1973). This type of management is character-
new possibilities. Furthermore, companies in an ized by “sounding out” instead of instructing. In
industrial network strive to cooperate - therefore an organic system, people are uncertain of what
mutual trust is important. Both economic and is expected from them, and, consequently, they
194
continuously search for their role. However, un- tradition, and from the inward promptings of
certainty and inadequate specification regarding affection, conscience, decency, compassion and
positions also give room for maneuvering. This even inspiration.” (Berry 2005, p. 63)
leads to increased commitment and dependence Local and personal loyalty is involved in busi-
on others. External pressure (crises) generates a ness (Berry 2005). The business is created in a
tendency to strive away from an organic form context where work is a link in a bigger chain that
towards a mechanical one (Jönsson, 1973). secures the existence of the family, the community
The potential and efficiency that comes with and the place. Berry contrasts this community
the inherent uncertainty of organic forms of mind with the corporate mind:
organization may thus be a pre-condition for a
functioning network, which might be threatened The corporate mind at work overthrows all the
by clear hierarchies and formal ways of decision- virtues of the personal mind, or it throws them out
making. of account. The corporate mind knows no affection,
no desire that is not greedy, no local or personal
...the more successful a company is in its control loyalty, no sympathy or reverence or gratitude,
ambitions, the less innovative the network be- no temperance or thrift or self-restraint. It does
comes. If one actor totally directs the development not observe the first responsibility of intelligence,
processes, the network runs the risk of becoming a which is to know when you don’t know or when
hierarchy, with reduced potential for innovation. you are being unintelligent. (Berry 2005, p. 60)
(Gadde, et al. p. 358)
In the following section, we will go further
into “the community mind”; specifically the role
acting as an agent of sympathy has for the network.
Community, family and place
Sympathy and Cooperation
In this section we argue that well working net-
work depends on if the people in a company acts As mentioned above, people that argue for external
as agents of a community, family and place. The centers and incentive systems often refer to Wealth
ability to be accepted in a network also depends on of Nations (Smith 1776). Here we will argue
the importance of having a reputation that pictures for another line of reasoning, that which begins
the company as a serious enterprise. Another factor with Adam Smith’s theory of moral sentiments.
is collective experiences and values and learning For this purpose we have made use of Otteson’s
to nurture things one has in common. book: Adam Smith’s Market Place of Life, from
As an agent of community you share a culture 2002. The theory of moral sentiments can help
with others (Berry 2005). This culture contains us explain the competitiveness in companies
collected experience and knowledge manifested embedded in communities. Because it is only in
in collections of agents’ worldviews. Such a cul- the community that the special virtues that make
ture arises where people stay at the same place cooperation possible are created.
over a long period of time. In this way agents Instead of individual rationality it is sympathy
engaged in the community continuously refine that makes cooperation possible and guides the
their worldviews. agent of a family, community and place. Life in
Belonging to a culture makes it possible to a community prepares people for exchange with
find “... guidance from the knowledge we most others outside the community. The abilities that
authentically possess, from experience, from the community provides its members with be-
195
come pre-conditions for exchanges on a market, and make exchanges. What is interesting with Ot-
since such exchanges build on mutual interest. teson’s interpretation of Smith is that the desire for
(Otteson 2002) sympathy and the desire of humans to make their
There is a mechanism/ability/passion that condition better are not necessarily decoupled.
affects us which Smith calls sympathy. Human
beings are naturally prone to sharing joy. They …people cannot succeed in markets unless they
feel sympathetic towards that which keeps a group take an interest in others, which requires that
together and makes things sustainable. they spend time getting to know others’ needs
Otteson summarizes the Adam Smith idea and wants… this mutual familiarity will lead to
about sympathy and cooperation: mutual natural affection and hence benevolence.
(Otteson, p. 304)
...the fortunes and happiness of others are nec-
essary to each person. Without the help of and On the other hand, one feels stronger sympa-
associations with other people, we cannot physi- thy for that which is close: first the family, then
cally survive or psychologically flourish, and we the firm, and then the community. The sympathy
cannot engage the help or associations of others also grows stronger as meetings are repeated. It is
without taking a sincere interest in their situa- therefore possible to imagine that pure calculation
tions. Nature, again thankfully, has constituted dominates where people make decisions from a
us so that before any philosophy or deliberation distance and on markets where the seller and the
we are inclined to be interested in others. This buyer are unknown to one another.
inclination makes possible the mutual concern
that ultimately, Smith thinks, forms the basis of
civil society. (Otteson, 2002, p. 91) informal information
proCeSSeS in the
and… loCal Culture
...the development of personal moral stands, of a In previous sections we have described what
conscience and the impartial spectator procedure, characterizes local cultures that are good at par-
and of the accepted moral standards of a commu- ticipating in networks. Now we turn our attention
nity all depend on the regular associations people to mechanisms and information processes that
make with one another. It is in these associations, underlie the informal information process.
in the daily intercourse people have with one an- Two different forms of information processes
other, that they encourage each other to discover can be derived from the distinction between oc-
and adopt rules of behavior and judgment that will cupational community and organization.
lead to mutual sympathy. (Otteson p. 123) In theory, occupational community is defined
as “a group of people who consider themselves
Therefore sympathy can be seen as “a powerful to be engaged in the same sort of work; whose
social bond that enables us to form communities identity is drawn from their work; who share with
and that provides strong incentives toward social one another a set of values, norms and perspec-
stability.” (Otteson 2002, p. 293) tives that apply to but extend beyond work related
Beside our desire for sympathy, humans also matters; and whose social relationships meld work
have a desire to improve their condition of life. and leisure” (van Maanen & Barley 1984, p. 287).
This gives rise to markets that make it possible This informal way of organizing is competing
for people that do not know each other to meet with the more formal and hierarchical one that
196
van Maanen & Barley call “organization”. This StanDarDizeD aCCounting

organization is pictured as a vertical hierarchy vS. aCCounting in DialeCtS
and control mechanisms have a central role. In an
organization, the people are talking about formal To simplify, there are two positions in the dis-
matters such as status, power, money and other cussion about agency costs in family owned
rewards. In an occupational community, people companies (Bartholomeusz & Tanewski 2006).
talk about if they are getting better or worse at According to one of these positions firms with
cooperate, if they actually help their costumers to family control have good mechanisms for reduc-
maintain their abilities to fulfil their mission etc. ing agency costs. Family owners are often active
Furthermore, in an organization the employees in preventing free riders and in creating efficient
often have detailed work descriptions and frag- management. The wealth of the family depends
mented functions. Members in an occupational on how the business turns out in the long run,
community are bound together through common and therefore family firms strive to maximize the
values, tradition and solidarity. This kind of com- wealth of the firm in the long run.
munity stands in sharp contrast with the organi- According to the other position family control
zation that often put up individualistic goals like in fact creates “agency costs”. The family can
profit making and rational calculations. Members increase its own wealth at the cost of other share-
in an occupational community strive to present a holders. Thanks to the powerful position of the
socially acceptable image to the other members. family, there is a risk that the family maximizes
According to Forsberg & Westerdahl (2007) the the value of the family instead of the value of
ideal occupational community also strife to present the firm. Family firms have another corporate
a good image to other shareholders, for example structure than non-family firms, and this struc-
the costumers. ture is not always in consistence with the goal of
In the article “For the sake of serving the maximizing the value of the firm. (Bartholomeusz
broader community: comparing auditors and & Tanewski 2006)
sea-pilots” by Forsberg & Westerdahl (2007) the Advocates of external management and control
sea-piloting practice is described as depending (e.g. Bartholomeusz & Tanewski, 2006) think
on a strong occupational community. In this com- that incentives are needed that encourage, above
munity a special culture has been developed that all the management, but also the employees, to
forms the identity and what the work is about. work for the owners or the value of the company
The knowledge of sea-pilots is basically based when necessary. Such advocates often lean on
on experience, transferred and reflected upon in Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776) and emphasize
informal meetings. This knowledge is stored in that s/he who is not an owner of the company is
an oral based culture. Their special culture makes not willing to make the same kind of sacrifices as
them equipped to meet unique situations and focus s/he who is – and not with the same dedication.
on creating the ability to make it possible for the The tools used for managing are quantitative and
shipping companies to fulfill their transports. shaped to enable control and management from a
However, this special culture and giving ac- distance. Besides that, they often apply incentive
count for what a good service is, is difficult to programs (Jensen & Meckling, 1994) with the
give account for to people outside the culture, aim of directing the focus of the manager and the
for example politicians, central management and employees on short-term profits.
other shareholders. What is important to them are We hold it for true that these ideas about
expressed in oral stories, which are hard to grasp the importance that family-run firms need to be
for decision makers that work at distance. governed from distance is put into focus in bigger
197
family firms, especially in cases when the family hoW CommuniCation

is not the only owner and there are many different teChnologieS Can give riSe
stakeholders included. to aCCounting in DialeCtS
When companies become larger, new tools anD faCilitate netWorking
for control and management are adopted: detailed
rule-based work descriptions, strong hierarchies As clarified in earlier sections, new forms of
and accounting with the aim of controlling from “technologies of communication” can both prevent
a distance are said to add value to companies and facilitate networks. When smaller family-run
(Gold & Campbell, 1987). Acting and controlling businesses are incorporated into larger organiza-
from a distance is there to enable action without tion they run the risk to lose the ability to take
knowledge of the context (Robson 1992; Latour part in innovative networks. One reason for this
1987). This kind of control may have non-intended is the implementation of formal communication
negative effects (Preston 2006). These tools may systems, designed to make it possible to control
have consequences that make people start acting and manage from distance. Such systems might
like “agents of economy”. hinder face-to-face meetings. As indicated earlier
Thus, formal accounting and mechanisms for do network often consist of informal personal
communication are in theory claimed to solve meetings and therefore do formalizations of in-
different kind of problems within family-run formation processes affect networks in a negative
companies. However, we will put the focus on the way. Technology can also destroy the relationships
negative effects of controlling from a distance. But, to the neighborhood if it for example creates
when we argue for the important role of informal isolated entities.
accounts it does not necessarily mean that we will In the same way the focus on maximizing profit
abandon all kinds of new forms of technologies may hinder networks from being sustainable,
for communication. But it is important that the accounting systems or other information system
mechanisms of formal and informal ways of com- may influence individuals to maximize their own
munication are arranged in ways that complement profit instead of seeking mutual benefits. In other
each other. We will return to this discussion later words new communication technologies may
in the chapter. create agents of economics instead of agents of
Towley et al. (2003) argue that technologies as families and agents of communities – depending
accountability reports, business plans and perfor- on whose voices are included and excluded. It is
mance measurements can give rise to a domination thus a call for communication technologies that
of instrumental rationalization over “reasoned encourage participation of several voices to be
justification and communicative action” (p. 1065). included in content-generation processes.
However, it could also be the other way around. Implementation of information system that
These processes should be complementary. brings in hierarchies may crowd-out the special
People’s voices can also be excluded when culture that is the core in many family-run busi-
technical information is used with a monologic nesses. For example a more organically organiza-
approach. In order to invite more people in debates tion that have the ability to have good relations to
or decisions dialogic accounting has been sug- the surrounding might turn to a more mechanical
gested (Brown, 2008). Dialogic tools can facilitate organization and start optimize what is good for
critical reflection and discussion. Such tools make it self instead of develop relations.
it possible to create a space for communication We will now turn the attention to how new
without reducing or exclude different opinions. technologies of communication can facilitate
social networks and co-exist with an organic form
198
of organization and thereby make it possible for views are corresponding to values and interests
the special culture that can be found in family-run of different groups of people.
business sustainable. A core idea in the co-design, which is both a
We suggest that controlling and acting based scientific approach as well as a development ap-
on co-design and with technologies as web 2.0 proach, is that there is a close relation between
is an alternative to traditional systems made with innovative product/service development and
the intention to control and act from a distance. knowledge creation (Forsgren, 1995; Lind et al,
Below we will outline this idea. 2007). Businesses and organizations constantly try
to capture knowledge about ideal situations for cus-
tomers or clients, which they match with knowledge
Co-DeSign aS an enabler for about resources they have or can create. Successful
SuStainable loCal CultureS businesses/organizations are able to constantly
developing their knowledge about customer ideals
One possible approach for enhancing co-operation and their own matching resources. Customers or
in local cultures is co-design. As seen above infor- clients on the other hand constantly try to imagine
mation sharing becomes crucial for preserving, or and find out knowledge about their own ideal situ-
at least base change and innovation on the legacy ations and look for affordable resources, which can
bound to the local culture. It is thus a call for an make it possible for them to come closer to ideal
approach building upon interactivity, collabora- situations. In this view, different intermediaries
tion and co-design. ideally collaborate with businesses and organiza-
Co-design is to a high degree inspired by tions as well as customers in discovering the lack of
Churchman and his late postmodern writings knowledge. These intermediaries, who many times
(Churchman, 1979). The basic fundament can act as facilitators, place themselves in between the
be described as a social constructive pragmatism organization(s) and the customers trying to manage
where it is possible to design an infinite numbers the design in order to come to agreements among
of views of reality. They may differ in their granu- the different stakeholders. The dynamic interplay
larity (level of detail), their level of abstraction, between these actors and processes constitutes the
and so on. Every such view opens for actions and core of the co-design knowledge creation process
possibilities in specific directions. This necessity (Grönlund, 2000). All the way through this process
to agree upon some common design for a system there is also a constantly ongoing inspiration com-
has also been put attention on by other scholars munication flow. The involved actors try to get
(Liu et al, 2002). This collective, or individual, inspiration from the knowledge creation in other
process of challenging existing views, designing relevant projects as well as they try to get others
new views and choosing the best one for re- inspired by their work.
implementation is called co-design. It has shaped One of the strongest trends in the ICT-field of
the way we look at knowledge in general and at today is e-empowerment of different kinds of cli-
information systems in particular (Ackoff, 1981; ents, such as citizens, customers, and consumers.
Checkland, 1988; Mitroff & Mason, 1981). People This means that more emphasis is put upon the
affected by such actions are regarded as stakehold- possibility for clients to manage and contribute to
ers. A view of a retail chain focusing the role of the information galaxy (Albinsson et al, 2006) –
different stakeholders, including the role that the both in terms of the use and supply of content as
consumer has in inspiring service development, well as services. A common concept in relation
opens for possibilities for an efficient sales and to this trend is Web 2.0. O’Reilley (2007), one of
distribution of desired products. In that way all the people who coined the term, claims that
199
Web 2.0 is the network as platform, spanning all 4) Techniques and models for communication to
connected devices; Web 2.0 applications are those engage participation of several stakeholders
that make the most of the intrinsic advantages of in the knowledge creation (Albinsson et al,
that platform: delivering software as a continually- 2006)
updated service that gets better the more people
use it, consuming and remixing data from mul- Given the fact that businesses are constantly
tiple sources, including individual users, while changing there is a need to let people in com-
providing their own data and services in a form munities to become engaged in the formation of
that allows remixing by others, creating network the future. We strongly believe that a co-design
effects through an “architecture of participation,” like-approach that builds on admitting peoples’
and going beyond the page metaphor of Web 1.0 experiences, beliefs and worldviews is a necessity
to deliver rich user experiences. in such processes of change.
In contemporary research adopting a co-design
Web 2.0 is a concept that puts emphasis on approach has showed to be important when it
participation and co-production of data and ser- comes to the identification of a common focus to
vices that is in strong resonance with the notion the involved participants. In the process where the
of co-design (Lind & Forsgren, 2008). O’Reilley participants indentify a common focus “scenario
(2007) contrasts, among other things, Britannica techniques” (Albinsson et al, 2006) have proven to
Online (as Web 1.0) with Wikipedia (as Web 2.0). be successful for sharing ideas and desires between
Wikipedia is a technology for creating collabora- diverse stakeholders. A scenario technique is a way
tive websites by letting people from several differ- for the participants in a network to test and change
ent contexts contributing to common knowledge. each other’s scenarios. In this testing process it is
In this way traditional borders dissolve. People important with many different voices.
start in this way to exist in a collaborative world
without any real borders. In this way borders are
continuously defined and re-defined by the par- Summary anD DiSCuSSion
ticipators’ performance of communicative actions
(c.f. e.g. Allwood & Lind, 2008). In this chapter a number of challenges that point
As can be identified there are some key factors towards the necessity for enhancing the sustain-
for adopting successful co-design in family-run ability of the culture of family firms have been
business in order to facilitate innovative networks. highlighted. The demand of constant development
There is a need for: requires people to become engaged in diverse
networks, inside and outside the firm, and in that
1) Let the worldviews of the agents engaged in way get their own worldviews to become collided
the community be shared and collided with with others. This must however to be done in a
other world views represented by other stake- structured way. In this chapter we have explored
holders engaged in the same community the possibility of co-design as an approach and
2) One (or several) facilitator(s) acting as in- technique to be one solution to these challenges.
termediary between different stakeholders Below we are commenting on some key challenges
and their world views identified and put them in relation to co-design.
3) Arenas or forums, often enhanced by technol-
ogy, for sharing information and experiences
(Lind & Rittgen, 2009)
200
non-hierarchical organizing to be predictable make it easier to find cooperation

and informal Decision-making partners. Organizational devices that create agents
of economy may prohibit cooperation and decrease
A company that is rather small has the possibility the possibility of participating in networks.
to maintain a relatively small non-hierarchical or- Co-design, on the other hand, would make it
ganization and informal ways of decision-making. possible to make people at a distance aware of
But these may be hard to keep as the company diverse happenings at the local site and thereby
grows bigger and the work becomes more spe- make decisions that take the “local” culture into
cialized. It becomes thus essential to establish consideration. Another essential component in
procedural knowledge in the company of how to such setting would also be the facilitation of
continuously share and foster a culture of letting structures that improve the information sharing
people be involved in decision-making. To be between the people in the local operation and the
able to successfully join and create networks with people at the distance better. In the spirit of Web
people outside the organization “openness”, “good 2.0 (O’Reilley, 2007) some parts of this structuring
ability to change” and a “holistic perspective” are would preferably be done by the involved agents,
needed. Certain unpredictability as regards the but on a higher level there will always be a need
work tasks is therefore required, which encour- for a facilitator.
ages the employees and management to actively
seek their tasks in a continuous dialogue within Sympathy
and without the company.
Increased work specialization might separate Sympathy often arises as a spontaneous reaction
the management from the operative activities. to whatever is present: other people, things, or na-
This gives rise to problems since people gener- ture. But sympathy can also arise through people’s
ally want to be sure that decisions are carried out imagination. Sympathy is a capacity which people
quickly, and this is easier to assume if the same have that makes them herd animals. Sympathy
people you have been in touch with are also the guides actions towards communal activity and
ones who will carry out what has been decided. care for what is close and local, rather than for
It is therefore important to ensure that diverse what is distant.
co-design inspired procedures include diverse The localization in a specific place thus plays
people in purposeful actions in where they share a meaningful role together with personal and in-
information and thereby bridge the gap between formal meetings with people within and outside
management and operation. The ultimate solu- the company. The role of sympathy therefore
tion would be a non-hierarchical transparency decreases the greater and more hierarchical the
between reflections over diverse actions by opera- company becomes. On the other hand, an adap-
tive personnel taking place on operative level as tation of co-design makes the role of sympathy
a basis for a joint discussion between operation more important. It does this because it makes
and management for making the firm become informal ways of accounting possible, which is
controlled as efficient as possible. the prerequisite for accounting in dialects
being an agent of a family,

Community and a place final WorDS
Belonging to a family, community and place, to In this chapter we have theoretically explored
have the goal to be successful in the long run and the potential of a co-design approach for meeting
201
the challenges of making the family-run business Boyce, G. (2000). Public discourse and decision
culture sustainable. The next step in this research making: exploring possibilities for financial,
endeavor is to take these theoretically generated social and environmental accounting. Account-
ideas for solution and put them into application for ing, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 13(1).
the purpose of contributing to a better practice. doi:10.1108/09513570010316135
Brown, J. (in press). Democracy, sustainability
and dialogic accounting technologies: Taking
referenCeS
pluralism seriously. Critical Perspectives on
Ackoff, R. L. (1981). Creating the corporate Accounting.
future. New York: Wiley. Brundin, E., Florin, E., & Melin, L. (2008). The
Albinsson, L., Forsgren, O., & Lind, M. (2006). Family Ownership Logic: Core Characteristics
e-Me Stories & Scenarios - The Ideal Electronic of Family-Controlled Business. CeFEO Working
Galaxy of the Student. School of Business and In- Paper, 2008:1.
formatics, University College of Borås, Sweden Checkland, P. B. (1988). Soft systems methodol-
Albinsson, L., Lind, M., & Forsgren, O. (2007). ogy: An overview. J. of Applied Systems Analysis,
Co-Design: An approach to border crossing, 15, 27–30.
Network Innovation. In P. Cunningham, & M. Churchman, C. W. (1979). The systems approach
Cunningham, (Eds), Expanding the Knowledge and its enemies. New York: Basic Books.
Economy: Issues, Applications, Case Studies (Vol.
4, Part 2, pp. 977-983). Amsterdam: IOS Press. Elmhester, K. (2008). Småföretag i strategiska
nätverk. Linköping Studies in Science and Tech-
Allwood, J., & Lind, M. (2008). Making the Web nology Dissertations, No.1217
more Pragmatic - Exploring the Potential of
some Pragmatic Concepts for IS Research and Emling, E. (2000). Svenskt familjeföretagande.
Development. The Inaugural meeting of The AIS Stockholm: EFI.
Special Interest Group on Pragmatist IS Research Forsberg, P. (2001). Berättelser och omdömen i
(SIGPrag 2008) at International Conference on en redares vardag (Judging and storytelling in
Information Systems (ICIS2008), France the everyday life of a ship owner). Gothenburg,
Bartholomeusz, S., & Tanewski, G. (2006). The Sweden: BAS.
relationship between Family Firms and Corporate Forsberg, P. (2009). Crowding-in and crowding-
Governance. Journal of Small Business Man- out of the community principle. International
agement, 44(2), 245–267. doi:10.1111/j.1540- Journal of Critical Accounting, 1(3).
627X.2006.00166.x
Forsberg, P., & Westerdahl, S. (2007). For the sake
Bebbington, J., Brown, J., Frame, B., & Thomson, of serving the broader community: sea piloting
I. (2007). Theorizing engagement: the potential compared with auditing. Critical Perspectives on
of a critical dialogic approach. Accounting, Accounting, 8, 7.
Auditing & Accountability Journal, 20(3).
doi:10.1108/09513570710748544 Forsgren, O. (2005). C West Churchman and the
new world of co-design. In J.P. van Gigch & J.
Berry, W. (2005). The way of ignorance. New (Eds.), McIntyre Rescuing the Enlightenment from
York: Shoemaker & Hoard. Itself, (Vol. 1 in Churchman’s Legacy and Related
Works). Amsterdam: Springer/Kluwer.
202
Gadde, L.-E., Huemer, L., & Håkansson, H. Lind, M., & Forsgren, O. (2008). Co-design and
(2003). Strategizing in industrial networks. In- Web 2.0: Theoretical foundations and application.
dustrial Marketing Management, 32, 357–364. In Cunningham P., Cunningham M. (Eds.) Col-
doi:10.1016/S0019-8501(03)00009-9 laboration and the Knowledge Economy: Issues,
Applications, Case Studies (pp. 1105-1112). IOS
Goold, M., & Campbell, A. (1987). Strategies and
Press, Amsterdam.
Styles. The role of centers in managing diversified
corporations. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Lind, M., & Rittgen, P. (2009). Challenges of
Co-Design: The Case of e-Me. In B. Whitworth
Gray, R. (2002). The social accounting project and
& A. de Moor (eds.), Handbook of Research on
privileging engagement, imaginings, new account-
Socio-Technical Design and Social Networking
ings and pragmatism over critique? Accounting,
Systems. Hershey, PA: IGI Global
Organizations and Society, 27(7). doi:10.1016/
S0361-3682(00)00003-9 Liu, K., Sun, L., & Bennett, K. (2002). Co-
Design of Business and IT Systems. Infor-
Gray, R., Dey, C., Owen, D., Evans, R., &
mation Systems Frontiers, 4(3), 251–256.
Zadek, D. (1997). Struggling with the praxis
doi:10.1023/A:1019942501848
of social accounting: stakeholders, account-
ability, audits and procedures. Accounting, Macintosh, N. B., & Baker, C. R. (2002). A liter-
Auditing & Accountability Journal, 10(3). ary theory perspective on accounting: towards
doi:10.1108/09513579710178106 heteroglossic accounting reports. Accounting,
Auditing & Accountability Journal, 15(2).
Grönlund, Å. (2000). Managing electronic ser-
doi:10.1108/09513570210425600
vices: A Public Service Perspective. London:
Springer. Miller, D., & Le Breton-Miller, I. (2005). Man-
aging for the long run: lessons in competitive
Gudmunson, D., Hartman, E. A., & Tower, C. B.
advantage from great family business. Boston:
(1999). Strategic Orientation: Differences between
Harvard business school press.
Family and Nonfamily Firms. Family Business
Review, 12(1). Mitroff, I. I., & Mason, R. O. (1981). Creating a
dialectical social science. Dordrecht, The Neth-
Jensen, M., & Meckling, W. (1994). The nature
erlands: Reidel.
of man. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance,
(Summer). Morgan, G. (1988). Accounting as reality construc-
tion: towards a new epistemology for accounting
Jönsson, S. (1973). Decentralisering och utveck-
practice. Accounting, Organizations and Society,
ling. Gothenburg, Sweden: BAS.
13(5). doi:10.1016/0361-3682(88)90018-9
Latour, B. (1987). Science in action. Cambrigde,
O’Dwyer, B. (2005). The construction of a social
MA: Harvard University Press.
account: a case study in an overseas aid agency.
Lind, M., Albinsson, L., Forsgren, O., & Hedman, Accounting, Organizations and Society, 30(3).
J. (2007). Integrated Development, Use and Learn-
Oreilly, T. (2007). What is Web 2.0: Design Pat-
ing in a Co-design Setting: Experiences from the
terns and Business Models for the Next Genera-
Incremental Deployment of e-Me, eChallenges
tion of Software. Communications & Strategies,
e-2007, The Hague, The Netherlands.
(1), 17.
203
Otteson (2002). Adam Smith’s marketplace of life. Robson, K. (1992). Accounting numbers as
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge university press. “Inscriptions”: Action at a distance and the de-
velopment of Accounting. Accounting, Organiza-
Pistrui, D., Huang, W. V., Welsch, H. P., & Jing,
tions and Society, 685–708. doi:10.1016/0361-
Z. (2006). Family and Cultural Forces: Shap-
3682(92)90019-O
ing Entrepreneurship and SME Development in
China. In P. Z. Poutziouris, K. X. Smyrnios, & S. Salvato, C., & Melin, L. (2008). Creating Value
B. Klein (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Family Across Generations in Family-Controlled Busi-
Business. Cheltenham, UK: Edgar Elgar. ness: The Role of Family Social Capital. Family
Business Review, 21(3).
Pistrui, D., Welsch, H., & Roberts, J. (1997).
The [Re] – Emergence of Family Business in the Steen, A., & Welch, L. (1998). Dancing With
Transforming Soviet Bloc: Family Contribution to Giants; Acquisation and Survival of the Family
Entrepreneurship Development in Romania. Fam- Firm. Family Business Review, 19(4).
ily Business Review, 10(3). doi:10.1111/j.1741-
Svensk Sjöfarts Tidning. (1998). Nr 37.
6248.1997.00221.x
Svensk Sjöfarts Tidning. (2001). Nr 17.
Pistrui, D., Welsch, H., Wintermantel, O., Liao, J.,
& Pohl, H. J. (2000). Entrepreneurial Orientation Towley, B., Cooper, D., & Oakes, L. (2003).
and Family Forces in the New Germany: Simi- Performance Measures and the Rationalization
larities and Differences Between East and West of Organizations. Critical Perspectives on Ac-
German Entrepreneurs. Family Business Review, counting, 24(7).
13(3). doi:10.1111/j.1741-6248.2000.00251.x
Welsh, D. H. B., & Raven, P. (2006). Family Busi-
Poutziouris, P., O’Sullivan, K., & Nicolescu, ness in the Middle East: An Exploratory Study of
L. (1997). The [Re] – Generation of Family- Retail Management in Kuwait and Lebanon. Fam-
Business Entrepreneurship in the Balkans. Fam- ily Business Review, 19(1). doi:10.1111/j.1741-
ily Business Review, 10(3). doi:10.1111/j.1741- 6248.2006.00058.x
6248.1997.00239.x
Wiklund, J. (1998), Small firm growth and
Preston, A. (2006). Enabling, enacting and performance. Jönköping, Sweden: Jönköpings
maintaining action at a distance: An historical Internationella Handelshögskola.
case study of the role of accounts in the reduc-
Wincent, J. (2006). On building Competitiveness
tion of the Navajo herds. Accounting, Organiza-
in strategic SME Networks: Empirical analysis of
tions and Society, 31, 559–578. doi:10.1016/j.
54 firms in two networks. Luleå, Sweden: Luleå
aos.2005.03.003
tekniska Universitet. 1 Scandinavian Shipping
Gazette (2001) nr 17
204
205
Chapter 12
Workplace Location and
ICTs Substituting Travel
Greger Henriksson
The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Minna Räsänen
The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
abStraCt
This chapter is based on the assumption that keeping the number and length of business and commut-
ing trips at reasonable levels could contribute to reaching targets of environmental sustainability. The
authors highlight a couple of options for reducing or avoiding business trips and commuting through
workplace location or improved use of communications. They present case studies concerning travel and
communications, carried out by using diaries and interviews. They also present relevant literature on
social practices and sustainability goals in relation to use of ICT. The aim is to shed light on variation
in the use of travel and communications on an individual level in work life. The case studies illustrate
that such variation is mainly due to the concrete practices involved in execution of professional duties
and roles. Duties that involve a clearly defined end result or product being delivered regularly by the
member of staff are correlated to clearly defined needs for communications. Less clearly defined end
results of the work duties seem to make it harder for the individual to plan and perform communication
and travel in a more energy saving way. The difference in professional duties can thus be expressed in
terms of clarity and maturity. Another factor that affect who can replace travel with ICTs is relations
of power, e.g., when a purchaser dictates the terms for a subcontractor concerning how and where to
“deliver” his working time, service or product. The importance of clarity, maturity and power aspects
means that professional practices need to be studied at a detailed level to find out who could substitute
ICTs for travel and how this could be done.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch012
Workplace Location and ICTs Substituting Travel
introDuCtion use.” Under the first we consider how the intervie-

wees travel and communicate (with customers and
Today a widely recognized goal related to sustain- colleagues) on a regular basis. Under the second
able development is to restrict the energy use and we focus on instances of unusual or pioneering
(greenhouse gas) emissions that companies and use of ICT or workplace location in which some
households cause through their production and of the interviewees are involved.
use of premises, goods, services and transport. As a background we will present a handful
Controlling such factors requires well informed of research lines that we find theoretically and
choices based on methods like life cycle assess- methodologically relevant. More specifically we
ments, since there are risks of sub-optimizing, for want to create an overview of research suitable for
instance when an energy-saving choice concerning answering the question: How could the use of ICT
one factor (e.g., transport) may lead to worsened and social practices be studied in relation to issues
environmental consequences in another area (e.g., of environmental and social sustainability?
use of premises). However, the aim of this chapter
is not to go into detail regarding such effects on
the system level but rather to keep them in mind baCkgrounD
as a background to the study of human practices
and choices on the local and individual level. Studies of iCt use
Among the activities that cause environmental
consequences we will focus on transport in of- Everyday life consists of repetitive practices
fice work life. through time-space.1 An understanding of day-
ICT is frequently discussed as a means of to-day life is therefore essential to the analysis
changing, and in some instances cutting down of reproduction of institutionalized practices. As
on, travel in work life. The starting point of this we engage in everyday practices and attend, e.g.,
discussion is the potential of ICT to make work to the working life, we also recreate and maintain
less tied to location (less location-dependent). In them as part of the culture and society to which
order to cut down on travel, this potential has to we belong.
be realized in terms of “staying where you are The intersection between use of ICT and
for longer intervals.” This means, e.g., to stay at social practices refers to analyses on how ICT
home and work or to have a meeting with some- supports and changes practices in various situa-
one outside your office without leaving it. When tions, both at work and during leisure time. Social
reasoning this way the existence of different alter- practices may transform the use of ICT as well as
natives for performing a certain amount of work ICT affords possibilities to modify existing and
(“a work day,” “a meeting”) must be presumed. create new practices. Analyses of ICT use are of
One of the alternatives includes a journey while interest for various multidisciplinary approaches
the other does not. within social science traditions such as Science
This means that the location and use of work- and Technology Studies (STS). STS address the
places become important aspects. In the light of social and cultural significance of scientific and
this, the chapter is based on qualitative interviews technological change, how science and technol-
with civil servants concerning their use of ICT ogy function in different societies and how social
for meetings and business contacts and also their forces attempt to shape and control these forces
choice and use of workplaces. to serve certain objectives. Research traditions
We will present the interviews under two dif- such as Computer Supported Cooperative Work
ferent headings, “Business as usual” and “Unusual (CSCW) and Human-computer interaction (HCI)
206
on the other hand approach social practices from in social life, not directly related to the studied
the development perspective in order to design and technology or situation, often has been neglected
develop technology to support various practices, or underestimated (Chalmers, 2004; Nardi, 1996).
e.g., at the workplace. When the focus of the analysis is on the particulari-
Within the multidisciplinary research areas of ties of the immediate situation it often misses the
HCI and CSCW, perspectives from social science larger picture of what is going on. It is also argued
disciplines such as anthropology and sociology that studies, as they have been carried out within
are sometimes brought in for analyses of social HCI, deemphasize the study of more stable and
practices. Within the HCI research tradition, an elemental phenomena (Nardi, 1996). These stud-
influential analysis of this kind is Schuman’s ies tend to be less concerned with society’s “[...]
(1987/1990) study of a photocopier. The study reproduction as a series of structures” (Chalmers,
was based on ethnomethodology, an analytic ap- 2004, p. 230). In conclusion, the study of moment-
proach to social analysis developed by Garfinkel by-moment actions of the use of technology can
(1967/2002). Suchman focused on the practical, give us only a partial understanding of the social
everyday achievements and actions in a particular context. Analysis of the immediate use context
context. She showed that people’s interaction with and moment-by-moment actions can be useful
the technology did not follow a formal model, for certain purposes. But this does not exhaust
but rather exhibited a moment-by-moment, im- the possible ways in which social context can be
provised character. The study highlighted the understood (see also Räsänen 2007; Räsänen &
situated actions among the actors, but also what Nyce 2008).
occurred between the actors and the technology This brings us to a central problem in the
as well as between the actors and their immediate social sciences, how can we connect all the vari-
environments. ous elements, the “layers” such as individual
The socially oriented perspective of HCI thus and social perspectives in analysis? What is
focuses on groups of people and their interaction the significance (conditions, forces, motives,
and/or cooperation with each other. Various work- causes, consequences, etc.) of the relationships
place studies combine an interest in technology between the individuals and society? According
use and work practices in various fields and work to Giddens, perhaps the most important contri-
settings covering cooperative work, organizational bution social sciences can make to intellectual
roles as well as the uses and consequences of in- discourse is to rework conceptions of human
formation and communication technology in the action, i.e., social reproduction and social trans-
organizations (see, e.g. Bentley, Hughes, Randall, formation (Giddens, 1984/2004). Concerning
Rodden, Sawyer, Shapiro & Sommerville, 1992; analysis of the reproduction of institutionalized
Heath & Luff, 1992; Heath, Hindmarsh & Luff, practices, the point of departure for Giddens
1999; Rouncefield, Viller, Hughes & Rodden, is the actions of knowledgeable individuals.
1995; and Pycock & Bowers, 1996). In other words, “structure” should not in be
objectified and explained. Rather, human action
Social practices has to be explained to bring understanding to
its social production. However, everyday activi-
When Suchman and others, brought the activities ties should not be treated as the “foundation”
and moment-by-moment actions of each lay ac- of social life, but rather “connections should
tor into the HCI tradition, it was a considerable be understood in terms of an interpretation of
achievement. However, it has later been argued social and system integration” (op. cit. 282).
that the influence of other important elements In this chapter, we analyze human action and
207
practices in organizational situations and make This is particularly the case when problems and
connections to the structures and norms of the trends are identified from technical or statistical
workplaces. perspectives. The study object (e.g., a transport
The lesson learnt from our review is that there system) is often defined in functional terms and
is abundant empirically grounded research on how assessed with category-specified value judgments
people use ICTs in specific contexts, but not much (Hansson, 2007). From such a viewpoint, the social
literature dealing with this in a broader context of practice (habit, lifestyle, etc.) of, e.g., travelling
socio-cultural stability and change. However, we by car to a larger extent than by public transport is
believe that actor-network-theory (ANT) is useful identified as an obstacle to a sustainable transport
for such an approach. This is because ANT focus system. The question arising is how preferences
on specific constellations of actors, actions and and behavior can be changed.
objects that together create power relations, sta- But this may not be the best way of framing the
bility respectively options for change (Brembeck, problem since qualitative change is continuously
Ekström, & Mörck, 2007). ongoing in the technology-supported practices
In actor-network-theory the materiality in (and underlying motives, social norms etc.) of
courses of events and in power relations is empha- everyday life. To understand such change it is nec-
sized by regarding human actors, as well as mate- essary to provide analyses of people’s conditions
rial objects, as actants (Latour, 1998a). Decisive and choices. Solutions to societal problems are not
for a project or for the spread of a technology in a generally found by viewing individual behaviors as
certain context is, according to ANT, how actants parts of systems that can be optimized. Such views
become linked to the actor-network of the project must be considered as too static and shortsighted,
or technology during its development (Hagman, founded as they are on an “asocial model of the
2005). Formal decisions or rules are not seen as social world” (Shove, Lutzenhiser, Guy, Hacket,
decisive. But the fate of a certain decision or aim & Wilhite, 1998). Still, social practices are im-
could be tracked in terms of translations. portant for creating opportunities and conditions
A translation is a spread in time and space that for long-term solutions to environmental and
takes place through moving about, displacement, social problems. It is important to review main
recreation and mediation (Brembeck et al., 2007). and subsidiary motives for actions in a certain
Individuals as well as organizations stage their context and to suggest more socially beneficial
projects in those contexts where they act. A task and environmentally friendly patterns. Sustain-
for the researcher is to clarify what lines differ- able development should not mainly be seen as
ent actants take to a project or how they become a question of breaking practices and habits, but
linked to it. rather of collectively and gradually affecting the
Below we will use ANT in relation to our maintaining and replacement of them (Henriksson,
fieldwork. But first we conclude the review by 2008). In the short term, an important goal (for
exemplifying how environmental sustainability this kind of, and indeed our, research) is to show
has been brought into the study of social practices why measures designed to make certain practices
and technology use. more sustainable are working or not, depending on
people’s conditions of life, as citizens, consumers
Sustainability and professionals.
We have found a good starting point in the
Social practices and human choices are often works of British sociologist Elisabeth Shove.
cited as obstacles to change, when discussed in an Together with other researchers she has stated
environmental context (Rayner & Malone, 1998). that it is important to reconsider a widespread
208
individualistic view of action (common, e.g., Except for thermal comfort Shove has studied
in psychology and market research) concerning the activities of bathing/showering and washing
energy intense consumption in everyday life. Re- clothes (ibid.). For the analysis she uses literature
search on why people choose more or less energy on cultural and technical history in combination
demanding alternatives should to a higher extent with statistics and interviews about these habits
focus on historic, social and cultural explanations in present times. By comparing the three fields
and understanding (Shove et al., 1998). Her pur- of consumption, she has been able to show that
pose has been to develop sociological theory in they have different patterns of change, e.g., that
relation to consumption, technology and social when indoor temperature is changing in a path-
change through an analysis of ‘invisible’ everyday dependant way, changes in bathing and showering
habits. Focus is put on the collective elements in are less locked in and resources devoted to these
the restructuring of routines and expectations. activities can alternately increase or decrease, at
Shove has especially looked upon resource- least on the local level.
intensive, home-based consumption and writes Many of the concepts and analytical elements
that mundane fields of consumption like thermal Shove uses seem to be applicable concerning use of
comfort and cleanliness have been neglected in ICT, since they take the interplay between habits,
most theoretical approaches to consumption. social conventions and technology development in
Shove argues that questions of the following consideration. But Shove has not yet put them to
kind must be asked: How are habits and expectations use within the ICT field to any substantial extent.
naturalized and possibly spread on a global level? So at the end of this exposition of relevant research
She uses the concept of escalation to put questions lines, we have still not presented literature that deal
about whether resource-intensity is increasing or with ICT from an environmental and qualitative
not for different kinds of routinized consumption. social science perspective. We have found very
The concepts convergence and standardizing are little research explicitly using an environmental
used concerning the direction of change. Shove sociology perspective on ICTs (admitting that our
wants to ask whether expectations and practices search of international literature, especially of
are converging ‘around the world’ (Shove, 2003b). journal articles, has not yet been exhaustive).
This means that it is important to ask whether the However, we have found a relevant, recent an-
process of change that the researcher has identified thology in Swedish (Palm & Ellegård, 2008). The
is part of a widespread pattern. book definitely concerns social practices and cul-
The term standardizing implies asking if tech- tural patterns in relation to issues of environmental
nologies include organization and ways of use that sustainability. However, most of its contributions
means a lock in of the level of resource intensity. do not directly concern individual use of ICTs in
Shove maintains that this is the case with indoor everyday life. Rather themes of the following kinds
thermal comfort. A temperature of around 20° are brought up: investing in IT during the “bubble”
C has become a global norm which is gradually around year 2000, the consumption stimulating
diminishing the importance of localized and cul- messages in “make-over” series on television.
turally rooted ways of creating thermal comfort The most relevant contribution in relation to our
by building traditions, clothing or management criteria concerns tenants’ reactions to ICT-based
of periods of the day used for work or rest. Shove individual measurement of energy use for heating
assigns much of this international convergence to in apartment buildings (Glad, 2008). Glad makes
the successful work with establishing an interna- the conclusion that individual measurements
tional organization for defining thermal comfort implemented by real estate managers leads to
in terms of technical standards. certain balances between ‘imposed control and
209
self discipline.’ These balances are different in of important aspects behind the readiness to sub-
different cases depending on how the reform is stitute and/or reduce work trips.
presented and what the level of participation is How do staff travel and communicate when
among the tenants during the introduction. In a performing office work? In this section we focus
particularly successful case the reform was pri- on how they employ established (rather than more
marily presented as a means for the households experimental or groundbreaking) technologies,
to gain control over their heating costs and only business premises or practices. Telephone and e-
secondly as a way for the real estate manager to mail are established forms of ICT that can be used
achieve certain environmental goals. to keep in touch, replace meetings and thereby to
Finally, there is relevant literature on virtual “stay where you are” for a longer period of time.
mobility, although sociological approaches are Use of e-mail and telephone in relation to meetings
still rare. An interdisciplinary approach including and trips will work as a first point of departure,
a few sociological elements is used in a thesis on and statements and reasoning about choice of
telework, ‘virtual mobility and pollution preven- workplace location as a second.
tion’ by Peter Arnfalk (2002).
To sum up, our review indicates that research on established iCts as travel-
evolving social practices and patterns that include Saving or not
(widespread) use of ICTs have until now, to any
substantial extent, not been coupled with research Bonnie is editor-in-chief of a lifestyle magazine
on environmentally significant social practices. In published by a major, Swedish publishing com-
the analysis of our fieldwork we intend to strive pany. Erica is marketing director for global product
for such a coupling. development at a major, Swedish telecommunica-
tions company. In the following we will compare
their use of meetings, e-mail and telephone.
buSineSS aS uSual Bonnie claimed that she seldom goes to
meetings outside the office. She said that a very
Authorities and companies are becoming increas- important part of her work is to keep in contact
ingly involved in using technological possibilities with co-workers and freelance staff that produce
to reduce travel and improve efficiency among the pictures, text and design for the magazine.
their staff. Achieving environmental sustainability, Some co-workers and all freelancers have their
or at least carbon neutrality, is one of the most workplaces outside the magazine’s office. Bon-
important motives behind this today, at least in nie does not normally need to see them in person
theory. We want to shed light on what can happen if since ideas and lines of approach are discussed
such plans or ambitions are put into practice. How via telephone, while draft and finished materials
do they fit in with everyday work-life realities? are sent via e-mail. Therefore she and the free-
When and for whom is it possible to substitute lance staff do not need to travel much in order to
communications for travel? cooperate.2
The idea behind our empirical analysis is to go Erica on the other hand travels extensively
into detail with the work life conditions among a in her work, both for meetings and to perform
few individuals to find out how they use, relate work in other cities and countries. Her work
and adapt to different means of communications, tasks relate to development and promotion of new
meetings and work place locations. One of our products and business solutions. In the interview
procedures is to compare interviewees in pairs. she mentioned being responsible for an upcoming
From the individual cases we generalize in terms marketing event in India. She also reported a recent
210
three-week stay with colleagues at the research An interesting fact is that Bonnie expressed
& development office in Montreal, Canada. But strong dissatisfaction with certain types of e-mail.
more frequent than her stays abroad is travel for Bonnie claims that she can receive repeated e-
meetings and seminars in the Stockholm region. mails advertising a certain consumer product.
Included are frequent internal meetings at the She welcomes such advertising for products to a
company. Erica claimed that much of her time certain degree, since the magazine carries a lot of
is spent in seeking knowledge and in embedding editorial material on fashion, food, etc. However,
ideas and decisions internally. Bennie’s concrete example concerned a product
This brief comparison shows that Erica seems on which she had recently received too much
to travel more and have more meetings than Bon- information, in far too many e-mail messages.
nie. It also seems that this is related to different kind The fact that Bonnie can draw these boundaries
of work tasks. When asked about their options for between interesting, acceptable and unwelcome
avoiding travel and substituting telecommunica- or excessive in what can be assumed to be rather
tions for meetings, Bonnie consequently estimated similar types of e-mail indicates that her criteria
her options in more optimistic terms than Erica. are well defined. She appears to apply a criterion
Erica cannot use e-mail and telephone in the same linked to potential material for a future edition of
way as Bonnie in order to ‘be efficient’ and keep the magazine regarding what is important e-mail.
travel to a minimum level.3 This method of dealing with her e-mails appears
But we noticed that their reports on meetings in turn to be linked to a relatively structured and
and possible work in different locations did not cyclical work schedule. This includes e.g., keep-
fully account for the nature of work tasks and net- ing in contact with co-workers and freelance staff,
working behind their different practices. Therefore discussing ideas and commissioning the material
we continue by presenting their views on handling that will make up a new issue of the magazine
e-mail, which we think add to the picture. every fortnight.
Erica also raised concrete e-mail messages as
the use of e-mail an example. One of these contained an invitation
to a seminar that appeared to be of interest to
In regards to e-mail, editor-in-chief Bonnie reported her, so she attended. However, it proved to be of
that she manages her inbox systematically and actu- minor interest and Erica felt that she had wasted
ally writes replies to all e-mails where the sender her time. The mistake of attending the seminar
could expect a reply. Marketing director Erica on can be linked to Erica having to continuously
the other hand said that she is quite passive in her assess and reassess what is, or could be, useful
e-mail handling. She does not have time to deal with information. This uncertainty regarding what is
all her e-mails and therefore counts on the sender more or less relevant affects her way of dealing
getting in contact again, possibly in another way, with her e-mail. Erica does not have criteria for
if she fails to respond to something important. sorting her e-mail as clear as Bennie’s. Neverthe-
The difference between Erica and Bennie’s less, Erica reported to have at least one way of
e-mail handling presumably reflects a range that prioritizing, a function in her e-mail program that
exists among the working population as a whole. diverts mail addressed to her alone to a particular
Some want to and can be consistent, while others folder to which she pays more attention.
more or less abandon full checks of their inbox. In Bonnie’s and Erica’s approaches, we see
These differences could be linked to personal a pattern as regards the relationship between the
disposition, but it appears that the work role is work role and use of communication. This pattern
significant. was repeated in our other interviews with profes-
211
sional people. To some extent all the interviewees gies (Brembeck et al., 2007). In this network of
had concrete end-goals for their work, something project creation, different forms of communication
that they supply, so to speak. An auditor supplied are used for different purposes.
audited end-of-year accounts to companies. Two The handling of communication (in this case
experts at an authority produced documents that e-mail) can also be considered on the basis of, the
provide decision support for politicians. Sales by de Certeau (1984) paired concepts of strategy
agents had sales contracts with customers as the and tactics. De Certeau uses strategy to denote the
end-goal for their activities, and so on. formalized and accepted, while tactics deal with
However, there were degrees of difference the incidental (c.f. Högdahl, 2003). Strategies are
between the amounts of work that was actually applied from the basis of a platform constructed
devoted to completion of the end product. These by, e.g., an authority or a company, from which
degrees of difference can be said to cover a range they can define the surrounding environment (de
between two poles. At one pole, workers devote Certeau, 1984). However a tactic is based on a
the majority of their time to creating and main- calculation or reckoning by someone who cannot
taining contacts and to seeking knowledge that is rely on a spatial or institutional location of their
only occasionally of direct benefit to something own. The tactic has no given base and thus has
that they supply (although it may prove valuable to seize the moment.
in the long term). At the other pole are those that It can therefore be concluded on the basis of
we believe devote the majority of their time to the the comparative examples above that Bonnie
concrete creation of products that they regularly relies on the strategy of using a lot of e-mailing
deliver. and telephoning and few meetings in her contact
In the case of editor-in-chief Bonnie, we would with her co-workers. The classification as strategy
tend to place her quite close to the latter, the con- works here since, according to Bonnie, it involves
crete delivery pole, while Erica at the telecommu- ways of communication that have been built up
nications company would be placed near the pole together with the actual magazine, by its found-
at which most time goes to information handling ers. This strategy is adapted to the work task,
and contact creation rather than the execution and particularly in view of the fortnightly production
completion of well-defined work duties. of new issues of the magazine.
The differing work roles and communication The fact that Erica seems rather passive in her
strategies of Bonnie and Erica as we have outlined handling of her e-mail inbox can be regarded as
them can also be expressed in actor-network- a tactic she uses to manage communications at
theory (ANT) terms. Bonnie is involved in the work. Erica also tries to tactically choose which
running of a mature, commercial project, namely meetings she attends and which trips she makes to
the publication of a magazine. Erica’s role can be maintain contact with her co-workers. Work duties
viewed more as involvement in the design of new of a knowledge- and contact-creating character and
projects (e.g., business ideas) and driving them the company’s organization and internal culture
toward the kind of maturity that the magazine both appear to lie behind the need Erica and her
project already has. Erica needs to enroll other colleagues have for face-to-face meetings. The
actants (both human and non-human) within and meeting culture at the company and the need for
outside the company. She also gets drawn into internal embedding should thus be viewed as some-
other people’s projects, in ANT terminology this what strategic, but at the same time problematic
means that there is a process of translation when from certain aspects such as cost-effectiveness,
projects spread in space and time and new links since a lot of trips and working time for meetings
are created between people, ideas and technolo- quite simply amount to a lot of expenses.
212
We can see that these two persons have very or renting premises. After a couple of months
different opportunities for controlling their amount Niklas decided to rent a room in an office hotel
of travel, if they want to do this for personal, close to where he lives. He says that an important
social or environmental reasons. And actually reason for this was that he wanted to break up his
Erica travels much more on duty than Bonnie daily commuter trips. By travelling to the hotel
does. This seems to be very much due to the first and start his working day there, he avoids the
nature of the difference in their work duties. We rush hour traffic into the city. He therefore also
chose the two persons as examples to illustrate a books all his meetings in town for ten o’clock or
span in compatibility between demands or wishes later and drives his car into the city when the rush
for limited travel and the real life conditions for hour has passed. Through the choice of the local
actually achieving such goals. office hotel, Niklas achieves a sort of flexibility
This means that we have exemplified how es- and convenience in the organization of his travel-
tablished ICTs like e-mail can be used to balance dependent work.
the use of business trips for meetings. We will Two other interviewees, Zachary and Jonathan,
now in parallel look at how workplace locations work with the hardware side of the IT sector, i.e.,
can be used to balance the use of business trips for companies trading in components for, e.g.,
for meetings. We will then use some of our other computers and mobile phones. Zachary’s task is
interviews (that we found more fit to illustrate to arrange annual contracts, e.g., for a new phone
this specific theme). model. His company produces new components
or modifies old. He says that he travels a lot with
Choice of Workplace location his work. The year before the interview he had
110 travel days and was in the USA, England,
Above we have exemplified choices between Germany, Denmark and Norway. Where he travels
going to meetings and telecommunicating in depends on where the customers (and subcontrac-
different work roles and situations. The choice tors) are located.
of workplace location arises more seldom than Jonathan works with ‘marketing and major
the choice of means of communication. Whether customer sales’ and says that his employer is
workplace location becomes a choice or not seems a world leader in its niche, sales of hard discs
to be a matter of the individual’s position and for computers. This means that his work duties
work tasks. Let us exemplify by comparing the are similar to Zachary’s. Their total number of
situation of three other interviewees. flights and travel days are also approximately
Niklas is a consultant and managing director of the same.
a small company that he runs with two partners. He The companies Zachary and Jonathan work for
says his work consists of helping other organiza- have no headquarters in Scandinavia (but in other
tions function well and efficiently, and that this is parts of the world, where they have many employ-
partly concerned with computers. The systems and ees). According to Zachary most of the company’s
applications that the companies use must operate employees, with work duties similar to his, work
in a satisfactory way for their businesses. from home. But when Zachary started his job he
Niklas lives in a suburb of Stockholm and requested an office hotel place close to his home,
travels into the city almost every day in order to which was granted by his new employer.
meet and work with his clients. His situation was Jonathan and one or two colleagues first
similar when he was employed, just before he manned an office in Kista (a suburb north of
started the company. Then he and his two partners Stockholm where most of the ICT and telecom
considered options of having their offices at home companies in the region have clustered). When
213
he got new work tasks (described above) he was space across physical distance in the global econ-
asked by his employer to move to the company’s omy do not destroy space but in fact intensify the
headquarters in Munich. But Jonathan instead sug- impact of space in constituting successful global
gested that he should work from home, which is a workplaces (Ó’Riain, 2004:17).
detached house in a suburb northeast of Stockholm, Ó’Riain refers to some extent to the individual,
and this request was granted. but mainly to the work group. The group, or at
Like Niklas, both Zachary and Jonathan there- least parts of it, needs to be physically gathered
fore seem to compensate for numerous business to do a good job, and they presumably also need
journeys through the choice of close-to-home a rewarding social environment around them. In
locations for their respective base offices. Their Zachary’s and Jonathan’s cases it is clear that the
close-to-home offices they use telephone (some- formal work group is seldom gathered. It is rather
times teleconferences) and e-mail to communicate the individuals who have chosen and requires the
with colleagues and business contacts. local roots. Arranging large contracts for the sup-
This shows that professionals who can choose ply of hard discs or circuit boards is naturally a
workplace location are, e.g., sales agents, consul- completely different role from creating programs
tants or other self-employed persons (from other and applications. Sales staff, agents or distributors
interviews auditors, journalists, publishers, in- seem to be able to work alone to a large extent.
novators, forestry traders and others were noted). However Jonathan reported that the company
Among those not self-employed, sales agents were regularly has a type of computer-based telephone
in majority, the only deviating example being a conference, where departments in different parts of
person who was a maintenance person within the world report on their respective operations.
the IT sector. The motives these three professionals ex-
However it is interesting to note that within pressed behind their choices of workplace location
a given sector only certain work roles seem to were both social and practical. Zachary’s motives
admit choosing workplace location. For instance, behind the choice of the office hotel were mainly
other people than sales agents within the IT sector related to his family situation. The same actually
may not so easily choose to work on their own, goes for Niklas and Jonathan, although the latter
although the sector is relatively young and to chose to have his office at home. The types of
some extent groundbreaking as regards working factors that swung the decision were of the same
conditions. Time, space and boundaries between type. They all mentioned:
private and professional can take on partly new
forms, as shown by Willim (2002) and Ó’Riain • Family situation (small children)
(2004). In a study of a group of software providers • Form of residence (detached house or
in Ireland, the latter showed that physical presence apartment)
on the local shared workplace and work time are • Extensive travel with work, leading to a
very important, despite the fact that managers, wish to avoid daily commuter trips com-
co-workers and sub-contractors, in the studied pletely (as a kind of compensation)
actual case, are on the other side of the Atlantic. • Attitude to social interaction at work.
According to Ó’Riain, another distinguishing
feature is the pressures from the global economy The second point seems to have differed
in which the work groups are involved: between them, since Zachary explicitly claimed
However, these pressures actually make local living in an apartment with small children as a
space and social context all the more important. reason for not wanting to work from home. Niklas
The speed-up of time and the extension of social on the other hand started by working from home,
214
but after a couple of months he “felt he needed have been discussed for a couple of decades. The
a workplace to go to.” Niklas did not explicitly ideas behind these have been to give collaborative,
mention whether his small child and the work situ- economical and practical prerequisites for small
ation of his wife affected this decision. Jonathan, companies and to support businesses in non-urban
finally, said that since he was travelling a lot he felt regions. The commercial form of such shared
comfortable with being close to the children and office premises is often called office hotel and
their kindergarten when being in Stockholm. exists in some suburbs of Stockholm.
Concerning the fourth point above Jonathan We selected a couple of our interviewees that
also differed from the other two, which can be had their main working places in office hotels.
illustrated by a quote from the interview. Among these interviewees were Niklas and Zach-
Jonathan: “This thing about the social side ary that have already been presented. The unusual-
of work, I get so much of that when I travel. I ness or particularity in their use of suburban office
am not used to going to an office that is full of hotels seemed to lie in the following aspects:
workmates chatting. Instead I travel to Munich or
London or wherever and go into our offices there. • Independent work roles – working on one’s
I have a few workmates who I chat to there, but own responsibility
otherwise there is a lot that goes on by telephone • An individual aspiration to keep the daily
in any case.” commuting distance short
Just like balancing “staying in one place” with • The suburban office hotel as an alternative/
“frequent work related trips,” balancing “social complement to working from home, offer-
stimulation” with “being on one’s own” seemed ing advantages in terms of social, adminis-
important for their socially grounded choices. trative and technological resources
We have seen how professionals like the sales • The joint location and pooling of resources
agents, a consultant, an editor-in-chief and a mar- for businesses/individuals that are of dif-
keting director have higher or lower demands on ferent nature and independent from each
mobility in their work life. Some of them handle other
these demands, e.g., by choosing workplace loca-
tion (if they have the opportunity) and all of them Niklas and especially Zachary clearly stated
by choosing different means of communication that the social aspects were important; they liked
for different kinds of business contacts. In short, having other people working around them. They
they maintain and modify social practices while also mentioned positive features like being able to
carrying on business as usual. However, two ele- express ideas in a mixed group and not just meet
ments, in the individual work-life cases presented one’s ‘own people.’Another advantage with the of-
above we consider as unusual. This is the use of fice hotel they saw in the access to a work address.
an office hotel close to home and the extensive A home address is not so imposing – ‘people can
use of video mediated communication. think that you only have half an eye on the job,’
said Zachary. His employer has also recognized
that the office hotel is a good base for colleagues
unuSual uSe and managers on visits to Scandinavia.
Historically the attraction of working in an
Suburban office hotels office has been associated with the office envi-
ronment and its visible prestige, although office
Visions of local, cooperative or commercial work- work in itself has not always been perceived as
places for office work, named, e.g., telecottages, glamorous (Conradsson, 1988). For many, work-
215
ing in the big city has been an important attraction. the city centre) were to become common, it would
Traditionally, one of the perceived advantages of contribute toward altering use of time and space
offices has been that they have been located in in the business sector. This involves (yet) another
the big city and have offered proximity to, e.g., mechanism of change, according to Shove. She
business, commerce and entertainment. The refers to it as a creep (sliding) concerning the feel-
value of the central position of offices was prob- ing for what is proper, normal and necessary. This
ably devalued somewhat in line with expansion hardly visible process of change arises from many
of suburban living. On the other hand, the daily individuals’ management of time pressures.
movement behavior of many suburban-dwelling Shove believes that the convenience spiral
office workers can fulfill a need for change, often leads to fragmentation and individualization,
providing both mobility and permanence (Vil- resulting in increased use of resources, but that it
helmson, 2002). can go both ways. In the case of telecommuting
The dream of the office has probably become and working from home/office hotel, we believe
weaker with the construction of increasing num- that it can also involve positive developments
bers of offices on the outskirts of cities in recent from a resource viewpoint.
decades. However, there are surely expectations Commuter travel deals with presence at work,
of access to commerce, lunch restaurants and with arriving at work, with the transition between
entertainment, in which case these should be leisure and work. It is a question of a transformation
significant for the location and attractiveness of service, of going from absence to presence. Com-
the office hotel. muter trips are the transition – one ‘travels’ from
The ethnologist Conradsson writes that his- one social context to another, even if one stays at
torically, the choice of workplace often have ap- home and goes down to an office in the basement,
peared to be random, with many ending up in a or simply removes the breakfast dishes from the
specific firm because it ‘was closest’ (Conradsson, kitchen table and puts a laptop there instead. We
1988:73). There is a parallel to the office hotel are socialized into this interplay, but at the same
here, as the majority of those we interviewed had time the conditions for it are changing. New sectors
chosen a particular office hotel because it was and changes in production relations can give rise
closest to them. to new conditions for work and also for the social
Another perspective on the choice of the office interaction between work and leisure.
hotel is Elisabeth Shove’s (2003a) discussions The point that can be considered as regards
on convenience and time shifting. The concept commuter trips is that it is the structure rather than
of convenience includes, e.g., that the advent the actors that primarily determines when, where
of e-mail has provided certain opportunities to and how they are carried out. Being at work is
shift time. determined by formal structures that we perhaps
What the workers in the three cases elected do not think about in daily life. However, they can
do when they chose to work in an office hotel or become apparent when conflicts or crisis points
home was to tinker a little with the spatio-temporal arise. The Swedish teaching body can be seen as
structure of their work life. They use services and an example. Teaching is a category of profession
technologies that offer ease and convenience – e.g., with a long tradition of working from home. The
e-mail, car and telephone – in order to increase attractive power of the profession consists partly of
their individual free scope. the distinction between bound time (teaching) and
One could imagine that if the strategy em- free time (school holidays and planning/marking).
ployed by consultant Niklas (of avoiding rush This degree of freedom was questioned and altered
hour traffic by having a workplace half-way in to in 1994 when the teachers’ trade union agreed a
216
contract with the employers on having ‘workplace- also civil servants employed by authorities. For
located time,’ which in fact meant that they were them other kind of patterns showed. Meeting
provided office desks in the schools and were cultures within the authorities seemed crucial,
obliged to do a certain amount of their preparatory as did formal regulations and job descriptions.
work there. The amount of time that teachers could These factors affected how much they needed to
still work from home was quantified to nine hours or could be in their main place of work, travel or
per week and labeled ‘trust time,’ i.e., the time that work from home. However, those employed by
the teachers have their employer’s trust to carry out authorities also had freedom frameworks within
traditional work on their own. this structure. They could choose to travel on
Within most other organizations that have work trips or not to a certain extent, while even
wished to keep up with the times the develop- in position at their desk they could control their
ment has gone in the opposite direction, toward a use of the available forms of communication as
higher proportion of distance working and ‘trust they wished. An illustrative example was that one
time’ (time that is not workplace-located and that of them reported that even for communication
is often the subject of contracts). with colleagues working in the same building,
In relation to our material, it can be discussed the telephone was a common choice.
how the social control on sales personnel, con- Returning to the office hotel, one motive for
sultants and staff of various authorities doing choosing this was to avoid rush hour traffic, con-
their job is exerted. At the office hotel there gestion and time-consuming travel to work. This
were one-man companies where people were is interesting in relation to the fact that the main
self-determining, but at the same time they were alternative to working in an office hotel was to
dependent on, or had undertakings in relation to, work from home. It is thus not clear how the motive
suppliers, customers etc. Travel opportunities and of avoiding rush hour traffic is involved. In this
forms of communication can both be regarded as case the concept of transition services can offer
services that are used to adopt different positions an explanatory perspective. Transforming oneself
in relation to interacting actors. into a professional at work is made easier by the
When the consultant Niklas, e.g., received facilities and the social structure that the office
a call one morning via the office hotel’s recep- hotel provides. The actual trip is also important as
tionist, then both forms of communication, the a transformation from a private to a work mode.
first commuter trip of the day and the premises, Even a short trip can fulfill such a need, particularly
transformed Niklas into a consultant in his of- if one can self-justify one’s choice by pointing out
fice. The structural side of this means, e.g., that the problems with other alternatives (commuting
individual responsibility and a certain freedom is in to the city in rush hour traffic).
associated with company form. Niklas was able The question of the approach to the trip between
to create his own organization in space and time home and the workplace also encompasses an in-
as long as he had the confidence of his clients. teresting complexity since extensive work travel,
However, in practice his timetable is also con- in Europe, appears to be linked to the attitude that
trolled by the fact that he spends a lot of time at one wishes to avoid unnecessary travel. This means
his clients’ premises. that work trips are not disengaged from private
If one looks at the other categories of profes- trips (as commuter trips are formally classified).
sion, then, e.g., sales personnel are not self-em- If someone thinks that they travel a lot in one way,
ployed, but their spatio-temporal freedom within they can choose to try to compensate for this by
responsibilities is a result of the mobile nature of travelling less in the other.
their work duties. Among the interviewees were
217
Figure 1. Distance meeting place (DMP) for the Public Employment Service. © 2006 Photograph:
Charlie Gullström. Used with permission.
Distance meeting places as Some years ago, the Swedish Public Employ-
Substitutes for travel ment Service was requested to provide equal access
to all clients and offer service in the most efficient
In the debate on sustainable development, video way possible. However, it was not economically
conferencing and other concepts for virtual meet- possible to man all the offices on equal terms.
ings are seen as possible ways to create connec- The employment agency in Dalarna needed a new
tions and offer communicative surfaces between solution for sparsely populated areas in northern
co-workers at a distance. The same underlying parts of the county and gradually decided to run
technology may be used for different purposes. the development project ‘Service, Development
Similar technology may be used for short-term, and Communication Dalarna.’This led to so-called
focused activities, but also for long-term, less distance meeting places, a solution to accessibility
focused activities in order to provide and sup- that is now used in eight office environments at
port casual, informal interaction between work the Public Employment Services in Idre, Orsa,
groups and allow peripheral background aware- Sälen, Särna, Vansbro and Älvdalen (connected
ness to remote sites and the situation of others to the main offices in Malung and Mora).
(e.g. Dourish & Bly, 1992; Gaver et al., 1992) It is regulated that each new jobseeker needs
as well as to establish and maintain long-term to register in person at the employment agency.
working relationships and collaboration between People living in the sparsely populated areas
geographically scattered groups of people (e.g. have had an exemption, a possibility to make the
Gaver, 1992; Mantei et al., 1991). initial contact with the employment agency via
218
telephone. However, this had to be followed up Dalarna, around 20 000 conversations between the
with a scheduled meeting in person within two employment agency and jobseekers have taken
weeks. But since the introduction of the new so- place via the DMP during the past two years.
lution, people at all six locations can make new These have been relatively good times on the em-
declarations of unemployment on every weekday ployment market and many of those temporarily
through registering themselves as jobseekers via unemployed in Dalarna have returned to work.
the distance meeting place (hereafter referred to The employment agency and jobseekers both
as the DMP). The DMP consists of a small room appear to have generally accepted the new way
or an enclosed space. In the prototype used in of arranging unemployment declarations.
the project, image and data transfer technology is The personnel at the Public Employment
available, brought together in a unit (see illustra- Service and their directors are happy with the
tion). This unit has been designed together with us- change since they have been able to cut down on
ers as a part of the development project mentioned travel (Moberg, Hedberg, Henriksson, Räsänen,
above. The unit holds a semi-opaque, one square & Westermark, 2008). They mainly save on ex-
meter-sized mirror, behind which is a TV screen. penses, but also on travel time and fuel, and have
Underneath there is a camera, which creates an thus decreased the environmental impact of their
image of the user via the mirror. The result is that operations. Jobseekers mainly save on expenses
people can communicate via something that can and travel time (if they would otherwise have trav-
be described as a two-way, large-screen TV with elled to a central location) and have also acquired
the possibility of direct eye contact.4 an increased flexibility in time as regards access
The demonstration in Dalarna had differ- to the services of the employment agency.
ent consequences in different places. While an Of more general interest with the example from
employment office provided service only a few Dalarna are the power and time/space aspects.
hours per week (e.g., one afternoon), the service One can assume that an introduction into other
via DMPs is now available daily, e.g., 9.00-15.00 companies and for other types of meetings this
on Mondays and 9.00-12.00 on Tuesdays-Fridays. will also be dependent on such aspects. It will
In the town Särna, for example, the DMP was probably seldom be a question of simply ‘replacing
perceived as an improvement, compared with trips.’ The use of technology is involved in and
travelling 120 kilometers to Mora or managing dependent on social and institutional relations. It is
to register during one of the few hours the office also dependent on the opportunities and demands
was previously manned by a visiting employ- people experience in relation to reorganizing their
ment agent. daily presence in time and space.
However, residents in Orsa perceived the Whenever technology is introduced the issue
service via DMP in more negative terms. The of technical capacity and quality is often raised.
employment office in Orsa was previously a Low user-friendliness, access to information
manned office where people could make drop-in and resources, data transfer capacity, image and
visits at certain times to declare themselves un- sound quality, etc. are pointed out as obstacles
employed. Now it is not longer possible to make to increased use of communication solutions to
unemployment declarations in person. However, replace travel. One way to test the actual impor-
this is still possible in what many regard as the tance of technical obstacles is to monitor projects
favored central location of Mora, 17 kilometers in which attempts are being made to overcome
from Orsa (Räsänen, 2006). some of these obstacles. Was there a technical
The DMPs have now been used for a few years. obstacle here, and if so, how was it overcome? The
According to the Public Employment Services in obstacle was not only, perhaps not even primarily,
219
technical. Rather it was formal, since telephone ogy, the transition to commercial operation can be
and other means of communication are not suitable referred to as a compulsory point of passage for the
for new declarations of unemployment. Declar- employment agency’s distance service. However,
ing one’s presence via telephone or the Internet it is not a choice between a distance employment
would present (too) many opportunities to bend agency and none, but a choice between various
the formal regulations. With the site-specific methods of handling communications. This transi-
and unique link-ups and the DMPs, this risk is tion should probably occur via a solution to the
decreased. In ANT terms, a detour or a new path problem of obtaining more permanent access to
is created past the compulsory point of passage the fiber network at a reasonable price. This is
of the jobseeker having to be present. This shows also necessary in order to allow more users and
that the obstacle to distance declarations of un- use on a larger scale.
employment was formal or institutional, while The factor that decreases the significance of
the solution consisted of a decision on principle quality, or at least the possibility to evaluate it,
linked with a certain technology. It is thus not is thus the specific regulations that apply for the
the quality of the communication that should be employment agency and unemployment benefits.
regarded as the launching point but the possibil- Therefore any comparison between the traditional
ity to observe the regulations through a type of and the groundbreaking alternative should deal
check of presence in time and space (although the with something beyond the difference between
mediated meeting must maintain a certain quality an actual and a mediated meeting, particularly
in order to be ‘approved’). since neither the staff nor the jobseeker has been
However, this does not mean that the quality able to choose between these alternatives but has
is uninteresting. In the area in question, compa- had to respond to a given change.
nies, societies and other operators in the public The changes that have occurred can thus be
sector have shown an interest in the DMPs. Dif- discussed with the help of Shove’s concepts of
ferent activities perceive different opportunities convenience and time shifting. As well as com-
with the technology and therefore the quality is munication technologies in general, this specialist
significant. technology for a specialist area of application
At the same time, there are currently economic provides opportunities to work with presence in
and organizational obstacles to its use being spread relation to other activities, demands and possibili-
to new areas. The technology and its use are not ties in daily life. The reports from the use of the
generally distributed. The DMPs can be hanging DMP at the job agencies also reveal that a num-
by a slender thread, since it is not the ordinary ber of factors are different since its introduction.
Internet that is used but technology with a higher For example, the time used per new application/
capacity for data transfer. However, the problem meeting has decreased. We will not discuss this
is not a lack of free capacity in the network of in any further detail except to say that this should
optic and electronic fibers, but rather that the be related to the fact that mediated meetings and
way of using this fiber network is pioneering. electronic presence are always qualitatively dif-
It is not an established product and there is no ferent from physical presence in real life.
specified market price for it. Since the distance
employment agency has been a special develop-
ment project from the outset, the actors involved ConCluSion
have succeeded in creating a route bypassing this
organizational (economically, legally and collab- The different examples discussed in this chapter
oratively) obstacle.5 According to ANT terminol- can be regarded as projects in the ANT sense
220
of the concept. Publication of a magazine is a an environmental dimension, which would mean

project, administering new declarations of un- restricting certain travel.
employment is another, etc. The use of an office In the study of the office hotel, it became ap-
at a certain location or of certain communication parent that the location of the office hotel was
technology is included as one of many elements based on individual desires and decisions. One
in each such project. It has become apparent from can therefore refer to individual projects.
the case studies that the issues of place and form Locating one’s self at an office hotel proved
of communication involve power aspects. For to be one way, at least for some, of optimizing
example, the editor-in-chief and the employment their individual daily life project. Here the power
agents could avoid trips by either having others perspective is different. It deals with people whose
travel to them or by using a certain form of com- work roles provide an opportunity to choose that
munication. which most people cannot choose – where their
Bruno Latour (1998b) claims that technology workplace is based. Organizations and companies
renders society sustainable. However, when us- have different reasons for exerting power over
ing the concept of sustainability, Latour refers to where their employees should be while they are
stability from the viewpoint of power relations. working. In order to create sustainable travel in
Sustainable as in sustainable development is Stockholm, working from home or a local of-
something different. For example, one can say that fice hotel on a large scale would be an excellent
the employment agency in Dalarna has become possibility with which to experiment. However
more ecologically sustainable (as in sustainable just now this does not appear to be of interest
development) with the help of the DMPs, since to employers to any great extent. In relation to
the environmentally damaging trips for new dec- the need of individual life projects for spatial
larations have decreased. At the same time, the proximity, the role that central localization of the
employment agency, as it appears at present, has workforce plays in company projects is therefore
also become more sustainable in Latour’s meaning, an obstacle.
since the formal regulation that jobseekers must In conclusion, it also transpired that ICT use
be present in person to declare their unemploy- played a limited role in the interviewees’ choice
ment can now be circumvented with the help of of locating themselves at an office hotel. Instead,
technology. On the other hand, it is not known how it was specialist work roles and career possibilities
stable this relationship is. For example, technology in combination with family circumstances, social
can prove to be vulnerable and lose its power to needs and ‘travel fatigue’ that lay behind their
fulfill the legal requirements. choice. As regards the scope of commuter travel,
The double meaning of the concept of sustain- for those interviewed it proved to be dependent
ability indicates that sustainable development on the extent of other types of trips. It appeared
is linked to power. Use of technology can, and to involve a type of balancing act whereby, e.g.,
probably should in certain cases, be controlled extensive business travel was compensated for
by various means of power in order to achieve by reduced commuter travel. The interviewees
social and environmental sustainability. At the belonged to categories of profession that provided
same time, technology in itself acts as a power the potential to alter their commuter travel through
factor. It may be necessary to dismantle or phase their choice of workplace.
out a technology that proves to counteract sustain- Variations in the need and motive for com-
able development. There can also be a conflict munications and work trips from this contrasting
between a social dimension of sustainability, example thus appear to be linked to the concrete
e.g., the right to participate and influence, and practices involved in work tasks and work roles.
221
Work tasks that involve a certain product being created for dealing with issues concerning what
regularly supplied by the employee are associated determines the balance between being physically
with clearly defined needs and motives. The clarity present at a site, travelling and communicating
is due partly to the product being well delineated across space and time. Two people with different
and defined, and partly to the work tasks being jobs in different branches can probably have ways
traditional and forming part of projects, compa- of working that are practically identical from a
nies or sectors that have achieved a high degree communications perspective. At the same time,
of maturity. two people with precisely the same job can have
When the work task is to achieve ‘something completely different communication patterns. It
new,’ it can be less clear what the employee should is also not possible to simply base suppositions
deliver as a result of their work. The lower degree or strategies for reducing travel on the formal job
of maturity can mean that the clarity decreases description. This seldom coincides completely
and the complexity increases. This affects how with the type of results people are trying to achieve
the individual travels and communicates in or- in the execution of their work or the concrete
der to complete the task. Work tasks with a high ways of working and methods that they use in
component of creativity, knowledge seeking and/ practice. One challenge is therefore to define in
or collaboration can in general be expected to a relevant way work tasks in relation to forms of
give great variation in how trips, meetings and communication.
electronic communication are used. It can simply In addition, by looking beyond the use of ICT
be the case that these types of tasks give rise to and ICT itself we can start seeing the relation-
extensive travelling that is rather difficult to con- ship between agency and structure (cf. Giddens
vert to other forms of communication. 1984/2004). The individuals participate in estab-
The examples of differences between various lishing and reproducing the practices that may
types of work tasks or work roles outlined above become part of everyday life and of institutional-
do not necessarily correspond to the differences ized practices. We have pointed out a direction
between much and little, or between difficult and in which analyses could move to bridge the gap
easily rectified. However the correlation between between individual (but not any particular indi-
the concrete practice of the work role and choice vidual) and societal (structural) points of views.
of communication method is clear. The maturity We believe that different analytical methods for
aspect is one of several aspects that are influential. understanding the individual’s actions are neces-
Another is the power aspect. In both the private sary to understand how the technology is (or is
and the public sector, there are many examples of not) used and embedded in everyday practices.
how power relations control who is expected to Frameworks for the purpose of studying envi-
travel or communicate in a certain way. Not having ronmental and social sustainability need to be
to travel or being able to restrict how accessible developed further. Then they can provide us with
one is via telephone and computer communica- an analytic terminology for linking individual
tion can, e.g., be an expression of an influential practices to the context in which they occur. That
and stable position. will help us to discuss not solely the practices of
In order to evaluate the possibility of replacing workplaces, but also to ask questions about what
work trips with mediated communication, working kind of “fundamental” processes the employees
practices need to be studied on a detailed level. It participate in and contribute to.
is not sufficient to simply base such studies on the
traditional subdivisions into different branches,
jobs and functions. Such subdivisions were not
222
referenCeS Gaver, W. W. (1992). The Affordances of Media

Spaces for Collaboration. In Proceedings of the
Arnfalk, P. (2002). Virtual Mobility and Pollu- 1992 ACM conference on Computer-supported
tion Prevention. Lund, Sweden: The International Cooperative Work (pp. 17-24).
Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics,
Lund University. Giddens, A. (1984/2004). The Constitution of Soci-
ety. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Bentley, R., Hughes, J. A., Randall, D., Rodden, T.,
Sawyer, P., Shapiro, D., & Sommerville, I. (1992). Glad, W. (2008). Individuell mätning - mjuk reglering
Ethnographically-Informed System Design for Air för minskad energianvändning i hyreslägenheter. In
Traffic Control. In Proceedings of the 1992 ACM Vardagsteknik: energi och IT: forskning om hållbar
Conference on Computer-supported Cooperative användning av samhällets IT- och energisystem.
Work (pp. 123-129). Stockholm: Carlsson.
Brembeck, H., Ekström, K. M., & Mörck, M. (2007). Grübler, A. (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastruc-
Shopping with Humans and Non-humans. In H. tures. Heidelberg, Germany: Physica-Verlag.
Brembeck, K. M. Ekström & M. Mörck (Eds.), Little Hansson, S. O. (2007). What is technological sci-
monsters: (de)coupling assemblages of consumption. ence? Studies in History and Philosophy of Science,
Berlin: Lit Verlag. 38, 523–527. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2007.06.003
Chalmers, M. (2004). A Historical View of Context. Heath, C., Hindmarsh, J., & Luff, P. (1999). Inter-
Journal of Computer Supported Cooperative Work, action in Isolation: The Dislocated World of the
13(3), 223–247. doi:10.1007/s10606-004-2802-8 London Underground Train Driver. Sociology,
Conradsson, B. (1988). Kontorsfolket. Etnologiska 33(3), 555–575.
bilder av livet på kontor. Stockholm, Sweden: Nor- Heath, C., & Luff, P. (1992). Collaboration and
diska museet. Etnologiska institutionen, Stockholms Control: Crisis Management and Multimedia
universitet. Technology in London Underground Line Control
de Certeau, M. (1984). The practice of everyday life. Rooms. Journal of Computer Supported Coopera-
Los Angeles: University of California Press. tive Works, 1(1), 24–48.
Dourish, P., & Bly, S. (1992). Portholes: Supporting Henriksson, G. (2008). Stockholmarnas resvanor -
Awareness in a Distributed Work Group. In Proceed- mellan trängselskatt och klimatdebatt. Stockholm:
ings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors Avdelningen för miljöstrategisk analys – fms, KTH
in computing systems (pp. 541-547). Royal Institute of Technology. TRITA-INFRA-FMS
No., 2008, 5.
Garfinkel, H. (1967/2002). Studies in Ethnomethod-
ology. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Högdahl, E. (2003). Göra gata. Om gränser och
kryphål på Möllevången och i Kapstaden. Gid-
Gaver, W., Moran, T., MacLean, A., Lövstrand, L., lunds förlag. Etnologiska institutionen, Lunds
Dourish, P., Carter, K., & Buxton, W. (1992). Real- universitet.
izing a Video Environment: Europarc’s Rave System.
In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Latour, B. (1998a). Artefaktens återkomst. Ett möte
Factors in Computing Systems, (pp. 27-35). mellan organisationsteori och tingens sociologi.
Stockholm: Nerenius & Santérus förlag.
223
Latour, B. (1998b). Teknik är samhället som gjorts Räsänen, M. (2007). Islands of Togetherness: Rewrit-
hållbart. In Artefaktens återkomst. Ett möte mellan ing Context Analysis. Stockholm: Royal Institute of
organisationsteori och tingens sociologi. Stockholm: technology, KTH.
Nerenius & Santérus förlag.
Räsänen, M., & Nyce, J. M. (2008). Rewriting
Mantei, M. M., Baecker, R. M., Sellen, A. J., Buxton, Context and Analysis: Bringing Anthropology into
W.A. S., Milligan, T., & Wellman, B. (1991). Experi- HCI Research. In S. Pinder (Ed.), Advances in Hu-
ences in the Use of a Media Space. In Proceedings man Computer Interaction (pp. 397-414). Vienna:
of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in InTech Education and Publishing.
Computing Systems (pp. 203-208).
Rayner, S., & Malone, E. L. (1998). Why study
Moberg, Å., Hedberg, L., Henriksson, G., Räsänen, human choice and climate change? In S. Rayner &
M., & Westermark, M. (2008). Hållbarhetsbedömn- E. L. Malone, (Eds.), Human Coice and Climate
ing av en medierad tjänst - en pilotstudie (Report from Change. Volume two. Resources and Technology
the KTH Centre for Sustainable Communications. (pp. xiii-xlii). Columbus, Ohio: Batelle Press.
No. [). KTH Centre for Sustainable Communica-
Rouncefield, M., Viller, S., Hughes, J.A., & Rodden,
tions.]. TRITA-SUS, 2008, 1.
T. (1995). Working with “Constant Interruption”:
Nardi, B. A. (1996). Studying Context: A Com- CSCW and the Small Office. The Information So-
parison of Activity Theory, Situated Action Models, ciety, 11, 173–188.
and Distributed Cognition. In B. A. Nardi (Ed.),
Shove, E. (2003a). Comfort, cleanliness and con-
Context and consciousness: Activity Theory and
venience: the social organization of normality.
Human-Computer Interaction. Cambridge, MA:
Oxford, UK: Berg.
MIT Press.
Shove, E. (2003b). Converging Conventions
Ó’Riain. S. (2004). Networking for a Living. In A.
of Comfort, Cleanliness and Convenience.
Amin & N. Thrift (Eds.), The Blackwell Cultural
Journal of Consumer Policy, (26): 395–418.
Economy Reader. London: Blackwell Publishing.
doi:10.1023/A:1026362829781
Palm, J., & Ellegård, K. (Eds.). (2008). Vard-
Shove, E., Lutzenhiser, L., Guy, S., Hacket, B., &
agsteknik: energi och IT: forskning om hållbar
Wilhite, H. (1998). Energy and social systems. In E.
användning av samhällets IT- och energisystem.
L. M. Steve Rayner (Ed.), Human Coice and Climate
Stockholm: Carlsson.
Change. Volume two. Resources and Technology.
Pycock, J., & Bowers, J. (1996). Getting Others To Columbus, Ohio: Batelle Press.
Get It Right. An Ethnography of Design Work in the
Suchman, L. A. (1987/1990). Plans and Situated
Fashion Industry. In Proceedings of the 1996 ACM
Actions: The Problem of Human Machine Com-
Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative
munication. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Work (pp. 219-228).
Press.
Räsänen, M. (2006). Om möten i Distansen: Uppfatt-
Vilhelmson, B. (2002). Rörlighet och förankring
ningar om möten på distans mellan arbetssökande
- Geografiska aspekter på människors välfärd (
och handläggare (Technical report, HCI-report
[). Göteborg, Sweden: Department of Human and
series, No. HCI-42). Stockholm: Avdelningen för
Economic Geography.]. Choros, No., 2002, 1.
Människa-Datorinteraktion. KTH Royal Institute
of Technology Willim, R. (2002). Framtid.nu: flyt och friktion i
ett snabbt företag. Stockholm/Stehag: Symposion.
Etnologiska institutionen, Lunds universitet.
224
enDnoteS 4
The space has been designed with lighting,
furnishings and textiles in order to create
1
The background description in this section a good environment for meetings. Data
has been elaborated previously for other transfer occurs over existing infrastructure
purposes in Räsänen (2007) and Räsänen of optic or electronic fibres, but communi-
and Nyce (2008). cation takes place not via the internet and
2
Judging by Bonnie’s communication diary, personal computer but as an uncompromised
she has a number of brief meetings with video signal via a separate media network.
colleagues at the office. She had only made This gives more of a TV, or perhaps home
entries for one working day. This included cinema, picture quality compared with what
the following two meetings: can be obtained through web cameras and
13.00-13.20 Quick meeting with the control- image transfer services via the internet.
ler. 5
The transition from project status to ongo-
13.20-13.30 Quick meeting with the marketing operation means that one has to choose
ing department. between alternative paths. According to the
3
In a wider perspective, e-mailing and tele- engineers at KTH who installed the technol-
phoning, such as Erica’s and Bonnie’s, can ogy, data transmission can occur in various
lead to contacts and knowledge that create ways, either as at the time of the study (and
a need to visit people and places. This has agreement is reached on what it would cost to
been the subject of much discussion on recent have acces to the network) or though the use
decades in various contexts. See e.g. Grübler of an ordinary computer and good software.
(1990: 258) who writes “Although a number The software needs to be obtained and the
of (e.g. business) trips may be substituted staff need training in using it, but otherwise
by new communication technologies, /- - -/ operations can continue as usual.
[these] may in turn also induce additional
travel”.
225
Section 4
227
Chapter 13
Communication, Information
and Sustainability:
A Geographical Perspective on
Regional Communication Policies
Marco Tortora
Political Science School, University of Florence, Italy
abStraCt
This chapter, recognizing that the main communication concepts are deeply geographical in their inner
nature, has the intent of introducing an analysis of the connection there should be between geography,
communication, organization and sustainability. The author will use the geography of information as the
main framework to detect these links and to present the analysis of a regional communication infrastruc-
ture to understand how the Internet can be pivotal to communication and local development strategies.
The analysis will present regional communication policies, projects and practices to understand if these
are positive or negative forces for a regional sustainable development.
introDuCtion and social changes, but there is rather a multitude

of complex connections between each element of
The traditional world of information has been com- the analysis.
pletely transformed since the new information and The territorial and spatial effects produced by
communication technologies (ICTs) have pervaded new technologies have also been studied by geo-
the whole society. This ‘revolution’ has produced graphical sciences. Beyond the cultural tradition
adjustments and changes in political, economic, in which each work can be filed, and the different
financial and social terms, from the local to the theoretical perspectives and methodologies adopted
global scale of analysis, changing the way informa- by each researcher, there should be a research for
tion itself is considered and used in society. the identification of a common thread, language,
There is neither a linear nor a causal correlation structure, framework or paradigm that will link to-
between development, technological dissemination, gether various works. In general, a common thread
should be the recognition of the analyzed reality’s
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch013 complexity that makes it difficult to simplify differ-
Communication, Information and Sustainability
ent and various concepts in a very extreme way are driven from the top to develop only new
and leads to inter- and multi-discipline. Since technological infrastructures, without any ini-
communication issues present many geographi- tiative to spread the knowledge and culture of
cal aspects and concepts (space/place, distance/ communication and information processes to
proximity, inclusion/exclusion, local/global), the local stages of government.
main aim of the chapter is to introduce a different
theoretical structure which develops in a new light
the dialectical interpretations of previous concepts a geographiCal
with the intention of proposing a different point frameWork of analySiS
of view to scholars of many fields, first of all to
organizational communication researchers. The main idea of this chapter is to present and
In the following paragraphs, I will try to in- use the geography of information as the main
troduce and trace the recent development in the framework to link together and read in a different
field of geography of information (or Information perspective the three main concepts of the book:
Society) and its multi-discipline aspects. Using sustainable development (sustainability), com-
the main concepts, theories, approaches of this munication (organization) and flows (mobility
field of research, it should be possible to make of people, information, etc.).
different social sciences ‘communicate’ to have In fact, the topic is strictly connected to the
a more complete view of the analyzed reality, objectives of geography of information, which is
especially from the perspective of sustainable related to the analysis of relationships between
communication and development. receivers and senders, flows, infrastructures,
In the second section I will define what ge- technology and networks (Bakis & Vidal 2007;
ography of information is, and how it can be Graham & Marvin, 1996; Kellerman, 1993, 2000,
useful in studying communication processes and 2002; Kellerman & Paradiso, 2007; Paradiso,
phenomena. I will introduce the main framework 2003a, 2003b; Paradiso & Wilson, 2006; Zook,
of analysis and present three spatial concepts used 2000a, 200b, 2001). Since communication is today
in the following example (networks, flows, and more than ever central to the social, economic
information). and political developments of a community at
In the third section I will introduce the analy- different scales (local, regional, national, meso,
sis of a regional communication system. The international and global), geography should be of
focus is on the organization based on the Internet interest for other disciplines to read similar events
and the main applications used to develop the from a different point of view.
basic infrastructure of future communication Communication is strictly connected to geog-
and information projects. Then I will analyze raphy, even if it refers to the most immaterial net-
the communication policies and initiatives of work we know – the Internet, since it is embedded
the regional government to understand: how in territories and involves people from different
they use the network (the Internet) to mould cultures and places, who use the same technologies
regional and local organizational structures; starting from and depending on different levels of
how and if regional communicational policies economic growth (Castells, 2000). This means that
are coordinated with local ones; what kind of communication depends on the territories where
communication means local places have to boost senders, receivers and technical equipments are
their local development. I finally highlight the located and on how the actors connect and use
existing difficulties in coordinating different the technology to communicate and create new
scales of governance, especially if investments paths of local development.
228
According to the general literature in the field, consequently of the geography of information.
geography of information explores and studies He defines the ‘actual geography’ as the study
spatial dynamics and dimensions of the Informa- of the actual effects produced by the diffusion of
tion Society, including the aspects of global com- the ICT; the ‘virtual geography’ as the study of
munication and its spatial effects, contributions the geographical aspects of nods, hubs, networks
to the globalization of territories and the role of of ICTs; and the ‘conceptual geography’ as the
ICT in the territorial development and how places study of the images produced in the mind of
interact with the production, transmission and the receiver or observer. Mainardi (1996) has a
consumption of information, showing to what similar point of view, but more coherent to our
extent concepts such as the death of distance and goal. For him, one of the paths of research in the
dissolution of cities in the information era are field of the geography of information/communi-
misleading (Paradiso, 2006). cation is the geography of media. Geography of
In this chapter I first introduce what I assume media studies the distribution of production and
for information geography. Then I analyze a message transmission centers over the space and
regional communication organization following place, which means that it identifies the centers
the methodological framework provided below, and peripheries of the communication world and
to focus on an empirical example: how a region the characteristics and shapes of the transmission
of the so-called modern (or post-modern) and and distribution networks.
rich world, here defined by its political and ad- Under this point of view, the geography of me-
ministrative boundaries (Tuscany, Italy), uses the dia (or of information) focuses on the three phases
new communication technologies, and especially or moments of the communication process: the
the Internet, to give a chance to local actors and production, the distribution and the consumption
agents to develop in a sustainable way. I will try of information. Each phase correlates to a specific
to answer the following questions: what kind of geography: the geography of production, of the
measures and projects has this developed region network and of the content. The geography of
planned to reach its goals? What kind of idea of production identifies the centers of production,
sustainability do they have in mind? Are they the level of their activities and the power of their
using the Internet to help local communities to relationships. The geography of the network looks
develop in a sustainable manner? At this point it at how messages (information) move around in a
is important to clarify one point: I will present a definite space (among different places), detecting
brief introduction of the geography of information, relationships of hegemony/dependence and prox-
especially referring to the geography of media imity/distance between various knots of the net.
since they are the major producers and transmitters The geography of contents highlights all kinds
of information, and I will pay special attention to of inclusion/exclusion relations in communica-
the Internet as the main media to be analyzed. tion networks, that is it focus on the different
relevance given by the media to single identities,
communities and places. It also analyzes what
CommuniCation, information is communicated: the content – the discourse,
anD geography such as political programs and values, ideas or
philosophies, communicated by a specific agent
Since we live in an Information Society, we to a targeted audience.
should assume the point of view of Sheppard This scheme is just an extreme simplification
(2000), who proposes three different definitions and a model given to demonstrate the importance
for geography of the Information Society, and of geography in an analysis of communication,
229
and to trace a useful path of study. Researchers than about information itself. For example, there
can focus on just a single part or use more than are researches on ICT networks and infrastructures
one according to different approaches, paradigms (Bakis, Abler & Roche, 1993; Graham & Marvin,
and fields of study. But since reality is complex, 1996; Hepworth, 1990; Kellerman, 1993).
the more the research tries to focus on each aspect With the dissemination of the Internet among
at the same time, and on their relationships, the nations and different classes of population, with the
closer the eye of the observer is to reality. reappraisal of the New Economy phenomenon and
Recognizing the complexity of reality brings the acknowledgement of information as a resource
the researcher to focus also on the main product and a final product, many studies focused on the
of communication processes, that means what is production of a new space produced by the new
produced, transmitted and consumed. Information ICTs – the cyberspace (Aurigi & Graham, 2000;
is the main resource and product of communica- Aurigi, 2005; Dodge, 1999; Dodge & Kitchin,
tion networks, but during the last years it has not 2001; Graham & Marvin, 1999). Cyberspace or
received the right attention. the virtual space has been defined in many ways.
In this chapter the network is not a predominant It is an organizational structure and a medium to
element of analysis, because I consider it only a manage information (Kellerman, 2002), or a world
technical and technological tool of communica- created by flows and the digital accumulation of
tion. This is possible, if I refuse the deterministic knowledge, fed by communication networks and
approach, and recognize that information “exists” computers. This world is a space of places, gener-
(it assumes a material characteristic) only in the ated by the accumulation of information and the
moment in which it is de-codified and “consumed” given structure (Mainardi, 1996). According to the
by the receiver. A complete and more complex previous definition, cyberspace has been studied
definition of what is transmitted through com- as the main tool for territorial governance and
munication networks can be given only if we urban planning (Aurigi & Graham 2000, Graham
consider the whole process of communication, and & Marvin 1996; Paradiso, 2003b). Other authors
not just one phase of it (centers of production and shed light on the new centers and peripheries inside
consumption, networks). What is produced, trans- the urban areas, on the role of ICT as development
mitted and consumed is a relevant aspect of the tools for places, and on the specialization of cities
communication process, so it is important to give in two phases: the management of information in
it the right emphasis. This approach also includes the phases of production, distribution, consump-
the fact that if I accept to analyze the consumption tion, and the kinds of information produced such
moment, I give relevance to the de-codification as information, knowledge or innovation (Graham
phase, that means to the culture and know-how of & Marvin, 1996; Lorentzon 2000, 2003, 2004;
the receiver, involving in the analysis the sender Arai & Sugizaki, 2003). Other research interests
and the production/codification phase (and the of the field are strictly connected to the role of
opposite is worth at the same time). Regardless of communication processes and infrastructures in
any academic attempt of classification, what one regional and local development strategies (Corey
should keep in mind is that the relevance given & Wilson, 2006; Graham & Marvin, 2001; Par-
to network and information issues started during adiso & Wilson 2006a, 2006b).
the Nineties with the development of the Internet
and the boom of the New Economy (Kellerman,
2002). Initially, the geographical analysis was
about the technological infrastructure of the so-
called Information Society and Economy, rather
230
from information networks is no longer a one-way process, but it is a com-

to flows of information plex and multi-directional group of forces, which
act together, in different directions. An example
How many times have we heard about informa- of how the new technologies have changed the
tion networks, flows of information, networks of shape of organizations is the so-called network
flows and so on? Many of these concepts have company. Business cycles are decomposed and
spread transversally among many disciplines the re-territorialization of production phases and
because of the soaring importance of new ICTs processes is a common strategy to reduce pro-
and their infrastructure in many aspects of social duction costs. Public bureaus are changing too,
life. Since every aspect of the communication even if at a different pace. Nevertheless, public
field, from organizational structures to processes administrations are investing to structure them-
and flows, is strictly and inherently geographi- selves like organized system units connected to
cal in many ways, there are numerous concepts different networks, where the knots and centers are
and models used to describe the spatial effects the different communities inside a space defined
of ICTs. Networks, flows and information are by administrative and bureaucratic boundaries.
necessary spatial concepts to comprehend how The application of the subsidiary principle is the
ICTs are changing communication processes in right example to show and confirm that it is not
organizations and places. easy to realize any idea, until the technical and
Networks are models that describe in a very knowledge opportunities are achieved.
simple way organizations and processes of any Castells (1996, 2000) defines our society as the
given social system (a community, a company, Network Society. This model of society is com-
a bureau, a corporation). They consist in hubs, posed of three levels. The first is the cyberspace,
knots and lines, but what is really important is a space constituted by electronic interchanges and
the content of their segments, the material or technological network. The technological infra-
immaterial flows of people, goods, capital and structure is an important element since it defines
information. Concerning our field of analysis, the new space and its architecture and contents
the main content of immaterial networks like are determined by the powers that rule the world.
the ICTs is information. Even if the content is The second level is constituted by the network’s
immaterial, ICT networks have territorial effects material structure (hubs, nods, lines), the single
that derive from their widespread over the space, nods correspond to real places, points of access
but these effects are difficult to describe because and transmission with different degree of power
they are characterized by two parallel and, at the depending on their functions. The third level is
same time, opposite forces: on one side there are about the spatial organization of the power elites
tendencies of centralization, globalization and and their spatial localization (global cities).
inter-dependency, since these networks developed So the world we live in can be represented like
in the same paths of the previous technologies a space of flows of which direction and intensity
(i.e. telegraphs), that is in the same areas (metro- are given by the powerful elites of the world,
politan and urban areas); on the other side, there which correspond to the main urban areas.
are effects of access, flexibility and adaptability If we totally accept this representation of the
to new opportunities that ICT networks offer to world, we fail to describe the importance of places
companies, public powers and communities. These for the production and consumption processes. The
two forces actually realize the concept of the glo- space of flows cannot contrast the space of places,
calization process that means how localities can imagined as a poorer level of the former. Places
connect and influence the global. Globalization determine the direction, intensity and contents of
231
flows, so places (spaces, networks of, or systems tion). Since it helps to measure the informational
of) and not spaces should be the main goal of the content of a system, the lower the content of
analysis. In these terms, spaces of places and flows information in a system, the higher the level of
between them can be imagined as an archipelago chaos and disorder in a system (maximum level
of regions (Scott, 2001), composed mainly of of entropy) (Ziliotti, 2001).
metropolitan areas. On the opposite side, from a qualitative point
So flows depend on the places of transmission of view, Kellerman (2002) defines information as
and reception, the culture in locus (know-how, a wide family of communicative codified mate-
know-what) and the content. In the case of ICT rials. The communicative material is composed
networks, the main content has a digital shape – of four elements put in a linear sequence: data,
information. information, knowledge and innovation. In this
Information has been variously defined over case it is important to focus on the context of
the years, generating confusion and misunder- the communication process, like Castells (1996)
standing. For some authors, the reason is the does, defining information as a group of organized
lack of an organic approach in social sciences and communicated data. If we refer to a specific
and their tendency to use a terminology derived context, like the economic one (or to society), it
from statistics or to consider information only is possible to identify four kinds of information
where there is technical equipment; for others, (Kellerman, 2002): a ‘pure’ information; an ‘in-
the problem is that information is described only corporated’ information in business processes;
in economic terms or as units of measurement an information like a ‘final product’; and ‘trans-
according to the cybernetics theory. In 1949 formed services’ (i.e. capital). An example of the
C.E. Shannon presented a mathematical theory two latter definitions can be the wired services
of information where he defined information in offered by news agencies like Reuters: informa-
physical, quantitative and statistic terms, with tion like news and financial information.
the aim of detecting the most efficient way to Shapiro and Varian (1999) define informa-
send and de-codify a message (Mattelart, 1999). tion as something that can be transformed into
During these years the quantitative analysis has the digital format and sent by the new kinds of
been favored instead of other approaches. In 1948 communication technologies.
Wiener, the father of the cybernetic theory and of Whatever the definition preferred, it is im-
the theory of messages, defined information as a portant to highlight the polysemic nature of this
group of communication tools. During the sixties, concept and the complexity and ambiguity related
the theorists of the Information Society defined to it. It is also important to remember that in each
information as a transmitted message-content case of study at the empirical level, whether
or a transmitted content that creates knowledge observing the real world of affairs and business
in the receiver once the message is de-codified or the whole society, there are multiple and
(Machlup, 1984). multi-dimensional linkages between the different
According to the economics of information aspects put under the lens of the research. So it is
and physical studies, information is also the main honest to recognize the limits of the observation,
force against the entropic forces of nature. This especially at the empirical level of the analysis,
representation is possible because information is and to be conscious that what is described is just
the opposite of the entropy that is present in any a part of the reality’s complexity, and much of the
given system, and they must be open systems for description depends on what kind of position we
hypothesis (if the system is closed, according to assume during the analysis.
the second law of thermodynamics, it risks exhaus-
232
CommuniCation anD analysis (places, networks, flows and information).

SuStainability, a In doing so, I use a qualitative approach, based
poSSible nexuS? on the analysis of academic literature (most of it
geographical) of official statistical and economic
It is possible to use the framework presented above data, of discourses and documents (official docu-
(the geographies of production, of transmission ments, regional laws, news and texts found on
and of content) to analyze and study social is- the Internet and produced by official and public
sues, if we consider the sustainability of social offices or bureaus), of interviews to profession-
development like a goal of political programs by als employed in the communication field of the
local communities embedded in specific places. Tuscany region, and of observations and infor-
This means that sustainable development values mal and formal meetings with professionals and
are the content (implicit or explicit) of what is politicians.
communicated between all the agents involved
in the communication process with reference Communication in tuscany
to the development project and at any scales of
analysis. Before presenting how and if communication
If sustainability is the main goal for com- could help improve a regional sustainable de-
munities and their governments, communication velopment,1 we need to describe the regional
is the process that assumes the feature of being communication system and how it is organized
‘sustainable’ (sustainable communication) only (geography of production), the degree of develop-
if it has the purpose to reach a sustainable goal. ment of the technological equipment – the Internet
Since sustainability is the right of present genera- (geography of the network) and then the policies
tions to meet their needs without compromising used to implement the infrastructure to help local
the right of future generations to meet their own communities to grow in a path of sustainability
needs (Brundtland Commission, 1987), it follows (geography of content).
that the sustainability of a communication process,
in terms of social and economic development, can Tuscany
be reached only if there is a perfect control and
management of communication processes and its Tuscany is one of the richest regions in Italy.
content (information, the main resource and output With a population of almost 7% of the total, it
of the process) at different scales of analysis and has a GDP that covers 6.8% of the national one.
intervention. The following example presents Traditionally, Tuscany is one of the most open
the role and usage of the Internet by a regional regions in Italy in terms of import-export balance
government to reach, among others, the goal of of flows. It exports almost 8% of the Italian total
sustainable development. I use the geographical exports. The Tuscan economic system bases itself
framework introduced above to express under a specifically on the service sector (47%). Commu-
different light the organization of a communica- nication systems2 and ICTs are a very important
tion process: the geography of production (the area for public investments and a decisive factor
organization of communication processes), the to boost productivity, that is why since 2004 the
geography of the network (the technical infra- goal of the Tuscan government has been to invest
structure) and the geography of the content (the new resources in communication processes and
main policies and programs that should underline strategies, above all the Internet.
any decision taken by public and private bodies or
individuals), calling back the main key words of
233
The Geography of Production its structure. It is thought as the eye and the voice
of all the activities that happen daily in Tuscany,
The two main channels of the Tuscany region from the production activities to the social, cultural
Web institutional communication are: the main and religious ones. It is organized to be visited
website (www.regione.toscana.it) and the portal and useful not only for regional communities,
website (www.intoscana.it). The institutional but also for foreign visitors, whether companies
communication is a necessary activity to have a or institutions. It is a useful news attractor and
direct and correct relation with media and citizens. producer of news about many aspects of the
Informational and communicational activities of Tuscan life, from environment and innovation, to
public administrations are ruled by national laws. the political and economic activities. It uses the
Tuscany has also its own regional law about in- most up-to-date web applications, the Web 2.0
formation and communication (Law N.22/2002) social networking applications like Second Life,
that applies the principles of the national law. FaceBook, Linkedin, Youtube, Flickr and others,
The regional law’s main goal is to inform Tuscan to share information and ideas and to make people
citizens about laws, programs, activities, initiatives participate actively in the social life at different
of regional organisms and bodies, and opportuni- levels, from the local to the global.
ties and services of the regional administrations. This structure and its relative channels need
There is a particular distinction between the two a technical infrastructure to work. This one is
main communicative activities: information and represented by a regional digital network, the
communication. Each activity has its own struc- technological and hardware heart of the regional
tures and requires specific professional profiles. system of public communication.
The informational activities are about relations
with media and the realization of news or other The Geography of the Network: The
journalistic products, while communicational Digital Network of the Tuscany Region
activities are about direct relations with citizens
and local communities. The regional law also The Digital Network is the main technical infra-
regulates the regional news agency that works for structure of the region and the driving force of
the regional government (Tuscany News). Started all the investments in the development field. It
in April 2007, Tuscany News is the regional news can be described as an organic intervention for
agency that exploits all the opportunities offered the development of the Information Society pro-
by multimedia tools. Visiting the main website moted by the regional government. It was created
of Tuscany, it is possible to find news about all with the idea of being managed and developed
the activities of the regional ministries and much primarily by the Tuscany Region, but also by all
more, press releases and conferences, newsletters, those public corporations and bodies that believe
radio and TV products. in the project.
Tuscany has also its own official web portal. A So, first of all, it is a network composed of
web portal is a site that provides several functions, different local agents. The actors of the network
being a point of access to information from diverse are the Tuscany Region, the regional agencies
sources and about different themes. The regional and authorities, the public health agencies and
web portal is a virtual place or ‘agora’ where corporations, the municipalities, the provincial
people can find all the information and services administrations, the metropolitan areas, the
they need about different themes. It is described mountain villages. There are also universities,
as a privileged window and point of observation research institutes and public bodies, the peripheral
of the regional life. This description comes from administration bodies of the National State, the
234
local public services companies, the chambers of The Geography of the Content:
commerce, economic categories and other public The Use of the Internet in Regional
and private associations. Communication Processes
This network was designed to be an organiza-
tional model and a technological infrastructure. It is Today we live in an Information Society or post-
an organizational model because it is structured to industrial society, indicating a society in which
be capable of producing and sustaining innovation information is the main resource and product of
processes. It is based on the relationships between many human activities, a strategic resource that
the involved actors and on the concepts of sharing must be managed by local communities to help and
goals and cooperating among members. It is also a drive their local development. The latest develop-
technological infrastructure, spread all over the re- ment and innovations related to the Internet have
gional territory and interconnected to the Internet. It lead many observers and futurologists to describe
has been developed to meet the standards promoted our age as the Web 2.0 era, the time of the sharing
by the National Agency for the Use of Informatics of ideas, values and knowledge, starting from the
in the Public Administration sector (CNIPA) and bottom of society, the interconnection ideology
by the project called Public System of Connectivity at the nth power.
(a sort of unique network which connects all the Information is a resource and a product also for
public administrations of the national state). public agents, for governments that must manage
Whether an organizational model or a ‘simple’ every day an increasingly differentiated quantity of
technical infrastructure, the shape of it – the net- information. So it is important for them to invest
work - is what characterizes its organizational pro- in the sector, trying to be connected in an active
cesses and informational activities. It is considered way, that means to know, control, and manage
by the regional government as a unique opportunity the new forms of communication and informa-
for local development, since it establishes new tion, like those of the Internet and the so-called
relationships between the public administrations, Web 2.0. It becomes ever more strategic to help
the latter and the citizens, companies and society. local communities to get connected to the Net to
It also should boost technological and organiza- give them a chance of development and growth.
tional innovation promoted by all the involved That is why the Tuscany region has programmed
actors, promote the resources of Tuscany (territory, to invest 209 millions euro within 2010 through
culture, production activities) on the Net and help the Regional Program for the Development of the
ICT small and medium enterprises, thanks to the Information Society3
possible new investments in the IT sector. The Regional Program for the Promotion and
Each single agent can actively use this infra- Development of a Digital Public Administration
structure to create, distribute, receive, consume, and of the Information Society was approved in
and share information, at least to reach the collec- 2007 by the regional parliament with the aim to
tive goal of a sustainable development. Before any ease the process of organizational and technologi-
attempt to analyze the information process (cre- cal innovation of the Tuscan Public Administra-
ation and distribution of information – the content) tion, the digital inclusion of all communities, and
it is important, from the point of view followed in the development of a regional competitiveness.
this analysis (the public and institutional side of The main object of the Regional Program for the
the communication process), to present the main Development of the Information Society is to
directives that inform all the policies, programs, develop a process to approach the issues of the
decisions and practices produced in communica- informational and knowledge field in a planned
tion activities at the regional level. and systemic way. The regional program has,
235
among its objectives, to develop a digital platform of knowledge). ‘E-services’ stand for regional
to allow citizens to participate to the digital public policies developed for the delivery of digital
life. More in detail, it means that 85% of all the services to local communities according to the
citizens of all the municipalities could access the rules of efficiency, transparency, and integrity;
digital services4. Today 34 projects have been to improve organizational innovation through
activated: from the realization of a technologi- the use and dissemination of the main tools of
cal infrastructure to safely access all the public the Net. ‘E-competitiveness’ stands for a sustain-
services, the reduction of the use of paper, the able economic development: the main aim of the
intra-communication processes inside the public regional government is to increase the value and
administration and the management of public the competitiveness of local companies through
e-health services. the use of ICTs in the production chain of the busi-
The regional program is articulated in four ness cycle production-marketing-sales. ‘Quality
thematic areas under the umbrella of the e- infrastructures’ are all the actions used to build
government policy (e-community, e-services, and complete the technological infrastructure of
e-competitiveness, quality infrastructures), which the Regional Digital Network. Examples of these
is the main framework and defines goals, actions, actions are the dissemination of digital networks,
and specific results to be reached. the sharing of services, the creation of intercon-
These four areas are all included in the E- nected systems.
democracy project, which stands for a digital All these areas are realized under the umbrella
democracy, a democracy online, that helps all of an E-government policy, which stands for
communities to participate actively to the public public programs that use digital technologies to
life and transform the original space of public life, apply governance activities and maintain political
where people used to confront themselves with the relationships. Tuscany wants to offer most of the
public authorities. It means to involve citizens and services to citizens online through the creation of
communities of citizens to the life and activities a digital network, the so-called Regional Digital
of the public administration at different levels of Network. According to recent statistical reports
organization (online votes, polls, electronic town and data (CORECOM, 2006), only 5% of Tuscan
meeting, forums, labs, etc.) The government of municipalities allow citizens to pay online for
Tuscany has recently approved a law about the some services, and a little more than 10% of them
participation of citizens: it allows to share public have experienced the so-called e-procurement
documents and acts related to important develop- (procedures of buying online). Since there is the
ment programs, in order to create the opportunity idea that investments in new technology are a
of launching and observing online debates to decisive factor to boost productivity, since 2004
check the sensitivity of population about certain the goal is to develop online services for all local
‘hot’ and ‘updated’ issues. The main goals of a administrative bureaus at different levels and in
participative democracy are to inform, discuss, different sectors, and to invest in infrastructures
and decide ‘together’: are all these goals really and communications (public system transporta-
realizable or are they just new ideological visions tions, digital divide, Wi-Fi systems). The mate-
of the power of technical means and hypothetical rial and technical network through which local
and irrational illusions? administrative bureaus can connect to the digital
Going back to the main four areas, ‘E-com- world and put online their services is the Regional
munity’ stands for the policies developed for the Digital Network. The Regional Program is the
access and the participation of local agents (ac- main element of comparison that local public
cess to the network, services of networks, fields agents have to consider and follow if they want
236
to use the Internet in an efficient way according In the following lines I try to answer the ques-
to the regional directives. But does this organization I used to close the previous paragraph and
tion of regional communication processes really open this one. I present a very brief and limited
help local agents to develop efficient strategies example of an application of a geographical dis-
to boost local development? course and thought about how local agents can
meet their local sustainable goals of growth using
communication means like the Internet. In doing
Can CommuniCation this, I stress the analysis on the content of com-
poliCieS help to realize a munication processes, that means on how local
regional SuStainability? agents can produce information and use it in a
specific context (an economic sector like tourism)
Before answering the previous questions, it is neces- through web strategies. In doing so, I summarize
sary to define the two main key words: sustainable and put into practice the concepts presented in the
communication and development. A sustainable previous paragraph.
communication is possible only when all com-
munication processes tend to reach the goal of tuscany and the tourism Sector
sustainability or sustainable development of any
given organization, in any given place and at any As presented above, Tuscany is one of the richest
level. Communication strategies, infrastructures, and regions in Italy, and one of the favorite tourist
technologies (like the Internet) can be useful (and destinations in Italy. One of the reasons for this
sustainable) only if used for this very specific goal. result is the correct and unique mix of art, culture
In this chapter sustainable development has been and environments. There are a lot of opportuni-
generally defined as a development that meets the ties to develop new forms of environmental and
needs of the present generations without compro- cultural tourism, since Tuscany is characterized
mising the ability of future generations to meet their by a good equilibrium between the use of land for
own needs (Brundtland Commission, 1987). In more urban areas and green areas. The diversity of land
specific terms, it seems that a sustainable approach use and the variety of physical and morphological
recognizes the complexity of reality, searches for environments creates different resources for tour-
alternatives, and takes into account the three areas or ist attractions and activities, different production
systems (natural, social, and economic) that compose activities and strategies.
the context of every analysis. In our analysis, a social The tourism sector is primarily based on the
organization can be sustainable if it considers at the environmental quality, which stands for the pro-
same time different areas (the social, ecological, and tection of green areas. Today more than 8% of the
economic one) and structures itself (in organizational land is a protected area (i.e. regional park). This
terms) to reach the goal of sustainability. At the policy is a very important phase of the sustain-
same time the sustainable development becomes a able development strategy because it allows a
means used to resolve all those problems related to redistribution of income to less developed sectors
the future of natural environments, the consumption and local areas (IRPET, 2008).
of resources, the development of present and future But it is not enough. It is important to help
local communities. So it can be said the sustainable local communities to have the chance and for-
development is not only a paradigm or a generic mulate the right policies to grow in a sustainable
goal, but it is also a process and an approach for manner. Tuscany gives such an importance to
the development of communicational processes sustainable development that it recognizes it as
and organizations. the main paradigm for the economic growth of
237
local communities (Agenda 21). Since tourism is The presence of tourists in a place is a source
related first of all to flows of people (mobility) of impact under different aspects, since the use
and it is considered an opportunity of growth and of urban and green areas can overcome the upper
sustainable development for the regional govern- limit of sustainable growth. Tourists impact lo-
ment, it could be interesting to understand how cal places in many ways, having many negative
communication tools like the Internet can boost effects on the environments (externalities), like
local developments. pollution. Since local places such as villages,
towns, communities have a limited carrying capac-
an example of a Sustainable ity and the efficiency of scale are far from those
opportunity of growth at of metropolitan areas, they require a different
the regional level: the management approach. Local governments have
ecotourism market the priority to limit and control these impacts if
they want to grow in a sustainable manner. On
One of the main resources of Tuscany is tourism. One way is to reposition themselves in differ-
Tuscany is the second region in Italy for flows ent niches of the market through investments in
of tourism (IRPET, 2008). Since this sector is so communication strategies to create or differ their
important for the economic growth of the region, images. Strategic communication becomes very
it is interesting to understand in what measure important, especially through the Internet where
and if communication technologies are used to it becomes necessary to be present and active
boost the local development of places in the part and nod of specialized networks (i.e. green
tourist sector. tourist networks).
Tuscany has passed away the period of the In a globalized world, where all markets and
mass-tourism (it is not ended, but regional segments are intertwined and interconnected be-
policies are trying to transform it, creating new cause of the spread and use of new information
niches in the market), and thanks to a unique and communication technologies, the Internet as-
mix of art, culture, and socio-natural environ- sumes the role of a strategic communication tool
ments, it is possible to find new niches of the to be implemented for competitive organizational
market to diversify and enrich the supply side. strategies in different fields (local development,
The ecotourism market5 is a niche market since public institutions, private companies) and at vari-
it offers a specific and restricted group of ser- ous levels (local, regional, national). The Internet
vices for a specific target. It is important for our is a media that can be used by local managers in
purpose because it links together the paradigm many phases of the tourist consumption process
of social sustainability (the sustainable devel- (from the search for new information about
opment of local communities), mobility (since benchmarking competitors’ products and services
tourist activities are strictly correlated with to marketing strategies, from online advertising
flows of people, money, information, etc.), and campaigns to the sharing of experiences and
communication tools for development. Through knowledge on blogs and online forums) because
the analysis of the communication network, in it allows new techniques for producing, managing
our case the Internet, it should be possible to and sending information, amplifying marketing
understand if what has been done by the regional and communication opportunities.
government is enough for local places to attract It is important to communicate and inform the
the right flows of people to sustain their local different subjects involved in the consumption
economic growths. process about the right opportunities, choices,
238
values, programs, projects they can find in a given knowledge about the content of communication (in
place or area. Tourists have to be informed about the given example about ecotourism). For instance,
the different policies and rules they have to follow it seems6 there is no common culture and knowl-
once arrived in the place of destination. Local of- edge of ecological values, ideas, and procedures
ficers have to be prepared to welcome and inform of ecotourism among regional players.
tourists in the right manner, and at the same time It seems there is no culture of information
they have to receive the instructions to manage at different levels of the regional system; local
and rule local services networks. communities do not have the knowledge to use
It can be said that one efficient way to create communication tools in a proper and efficient way,
the right connections and inter-changes between like the Internet, least of all to grow in a sustainable
the supply side (local communities) and the de- manner. In the specific case of ecotourism, if we
mand side (tourists) is to communicate in both compare the institutional websites of regional and
directions the principles, ideas, rules, acts that sub-regional public bodies and private websites of
inform a specific topic, in this case ecological micro companies and local communities involved
tourism. The Internet makes this rule valuable. in the tourist sector and in the ecotourism niche,
A possible and efficient way to do that is to cre- there is the contradiction that local places should
ate the right organizational infrastructure, like a take out on the sustainable path of ecotourism,
consortium of local actors, with a strong presence but with different strategies and meanings (the
both on the territory and on the Web. Local net- problem of language and misleading concepts)
works of communities try to associate to create a and without any regional coordination (in terms
sub-regional actor capable to pool resources and of communication strategies) from the regional
offer a unique supply system. There are many government. If the two levels do not proceed at
consortia of micro companies that work together the same pace, there should be difficulties to reach
to achieve a greater role in the regional productive the planned goal.
process. Communication is the pivotal element to This fact brings the role of communication
create and use these networks of local actors to to our attention in cultural terms, the importance
manage the local development. One advantage of of investing not only in infrastructure but also
these organizations lies in an integrated system in educational and training systems, to prepare
of communication, that means the usage of the local managers to use communication like prin-
same brand and logo, the same advertising mes- cipal means of sustainable development, and in
sage, the same chart of principles and values, in information – the creation of the right content and
a few words the same supplied system of services output for communication channels. If there is no
through different media. culture of sustainability, the same technical tools
In the case of the ecological tourism in Tuscany, become inefficient. So the goal of sustainable
and despite many investments in the communica- development can be realized through sustainable
tion and tourism sectors, there could be the risk communication processes only in the presence of
of a lack of coordination between productive a disseminated and shared knowledge and culture
areas and government levels. Because of a high of sustainability.
percentage of investments was given to material
infrastructures and networks, and to profession- What next?
als of the communicational field, the program of
investments would risk to miss an important aspect As presented above, whatever the political pro-
of the supply side: to educate and train all involved gram and its scale of applications, it is not so
agents to create a common culture and a sharing easy to describe why programs and activities fail
239
at a certain point to reach their planned goals. munication and information processes to bottom
Nevertheless, it is necessary to try to understand and local stages of government. In fact, com-
the limits and the disadvantages of each policy munication and information could be one of the
because in doing so researchers can help public main drivers of a local sustainable development,
and private actors in efficiently managing their only if local managers were prepared to manage
plans and initiatives. But it is also important that those two forces in a proper manner. Most of the
researchers of different disciplines start commu- times regional governments invest huge amounts
nicating between themselves to make any analysis of money in infrastructural investments to build
richer and closer to the observed reality. One of technological networks and give local agents
the aims of this chapter is to present the main the chance to use the new information and com-
topics of the book under a different light to give munication technologies, and to be connected to
a different image of a known reality, and to give different networks, first of all the Internet. But it
a relative contribution to the analysis of complex happens that there is a lack of interest in investing
realities such as organizational communication in training the main actors of a communication
systems. process: the knowledge and capacity of producing,
controlling and managing information cannot be
related to bottom-up or upper-down processes, but
ConCluSion it should be the right mix of the two processes.
The example of Tuscany and its investments in
In the previous paragraphs, I have introduced the technological networks is clear: if the main goal
main concepts, theories and approaches of the ge- of social and economic development of a region is
ography of information to use its multi-discipline sustainable development, communication can help
aspects to present communication and organiza- local communities to reach this goal only if there
tion facts in a new light, to make different social is a coherent and systemic plan of investments in
sciences ‘communicate’ to have a more complete the knowledge of communication and information
view of the analyzed reality, especially from the tools. Since information depends on places where
perspective of organizational communication and it is produced and consumed, the role of culture
sustainable development. is essential. Places and local communities are the
I have used the main framework of analysis main informational fields to invest in to guarantee
to “read” the organization of a regional public a sustainable future.
communication system. The focus has been put
on the organization based on the Internet, its
main communication channels and its role in the referenCeS
development of communication and informa-
tion projects and programs. The analysis of the Antonelli, C. (2002). The Digital Divide: Under-
organization and the evidence of the discrepan- standing the Economics of New Information and
cies there are between the regional government’s Communication Technology in the Global Econ-
communication policies and initiatives and local omy. Information Economics and Policy, 15(2),
agent’s opportunities and resources, have shown 173–199. doi:10.1016/S0167-6245(02)00093-
the existing difficulties to coordinate different 8doi:10.1016/S0167-6245(02)00093-8
scales of governance, especially if investments Aray, Y., & Sugizaki, K. (2003). Concentration of
are driven from the top to develop only new Call Centers in Peripheral Areas: Cases in Japan.
technological infrastructures, without any initia- NETCOM, 17, 187–202.
tive to spread the knowledge and culture of com-
240
Aurigi, A. (2005). Making the Digital City. Alder- CORECOM. (2006). La Toscana nel Sistema delle
shot, UK: Ashgate Comunicazioni. Situazioni e Tendenze. I quaderni
del Corecom. Regione Toscana. Retrieved July
Aurigi, A., & Graham, S. (2000). Cyberspace and
2008, form http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.
the City: the Virtual City in Europe. In Bridge, G.,
it/corecom/att_studio/ricerche.htm
& Watson, S. (Eds.), A Companion to the City (pp.
489-502). Oxford, UK: Blackwell. CORECOM. (2006). Ecologia della mente. Ambi-
enti sostenibili per contesti comunicativi, sociali e
Bakis, H., Abler, R., & Roche, E. M. (1993). Corpo-
produttivi. I quaderni del Corecom. Retrieved Sep-
rate Networks, International Telecommunications
tember 2008, from http://www.consiglio.regione.
and Interdependence. Perspectives from Geography
toscana.it/corecom/att_studio/ricerche.htm
and Information Systems. London: Belhaven.
CORECOM. (2006). Analisi delle trasmissioni
Bakis, H., & Roche, E. M. (1997) Cyberspace: The
istituzionali del Consiglio Regionale della Toscana
Emerging Nervous System of Global Society and
2004-2005. I quaderni del Corecom. Retrieved Sep-
Its Spatial Functions. In E. M. Roche, & H. Bakis,
(Eds.) Developments in Telecommunications:
Between Global and Local (pp.1-12). Aldershot,
UK: Ashgate. CORECOM. (2007). Come comunica l’Assemblea
Toscana. I quaderni del Corecom. Retrieved Sep-
Bakis, H., & Vidal, P. (2007) De la Négation du
Territoire au Géocyberespace: Vers une Approche
Intégrée de la Relation entre Espace et TIC. In
C. Brossaud, & B. Reber, (Eds.) Humanités Nu- CORECOM. Statistical data. Retrieved July 2008,
mériques, 1, 101-117. from http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/
corecom/
Brundtland Commission. (1987). Our Common
Future: From One Earth to One World. World CORECOM, & Nielsen. (2005). Il consumo
Commission on Environment and Development. della rete in Toscana. Retrieved July 2008, from
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/corecom/
att_studio/ricerche.htm
Castells, M. (1996). The Rise of the Network
Society. The Information Age: Economy, Soci- CORECOM, & Nielsen/Net-Ratings (2005). La
ety and Culture (Vol.1). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Toscana in rete, 2002-2005. Retrieved July 2008,
Publishing. from http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/
corecom/att_studio/ricerche.htm
Castells, M. (2000). The Internet Galaxy: Reflec-
tions on the Internet, Business, and Society. Oxford, Corey, K. E., & Wilson, M. I. (2006). Urban and
UK: Oxford University Press. regional technology planning. New York: Rout-
ledge.
CORECOM. Law N.22/2002. Retrieved July 2008,
from http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/core- Cottle, S. (Ed.). (2003). Media Organization and
com/normativa_doc/leg_22_2002.htm Production. London: Sage Publications.
CORECOM. (2005). Guida alla comunicazione in Dodge, M. (1999). Measuring and mapping the
Toscana. Retrieved July 2008, from http://www. geographies of Cyberspace: a research note. NET-
consiglio.regione.toscana.it/corecom /GuidaTv/ COM, 1(2), 53–66.
index.asp
241
Dodge, M., & Kitchin, R. (2001). Mapping Cyber- Kellerman, A. (2002). The Internet on Earth. A
space. London: Routledge. Geography of information. San Francisco: John
Wiley & Sons.
Fennell, D. A. (2002). Ecotourism Program Plan-
ning. Oxford, UK: Cabi Publishing. Kellerman, A., & Paradiso, M. (2007). The Geo-
graphical Location in the Information Age: from
Fennell, D. A. (2003). Ecotourism Policy Planning.
Destiny to Opportunity? GeoJournal, 70, 195–211.
Oxford, UK: Cabi Publishing.
doi:10.1007/s10708-008-9131-2doi:10.1007/
Fennell, D. A. (2007). Ecotourism. London: Rout- s10708-008-9131-2
ledge Publishing.
Kotler, P., Bowen, R. J., & Makens, C. J. (2006).
Graham, S. (Ed.). (2004) The Cybercities Reader. Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism. Upper
London: Routledge. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.
Graham, S., & Marvin, S. (1996). Telecommunica- Kotler, P., Haider, D. H., & Rein, I. (2008). Mar-
tions and the City: Electronic Spaces, Urban Place. keting Places: Attracting Investment, Industry, and
New York: Routledge. Tourism to Cities, States, and Nations. New York:
The Free Press.
Graham, S., & Marvin, S. (2001) Splintering Ur-
banism: Networked Infrastructures, Technological Kumar, K. (2004). From Post-industrial to Post-
Mobilities, and the Urban Condition. London: modern Societies. New Theories of the Contem-
Routledge. porary World. Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell.
Hepworth, M. E. (1990). Geography of the Infor- Lanza, A. (1999). Lo Sviluppo Sostenibile. Bolo-
mation Economy. New York: Guilford. gna, IT: Il Mulino.
IRPET. (2008). Tuscany Info and Databases. Re- Loretzon, S. (1998). The Role of ICT as a Loca-
trieved June 2008, from http://www.irpet.it tional Factor in Peripheral Regions: Examples
from ‘IT-active’ Local Authority Areas in Sweden.
ISTAT. (2007). Le Tecnologie dell’Informazione e
NETCOM, 1(2), 303–333.
della Comunicazione: Disponibilita’delle Famiglie
e Utilizzo degli Individui. Retrieved June 2008, Loretzon, S. (Ed.). (2000). The Use of ICT in a
from http://www.istat.it Geographical Context: Research at Gotheborg
University, Sweden. NETCOM, 14.
Kellerman, A. (1993). Telecommunication and
Geography. London: Belhaven. Loretzon, S. (2003). The Role of ICT as a Loca-
tional Factor in Peripheral Regions. NETCOM,
Kellerman, A. (1999). Leading Nations in the
17, 159–186.
Adoption of Communications Media 1975-1995.
Urban Geography, 20, 377–389. Loretzon, S. (2004). Call Centres – a Swedish Geo-
graphical Perspective Exemplified by Conditions in
Kellerman, A. (2000). Where does it happen? The
the West of Sweden. NETCOM, 18, 203–223.
Location of the Production and Consumption of
Web Information. Journal of Urban Technology, Machlup, F. (1984). The Economics of Informa-
7, 45–61. doi:10.1080/713684101doi:10.1080/7 tion and Human Capital. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
13684101 University Press.
Mainardi, (1996). Geografia delle Comunicazioni.
Turin, IT: NIS.
242
Mattelart, A. (1999). Histoire de l’Utopie Planétaire: Shapiro, C., & Varian, H. R. (1999). Information
de la Cité Prophétique à la Société Globale. Paris, Rules. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
FR: La découverte.
Sheppard, E. (2002). The Space and Time of Global-
Paradiso, M. (2003a). Geography, Planning and ization: Place, Scale, Networks, and Positionality.
the Internet: Introductionary Remarks. NETCOM, Economic Geography, 78(3), 307–330. doi:10.23
3-4, 129–138. 07/4140812doi:10.2307/4140812
Paradiso, M. (Ed.). (2003b). Geocyberspaces Dy- Thrift, N. (2000). Communications Geography. In
namics in an Interconnected World. NETCOM, R.J. Johnston, D. Gregory, G. Pratt, & M. Watts,
3-4. (Eds.), The Dictionary of Human Geography
(pp.98-100). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Paradiso, M. (2003c). Geografia e Pianificazi-
one Territoriale della Società dell’informazione. Vidal, P. (Ed.). (2007). European ICT Spatial Poli-
Milano, IT: FrancoAngeli. cies. Does a political European Information Society
Model Exist? NETCOM, 1-2.
Paradiso, M. (2006). Le Logiche della Globaliz-
zazione: gli Studi in Tema di Geografia della Società Ziliotti, M. (2001). L’economia dell’informazione.
dell’Informazione. Paper presented at the meeting Bologna, IT: Il Mulino.
of Societa’ Geografica Italiana, Florence, Italy.
Zook, M. A. (2000a). The Web of Production: the
Paradiso, M., & Wilson, M. (Eds.). (2006a). The Economic Geography of Commercial Internet
Role of Place in the Information Age: ICT Use and Content Production in the United States. Environ-
Knowledge Creation. NETCOM, 1-2. ment & Planning A, (32): 411–426. doi:10.1068/
a32124doi:10.1068/a32124
Paradiso, M., & Wilson, M. (Eds.). (2006b). Tech-
nology, Knowledge and Place. Journal of Urban Zook, M. A. (2000b). Internet Metrics: Using
Technology, 3. Hosts and Domain Counts to Map the Internet
Globally. Telecommunications Policy, 24, 6–7.
Robins, K. (Ed.). (1992). Understanding Infor-
doi:10.1016/S0308-5961(00)00039-2doi:10.1016/
mation. Business, Technology and Geography.
S0308-5961(00)00039-2
London: Belhavenpress.
Zook, M. A. (2001). Connected is a Matter of
Robins, K., & Gillespie, A. (1992). Communica-
Geography. Networker, 5, 13–17. doi:10.1145/38
tion, Organization, and Territory. In K. Robins,
3719.383724doi:10.1145/383719.383724
(Ed.), Understanding information. Business,
Technology and Geography (pp.145-164). London:
Belhavenpress.
enDnoteS
Scott, A. J. (2001). The Cultural Economies of
Cities. London: Sage Publications. 1
Referring to the following note local devel-
Scott, A. J. (2004). Cultural Product Industries opment or local sustainable development is
and Urban Economic Development. Prospects thought as the main goal for the economic
for Growth and Market Contestation in Global and social development of local communi-
Context. Urban Affairs Review, 39(4), 461–490. ties, here thought like social systems.
2
doi:10.1177/1078087403261256doi:10.1177/107 I define a system (according to biological
8087403261256 theories) a group of elements in a relation-
ship, facing a common goal, and character-
243
ized by dynamics. From this perspective, over the administrative territory, can lead
a system is an organization defined by us to think that maybe political top-down
relational, systemic and dynamic levels of actions and decisions should read in more
relations. Each system has its own internal detail the diffusion and use of technology
rules that manage the life and growth of the among locals, or leave to local governments
system. In these terms, any social organiza- the last decision in terms of investment in
tion can be considered as a system (i.e. the technologies.
4
communication department of a company, a These data were found on the official web-
local government, an administrative region). site of the Tuscany Region. www.regione.
Internal rules are very important inputs for toscana.it (August–October 2008)
5
the life of the system since they are and Ecotourism or ecological tourism can be
belong to the genetic code of the social sys- considered a niche of the tourist market. It
tem. At the same time, the external world is comprehends a segment of the many and
fundamental for the survival of the system, vast forms that tourism can have. It can be
because of external inputs but also because defined as a form of sustainable tourism
of the necessity for the system to be open based on the use of natural resources, that
(the second law of thermodynamics). In highlight the phases of experiment and
these terms, an administrative region can learning from nature, and that is ethically
be defined as an open system composed of managed to have a low level of impact, to
sub- or local systems, each one intercon- be non consumptive, and to be oriented to
nected with the others and turned towards the micro and local scale. It is characterized
the same goal that should be the goal of a by and based on the natural history of a re-
sustainable development. Since external gion, the cultural component but only if it is
forces can be positive but also negative for linked to the natural history of the place, the
the single system, it is important that there respect for ecology and local human agents,
is the presence of a fundamental law of each the education of agents (Fennell, 2002).
6
system that is the resilience (the capacity of In the period August-November 2008 a web
each system to have a structural stability, research has been conducted on the most
that means to be capable to manage external used research engines by national and inter-
flows of information and to adapt and change national internauts (google.com and google.
them to local needs and wants). it, yahoo.com and yahoo.it), using different
3
It is important to note here that, according to key words such as ecotourism, ecological
the last statistical data (ISTAT, 2007), only tourism, ethical tourism, etc. and three lan-
50% of Tuscan families can connect to the guages (English, French, and Italian). The
Internet from home, and of these only 50% main goal was to detect and discover the
have a high speed digital connection. These “state of the art” of the diffusion of ecologi-
data, read together with the data of the spread cal values, practices, activities, programs,
and use of mobile phones among Tuscan in- and projects among local communities and
dividuals (circa 90%) and without any detail governments.
about the distribution of these technologies
244
245
Chapter 14
African Families
Faced with NICT:
Stakes and Effect on Inter-Individual
and Intergenerational Relation
Honoré Mimche
IFORD-University of Yaounde II, Cameroon
Norbert Tohnain Lengha

CNE-Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation, Yaounde, Cameroon
abStraCt
In Africa, family structures are today committed or involved in the dynamics of social transforma-
tion which jeopardize their mode of constitution their future, the sustenance of intergenerational and
individual relationships as well as the traditional systems of social relationships based on direct and
personal communication. This chapter is a sociological analysis of the future of the family through its
relationship with NICT notably the Internet and the cellular telephone. The analyses lay emphasizes on
the consequences of NICTs on the modalities for the constitution of marriage covenants, family relation-
ships and intergenerational transfers.
introDuCtion sustained by direct and committed communication.

Since technological development in matters con-
In sub-Saharan Africa in general, the family is cerning communication has been particularly very
the lowest social institution, which has undergone fast these last years, it is difficult not to mention
several changes during the years (Scanzoni, 1971; the influence of information and communication
Minas, 1987; Locoh, 1988a). Its structures are today technologies on the life of the family (Rieffer,
caught up in the dynamics of social transforma- 2001). However, the new changes affecting the
tions which affect the modalities of its constitution, family today are linked to the generalization or the
future, the equilibrium of intergenerational and availability of new communication technologies to
inter-individual relationships (Locoh, 1988b) as well almost all the societal actors.
as the traditional systems of human relationships Among the diverse factors of change being
known today, new technologies of information and
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch014
African Families Faced with NICT
communication are playing a significant role and to have a partner through electronic courtship.
hence constituting a major stake for social and Further more, NICTs have an effect on the daily
intra-family relationships. This explains why at lives of individuals, and hence, constituting a major
the level of its modes of constitution and in its stake for the future of African families especially
daily evolution, the family is in a process of being as they lead to a recomposition of intergenera-
adapted to the new modes of social communicational relationships through new communication
tion put in place by «the technological revolution mechanisms which sustain them.
and the move towards the new information and This chapter is a sociological analysis of
communication technologies ». This alone puts family changes and the future of this basic social
to question the sustainability of existing cultural institution from its relationship with NICTs as a
values concerning the family. In the North as well package with the Internet and the mobile phone
as in the south, changes resulting from technologi- as examples. The analyses emphasize on the con-
cal development are not in favor of traditional sequences of NICTs on the modes of constitution
family ideologies. An unpublished field of study of marriage covenants by examining the increase
which is opened to researchers, that is the user’s of Internet marriages as a social phenomenon
sociology and the appreciation of NICT, applied which has upsetted traditional marriage in favor
to the observation of practices put in place for of mediatized negotiations between future part-
the use of ICT in the society in general and in the ners considered as an ideal type. In fact progress
families in particular (Rieffer, 2001:147). New in technology is a threat to the sustainability of
information and communication technologies traditional family structures. Besides, the progress
(NICTs) refer to information and communica- in the communication systems like the mobile
tion channels such as the mobile telephone, the phone and the generalization of these modes of
Internet and the net phone, which were formerly communication among family actors is reducing
not used. This domain if developed could permits « communication based on face to face » and
us to understand the impact of these technologies hence bringing about solidarity crisis. This can
on the daily life of social actors be justified by the limitation of family visits and
the distant management of family problems by «
social juniors » who in most cases have immi-
baCkgrounD grated to the cities to look for greener pastures
or to improve upon their living conditions or
As a communication technique and a means of for professional reasons. Equally in favor of an
bringing social actors together, NICTs are progres- emergence of new financial agencies enhanced by
sively becoming preferred social actors for social the development of computer soft ware services,
communication hence, reducing the « face to face intergenerational transfers are becoming more
» social communication which for many years and more mediatized or passed through NICT
regulated the functioning of African families. The channels with family members using them more
effects of these new trends in communication en- increasingly. The consequence is that interpersonal
courage intensified migratory movements, which relationships are becoming more effective only
in the long run result in multinational families and through this NICT channels.
the breakdown of African traditional solidarity,
which relied on effective co-presence of family
actors. The main consequence is the destabiliza-
tion of the latter. In the same way, the irruption
of NICTs in social life is becoming a major way
246
teChnologiCal innovation These changes confirm the idea of Vitalis (1994)

anD SoCial Change: according to which technological instruments
a move toWarDS an and communication means structure the forms
information SoCiety of social organization and modes of knowledge.
This argument could be justified when we see the
a technological boom without way in which social actors use new technologies
antecedent: the example of the and the manner in which these usages affect the
internet and the mobile phone family’s living condition.
Although the Internet as an aspect was de-
Since, the last twenty years, it is incontestable to veloped in the 1970s, it has already touched the
ascertain that progress in microelectronics, com- whole continent and is continuing its expansion
puter and telecommunications as a direct result of in a lightning manner to urban and rural zones.
industrial revolution and other associated aspects In 1996, for example, only five African countries
like the advancement in information and com- were equipped to have access to the Internet,
munication technologies have revolutionalized but today almost all the countries are connected
the functioning of societies. Several studies done and endowed with the necessary capacities. The
today by educationists have shown for example number of subscribers is galloping therefore, at-
the impact of NICTs in the educational system tracting more economic operators to the sector.
(Hirsch Buhl and Bishop, 2000, Onguene Essono, This new era, which has several brand names such
2006). As Onguene Essono (2006: 57) asserts, in as computer age, virtual civilization, the Internet
most African cities, there is a very strong com- age, makes knowledge to be a consumable good
mitment to ICTs with the introduction of a global to the point where countries, which are rich in
awareness about ICTs in many schools. To quote information and knowledge, are equally rich
Petitgirard (2001), new technologies constitute according to other conventional criteria. This is
at the same time an important factor of change reflected by a division, which seems to march with
but equally “a big choice” for the social actors previous established boundaries between the rich
faced with the challenges imposed by the modern and the poor societies, between the developed and
society. In effect, the world seems to be found the developing countries.
in a context where new illiterates will be those The landscape of ICTs on the continent has
members of the society who are not yet adapted dramatically changed since 1980. During the last
to new technologies. In the new edition of Médias ten years, NICTs have practically possessed all
et sociétés, the French sociologist Balle (1999) African countries although at varying degrees. The
shows that it has become difficult to analyze the continent has witnessed a boom in technological
evolution of the changing society without taking development particularly in the sector concerned
into consideration the evolution that is taking place with information and communication notably with
in the domain of communication especially with the generalization of the computer software. At the
an irruption of NICTs. world level, Africa is the core of change, which is
This new technological progress which is sociologically very pertinent. However, in spite
almost an explosion (Breton and Proulx, 1989; of the numerical cleavage observed between the
Wolton, 1999) has enhanced or speeded up the South and the North, technological progress and
rhythm of change (Flichy, 1995). At the same the irruption of NICTs constitute a major aspect
time we agree with Goode to talk about a “family of change that has taken place during the last
revolution”, if we admit that these technologies twenty years in the African continent. As Mvesso
are cultural industries and vehicles of ideologies. (2006:11) states, “ the out break of information
247
and communication technologies is a spark and in the world and one for two hundred persons
also accompanies modernity and the emergence averagely in high income countries. However,
of a society of knowledge” For instance, service teledensity in most cases is still less than one
delivery markets are at their extreme growth to telephone for one hundred inhabitants in several
respond to increasing quantitative and qualitative countries either in the urban or rural milieu. The
solicitations thanks to the new information and number of mobile telephone subscribers is now
communication technologies (NICT). Because of higher than for the fix or standard phone subscrib-
their interchangeable use at several domains of the ers in most countries. This number, which in 2001
human activity (health, education, training, trade, totaled 24 million subscribers, is proof of the
environment etc.), NICTs are touching all aspects non-satisfied vocal service needs by operators of
of societal life as well as all the sectors of human fixed networks managed by the state during the
life. Today, their advancement constitutes priority years of uncontested monopoly. Relative low cost
strategic axes for the development of Africa. and the portable nature of cellular phones have
In the face of ongoing mutations, orchestrated enabled several zones to be covered by the mobile
by technological growth, most research carried telephone network. Some of them just capture
out on the progress of NICTs confirms the idea telephone signals because of their altitudinal po-
that Africa is moving towards a generalization sitions. This evolution as well as the number of
of the usage of ICTs in the households and in the new communication products has had as catalyser,
management of daily life. We can affirm without the extension of satellite coverage for the whole
delay with Miege (1997) that our society is being continent. For the case of Internet, the number of
progressively conquered by NICTs. Despite the users is becoming important for several countries
low level of infrastructure in this domain, the of the African continent.
exposure of Africa to NICTs is making history The influence of the media and more particu-
for the continent. Concerning the Internet, UNDP larly NICTs in contemporary society is becoming
(2001) in her human development report states that a sensitive issue hence an object of argument and
« ¾ of Internet subscribers live in high income even of controversy. As Rieffel (2001), observes
countries which make up more than 14% of the “some boast of the merits of information and
world’s population ». As for the mobile telephone, communication technologies in matters concern-
several numbering changes and the passage to
eight figures in several countries is an indication
that there is increase in the demand of services Table 1. Percentage of Internet users in Africa in
in the domain of ICTs in Africa. relation to the world population
Region of the World 1998 2000

generalization of the use of
United States 26,3 54,3
mobile phone and the internet
High income countries excluding USA 6,9 28,2
Latin America and the Caribbean 0,8 3,2
Although the domestic use of the telephone was
up to a certain moment limited to a restricted East Asia and the Pacific 0,5 2,3
urban elite, ownership and use has today known East Europe 0,8 3,9
a remarkable quantitative and qualitative evolu- Arab States 0,2 0,6
tion. In 2001, there were about 350 000 public Sub-Saharan Africa 0,1 0,4
telephones in the continent, with 75 000 in sub- South Asia 0,04 0,4
Saharan Africa (about one telephone for 85 00 The Rest of the World 2,4 6,7
persons), against one for 500 persons in average Source: UNDP World Development Report 2001.
248
ing cultural and social democratization; others manner in which individuals built interpersonal
denounce their negative effects by accusing them relationships and redefine the modes of social
for encouraging manipulation and uniformisation interaction since they have an influence on the
of minds” Because the use of NICTs is touching daily activities of the latter.
the type of relationships in the family (Chambat, The Internet and the mobile phone seem to be
1994, Vitalis, 1994), the organization of the daily a great innovation today since they are talked of
life of the family actors, it is important to ques- as a virtual civilization to mean this technological
tion their influence on family life (Bios, 2007). and social revolution. However, the problem of
In effect, the move towards the methods of social a whole installation of a new social and family
communication brought about by technological order linked to the information and communication
development notably the mobile phone and the between different components of social structures
Internet, calls for a closer look on the functioning affecting the system of cohabitation is being left
modalities of the contemporary family structures. out. As observed at the end of the 20th century
Most studies carried out in this domain do not when talking about globalization to designate
agree with the user’s model as a simple passive change projected by progress in information and
consumer and hence, looks at the action of ap- technological revolution a resultant of the de-
propriation as a personalized construction form velopment of NICTs, a significant change in the
of the usage. nature of transactions and relationships between
the different family members. More so, this has
Development of mobile brought the later closer by easing non-visible con-
telephone and Distant Socio- tact through communication via the net or cellular
family relationships phone in a context where migratory influx is in-
tensifying. This is also facilitating decohabitation
The Development of or imaginary cohabitation with these innovations
Multinational Families and contributing to prolong the latter hence, making
Distant Family Relationships people to feel « living together/vient on reste »
as is commonly referred to in Cameroon in either
In every human society, the family appears as French or English.
the basic social institution. As the first agent of
socialization, it is also a place for social control New Forms of Sociability
in essence. Its level of involvement in the lives
of individuals confirms the structuro-functionalist As a result of progress in NICT, family relation-
arguments, which have shown that social actors ships are more and more being mediatized. Fam-
are determined by normative systems. In a context ily actors who have migrated to the cities or to
of social mutations characterized by fluctuations developed countries are using these tools to create
in social control, the privatization of the means of new forms of sociability through microgroups of
production (land, cattle), schooling, labor migra- persons who themselves also have easy access
tion, monetarisation of exchange, the development to these technologies. Making a sort of social
of NICTs, families are embedded in a kind of selection, NICTs create new togetherness in the
dynamism which questions the forms and tradi- families. This particular case was observed in
tional modes of family construction. The analysis France with the development of technologies of
of the use of NICTs by family actors enables one communication at the beginning of 1980. Some
to have a glimpse of the influence of these new sociologist have therefore, shown that the advent
tools on the forms of sociability that is on the of ICTs could be an identity folding. It is for this
249
reason that Rieffer (2001) affirms that “techno- process of adaptation to the mutations imposed by
logical sociability cannot replace traditional colonization were consecrated to annual meetings
sociability, by substituting the art of conversation as a strategy of social cohesion.
and dialogue without any media technology”.
Observation shows that these technologies are also Development of niCts and
registered in social relationships that go across intergenerational transfers
the family such as, power struggle, relationships
of inequality, sex relationship. In Africa, the system of rights and obligations
involves economic transfers between the mem-
Does niCts facilitate family and bers of the family. This logic of solidarity is
intergenerational Decohabitation? justified by high fertility, which seems to be a
principle of intergenerational solidarity. Gen-
In order to understand the effects of informa- erational transfers participate in the social and
tion society on family structures, it suffices in cultural reproduction since it contributes in the
priority to recall that in most African countries perpetuation of networking among the members
there is intense migratory influx between Africa of a lineage. They are further intensified by low
and Europe, Africa and America and Africa family revenue, the system of social security and
and Asia. These migratory trends have led to more especially weaker saving systems. Economic
family restructuring and to the development of transfers among the youths and social seniors are
multipollar/multinational or multiethnic fami- to be regulated in several traditions. In the post-
lies in which it is increasingly difficult for the migratory context, migrants often had difficulties
younger generations to be in contact with all the to ensure transfers. On the other hand, the low
other members of the lineage. This is one of the level of communication between places of im-
causes of eminent identity crisis in the society migration and take off areas for the migrants does
as a whole. With technological development, not facilitate their transfers or regularity. But with
solidarity risks are becoming significant since the development of financial agencies fostered by
the frequency of communication with distant progress in computer sciences, the transfers are
members of the family gives the impression today becoming very significant between African
that there is cohabitation. There is in the face and European countries.
of all this another problem, which is that of a In some countries like Mali, Senegal, Cam-
real lineage in the future generation. eroon, Ivory Coast and Benin where migratory
movements are significant, financial agencies such
the telefamily meeting: a new as Express Union, Western Union, and Money
Stand for meetings between Gram play an important role for the migrants
members of a lineage and their families. The birth of these structures
does not only influence resource flow between
Jus as teleconferences that are increasingly com- migrant families and originating families but also
mon today, members of some families who have contribute to improve upon the living conditions
migrated to other continents or countries in Af- of the old generation left behind in the villages.
rica, use new modalities for family meetings. It Therefore, this intensification of transfers is mov-
is in this way that telefamily meetings or distant ing hand in hand with the consolidation of the
family meetings are developed. The over usage linkages within multipolar families established
of telephone and the Internet has ruptured with in two or more continents in favor of globaliza-
the old traditional family patterns which in the tion. Concerning care giving, the whole family
250
contributes irrespective of where its members are type puts aside all principles of social reciprocity.
found due to the proximity created by NICTs. In It is an individual contract preceded by a simplified
this light, the hypothesis that old days are secured ceremony borrowed from the ritual of traditional
through economic transfers with the aid of NICTs marriage where young girls are already promised
is validated. But it should be remembered that for marriage. Like in other African communities,
the rush for Internet participates especially in a marriage is a value, a social “obligation”. It is a
modification of the modalities for the constitu- factor of social mobility for men and women,
tion of unions. even though more importance is attached to the
marriage of women. It is through this practice that
the rush for internet and the individual is given the assurance of life and
the new modalities for the responsibility. From this therefore, celibacy ap-
Constitution of african families pears as a form of pathology in social life. Zahan
(1970), writes concerning this issue:
Marriage as a Social Institution
It is noted that in Africa, the single enjoys no
Marriage is a traditional or customary, religious value and that apart from ritual loneliness, and
and civil institution, which confers to any form desperation, men and women chose marriage as
of conjugality its social validity. It is submitted to an essential form of the human ideal in this world.
norms, which vary from one ethnic group to the This is true and deeply written in the minds of
other and from one society to the other. Cultur- Africans that celibates (singles) if they exist except
ally, matrimonial ceremonies require matrimonial for particular cases mentioned have no excuse of
charges and jokes. In most of our African societ- reason for that. They are treated with contempt,
ies, marriage is a condition of social fatherhood chased away from the family and the society.
because it attributes to men their rights over the Celibacy for Africans is a non understandable
descendants. On the contrary, for women, it is disorganization of social and religious order
more a factor of ascending social mobility because
it permits them to move from the status of a girl In the same way as fertility is considered
to that of a woman in the full sense of the word. culturally, it is “a factor of social success”. In
The woman is always perceived as a “character this way, evolution in matrimonial practices is
in transit” in her family of origin because she is an expression of the evolution of family struc-
“destined to go” and meet a man to constitute a tures. In its frequency and the whole set of social
family of alliance. It confers more social consid- and capital services mobilized for its effective
erations to individuals who cease to be children existence or better still the diverse phases that
or adolescents who are independent persons. It it takes today, marriage is an essential element
is a durable or sustainable union between a man of the society, social belonging and community
and a woman or women, fulfilling the role of life since it constitute an important component
cooperation, solidarity and social or demographic of the society.
reproduction. In African traditions, marriage is at Today, several changes are affecting the
the bases of a family and authentifies legitimacy matrimonial institution and the modes of con-
to children in the community. Marriage is a social stitution of the families. In a context of social
and cultural process, which is accomplished after mutations characterized by: urbanization, labor
six stages. In other words, traditional marriage migration, the scholarisation of a greater number
arranged by the family does not recognize the of persons, professionalization of women, eco-
personality of the individuals involved. Another nomic crisis and the reduction of the population’s
251
purchase power, the frittering of social control of into uncertainty, poverty and the impossibility
the seniors over the juniors, the monetarisation to be integrated into the matrimonial market. All
of the bride price, the development of infor- these upheavals reflect a profound adjustment of
mation and communication technologies-with family ideals, which were at a certain moment
Internet notably, the traditional modalities of greatly valued in African societies. Are we moving
the family have evolved. This has facilitated the towards a crisis in this social institution?
emergence of new forms of conjugality or new
family patterns. In the matrimonial domain these Electronic Marriages as a New
modifications are characterized by progressive Mode of Social Promotion
late entry of youths into active marital life. This
is accounting for a sudden increase of celibacy For more than a decade, the growth of the Internet
especially among the men. The evolution of has gradually become important. The number
matrimonial charges and the bride price, the of cyber-cafés created in African cities and the
increase of free unions and of “bureaugamy”, the feminization of the users of this new social com-
diversification of marriage forms, matrimonial munication framework justifies this growth. While
regimes and modes of residence for the couple most of our matrimonial traditions are termed as
(marriage without co-residence or decohabita- endogamic because the choice of a partner must
tion due to labor migration) and preliminary be done inside the ethnic community, the devel-
changes before commitment in unions and opment of e-marriages has come to push away
their socio-cultural determinants are some of these ideals and the traditional norms concerning
the consequences. Similarly the development marriage. This could be justified in several ways.
of new matrimonial strategies, which started in But the most pertinent explanation seems to be
the 1990s with the emergence of matrimonial that marriage is considered in the same way as
agencies, is also witnessed. crisis is considered in our societies. The ongoing
The advent of the computer tool and more changes in this domain are expressions of this
particularly the Internet has come just to modify crisis on the traditional values. In fact for many
the matrimonial habits of the young generation. families today, the best channel for social success
It is in this way that electronic (e-marriages) or is not necessarily the quest to procure lucrative
Internet marriages have come about and are professional integration for the children at the local
establishing themselves in our societies. Conse- level. It is instead a hard struggle to see to it that a
quently, cyber-cafés (Internet centers) are flooded family member goes to Europe. It appears as if in
at late hours by single women and even married the society every one is working by the « myth of
women in search of matrimonial partners. Some elsewhere », « every means to go is good provided
even take pictures of some parts of their bodies it is efficient ». The essential thing is to go or “fall
with camera mobile telephones to be forwarded in the bush” as it is commonly said in the English
on line to the would-be matrimonial partners. This speaking part of Cameroon. Bush fallers as they
explains why the managers of Internet centers are called are therefore, the pride of most African
have been compelled to modify the boxes used families. It is in this manner that parents encourage
in the cyber rooms to suit the demands of their their children to search for partners in the Internet
clients. Not necessarily a phenomenon specific to with the sole aim of having an “ambassador or a
women, e-marriages do not exempt any sex even bush faller” across the Atlantic.
if it has some specificities within the both sexes. In the context of crisis that our country is going
As one Cameroonian artist states, « Internet has through there is a vast development of survival
come to save » many youths that crisis has pushed strategies and an irruption of youth in sectors in
252
which they were formerly least represented. Under marriage unions were constituted through the
economic crisis, most of these youths are con- Internet. In Embassies in Africa for example, the
fronted with a situation of vulnerability since most new reason or motive for immigration is to meet
of the institutions that were created to facilitate one’s family, which in reality is the concretization
their transition to adult life are in difficulties and of electronic marriages.
hence cannot bring in adequate solutions to their
socio-professional integration even if their level A Factor of Cultural Mixage
of education is also a problem. In Cameroon, the
creation of FOGAPE (support fund for small and Linked to the phenomenon of globalization,
medium size entreprises), NFE (national fund for Internet marriages do not longer exempt African
employment) and many other private initiatives families. Youths in scholarly migration have made
aim at promoting the integration (professional cyber-cafés their privilege place for distraction.
integration) of youths, has yielded little fruit as Encouraged by parents in some cases, there is a
they are very unable to re-absorb these frustrated real rupture with the traditional values. Members
youth. Therefore, youths who are the immediate of the clan do not value the matrimonial institution
victims have developed survival strategies which again. « Marriage, yes! But marriage with a white
even include illicite practices most of which are », this we think is a new norm that regulate mar-
encriminating the state in general and the family riage practices in these cities. In reality, as these
in particular. Among these altenative strategies practices are developing, there is a cultural mix age
developed by youths as a mode of accumulation in the families and since the consequences of these
and especially of social control we could cite « unions go beyond the descendants, the problem
Feymania ». But today, clandestine migration of cultural identity remains at stake. Hence, these
and Internet marriages are becoming more sig- marriages remodulate or reconstitute the pattern
nificant and are also considered as new modes of of functioning for our families.
social control. So, in a society where one needs
to struggle in order to succeed, every means is What Stakes for Tomorrow’s Family
used to achieve this goal. This explains why the
practice is gradually being generalized and hence The new forms of residence among family mem-
becoming one of the main forms of Internet us- bers or partners, the evolution of family structures
ages in cameroon. and other indicators of family changes are being
gradually perceived as a trajectory for the institu-
A New Form of International Migration tionalization of new forms of the family. This state
of affairs leads us to argue, “Family structures are
Whatever thing is stated, the development of these now embedded in an economic, social, political
new forms of unions is a phenomenon, which and demographic dynamism which gives room for
shows that there is crisis in the matrimonial in- transformations and new rules”. The development
stitution in Africa as well as in the world at large. of NICTs is a factor for family reconfiguration.
In a situation where emigration conditions to the Considering what precedes, family structures
European Eldorado have been reviewed by the change as they adapt to political, economic, so-
host countries of the migrants, and especially with cial and cultural transformations imposed by the
the emergence of more restrictive and selective context of technological shift.
migratory policies like the case of Europe where The vulgarization of NICTs is influencing
President Sarkosy talks of selective immigration, all aspects of family life. In the face of ongo-
new immigration candidates are partners whose ing changes in the modes of technological ap-
253
propriation, family actors want to adapt to the ConCluSion

new circumstances imposed by today’s society
especially from the strategies that its members Whenever questions are raised on the contempo-
are adopting daily. Family structures change as rary social change, the role of the family becomes
well as social organizations in which they are primordial and justifies why social science actors
found. They change, they move, but towards always stop to observe the changing family. At
horizons that are yet to be defined. They are the end of this analysis, it seems defining what
printed in the dynamics of transformations a family is has become very difficult because of
whose magnitude, brutality and speed could the transformations that are affecting this social
lead to the proclamation of the end of the family institution since colonial times. With the advent
or of the traditional crisis (Minas, 1987). We of all the new forms of information technologies,
are witnesses to the institutionalization of new all conditions are there through sociology of the
patterns such as families without co-habitation, family to study the modes of life and communi-
multipolar families, multinational families and cation (Rieffer, 2001:148). In Africa, as in most
the single parent families led especially by western societies these mutations are profound.
women; with men being the most affected by The development of NICTs is today character-
the new forms of labor migrations towards the ized by moral individualism and the solidarity
cities. Therefore, the new factors of mobility crisis since it limits the meeting between family
and social success are leading to the destabiliza- members but facilitating communication or dis-
tion of family structures. However, the forms tant social relationships. Individual exigencies
of intergenerational transfers being developed are continuously being affirmed at the detriment
between urban migrants and parents remaining of the stability of the family institution. These
in the village gives room for the consolidation of analyses show that in the face of progress in new
family links, even if the importance of transfers information technologies, there is a crisis of tradi-
remain mitigated. tional affiliation and of the growth of new forms
Some traditional functions of the family institu- of sociability and togetherness, which leads to an
tion are undergoing change. This is particularly the individual emancipation.
case with socialization and demographic reproduc- Although not being dissolved, norms are being
tion functions. Concerning socialization, there is multiplied and redefined: there is an existence of
an alternative educational form with the Internet. different ways of « making a family », which are
Equally, on socialization, Internet is becoming an equally legitimate. This coexistence is the source
important means of social mobility. An important of instability and also of inequality between social
aspect in the evolution of socialization function of environments, sexes and generations. New forms
the family lies in a specialization, which comes of the family are developed with the emergence
from the new stakes of the modern society. The of new family patterns especially with the birth of
family is tending to specialize in the transmission transnational unions. The diffusion of electronic
of moral and cultural values, while access condi- marriages commonly known as « e-marriages
tions to a partner comes from the competence on » indicates a step back of traditional modes of
Internet or ICTs. marriage. Could we in the face of such indicators
proclaim the end of the family?
254
referenCeS Mvesso, A. (2006). Préface. In F. Pierre, Intégra-

tion des TIC dans le processus enseignement-
Balle, F. (1999). Médias et societies, (9 ed.). Paris: apprentissage au Cameroun, éditions terroir,
Monchrétien (pp. 11-12).
Bios, N. C. (2007). De la séduction médiatique à la Onguene Essono, L. M., & Onguene Essono,
mobilité transfrontalière: l’utilisation de l’Internet C. (2006). TIC et Internet à l’école: analyse des
par la femme camerounaise. Revue camerounaise nouvelles pratiques enseignantes dans les salles
de sociologie, 4(1), 65-90. de classes d’Afrique noire. In F. Pierre, Intégra-
Breton, P., & Proulx, S. (1989). L’explosion de la tion des TIC dans le processus enseignement-
communication. Paris: La Découverte. apprentissage au Cameroun, éditions terroir,
(pp. 55-75).
Flichy, P. (n.d.). L’innovation technique. Récents
développements en sciences sociales. Vers une Parsons, T. (1965). The ‘’normal’’American Fam-
nouvelle théorie de l’innovation. Paris: La Dé- ily’. In S. M. Faber (ed.), Man and Civilization:
couverte. The Family’s Search for Survival, (pp. 34-36).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Goode, W. J. (1963). World Revolution and Family
Patterns. New York: The Free Press. Rieffer, R. (2001). Sociologie des medias. Paris:
Ellipses.
Hirsh, B., & Bishop, D. (2000). (Ed.) Computer in
Education. New York: Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. Scanzoni, H. J. (1971). The Black Family in
Modern Society. Chicago: The University of
Kayongo, M., & Onyango, P. (1984). The Sociol- Chicago Press.
ogy of the African Family. London: Longman.
UNDP (2001). World Development Report.
Locoh, T. (1988). Structures familiales et change-
ments sociaux. In D. Tabutin (Ed.), Populations Vitalis, A. (1944). Médias et nouvelles technolo-
et sociétés en Afrique au sud du Sahara, (pp. gies. Pour une sociopolitique des usages. Rennes,
441-478). Paris: L’Harmattan. France: Apogée.
Locoh, T. (1988). L’évolution de la famille en Wolton, D. (1999). Internet et après? Une théo-
Afrique. In E. Van De Walle, (ed.), L’état de la rie critique des nouveaux médias. Paris: Flam-
démographie africaine, (pp. 45-66). Liège, Bel- marion.
gium: UIESP. Zahan, D. (1970). Religion, spiritualité et pensée
Miege, B. (1997). La société conquise par la com- africaine. Paris: Payot.
munication, tome 2. Grenoble, France: PUG.
Minas (1987). Colloque sur la famille en Af-
rique noire. Yaoundé, Cameroon: Imprimerie
nationale.
255
256
Chapter 15
Gender and Technology:
Mind the Gap!
Michela Cozza
Department of Sociology and Social Research, Faculty of Sociology, University of Trento, Italy
abStraCt
In this chapter the mutual shaping of the technology and gender is analyzed in relation to the phenomenon
of gender digital divide. The discussion starts with the re-construction of the theoretical background,
shedding light on different analytical approaches to technological development. The gender blind per-
spective of mainstream technology studies is uncovered; looking at theoretical contributes of feminist
and gender studies. This positioning is aimed to consider the cultural and material aspects involved
in the digital gender gap. The chapter leads to a general conclusion: it is of utmost importance that
researchers, decision-makers and professionals in Information Technology field take into account that
all spheres inhabited by human beings are inevitably gendered. The gender mainstreaming approach
may inform the construction of a gender-aware research agenda and the identification of the following
transformative actions. The synergy among researchers, practitioners and decision-makers at political
and business level is crucial for a gender-sensitive and sustainable development.
introDuCtion ogy to shape the identities, the public and private

life, the social trends and transformations. Never-
There is a large amount of writing that falls un- theless, the sociological literature has failed for a
der the rubric of “technologies studies”. In their long time to consider whether this technological
reflections on the end of the twentieth century revolution – that in this chapter will be associated
and the beginning of the twenty-first, many social to Information Communication Technology (ICT)
scientists as well as popular commentators have and particularly to Internet – might be analyzed in
given attention to tremendous power of technol- a perspective of gender.
This “gender blindness” (Maddock & Parkin,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-822-2.ch015 1993) arises from the myth of a neutral and pure
Gender and Technology
technology, which is free from any sexual and This chapter is based on a fundamental state-
gendered implication (and implications of race, ment: it is difficult, if not obtuse, to attempt an
class and so on, too). Nevertheless, if we take into understanding of technology, technological con-
account that technology evolves continually, in- texts and social networks – mainly in post-modern
volving new ways of doing, making and producing society or rather in the digital age – without
things (tools, appliances, machines), it becomes taking account of gender. Technology can tell us
clear that technology is a fundamental part of something we need to know about gender identity.
social and everyday life. In this sense technology Gender identity can tell us something we need to
and the relations in which the social construction know about technology.
of a technology occurs are also inevitably gender The increasing importance of gender and
relations. “Inevitably, because gender is one of the technology studies in the international scenario
major structures of the social order and gender is a result of the sociological and feminist re-
relations are found wherever people are found” search carried out in the 20th century. Thanks to
(Cockburn & Ormrod, 1993, p. 155). important analysis on co-construction of gender
Feminist and gender studies have contributed to and technology in organizational contexts (for
pinpoint the relation between gender and technol- instance: Cockburn & Ormrod, 1993; Cockburn,
ogy.1 More precisely, within this growing stream of 1985; Coombs, Knights & Willmot, 1992; Har-
research it is useful to distinguish between gender away, 1988; 1997; Henwood, 1993; Stone, 1995;
in technology and gender of technology: in both Turkle, 1984; 1995; Wajcman, 1991; 2004) we
cases the two-way mutual shaping relationship now work from the basis that neither masculin-
between gender and technology is emphasized. ity, femininity nor technology are fixed, unitary
categories, but that they are situated, they contain
In the former case, gender relations are both multiple possibilities and they are constructed in
embodied in and constructed or reinforced by relation to each other. There are many academic
artifacts to yield a very material form of the mutual groups2 that focus on gender science and technol-
shaping of gender and technology. In the latter, ogy studies, with a specific attention to women
the gendering of artifacts is more by association status. For instance there is the Center for Women
than by material embodiment. In practice, various & Information Technology (University of Mary-
forms of gendering can be identified between these land, Baltimore), the Massachusetts Institute of
two scenarios. (Faulkner, 2001, p. 83) Technology (MIT) Society of Women Engineers,
the WICS: Women in Computer Science (Stan-
The idea of this mutual process benefits on ford), the WICSE: Women in Computer Science
one hand from the representation of gender as & Electrical Engineering (U.C. Berkeley), the
a relational play: gender identity is what people WISE: Women in Applied Science and Engineer-
do, think and say about material and immaterial ing (Arizona State), the Women@SCS - Carnegie
things in relation to other people conceived as Mellon School of Computer Science, the Centro
sexed (Connell, 1987). On the other hand the di Studi Interdisciplinari di Genere (Italy, Trento),
reflections on this co-production arises from the Nordic Research School in Interdisciplinary
the concept of technology as relational too. As Gender Studies3. Besides there are many interna-
deployed in production, in everyday life, in the tional refereed journals, also online, that serve as
household, technological artifacts entail relations. forum for exploring the linkages among changing
They embody “some” (those that went into their gender relations, technological development and
making); they prefigure “others” (those implied in organizations such as “Gender, Technology and
their use, abuse or neglect) (Cockburn, 1992). Development”, “Gender, Work and Organization”,
257
“Gender and Development”, “Feminist Theory” or Sustainable development is a process of change in

the recently established “International Journal of which the exploitation of resources, the direction
Feminist Technoscience” (http://feministtechno- of investments, the orientation of technological
science.se). The last, using an open peer review development and institutional change are all in
process, may be considered an example of the harmony and enhance both current and future
feminist practice4 in ICT. potential to meet human needs and aspirations.
This debate might be the framework of refer- (WCED, 1987, p. 57)
ence for many researchers for networking and
developing new researches and programs, passing If the aim of this book is to shed light on the
from a gender blind vision to a gender-aware vision advantages as well as the disadvantages of the
(Wajcman, 2004). Making the gender dimension use of technologies in and for human interac-
explicit in technology studies might affect the tion, I try to contribute to it adopting a pluralistic
practices of “experts” in Information Technology understanding by exploring, at the beginning, the
(IT) field, the policy of decision-makers and the tensions among and inside the different theoretical
lives of individual men and women. visions of gender and technology.
The rapid development of new information and The first focus is to point at the different ways
communication technologies is changing the way in which IT – in particular Internet and the vir-
that governments, private sector and civil society tual relations that it makes possible – is studied
all conduct their daily business and activities. through gender-aware research. The synthesis of
In particular Internet might be considered – as approaches is not exhaustive, but it copes with
I try to highlight in this chapter – the symbol of the intention to clarify ambiguity of technological
technologies that are not an end in themselves, development. Internet may be considered emblem-
but rather an important tool and a key that can atic: it embeds the dream of a gender friendly
unlock many doors, for instance to parts of the cyberspace; yet, if technological development does
labor market, to new information, to education, not proceed in a balanced manner, it enhances new
to the ability to connect and communicate with barriers or widens existing gender gaps. How does
the entire world. Given this significance, it seems the two-way mutual shaping relationship between
obvious that those shut out of this innovation have gender and technology make sense of the “digital
much to lose (UNCTAD, 2002). Moreover, without gender gap”? Is this gap the same everywhere?
a balanced involvement of different “stakehold- What are the principal aspects of the gender gap
ers” (by sex, race, class and so on) the potential on Internet as tool and symbol of technological
of ITs and Internet, as tools promoting sustainable potential? What are the strategic issues of a gender-
development in terms of human development and aware research agenda and how might it weigh
empowerment, might be wasted. on technology sustainable development?
Practitioners and decision-makers should I will try to answer to these questions bearing in
cooperate with researchers to learn more about mind that gender and technology are not separated
gender dynamics in IT sector. The results of but co-constructed in every day life: gender is a
gender technology studies should feed back into fundamental way of organizing and classifying our
policies that help to redress adverse gender effects. social experience as well as technologies create
This virtuous circle responds more effectively to new kinds of social relationships and a host of
objectives of a sustainable development – that is new activities and practices.
the motif of this book.
258
the “either/or” teChnology provide new possibilities for people to balance

on the baCkgrounD reproductive work with productive work. Gers-
huny (2003), on the basis of the United Kingdom
A deep division marks the scientific literature time-diary panel study, investigates the impact
on technology: on one side the “optimists”, on of the Worldwide Web on time-use patterns and
the other the “pessimists” (Kraft & Siegenthaler, concludes that the Internet is positively associated
1989). By this traditional distinction, the technol- with efficiency and effectiveness because it resets
ogy is either “good” or “bad”. the “dead time”. Likewise, Wellman (2001) takes
into account the “social affordances” of technol-
Communication technologies, in particular, either ogy5 examining the opportunities of computerized
help us to stay informed or they overload us with communication networks. He states that “these ties
too much information; they either connect us with have transformed cyberspace into cyberplaces,
like-minded people or they allow harassers to as people connect online with kindred spirits,
track us down; they either make us feel a part of engage in supportive and sociable relationships
something social or they alienate us. (Takayoshi, with them, and imbue their activity online with
2000, p. 132) meaning, belonging and identity” (Wellman,
2001, p. 229).
The blindly confident and enthusiastic attitude The apocalyptic scenario is quite different.
towards technology has been defined “rhetoric The pessimistic vision of technology looks at
of technology” (Hawisher & Selfe, 1991). This the “Post-Market Era” as the epoch of “the end
positive tendency is typical of Eighties: “a period of work”. The intelligent machines, taking the
characterized by general optimism regarding the place of human beings in many working activities,
potential of the Internet to provide increased op- produce an increasing rate of unemployment, a
portunities for traditionally subordinate groups” general aggravation of economic, political and
(Herring, 2000). In this perspective the medium cultural life, a segmentation of society and the
(the computer, but also Internet) is considered weakening of relationships (Lash, 2002; Newman,
intrinsically democratic, egalitarian, immune 1988; Rifkin, 1995; Schor, 1992). Many research-
to gender stereotypes and discriminatory prac- ers and policy makers have expressed concern
tices (Adam, 2002; Ahuja, 2002; Herring, 2000; that inequality in access to Internet technology
Orlikowski & Baroudi, 1989; Panteli, Stack & increases the existing polarity between countries
Ramsay, 2001). As tools, new ICTs and particularly as well as between groups within a country.
Internet offer many possibilities for making our Without a cultural turn and – more concretely –
lives more efficient and thus for increasing the in the absence of the access to market, skills and
prosperity of nation. People can make “productive” decision-making positions at the highest levels,
use of time spent in third spaces such as airports, the availability of infrastructures alone does not
cars, subways and cafes by phoning, sending text enhance participation of traditionally subordinated
messages, and increasingly accessing their e-mail groups in digital economy, it does not reduce the
and information services. The easily available digital gap. Besides, the cost of infrastructure is
Internet makes the web a convenient place to find likely to remain a major issue for both women
quick information and makes e-mail a handy way and men, particularly in the poorer countries. In
to share quick thoughts. It also makes it easier to Bangladesh, for example, the cost of a computer
work from home. Flexible working regimes and equals nearly two years’ salary for a professional
opportunities for “telecommuting” (working from person, and a modem costs more than a cow
home with the aid of electronic communications) (Mitter, 2001).
259
The mainstream researchers – as “apocalyp- a positive view of the Web and IT because they
tic” as “integrated” – not only has strengthened appear gender-friendly in terms of opportunities
a dichotomic logic (either/or), that is typical of and challenges in areas such as education and
western thought, but they have also associated training, health, participation in public life and
themselves to the image of an (apparently) gender- the productive sphere. Anyway, it is useful to go
neutral techno science. The role recently – but not on step by step.
easily – gained by feminist and gender studies in For some scholars the Web, as it came to life
the scientific community and the work done at the in the Sixties for defensive purposes from the col-
international level by women’s advocacy groups laboration between American universities and the
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) Pentagon (Edwards, 1990; Naughton, 1999; Perry
have addressed the question of gender construc- & Greber, 1990), is a medium being deep-seated
tion into the debate on the digital divide and ICT in men’s values (van Zoonen, 1992). According to
policy making. this perspective the (material and discursive) con-
Nevertheless, if we turn our attention to struction of technology (Berner, 1997) represent
feminist and gender studies on gender and tech- “male hegemony” (Connell, 1987; Hearn, 2004)
nology, does the conflict between optimistic and and include the values of patriarchal tradition
pessimistic vision of technology disappear? How (Wajcman, 1995; 2004) insomuch as Jane Caputi
is this tension constructed around the gender? A (1988) talks of “Phallotechnology”.
significant debate is that concerning the gender
of the Internet that I am going to map. Technology is more than a set of physical objects
or artifacts. It also fundamentally embodies
a culture or set of social relations made up of
genDering the internet6 certain sorts of knowledge, beliefs, desires and
practices. Treating technology as a culture has
Internet is a contested medium as far as its social enabled us to see the way in which technology is
cultural meanings and significance are concerned. expressive of masculinity and how, in turn, men
A core issue in the debate is the meaning of the characteristically view themselves in relation to
Internet for gender: both are multidimensional these machines. (Wajcman, 1991, p. 149)
concepts that are articulated in complex and con-
tradictory ways. The analysis of different visions For instance, this perspective shares the opinion
of this topic may be a good starting point for the that the technological devices for home-based
following understanding of digital gender gap. work instead of being a real chance for women
In particular, it is interesting to discuss the com- have reinforced the traditional patterns regarding
mon claims and interpretations of the Internet as gender. The telework may foster overly the tra-
masculine, Internet as feminine, Internet as the ditional division of labor at home (first of all the
medium that enables new identities not limited care giving), confirming the cultural norms that
by gender (De Ruggieri & Pugliese, 2006). In mandate different priorities for men and women
this section I consider only the first and second in terms of public and private obligations, and
approach. management of time and space. Besides, the lit-
The first perspective expresses a negative erature has focused the risks arising from female
vision of technology and Internet because they home-based work such as the deprivation of the
are perceived as deeply embedded in masculine status of working women and the restraint on their
codes which then spill over into digital culture professional or business efficiency (Rodrigues
and world of work; the second one is based on Araújo, 2008; UNCAT, 2002). This perspective
260
marks also some analysis about increasing glo- Some recent feminist studies have claimed the
balization. Joan Acker states, “the new dominant intrinsic femininity of Internet by repositioning its
growth sectors, information technology, biotech cultural meaning as opposed to the male logic of the
innovation, and global finance, are all heavily American military-industrial-academic apparatus
male-dominated” (2004, p. 31). As identified from which it originated. This positioning within
by Acker, much of the work on gender and glo- the feminist debate leaves behind the adverse
balization is actually research on women, work, criticism towards men’s technological hegemony
and family under contemporary conditions of and gives space to optimism as regards the po-
economic transformations. This gender research tential of the Internet and the World Wide Web.
may include men as their actions and practices Dale Spender (1995), for instance, made an early
shape the worlds of women. Again, much femi- feminist claim on Internet as a medium especially
nist research on globalization is about women in relevant for individual and collective networking
the South, the Third World, or in “peripheral” or of women, and also for other traditionally sub-
“developing” countries where certain IT-enabled ordinated groups, for that matter. Sherry Turkle,
services have grown exponentially employing a professor in the sociology of science at the MIT
large number of low-paid female workers (Wajc- and author of an influential book on the construc-
man, 1995). tion of identities through Internet communication
The advances in computer and communication (Turkle, 1995), claims that one needs an ethic of
technologies have made it possible to transfer community, consensus and communication on
digitized data online when there is an adequate the Internet and this is what she thinks women
supply of infrastructure and bandwidth. Through in particular are good at.
the use of networking technologies, large amounts Other authors have compared the experience
of information can be transported at a very low of the Net, the immersion of its textual, visual
cost from the companies’ core offices to satellite and virtual realities, to that of the fetus in the
or subcontracting units. This possibility has led womb. Internet experience is considered analo-
companies to externalize and decentralize non- gous to the secure and unconstrained experience
core sections of business operations to distant of the maternal matrix that offers an escape from
and often cheaper locations. The targeted sites the constraints of the body (Smelik, 2000, as
are usually the ones that offer the promises of cited in van Zoonen, 2002). If we look at the
a cheap, skilled computer and English literate developing countries, the UNCAT’s Report
workforce. The United Nations Conference on (2002) offers numerous examples of attractive
Trade And Development’s (UNCAT) Report on possibilities given to women entrepreneurs by
e-commerce and development explains the cor- ITs: the telecentres in Senegal and Marocco,
relation of outsourcing, English proficiency and phone shops in Ghana, Internet cafes or kiosks
inclusion of women in digital economy. in Thailand and Malaysia. According to some
scholars, the telework too is considered a good
Since the top two outsourcing markets – the United opportunity: with the computer and a modem,
States and the United Kingdom – are both English- people can be connected to the office and can
speaking, those developing countries that would perform their professional work from a distant
want to tap those markets would have to learn site such as a neighborhood centre or their own
English […] This gives rise to some policy impli- home. This new mode of working has received
cations for improving the schooling and literacy much attention, particularly in the context of
of women where a second language – English – women’s career prospects and work-family
should be learned. (UNCAT, 2002, p. 78) balance.
261
Briefly, some feminist theories of the gender – and many other feminist authors (for instance:
and technology relationship have long oscillated, Butler, 1990; Knights & Kerfoot, 2004; Linstead
in the same way as mainstream technology studies, & Brewis, 2004) – contend a transgression of
between pessimism and optimism, “utopian” and the dichotomous categories of male and female
“dystopian” visions. The (feminist) utopian view is defining Internet as “transgender” (Braidotti,
that technology and Internet have an emancipatory 1996), “a gender laboratory, a playground for
potential because women – as traditionally subor- experimenting with gender symbols and identity,
dinated group – can “transcend” their corporeal a space to escape from the dichotomy of gender
“limitations” to participate fully in the digital age. and the boundaries produced by physical bodies”
On the other extreme, dystopian visions of the (van Zoonen, 2002, p. 12).
future seen through the lens of various feminisms Cyber feminism is a term for a variety of
posit that technological advances will continue to academic and artistic practices that centre around
subjugate women through the masculine project of and in Internet and other Information Communi-
dominating women and nature: for instance, life cation Technologies. It is the interpreter of a new
becomes further biomedicalized and commodified generation of feminism interested in the online
through genetic and reproductive engineering. world, named “cyberspace” by William Gibson.
Looking at the world of work, the demands of In a social context imbued with technology and
post-industrial capitalist society for cheap and with the imaginary world arising from it, the con-
flexible labor will continue, with women (their temporary feminism has redefined itself, its own
knowledge, skills and body), remaining the pool epistemology and political positioning. Donna
from which the “knowledge economy” draws to Haraway’s writing on cyborgs offers the almost
maintain and extend its capital gains (Moore et canonical frame of reference here, the cyborg being
al., 2008). “a cybernetic organism, a fusion of the organic
According to Takayoshi (2000) this dualistic and the technical forged in particular, historical,
approach can be overcome by adopting a “balanced cultural practices” (Haraway, 1997, p. 51).
perspective” ascribing to the technology the pos- The cyborg might be used as a metaphor of
sibility of being both oppressive and empowering. the already mentioned technological ambivalence
The figure of cyborg (Haraway, 1991) that has because, according to Donna Haraway (1991), it
inspired the cyber feminism makes it possible may suggest the increased control, command and
to keep tensions and contradictions, possibilities communication in science and society, provided
and risks arising from gender and technology for instance by the connectivity or the “always
relationship. on” capacity of wireless devices, but the meta-
phor of cyborg may suggest too the possibility to
change the images of universality, modernity and
the “tranSgenDer” progress in favor of the (re) construction and (re)
iDentity of internet constitution of gender, ethnicity, age and class as
intertwined with networks of socio-technical rela-
In order to complete the review, I have to discuss tions (Jansson, Mörtberg, & Berg, 2007).
the third claim about gender and Internet concern- Cyber feminism on the Internet is found among
ing the cyber feminist interpretation of it. others in the so-called Multi User Dungeons
The proposal of cyber feminist authors is (MUDs). MUDs have attracted the attention of
added to the previous ones: nevertheless their many feminist authors and seem to have become
prevailing techno-enthusiasm flows into a dif- paradigmatic for the Internet as a laboratory for
ferent definition of Internet. The cyber feminists gender.
262
MUDs are text-based, virtual games, which may Several authors have noted that women’s work
have the different purposes of seeking adventure often involves looking after bodies, cleaning and
and killing monsters, of socializing with others and feeding the young, old and the sick […] Looking
building new communities. They also offer a tool after bodily needs is a process which sinks into
for teaching by constructing virtual classrooms. invisibility and leaves men free to live the higher
One usually does not access a MUD through the status life of the mind. Small wonder that tran-
World Wide Web, but links up through Telnet. When scending the body should have become associated
login on for the first time, one chooses a name with masculinist modes of reasoning and should
for the character one wants to be and keeps that be reflected, not only in the work of AI [Artificial
name for the duration of the game, which can – in Intelligence] robotics but also in the desire of
fact – go on for years. It is precisely this choice cyber culture enthusiasts to leave the body behind
of identity at the beginning of the game that the in cyberspace. (Adam, 1997, p. 21)
MUD reputation of being a laboratory for gender
experiments comes from. Women play as men, Cyberspace has its own (gender) culture, mor-
men operate as women, others choose multiple als, and expectations, but in just as many ways, it
identities […] or try what it means to operate as replicates the biases, contradictions, prejudices,
an “it”. (van Zoonen, 2002, p. 13). stereotypes and gender social practices. “Cyber-
space is no paradise on Earth. Quite the contrary!”
There are many places in Internet for women (Neutopia, 1994).
and men to socialize, blurring (or maintaining) the The way in which Internet allows new kinds
gender identity. In Usenet, the largest public area of social relationships by revolutionizing commu-
of Internet, people get together in newsgroups to nication and access to information does not seem
discuss diverse subjects. For people who want to therefore to suffice to celebrate its democratic
role-play in another persona, or even another gen- vocation. Most importantly, the techno-enthusiasm
der, there are not only MUD but also Multi-User of cyber feminism does not substantiate its claim to
Shared Hallucination (MUSH): it is a text-based make women’s lives better. It shows little engage-
online social medium to which multiple users are ment with the growing body of empirical research
connected at the same time. MUSH is often used for on gender and technology. The apparent absence
online social intercourse and role-playing games, of a political agenda is reinforced by the alliance
although the first forms of MUSH do not appear to of cyber feminism to cyberpunk, science fiction
be coded specifically to implement gaming activity. versions of cyber culture which are deliberately
Besides there are mailing lists, chat, forum, blog alienated from politics.
and many other Internet services. In order to follow a more concrete reasoning
For cyber feminism, cyberspace represents the about gender and technology that is about the way
post-gendered world where the traditional ideas in which the gender studies can help professionals
about gendered identities and roles are subverted and decision-makers, in the next paragraph the
empowering women (Plant, 1998). Internet is a digital divide and the gender gap will be analyzed
democratic agora, an electronic meeting place – in relation to Internet – as principal obstacles to
where individuals throughout the world could a sustainable technological development.
interact as equals despite differences in nationality,
race, social status, sex, and other status or physi-
cal attributes. However this transcendence of the
body are very problematic because they concern
a particularly masculine form of reasoning.
263
Different aSpeCtS of to the Internet. The frequency of use refers to the

Digital genDer gap amount of time that an individual devotes to the
use of the Internet. The scope of use refers to the
Inclusion and openness are features, which have variety of websites […] used by an individual.
marked Internet since its birth and have fed the (Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005, p. 254)
myth of a democratic and egalitarian network being
able to fill geographical and social gaps among The question of the access has been interpreted
people. The democratic vocation of the Internet differently in relation to the period and analytical
would seem confirmed also by its extraordinary perspective. In the early stages of home computer,
development from 1994 on, without precedents in the new technology was popularly portrayed as
the history of media; but the possibility to access a male domain; at that time, women were more
or not to ICT, and particularly to Internet, deter- likely to be “technophobic”.
mines considerable differences among individuals,
families and countries. These disparities impact on There is much talk about women and “computer
life quality and on job and cultural opportunities, phobia”. My research suggests that women’s
overdrawing, on technological level, traditional phobic reactions to the machine are a transitional
mechanisms of social stratification. phenomenon. There is the legacy of women’s
Such a fracture is defined as “digital divide”: traditional socialization into relationships with
this expression summarizes all kinds of inequality technical objects, for many of them best summed
existing in relation with technology both inside up by the admonishment: “Don’t touch it, you’ll
and outside of a country. The expression “digital get a shock”. There is the legacy of a computer
divide” generally refers to the gap dividing the culture that has traditionally been dominated
minority of privileged people connected to Internet by images of competition, sports and violence.
from the big majority of world population who There are still computer operating systems that
cannot access to basic communication infrastruc- communicate to their users in terms of “killing”
tures yet. In reality researchers have also noticed and “aborting” programs. These are things that
in different social groups great disparities in the have kept women fearful and far away from the
mastery of this medium and in the freedom of machine. But these are things that are subject to
action. These differences can be interpreted in a change. (Turkle, 1988, p. 41)
gender perspective, by considering the cultural and
material elements distinguishing the technologi- The most recent studies have conflicting
cal positioning of male users from that of female opinions about the numbers of women that to-
users. Mainly, the literature stresses the women’s day access to ICT and Internet (Huyer & Carr,
disadvantage so that the gender perspective, in 2002; Ono & Zavodny, 2003). Yet in literature
many cases, focus on feminine situation. and statistical overview, we found that there
In considering the gender gap on the Internet, is a general increase in the number of women
Wasserman and Richmond-Abbott (2005) define using ICTs, whereas there is not a correspond-
three aspects: (1) access to the Internet, (2) fre- ing increase in women working within the ICT
quency of use of the Internet, and (3) scope of the professions and there is still a gender gap in terms
use of the Internet. of ownership of ICT products. If we consider
the Europe “the overall picture is a contradic-
Access refers to the opportunity for individuals to tory one: optimistic with respect to what we
use the web because they can utilize a computer in call women and ICT (that is, women as users)
a public or private setting and have connections and pessimistic with respect to women in ICT
264
(that is, women within the ICT professions)” girls from pursuing science, technology or engi-
(Faulkner & Lie, 2007, p.158). neering careers (Adya & Kaiser, 2005).
The transnational/(post) colonial feminism, Following the analysis of Wasserman and
leaving a logo centric point of view and giving Richmond-Abbott (2005), the second aspect of
attention to spaces and opportunities offered to gender gap is the frequency of use of the Internet. It
the so called “third-world” by electronic networks involves the amount of time an individual uses the
and cyberspace (Calás & Smircich 2006), extends web for social and/or professional activity. Many
the discussion about the question of access to individuals use Internet for social entertainment,
the Internet and ICTs, recognizing that even if to play games, and for hobby interests. By con-
Internet has its “headquarters” in the first world, trast, other individuals use this ICT for business
this does not mean neither that it is contextually and commercial activities (i.e., banking, stock
empowering all women in the Northern societies, transactions). Nevertheless the frequency of use
nor that Internet is the panacea for the problems can be analyzed, apart from the consideration of
of Southern under-privileged women. the time one dedicates to Internet, also in relation
with the level of socializing and familiarity with
Whether located in the Northern hemisphere or technology. As regards the process of socializing
the South, whether rich or poor, global structures with technology we know that it begins during
or power (through their “invisible” control of childhood and that toys have an important role
the market, Internet service providers, software of “facilitators” in this phase.
design, language and so on) clearly determine
women’s use of the Internet. If cyber feminists Children enter a world that is heavily reliant
want to ensure that the Internet is empowering, on technology in both a physical and culture
it is not enough to “get connected” and set up sense […] Often the first social commentary on
websites and maintain e-mail-discussion lists. The technology that children encounter is mediated
latter tasks, while necessary, are only a minuscule through the toys they are given which are not
part of the battle. (Gajjala & Mamidipudi, 1999, only technologically based themselves but also
pp. 15-16) carry messages about the social relations in
which technology, gender, class, and much more
“It is not enough to get connected”: indeed, the are embedded. The impact of these first cultural
gender gap is directly linked to social and cultural utensils cannot be overlooked […] Successes in
factors. For instance, the access to ITs and Internet strong gender demarcation by toy manufactures
is associated to different roles and positions of who have firm ideas as to what sells best to each
women and men in society and family. In develop- gender reinforce for the industry notions that
ing countries – especially in low-income families girls and boys are different, but they also promote
– the parents tend to give priority to the education that precise idea to children. (Varney, 2002, pp.
of boys rather than girls. Also, women often have 154-155).
less control over family income (in particular if
men are the main income earners), which makes Business strategies and manufacturing pro-
it more difficult for them to pursue (fee-based) cesses in the field of ICT can bear on digital
training in IT-related fields or spend family income gender gap in a way or in another. Women are
on ICT access and use (UNCAT, 2002). Again, poorly represented as information technology
in developing and developed countries too, the designers and experts and, as feminists have
prevailing gender stereotypes sustain the male stressed, the women’s absence from spheres of
hegemony in the world of work and discourage influence, among the principal actors in tech-
265
nological design and decision-making, is a key The third aspect of digital gender gap is that
feature of gender power relation (Fountain, 2000; of the scope of the use of the Internet. There are
Wajcman, 2004). In the ICT sector, as well in very different websites. Some of these sites (i.e.,
many other techno scientist fields, the occupa- sports, sexually explicit materials) are more likely
tional segregation legitimizes the reproduction of to be male oriented; others (i.e. cooking, religious)
gender stereotypes. At the productive level, we are classified as female oriented, while a vast
might consider the problem of scripting language7: majority of them (i.e., health and fitness, games)
into many professional communities prevails the might be classified as “androgynous” (Wasserman
use of “I-methodology” – that refers to a design & Richmond-Abbott, 2005).
practice in which designers consider themselves The variation in the scope and frequency of use
as representative of the users (Oudshoorn, Rom- of these various sites by gender may be caused first
mes & Stienstra, 2004) – gender identity and the by socio-economic differences between men and
stereotypical perceptions of designers about the women. These differences are generally related to
users shape the gender of technological artifacts the fact that men have higher income levels and, at
(Balka, 1997). The case study of Faulkner and this moment, a greater presence in science, engi-
Lie (2007), that is the designing of an electronics neering and technological areas starting from the
girlish game, is emblematic. educational context. On the contrary in the same
area there is an “educational pipeline” for women
This case highlights the prevalence of the I- (Cozza, 2008; Levenson, 1990; Schumacher &
methodology in ICT design. This means that the Morahan-Martin, 2001; Trauth, 2002). The dif-
designers, usually young or middle-aged men ferent use of Internet between men and women
from Europe, USA or Japan, make what they may also be related to work and home activity by
themselves find interesting or attractive. When men and women that influence the availability
imagining other user groups, they tend to lean of the web and of free time to navigate online
on their own imaginings of the group. (Faulkner systems. Secondly, as we have already said, the
& Lie, 2007, p. 171) variation in frequency and scope of use may be
caused by lifetime experience with technology.
The gender imbalance in professional communi- Generally speaking, men have been more familiar
ties reflects the gender imbalance in decision-making with computers and Internet than women and they
structures, which may influence the technologi- are more involved in decision-making processes
cal innovation and its sustainability. For instance than feminine colleagues.
women are under-represented in organizations such In this sense interest and competence in ICTs
as European Computer Manufacturers Association evolve within complex interactions between
(ECMA), the Internet Engineering Task Force education, work and leisure (Faulkner & Lie,
(IETF), the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), 2007). The phenomenon of digital gender gap
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and needs to be raised again, systematically discussed
the Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers and included in the research agenda: the results
(IEEE). These international working groups have of gender technology studies should feed back
high influence on IT corporations because they un- into action-researches, empirical projects and
dertake policy deliberations and propagate Internet co-operations between researchers, practitioners
standards, but they do not involve equally women and and decision-makers too, aimed to redress adverse
men professionals in their decisions. This situation gender effects.
clashes, at the base, with the definition of sustainable
development as socially equal.
266
What to Do? both from boys and girls; (2) the equality
of opportunity within schools, for instance
Gender refers to the distinct roles that men and recognizing the importance of mentors and
women are assigned in any society. As a result, role models by women science teachers and
women and men assume distinct socially and provide rewards to those who devote sub-
culturally defined responsibilities and tasks both stantial time to this activity; (3) the oppor-
within the household and in the wider commu- tunity for distance education introducing
nity. The situated knowledge and experience new approaches to science and technology
gained from undertaking these tasks, as well as education, such as distance learning, mak-
their requirements, lead women and men to have ing optimal use of both old (radio) and new
different needs and aspirations. This concept of (multimedia) technologies.
gender differentiation underpins the conviction • Removing obstacles to women in scientific
that “science and technology for development” and technological careers. The transforma-
must systematically and purposefully recognize tive actions recommended might encom-
the gender-specific nature of development and pass initiatives in academia and the school
respond to the concerns, needs, and aspirations of system such as (1) establish networks of
both women and men appropriately and equitably female professionals in science and en-
(UN Commission on Science and Technology for gineering; (2) enhance mentoring, role-
Development, 1995). model, and career advisory programs; (3)
The research and knowledge have an increased provide flexible tenure criteria to accom-
salience in the technological innovation and this modate family roles and responsibilities;
role is worldwide recognized (Etzkowitz & Ley- (4) provide refresher courses and re-entry
desdorff, 2000). According to Neimanis (2002), scholarships for women returning to ca-
the research agenda (both in natural and in social reers in science.
sciences) should be constructed with reference • Making the science and technology deci-
to the “gender mainstreaming” (United Nations, sion-making process more “gender-aware”.
1997) strategy, that is an approach that does not The transformative actions recommended
look at women in isolation, but looks at women should involve end users, men and women
and men – both as actors in the development equally, in the determination of research
process, and as its beneficiaries. priorities and in the design and implemen-
The contribute of gender studies might be tation of technology and development pro-
significant in this way, mainly in relation to some grams. This will require explicit attention
issues and related policy and program options to the participation of women. Subject all
for the consideration of national governments development programs with a high science
and science and technology bodies and agen- and technology component to “gender im-
cies. With reference to the recommendations of pact analysis” before initiation. Gender
UN Commission on Science and Technology for analysis should be included in the design
Development (1995), specific attention should be and the subsequent monitoring and evalu-
devoted to these topics: ation. Technology-assessment techniques
and decision framework should incorporate
• Gender equity in science and technol- a gender dimension. Governments should
ogy education. The transformative actions establish a focal point of expertise in gen-
recommended might regard (1) the equity der, science and technology to be avail-
in gaining the access to formal education able to advise government departments,
267
facilitate training sessions, and monitor gender as a fixed binary, constructing other plat-
and report on the implementation of gov- forms that enable critique to gendered technology
ernment strategies in gender, science, and (Landström, 2007).
technology. This methodological turn defies the kind of
• Relating better with local knowledge sys- simplistic treatments in which technology is seen
tems. The transformative actions recom- as either “good” or “bad”, and Internet either de-
mended involve development agencies terministically patriarchal – a “toy for boys” – or
that should give full consideration to the empowering for women – an exciting tool and a
contributions of local knowledge systems, means of gaining technical confidence.
giving specific recognition to the gendered There are some important implications of this
nature of these systems and the situated challenge for feminist research and gender studies
character of digital gender gap, too. about technology.
First, if technology is considered – both ma-
It is clear that the level of intervention, arising terially and symbolically – a huge, often critical,
from a gender-aware research agenda, will depend element of hegemonic masculinity (Connell,
on the specific needs and priorities revealed by a 1987), the effort has to be going beyond the
gender-sensitive situation assessment. technology-masculinity equation. Further re-
search has to be done on the diverse interactions
between technologies and masculinities found
future trenDS for genDer in practice: there are many versions of gender,
StuDieS on teChnology different masculinities (as well as femininities)
lived differently in different times and places, but
The discussion about the gender of the Internet also varying within particular times and places
arises from the feminist technology studies. This (Acker, 2004). Internet offers many places or
particular research trajectory provides a helpful virtual spaces differently gendered.
framework for analyzing the “co-production” of Second, serious attention has to be given to the
gender and technology. In this perspective both notion of the cyborg (Haraway, 1997), understand-
are seen as performed and processual in character, ing its theoretical and “disturbing” potential. For
rather than given and unchanging. In particular, Haraway the denaturalizing of cyborg bodies – at
there are two key foundations to remember: first, once organic and inorganic, machine and flesh – is an
two-way mutually shaping relationship between important response to the technophobia of a school of
gender and technology in which technology is both feminist analysis, which she sees as retrograde in its
a source and a consequence of gender relations recourse to an organic, essential femininity grounded
and vice versa; second, gender-technology rela- in the body (Currier, 2003). Despite critics to this
tions are manifest not only in gender structures but transcendence of the body – that is accused to be a
also in gender symbols and identities (Cockburn, particularly masculine form of reasoning (Adam,
1985; Faulkner, 2001; Wajcman, 1991). Thus, a 1997) – the cyber feminism gives new theoretical
useful way to approach the subject matter is to tools (in terms of representations and concepts)
ask the question “how is technology gendered?” to understand and analyze the ongoing gendering
This issue is open to debate because it is referred practices in virtual settings as Internet.
to changeable practices (Poggio, 2006) and ef- In conclusion, there are a number of matters
fects that are unpredictable (Eriksson-Zetterquist, arising out of feminist and gender studies about
2007). The future of gender-technology studies technology, and the question for the future remains:
depends on the ability of researchers to abandon “how is technology gendered?”
268
ConCluSion referenCeS
One noted dimension of inequality in Internet Acker, J. (2004). Gender, Capitalism and Glo-
access and usage is gender. A number of studies balization. Critical Sociology, 30(1), 17–41.
have noted that women are less likely than men doi:10.1163/156916304322981668
to use the Internet, particularly when the technol- Adam, A. (1997). What should we do with cy-
ogy was first accessible to the general public in berfeminism? In R. Lander & A. Adam (Eds.),
the mind-1990s. Gender differences in adoption Women in Computing (pp. 17-27). Exeter, UK:
rates may exit because men and women differ, Intellect Books.
on average, in socioeconomic status, which in-
fluences Internet access and use. Alternatively, Adam, A., Howcroft, D., & Richardson, H.
men tend to be more interested in computers (2004). A decade of neglect: reflecting on
than women, on average, contributing – also in gender and IS. New Technology, Work and Em-
terms of design – to gender differences in Inter- ployment, 19(3), 222–240. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
net use. These gender differences in Internet are 005X.2004.00139.x
frequently examined with quantitative methods,
Adya, M., & Kaiser, K. M. (2005). Early de-
using several measures, the cross-sectional data,
terminants of women in the IT workforce:
report descriptive statistics and cross-tabulations
a model of girls’ career choices. Informa-
(Ono & Zavodny, 2003).
tion Technology & People, 18(3), 230–259.
Intentionally, this chapter is based on qualita-
doi:10.1108/09593840510615860
tive approach, positioning the discussion about
Internet within gender and technology studies. Ahujia, M. K. (2002). Women in the informa-
The reasoning is aimed to shed light on the tion technology profession: a literature review,
gender of the Internet sustaining that gender and synthesis and research agenda. European Journal
technology are co-produced. This chapter may of Information Systems, 11, 20–34. doi:10.1057/
be considered, on one side, a contribute to view palgrave/ejis/3000417
gender as an integral part of the social shaping
Balka, E. (1997). Participatory Design in Women’s
of technology – which is neither unproblematic
Organizations: The Social World of Organizational
nor neutral – and, on the other side, an attempt
Structure and the Gendered Nature of Expertise.
to focus on gendered dimension of sustainable
Gender, Work and Organization, 4(2), 99–115.
human and technological development, actually
doi:10.1111/1468-0432.00027
hampered by the digital gender gap.
In this sense, the chapter is aligned with the Berner, B. (Ed.). (1997). Gendered Practices.
feminist theories that, as Marta Calás and Linda Feminist Studies of Technology and Society.
Smircich state, are “not in search of universal Linköping, Sweden: Nova Print.
“knowledge” but as a way to continue critical
Braidotti, R. (1996, July 15). Cyberfeminism with
engagement in a world that evolves in multiple
a Difference. Retrieved from http://www.let.uu.nl/
directions maintaining, or even exacerbating, con-
women’s_studies/rosi/cyberfem.htm
ditions of inequality” (2006, p. 328). Nevertheless,
the conclusion does not want to be pessimistic Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and
because, in relation to gendering on the Internet, the Subversion of Identity. London: Routledge.
the gaze looks at the potential of the cyberspace:
it may open new places and subject positions
breaking the gendered boundaries.
269
Calás, M. B., & Smircich, L. (2006). From the Edwards, P. N. (1990). The army and the mi-
“Woman’s Point of View Ten Years Later: Towards croworld: computers and the politics of gender
a Feminist Organization Studies. In S. Clegg, C. identity. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and
Hardy, T. Lawrence & W. R. Nord (Eds.), The Society, 16(1), 102–127. doi:10.1086/494647
Sage handbook of organization studies (pp. 284-
Eriksson-Zetterquist, U. (2007). Editorial: Gender
346). London: Sage.
and New Technologies. Gender, Work and Or-
Caputi, J. (1988). Seeing Elephants: The Myths ganization, 14(4), 305–311. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
of Phallotechnology. Feminist Studies, 14(3), 0432.2007.00345.x
487–524. doi:10.2307/3178062
Etzkowitz, H., & Leydesdorff, L. (2000). The
Chesley, N. (2005). Blurring Boundaries? Linking dynamics of innovation: from National Systems
Technology Use, Spillover, Individual Distress, and “Mode 2” to a Triple Helix of university-in-
and Family Satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and dustry-government relations. Research Policy, 29,
the Family, 67(5), 1237–1248. doi:10.1111/j.1741- 109–123. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(99)00055-4
3737.2005.00213.x
Faulkner, W. (2000). The Power and the
Cockburn, C. (1985). Machinery of dominance: Pleasure? A Research Agenda for “Making
Women, men and technical know-how. London: Gender Stick” to Engineers. Science, Tech-
Pluto. nology & Human Values, 25(1), 87–119.
doi:10.1177/016224390002500104
Cockburn, C., & Ormrod, S. (1993). Gender &
Technology in the Making. London: Sage. Faulkner, W., & Lie, M. (2007). Gender in the In-
formation Society: Strategies of Inclusion. Gender,
Connell, R. (1987). Gender and Power. Cam-
Technology and Development, 11(2), 157–177.
bridge, UK: Polity Press.
doi:10.1177/097185240701100202
Coombs, R., Knights, D., & Willmott, C.
Fountain, J. E. (2000). Constructing the informa-
(1992). Culture, Control and Competition:
tion society: women, information technology,
Towards a Conceptual Framework for the
and design. Technology in Society, 22, 45–62.
Study of Information Technology in Organi-
doi:10.1016/S0160-791X(99)00036-6
zations. Organization Studies, 13(1), 51–72.
doi:10.1177/017084069201300106 Gajjala, R., & Mamidipudi, A. (1999). Cyber-
feminism, technology, and international “devel-
Cozza, M. (2008). Narratives on platform: stories
opment.” . Gender and Development, 7(2), 8–16.
for women in computer science. Int. J. Cont. Engi-
doi:10.1080/741923122
neering Education and Life-Long Learning, 18(2),
197–213. doi:10.1504/IJCEELL.2008.017376 Gherardi, S. (1995). Gender, Symbolism and
Organizational Cultures. London: Sage.
Currier, D. (2003). Feminist Technological
Futures: Deleuze and Body/Technology As- Grey, S., & Healy, G. (2004). Women and IT
semblages. Feminist Theory, 4(3), 321–338. contracting work – a testing process. New Tech-
doi:10.1177/14647001030043005 nology, Work and Employment, 19(1), 30–42.
doi:10.1111/j.1468-005X.2004.00126.x
De Ruggieri, F., & Pugliese, A. C. (Eds.). (2006).
Futura. Genere e tecnologia. Roma: Meltemi.
270
Gustavsson, E. (2005). Virtual Servants: Stereotyp- ID. (1995). Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age
ing Female Front-Office Employees on the Inter- of the Internet. New York: Simon and Schuster.
net. Gender, Work and Organization, 12(5), 400–
ID. (1997). Modest_Witness@Second_Millen-
419. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2005.00281.x
nium. Female Man Meets Onco Mouse. London:
Haraway, D. (1988). Situated Knowledges: The Routledge.
Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege
ID. (2000). From the Woman Question in Tech-
of Partial Perspective. Feminist Studies, 14(3),
nology to the Technology Question in Feminism.
575–599. doi:10.2307/3178066
European Journal of Women’s Studies, 7(2),
Hearn, J. (2004). From Hegemonic Masculinity 209–227. doi:10.1177/135050680000700209
to the Hegemony of Men. Feminist Theory, 5(49),
ID. (2001). The technology question in feminism:
49–72. doi:10.1177/1464700104040813
a view from feminist technology studies. Women’s
Henwood, F. (1993). Establishing Gender Per- Studies International Forum, 24(1), 79–95.
spectives on Information Technology: Problems. doi:10.1016/S0277-5395(00)00166-7
Issues and Opportunities. In E. Green, J. Owen &
ID. (2002). Exploring the gender ques-
D. Pain (Eds.), Gendered by Design? Information
tion in critical information systems. Jour-
Technology and Office Systems (pp. 31-49).
nal of Information Technology, 17, 59–67.
Herring, S. C. (1994). Gender differences in doi:10.1080/02683960210145959
computer-mediated communication: bringing
ID. (2002). Gendering the Internet: Claims,
familiar baggage to the new frontier. Paper pre-
Controversies and Cultures. European Journal
sented at the American Library Association annual
of Communication, 17(5), 5–23.
convention, Miami. ID (2001, May 23). Gender
Differences in CMC: Findings and Implications. ID. (2004). Techno Feminism. Cambridge, UK:
CPSR Newsletter, 18(1). Retrivied from http:// Polity Press.
cpsr.org/issues/womenintech/herring/
ID. (2008). Life in the fast lane? Towards a sociol-
Huyer, S., & Carr, M. (2002). Information and ogy of technology and time. The British Journal
Communication Technologies:APriority for Wom- of Sociology, 59(1), 59–77. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
en. Gender, Technology and Development, 6(1), 4446.2007.00182.x
85–100. doi:10.1177/097185240200600105
Janson, M., Mörtberg, C., & Berg, E. (2007). Old
ID. (1991). Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Dreams, New Means: an Exploration of Visions
Reinvention of Nature. New York: Routledge. and Situated Knowledge in Information Technol-
ogy. Gender, Work and Organization, 14(4), 371–
ID. (1992). The circuit of technology. Gender,
387. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2007.00349.x
identity and power. In R. Silverstone & E. Hirsch
(Eds.), Consuming Technologies. Media and Knights, D., & Kerfoot, D. (2004). Between Rep-
Information in Domestic Spaces (pp. 32-47). resentations and Subjectivity: Gender Binaries
London: Routledge. and the Politics of Organizational Transformation.
Gender, Work and Organization, 11(4), 430–454.
ID. (1994). Feminist Theories of Technology. In
doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2004.00241.x
S. Jasanoff, et al. (Eds.), Handbook of science
and technology studies (pp. 189-204). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
271
Kraft, J. F., & Siegenthaler, J. K. (1989). Office Newman, K. (1988). Falling from Grace; the Ex-
Automation, Gender, and Change: An Analysis perience of Downward Mobility in the American
of the Management Literature. Science, Tech- Middle Class. New York: Vintage Books.
nology & Human Values, 14(2), 195–212.
Ono, H., & Zavodny, M. (2003). Gender and the
doi:10.1177/016224398901400204
Internet. Social Science Quarterly, 84(1), 111–121.
Landström, C. (2007). Queering feminist tech- doi:10.1111/1540-6237.t01-1-8401007
nology studies. Feminist Theory, 8(7), 7–26.
Orlikowski, W. J., & Baroudi, J. J. (1989). The
doi:10.1177/1464700107074193
Information systems profession: myth or real-
Lash, S. (2002). Critique of Information. London: ity? Office: Technology & People, 4, 13–30.
Sage. doi:10.1108/eb022652
Levenson, N. G. (1990). Educational Pipeline Oudshoorn, N., Rommes, E., & Stienstra, M.
Issues for Women. Paper presented at Computer (2004). Configuring the Users as Everybody:
Research Association Annual Meeting, Snowbird, Gender and Design Cultures in Information
UT. and Communication Technologies. Science,
Technology & Human Values, 29(1), 30–63.
Linstead, A., & Brewis, J. (2004). Editorial:
doi:10.1177/0162243903259190
Beyond Boundaries: Towards Fluidity in Theo-
rizing and Practice. Gender, Work and Orga- Panteli, N., Stack, J., & Ramsay, H. (2001).
nization, 11(4), 355–362. doi:10.1111/j.1468- Gendered patterns in computing work in the late
0432.2004.00237.x 1990s. New Technology, Work and Employment,
16(1), 3–17. doi:10.1111/1468-005X.00073
Mitter, S. (2001). Asian Women in the Digital
Economy: Policies for Participation. Malaysia, Perry, R., & Greber, L. (1990). Women and
UNDP. Computers: an Introduction. Signs: Journal of
Women in Culture and Society, 16(1), 74–101.
Moore, K., Griffiths, M., Richardson, H., &
doi:10.1086/494646
Adam, A. (2008). Gendered Futures? Women,
the ICT Workplace and Stories of the Future. Plant, S. (1998). Zeros and Ones: Digital Women
Gender, Work and Organization, 15(5), 523–542. and the New Technoculture. London: Fourth
doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2008.00416.x Estate.
Naughton, J. (1999). A Brief History of the Future: Poggio, B. (2006). Editorial: Outline of a Theory
The Origins of the Internet. London: Weidenfeld of Gender Practices. Gender, Work and Orga-
and Nicolson. nization, 13(3), 225–233. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
0432.2006.00305.x
Neimanis, A. (2002). Gender mainstreaming in
practice: a Handbook. UNDP. Reinharz, S. (1992). Feminist methods in Social
Research. New York: Oxford University Press.
Neutopia, D. (1994, July 16). The feminization
of Cyberspace. Retrieved from http://feminism. Rifkin, J. (1995). The end of work: the decline of
eserver.org/gender/cyberspace/feminization-of- the global labor force and the dawn of the post-
cyberspace.txt market era, New York: Putnam’s Sons.
272
Rodrigues Araújo, E. (2008). Technology, Gender UNCAT-United Nations Conference on Trade and
and Time: A Contribution to the Debate. Gen- Development (2002). E-Commerce and develop-
der, Work and Organization, 15(5), 477–503. ment report. New York: United Nations.
doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2008.00414.x
United Nations. (1997). The Report of the Eco-
Schor, J. (1992). The Overworked American: nomic and Social Council for 1997. New York:
the Unexpected Decline of Leisure. New York: United Nations, Department of Economic and
Basic Books. Social Affairs, Division for the Advancement of
Women.
Schumacher, P., & Morahan-Martin, J. (2001).
Gender, Internet and computer attitudes and ex- Van Zoonen, L. (1991). Feminist theory and in-
periences. Computers in Human Behavior, 17, formation technology. Media Culture & Society,
95–110. doi:10.1016/S0747-5632(00)00032-7 14(1), 9–29. doi:10.1177/016344392014001002
Smelik, A. (2000). Die virtuele matrix. Het lichaam Varney, W. (2002). Of Men and Machines: Images
in cyberpunkfilms. Tijdschrift voor Genderstud- of Masculinities in Boys’ Toys. Feminist Studies,
ies, 3(4), 4–13. 28(1), 153–174. doi:10.2307/3178498
Spender, D. (1995). Nattering on the net: Women, Wajcman, J. (1991). Feminism confronts Technol-
Power an Cyberspace. North Melbourne, Austra- ogy. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
lia: Spinifex Press.
Wasserman, I. M., & Richmond-Abbott, M.
Stone, A. R. (1995). The War of Deside and (2005). Gender and the Internet: Causes of Varia-
Technology, at the Close of the Mechanical Age. tion in Access, Level, and Scope. Social Science
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Quarterly, 86(1), 252–270. doi:10.1111/j.0038-
4941.2005.00301.x
Takayoshi, P. (2000). Complicated Women: Exam-
ining Methodologies for Understanding the Uses WCDE-World Commission on Environment
of Technology. Computers and Composition, 17, and Development. (1987). Our Common Future.
123–138. doi:10.1016/S8755-4615(00)00025-6 Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Trauth, M. E. (2002). Odd girls out: an individual Wellman, B. (2001). Physical Place and Cyber-
differences perspective on women in the IT pro- space: The Rise of Personalized Networking.
fession. Information Technology & People, 15(2), International Journal of Urban and Regional
98–118. doi:10.1108/09593840210430552 Research, 25(2), 227–252. doi:10.1111/1468-
2427.00309
Turkle, S. (1984). The second self: Computers
and the Human Spirit. London: Granada. ID. West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Do-
(1988). Computational reticence: why women ing Gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151.
fear the intimate machine. In C. Kramarae (Ed.), doi:10.1177/0891243287001002002
Technology and women’s voices (pp. 41-61). New
York: Routledge & Kegan Paul Inc.
UN Commission on Science and Technology for enDnoteS
Development. (1995). Missing Links: Gender Eq-
1
uity in Science and Technology for Development, Faulkner (2000) identifies four streams of
Canada, International Development Research work in this area: the first – women in tech-
Centre. nology – focuses on the agendas of govern-
273
3
ments and industry and their scant regard for The School is a joint venture among the
discriminations towards women in the labour Department for Gender Studies (Tema Ge-
market (i.e., the occupational segregation, nus), Linköping University, Sweden, NIKK
the women’s career advancement compared (Nordic Institute for Women’s Studies and
with men’s). The second stream – women and Gender Research), Oslo, Norway, and 36
technology – reflects a desire to broaden the partner institutions at 33 universities and
agenda beyond the equity issue, on the basis institutions for higher education in Denmark,
that the vast majority of women encounters Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Estonia,
technology as users rather than designers. Latvia, Lithuania and North West Russia.
4
The third stream – gender and technology Shulamit Reinhatz (1992) says that “the femi-
– signal two different priorities: first, under- nist research practice must be recognized as
standing relations between men as well as a plurality”(p. 4), that is an open perspective
between women and men to make sense of aimed to give voice to different positions,
the position of women; second, understand- rejecting the notion of a transcendent author-
ing technology as socially shaped and thus ity, one truth and a pure knowledge. The
potentially reshapeable. Finally he identi- problems with the traditional peer review
fies a fourth stream that is men/masculinity system are exactly linked to the question of
and technology: a new avenue for feminist how authority is created and distributed. I
technology studies. have to thank the anonymous reviewer for the
2
There are also many professional orga- interesting suggestion about this conceptual
nizations. For instance: the Alliance of link.
5
Technology and Women (ATW) (http:// Erin Bradner writing for computer scientists,
www.atwinternational.org), the European has coined the term “social affordances” to
Platform of Women Scientists (http://www. emphasize the social as well as individual
epws.org/index.php), the Committee on the implications of the technological features
Status of Women in Computing Research- of computer-supported communication
CRA-W (http://www.cra.org/Activities/ networks and human-computer interfaces
craw), Gender and Sciences (http://gssnet. (Wellman, 2001).
6
fbk.eu/en/presentation). It might be useful to The title of this section arises from the reading
mention also the “miscellaneous” resources of Liesbet van Zoonen’s article “Gender-
on gender and technology such as Women- ing the Internet: Claims, Controversies and
Related Email Lists for Cyberculture or Cultures” (2002). It is suitable for this sec-
Internet Information (http://userpages.umbc. tion because it refers not only to the mutual
edu/~korenman/wmst/f_net.html), GenTech shaping of the Internet and gender, but also
(http://educ.ubc.ca/faculty/bryson/gentech), it suggests the idea of gender as “doing”
Women Internet Researchers (http://www. (West & Zimmerman, 1987).
7
nicola-doering.de/women.htm), Information A scripting language, script language or
and Communication Technologies and Gen- extension language, is a programming lan-
der Seminar Series (http://web.worldbank. guage that allows some control of a single
org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXT or many software application(s).
GENDER/0,,contentMDK:20207786~me
nuPK:489311~pagePK:148956~piPK:216
618~theSitePK:336868,00.html).
274
275
Compilation of References
Acke r, J. (20 0 4). G e nd e r, C a pit a l i s m a nd Adya, M., & Kaiser, K. M. (2005). Early determinants
Globalization. Critical Sociology, 30(1), 17– 41. of women in the IT workforce: a model of girls’ career
doi:10.1163/156916304322981668 choices. Information Technology & People, 18(3),
230–259. doi:10.1108/09593840510615860
Ackoff, R. L. (1981). Creating the corporate future. New
York: Wiley. Ahujia, M. K. (2002). Women in the information
technology profession: a literature review, synthesis
Adam, A. (1997). What should we do with cyberfeminism?
and research agenda. European Journal of Information
In R. Lander & A. Adam (Eds.), Women in Computing
Systems, 11, 20–34. doi:10.1057/palgrave/ejis/3000417
(pp. 17-27). Exeter, UK: Intellect Books.
Akca, H., Sayili, M., & Esengun, K. (2007). Challenge
Adam, A., Howcroft, D., & Richardson, H. (2004). A
of rural people to reduce digital divide in the globalized
decade of neglect: reflecting on gender and IS. New
world: Theory and practice. Government Information
Technology, Work and Employment, 19(3), 222–240.
Quarterly, 24, 404–413. doi:10.1016/j.giq.2006.04.012
doi:10.1111/j.1468-005X.2004.00139.x
Albinsson, L., Forsgren, O., & Lind, M. (2006). e-Me
Adenfelt, M., & Lagerström, K. (2006). Enabling
Stories & Scenarios - The Ideal Electronic Galaxy of the
knowledge creation and sharing in transnational projects.
Student. School of Business and Informatics, University
International Journal of Project Management, 24(3),
College of Borås, Sweden
191–198. doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2005.09.003
Albinsson, L., Lind, M., & Forsgren, O. (2007). Co-
Adenfelt, M., & Lagerström, K. (2007). Knowledge
Design: An approach to border crossing, Network
development and sharing: the case of a centre of excellence
Innovation. In P. Cunningham, & M. Cunningham,
and a transnational team. International Business Review,
(Eds), Expanding the Knowledge Economy: Issues,
15(4), 381–400. doi:10.1016/j.ibusrev.2006.05.002
Applications, Case Studies (Vol. 4, Part 2, pp. 977-983).
Adenfelt, M., & Lagerström, K. (2008). The development Amsterdam: IOS Press.
and sharing of knowledge by centres of excellence
Allwood, J., & Lind, M. (2008). Making the Web more
and transnational teams: a conceptual framework.
Pragmatic - Exploring the Potential of some Pragmatic
Management International Review, 48(3), 319–338.
Concepts for IS Research and Development. The Inaugural
doi:10.1007/s11575-008-0018-8
meeting of The AIS Special Interest Group on Pragmatist
Adler, N. J. (1997). International dimensions of IS Research (SIGPrag 2008) at International Conference
organizational behavior. Cincinnati: South Western on Information Systems (ICIS2008), France
Publishing.
Copyright © 2010, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Altman, B. W. (1998). Transformed Corporate Community Antonelli, C. (2002). The Digital Divide: Understanding
Relations: A Management Tool for Achieving Corporate the Economics of New Information and Communication
Citizenship. Business and Society Review. Technology in the Global Economy. Information
Economics and Policy, 15(2), 173–199. doi:10.1016/S0167-
Alvesson, M. (2003). Beyond neopositivists, romantics,
6245(02)00093-8doi:10.1016/S0167-6245(02)00093-8
and localists: A reflexive approach to interviews in
organizational research. Academy of Management Antonijevic, R. (2007). Usage of computers and
Review, 28(1), 13–33. calculators and students achievement: results from TIMSS
2003. ERIC, ED497737, retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/
Alvesson, M., & Willmott, H. (1996). Making Sense
ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=ED497737
of Management. London, UK: Sage Publications
Limited. Arapkirlioglu, K. (2003). Ekoloji ve Planlama. Planlama,
4-.
Amborski, D., & Lister, N. M. (2002). An Eco-Tech Village
for Milton: Considerations for Policy. Commissioned by Aray, Y., & Sugizaki, K. (2003). Concentration of Call
the Town of Milton, Toronto. Centers in Peripheral Areas: Cases in Japan. NETCOM,
17, 187–202.
Ancona, D., & Caldwell, D. (1992). Bridging the boundary:
external activity and performance in organizational Arifoglu, A. (2004). E-Dönüşüm, Yol Haritası, Dünya,
teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 634–665. Türkiye. Ankara:Yıldız Yayınları.
doi:10.2307/2393475
Arnfalk, P. (2002). Virtual Mobility and Pollution
Andaleeb, S. (1995). Dependence relations and the Prevention. Lund, Sweden: The International Institute for
moderating role of trust: implications for behavioral Industrial Environmental Economics, Lund University.
intentions in marketing channels. International Journal of
Atabek, U. (2003). Iletisim Teknolojileri ve Yerel Medya
Research in Marketing, 12(2), 157–172. doi:10.1016/0167-
için Olanaklar. Istanbul: IPS.
8116(94)00020-O
Atamer, T., & Schweiger, D. (2003). Transnational
Andersson, P., Essler, U., & Thorngren, B. (2007). Beyond
horizontal project teams. Journal of World Business,
Mobility. Lund: Studentlitteratur
38(2), 81–83. doi:10.1016/S1090-9516(03)00002-6
Andraski, J. (1994). Foundations for successful
Attfield, R. (1999). The Ethics of the Global Environment.
continuous replenishment programs. International
Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
Journal of Logistics Management, 5(1), 1–8.
doi:10.1108/09574099410805036 Auge, M., & Howe, J. (1995). Non-Places: Introduction
to Anthropology of Supermodernity. London: Verso.
Andrews, A., Rankin, J. H., & Waugh, L. M. (2006).
A framework to identify opportunities for ICT support Aurigi, A. (2005). Making the Digital City. Aldershot,
when implementing sustainable design standards. ITcon UK: Ashgate
- . Electronic Journal of Information Technology in
Aurigi, A., & Graham, S. (2000). Cyberspace and the City:
Construction, 11, 17–33.
the Virtual City in Europe. In Bridge, G., & Watson, S.
Ansett, S. (2007). Mind the Gap: A Journey to Sustainable (Eds.), A Companion to the City (pp. 489-502). Oxford,
Supply Chains. Employ Response Rights Journal, 19(4), UK: Blackwell.
295–303. doi:10.1007/s10672-007-9055-x
Austin, J. L. (1975). How to do things with words. Oxford,
UK: Oxford University Press.
276
Axelsson, B., & Easton, G. (Eds.). (1992). Industrial Barth, F. (1971). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The
Networks - A New View of Reality. London: Routledge. Social Organization of Cultural Difference. Bergen:
Universitetsforlaget.
B.G.D. Consulting Inc. (2002). Implementation Options
Report 2002. Retrieved July 28, 2004 from http://www. Bartholomeusz, S., & Tanewski, G. (2006). The
milton.ca/execserv/ecotech_implementation.pdf relationship between Family Firms and Corporate
Governance. Journal of Small Business Management,
Baines, J., McClintock, W., Taylor, N., & Buckenham,
44(2), 245–267. doi:10.1111/j.1540-627X.2006.00166.x
B. (2003). Using local knowledge. In H. Becker, & F.
Vanclay, (Eds.) The International Handbook of social Bartiaux, F. (2008). Does environmental information
Impact Assessment (pp. 26-41). Cheltenham, UK: Edward overcome practice compartmentalisation and change
Elgar Publishing. consumers’ behaviours? Journal of Cleaner Production,
16, 1170–1190. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.08.013
Bakis, H., & Roche, E. M. (1997) Cyberspace: The
Emerging Nervous System of Global Society and Its Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal, S. (1989). Managing across
Spatial Functions. In E. M. Roche, & H. Bakis, (Eds.) borders. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Developments in Telecommunications: Between Global
Bassett-Jones, N. (2005). The paradox of diversity
and Local (pp.1-12). Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
management, creativity and innovation. Creativity and
Bakis, H., & Vidal, P. (2007) De la Négation du Territoire Innovation Management, 14(2), 169–176. doi:10.1111/
au Géocyberespace: Vers une Approche Intégrée de la j.1467-8691.00337.x
Relation entre Espace et TIC. In C. Brossaud, & B. Reber,
Bauman, Z. (1998). Globalization: The Human
(Eds.) Humanités Numériques, 1, 101-117.
Consequences. New York: Columbia University Press
Bakis, H., Abler, R., & Roche, E. M. (1993). Corporate
Baumann, H., Brunklaus, B., Gluch, P., Kadefors, A.,
Networks, International Telecommunications and
Stenberg, A.-C., & Thuvander, L. (2003). Byggsektorns
Interdependence. Perspectives from Geography and
Miljöbarometer 2002. Sweden: Chalmers University of
Information Systems. London: Belhaven.
technology . ESA Report, 2003, 2.
Balka, E. (1997). Participatory Design in Women’s
Beamer, L. (1998). Bridging Business Cultures. The
Organizations: The Social World of Organizational
China Business Review, 25(3), 54–58.
Structure and the Gendered Nature of Expertise. Gender,
Work and Organization, 4(2), 99–115. doi:10.1111/1468- Beamer, L., & Varner, I. (2001). Intercultural
0432.00027 Communication in the Global Workplace. New York:
McGraw-Hill Irvin.
Balle, F. (1999). Médias et societies, (9 ed.). Paris:
Monchrétien Bebbington, J., Brown, J., Frame, B., & Thomson, I.
(2007). Theorizing engagement: the potential of a critical
Bandyopadhyay, P. (2001). Application of Information
dialogic approach. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability
Technology and Impact of Cyber Eco Cities in New
Journal, 20(3). doi:10.1108/09513570710748544
Millennium. In ISOCARP Prooceedings, Utrecht, (pp.
68-77). Behrendt, I. (2000). Umweltinformationssysteme
als informelle Basis strategischer Planungen: Eine
Barlas, M. A., & Caliskan, O. (2006). Virtual Space As a
Gestaltungsempfehlung zur Architektur von strategischen
Public Sphere: Rethinking The Political and Professional
Umweltinformations¬systemen, Gießen.
Agenda of Spatial Planning And Design. METU Journal
of Faculty of Architecture, 23(2), 1–20.
277
Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002). A typology Boardman, A., Greenberg, D., Vining, A., & Weimer,
of virtual teams: implications for effective leadership. D. (2001). Cost-Benefit Analysis: concepts and practice
Group & Organization Management, 27(1), 14–36. (2nd ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
doi:10.1177/1059601102027001003
Bogunovich, D. (2002). Eco-tech cities: Smart metabolism
Bell, S., & Morse, S. (1999). Sustainability Indicators. for a green urbanism. In C.A. Brebbia, Martin-Duque and
London: Earthscan Publications Ltd. L.C. Wasdhwa (Ed.), The Sustainable City II, (pp.75-84).
London: Witpress.
Bentley, R., Hughes, J. A., Randall, D., Rodden, T., Sawyer,
P., Shapiro, D., & Sommerville, I. (1992). Ethnographically- Bon, R., & Hutchinson, K. (2000). Sustainable
Informed System Design for Air Traffic Control. In construction: some economic challenges. Building
Proceedings of the 1992 ACM Conference on Computer- Research and Information, 28(5- 6), 310 –314.
supported Cooperative Work (pp. 123-129). doi:10.1080/096132100418465
Bernard, R. H. (1995). Research Methods in Anthropology: Bonache, J., & Brewster, C. (2001). Knowledge
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Transfer and the Management of Expatriation.
Oaks, CA: Sage. Thunderbird International Business Review, 43(1),
3–20. doi:10.1002/1520-6874(200101/02)43:1<3::AID-
Berner, B. (Ed.). (1997). Gendered Practices. Feminist
TIE2>3.0.CO;2-4
Studies of Technology and Society. Linköping, Sweden:
Nova Print. Bonnedahl, K. J., Jensen, T., & Sandström, J. (2007).
Ekonomi och moral vägar mot ökat ansvarstagande.
Berry, W. (2005). The way of ignorance. New York:
Liber, Malmö.
Shoemaker & Hoard.
Books of Census (2002). Belgrade, Serbia: The Statistical
Bhattacharya, C. B., Sen, S., & Korschun, D. (2008).
Office of the Republic of Serbia.
Using Corporate Social Responsibility to Win the War for
Talent. MIT Sloan Management Review, 49(2), 37–44. Boulding, K. (1966). The Economics of the Coming
Spaceship Earth., Reprinted from H. Jarrett, Environmental
Bios, N. C. (2007). De la séduction médiatique à la
Quality in a Growing Economy. Baltimore, MD: Johns
mobilité transfrontalière: l’utilisation de l’Internet par la
Hopkins Press.
femme camerounaise. Revue camerounaise de sociologie,
4(1), 65-90. Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice.
Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Bisset, R., & Tomlinson, P. (1995). Monitoring and
auditing of impacts. In P. Wathern, (ed). Environmental Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power.
Impact Assessment: Theory and Practice. (pp. 117-128). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
London, UK: Routledge.
Bourdieu, P. (2004). Distinction: A Social Critique of
Bld, A. (n.d.). The features of the settlement. Retrieved the Judgment of Taste. London: Routledge.
May 5, 2005 from http://www.arcosanti.orghttp://www.
Boyce, G. (2000). Public discourse and decision
arcosanti.org/project/project/future/arcosanti5000/main.
making: exploring possibilities for f inancial,
html
social and environmental accounting. Accounting,
Bleischwitz, R., & Hennicke, P. (2004). Eco-efficiency, Au d it i ng & Ac c o u n t a b ilit y Jo u r n al, 13(1).
regulation, and sustainable business: towards a doi:10.1108/09513570010316135
governance structure for sustainable development.
278
Braidotti, R. (1996, July 15). Cyberfeminism with Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the
a Difference. Retrieved from http://www.let.uu.nl/ Subversion of Identity. London: Routledge.
women’s_studies/rosi/cyberfem.htm
Buxmann (20 02). Strategien von
Braun, R., Russ, M., Krcmar, H., Schulz, W. F., & Standardsoftwareanbietern: Eine Analyse auf der Basis
Kreeb, M. (2003). An Open-Source Community for von Netzeffekten, zfbf Nr. 54, August 2002, 442-457.
Building Ecological Tools. In Gnauck, A. & Heinrich,
Byrne, D. E., Clore, G. L. J., & Worchel, P. (1966).
R. (Eds.) Umweltinformatik Aktuell, 17th International
The effect of economic similarity-dissimilarity as
Conference Informatics for Environmental Protection
determinants of attraction. Journal of Personality and
Cottbus 2003. Part 1: Concepts and Methods, (pp. 165-
Social Psychology Quarterly, 4, 220–224. doi:10.1037/
170), Marburg.
h0023559
Braun, R., Russ, M., Schulz, W. F., Krcmar, H., & Kreeb,
Cabinet Office. UK (2000). E-government: a strategic
M. (2004). Good-Practice-Examples and Indicators:
framework for public services in the Information Age.
Internet-based solutions for the Sustainable Management.
Retrieved from http://www.e-envoy.gov.uk/ukonline/
In CERN (Eds.), EnviroInfo 2004, 18th International
st rategy.html
Conference Informatics for Environmental Protection
Genf 2004. Part 1, (pp. 24-32). Genf. Calás, M. B., & Smircich, L. (2006). From the “Woman’s
Point of View Ten Years Later: Towards a Feminist
Brembeck, H., Ekström, K. M., & Mörck, M. (2007).
Organization Studies. In S. Clegg, C. Hardy, T. Lawrence
Shopping with Humans and Non-humans. In H. Brembeck,
& W. R. Nord (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organization
K. M. Ekström & M. Mörck (Eds.), Little monsters: (de)
studies (pp. 284-346). London: Sage.
coupling assemblages of consumption. Berlin: Lit Verlag.
Callenbach, E. (1994). Ekotopya. Istanbul: Ayrinti
Breton, P., & Proulx, S. (1989). L’explosion de la
Yayinlari.
communication. Paris: La Découverte.
Caputi, J. (1988). Seeing Elephants: The Myths of
Brown, J. (in press). Democracy, sustainability and
Phallotechnology. Feminist Studies, 14(3), 487–524.
dialogic accounting technologies: Taking pluralism
doi:10.2307/3178062
seriously. Critical Perspectives on Accounting.
Casey, E. (1993). Getting back into place: toward a
Brundin, E., Florin, E., & Melin, L. (2008). The Family
renewed understanding of the place-world. Bloomington,
Ownership Logic: Core Characteristics of Family-
IN: Indiana University Press
Controlled Business. CeFEO Working Paper, 2008:1.
Casey, E. (1997). The fate of place: a philosophical history.
Brundtland Commission. (1987). Our Common Future:
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
From One Earth to One World. World Commission on
Environment and Development. Oxford, UK: Oxford Castells, M. (1989). The Informational City. Cambridge,
University Press. UK: Blackwell Publishers.
Brunson, N., & Jacobson, B. (2002). Standardization and Castells, M. (1996). The Rise of the Network Society. The
Uniformity. In N. Brunson, B. Jacobson, et al (Eds.) A Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture (Vol.1).
World of Standards (pp. 127 137). Oxford, UK: Oxford Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
University Press.
Castells, M. (2000). The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on
Bullinger, H. J., Warnecke, H. J., & Westkämper, E. the Internet, Business, and Society. Oxford, UK: Oxford
(2003). Neue Organisationsformen im Unternehmen: University Press.
Ein Handbuch für das moderne Management. Berlin:
Springer.
279
Castels, M. (1996). The Rise of the Network Society. Clark, M. (2001). Domestic futures and sustainable
Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. residential development. Futures, 33, 817–836.
doi:10.1016/S0016-3287(01)00021-0
Cerin, P. (2002). Communication in Corporate
Environmental Reports. Corporate Social Responsibility Cockburn, C. (1985). Machinery of dominance: Women,
and Environmental Management, 9, 46–66. doi:10.1002/ men and technical know-how. London: Pluto.
csr.6
Cockburn, C., & Ormrod, S. (1993). Gender & Technology
Chalmers, M. (2004). A Historical View of Context. Journal in the Making. London: Sage.
of Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 13(3), 223–247.
Cohen, D. V., & Altman, B. W. (2000). Corporate
doi:10.1007/s10606-004-2802-8
Citizenship in the New Millennium: Foundation for an
Checkland, P. B. (1988). Soft systems methodology: An Architecture of Excellence. Business and Society Review,
overview. J. of Applied Systems Analysis, 15, 27–30. 105(1), 145–168. doi:10.1111/0045-3609.00069
Chen, L., & Nath, R. (2004). A framework for mobile Commission, E. U. (2003b). Global standards for the
business applications. International Journal of Global Information Society, DN IP/03/1374. Retrieved
Mobile Communications, 2(4), 368–381. doi:10.1504/ from http://europa.eu.int/documents/index_en.htm
IJMC.2004.005857
Connell, R. (1987). Gender and Power. Cambridge, UK:
Chen, S., Geluykens, R., & Choi, C. J. (2006). The Polity Press.
importance of language in global teams: a linguistic
Conradsson, B. (1988). Kontorsfolket. Etnologiska bilder
perspective. Management International Review, 46(6),
av livet på kontor. Stockholm, Sweden: Nordiska museet.
679–695. doi:10.1007/s11575-006-0122-6
Etnologiska institutionen, Stockholms universitet.
Cheney, G., Thøger, L. C., Zorn, T. E. J., & Ganesh, S.
Coombs, R., Knights, D., & Willmott, C. (1992). Culture,
(2004). Organizational Communication in an Age of
Control and Competition: Towards a Conceptual
Globalization. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Framework for the Study of Information Technology
Chesley, N. (2005). Blurring Boundaries? Linking in Organizations. Organization Studies, 13(1), 51–72.
Technology Use, Spillover, Individual Distress, and doi:10.1177/017084069201300106
Family Satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and the Family,
Cooren, F. (2006). The organizational world as a plenum
67(5), 1237–1248. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00213.x
of agencies. In F. Cooren, J. R. Taylor, & E. J. Van
Childerhouse, P., Hermiz, R., Mason-Jones, R., Popp, A., & Communication as Organizing. (pp. 81-101). London:
Towill, D. (2003). ‘Information flow in automotive supply LEA.
chains – identifying and learning to overcome barriers to
CORECOM, & Nielsen. (2005). Il consumo della rete in
change’. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 103(7),
Toscana. Retrieved July 2008, from http://www.consiglio.
491–502. doi:10.1108/02635570310489197
regione.toscana.it/corecom/att_studio/ricerche.htm
Churchman, C. W. (1979). The systems approach and its
CORECOM, & Nielsen/Net-Ratings (2005). La Toscana
enemies. New York: Basic Books.
in rete, 2002-2005. Retrieved July 2008, from http://
Ciborra, C. U., & Lanzara, G., F. (1994). Formative www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/corecom/att_studio/
contexts and information technology, Accounting . ricerche.htm
Management and Information Technology, 4(2), 61–86.
CORECOM. (2005). Guida alla comunicazione in Toscana.
doi:10.1016/0959-8022(94)90005-1
Retrieved July 2008, from http://www.consiglio.regione.
toscana.it/corecom /GuidaTv/index.asp
280
CORECOM. (2006). Analisi delle trasmissioni Cronin, M. A., & Weingart, L. R. (2007). Representational
istituzionali del Consiglio Regionale della Toscana 2004- gabs, information processing, and conflict in functionally
2005. I quaderni del Corecom. Retrieved September 2008, diverse teams. Academy of Management Review, 32(3).
from http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/corecom/
Currier, D. (2003). Feminist Technological Futures:
Deleuze and Body/Technology Assemblages. Feminist
CORECOM. (2006). Ecologia della mente. Ambienti Theory, 4(3), 321–338. doi:10.1177/14647001030043005
sostenibili per contesti comunicativi, sociali e produttivi.
Cutting-Decelle, A.-F., Young, B. I., Das, B. P., Case,
I quaderni del Corecom. Retrieved September 2008,
K., Rahimifard, S., Anumba, C. J., & Bouchlaghem,
D. M. (2007). A review of approaches to supply chain
communications: from manufacturing to construction.
CORECOM. (2006). La Toscana nel Sistema delle ITcon - . Electronic Journal of Information Technology
Comunicazioni. Situazioni e Tendenze. I quaderni in Construction, (12): 73–102.
del Corecom. Regione Toscana. Retrieved July 2008,
Daft & Lengel. (1986). Organizational information
form http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/corecom/
requirements, media richness and structural design.
Management Science, 32(5), 554–571. doi:10.1287/
CORECOM. (2007). Come comunica l’Assemblea mnsc.32.5.554
Toscana. I quaderni del Corecom. Retrieved September
Dainty, A., Moore, D., & Murray, M. (2006).
2008, from http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/
Communication in construction: Theory and practice.
corecom/att_studio/ricerche.htm
Oxon: Taylor & Francis.
CORECOM. Law N.22/2002. Retrieved July 2008,
Daly, H. E. (1973). Towards a Steady State Economy.
San Francisco: Freeman.
normativa_doc/leg_22_2002.htm
Daly, H. E. (1991). Steady-State Economics (2nd ed.).
CORECOM. Statistical data. Retrieved July 2008, from
Washington, DC: Island Press
http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/corecom/
Davenport, Th. H., & Prusak, L. (1998). Working
Corey, K. E., & Wilson, M. I. (2006). Urban and regional
Knowledge: How Organizations Manage What They
technology planning. New York: Routledge.
Know. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Cornelius, P. & Kogut, B. (2003). Creating the Responsible
Davis, M. (1992). Fortress Los Angeles: the Militarization
Firm: In Search for a New Corporate Governance
of Urban Space. In M.Sorkin, (Ed.), Variations on a Theme
Paradigm. German Law Review, 4 (1).
Park (pp.154-180). New York: Noonday Press.
Cottle, S. (Ed.). (2003). Media Organization and
de Certeau, M. (1984). The practice of everyday life. Los
Production. London: Sage Publications.
Angeles: University of California Press.
Cozza, M. (2008). Narratives on platform: stories for
De Ruggieri, F., & Pugliese, A. C. (Eds.). (2006). Futura.
women in computer science. Int. J. Cont. Engineering
Genere e tecnologia. Roma: Meltemi.
Education and Life-Long Learning, 18(2), 197–213.
doi:10.1504/IJCEELL.2008.017376 DeFilippi, R. J., & Arthur, M. (1998). Paradox in project-
based enterprises: the case of film making. California
Crampton, C. D., & Hinds, P. J. (2004). Subgroup dynamics
Management Review, 40(2), 125–140.
in internationally distributed teams: ethnocentrism or
cross-national learning? In B. Staw, & R. Kramer, (Eds.)
Research in Organizational Behavior (pp. 213-263).
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
281
Dhir, K. S., & Góké-Paríolá, A. (2002). The case Dryzek, J. (2005). The Politics of the Earth: Environmental
for language policies in multinational corporations. Discourses (2nd ed). Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Press.
7(4), 241–251. doi:10.1108/13563280210449822
Durnell Cramton, C. (2001). The shared knowledge
Distefano, J. J., & Maznevski, M. L. (2000). Creating problem and its consequences for dispersed collaboration.
value with diverse teams in global management. Organization Science, 12(39), 346–371. doi:10.1287/
Organizational Dynamics, 29(1), 45–63. doi:10.1016/ orsc.12.3.346.10098
S0090-2616(00)00012-7
Edwards, P. N. (1990). The army and the microworld:
Djukic, A. (2004). Internet kao podrska razvoju sela. In computers and the politics of gender identity. Signs:
M. Ralevic (Ed.), Planiranje i uredjenje sela i ruralnih Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 16(1), 102–127.
podrucja, (pp. 219- 231). Srbija, Banja Vrujici: Udruzenje doi:10.1086/494647
urbanista Srbije, eSEEurope Agenda for the Development
Ekostaden web site (n.d.). City of Malmö, Sweden.
of the Information Society (n.d.). Retrieved from www.
Retrieved September 14, 2004 from http://www.
eseeuropeconference.org/agenda.pdf
ekostaden.com/pdf/en_hallbar_stad_eng.pdf http://
Djukic, A., & Colic, R. (2001). Moguce transformacije www.ekostaden.com/pdf/det_grona_bo01_eng.pdf
razvoja seoskih naselja. In M. Ralevic, R. Malobabic & http://www.ekostaden.com/pdf/vectura_eng.pdf
R. Bogdanovic (Ed.), Selo u Promenama, (pp. 171-177).
Ekstedt, E., Lundin, R. A., & Wirdenius, H. (1992).
Beograd, Srbija: Udruzenje urbanista Srbije.
Conceptions and renewal in Swedish construction
Dobers, P. (1997). Organising Strategies of Environmental companies . European Management Journal, 10(2),
Control: towards a decentralisation of the Swedish 202–209. doi:10.1016/0263-2373(92)90070-K
environmental control repertoire. Stockholm, Sweden:
Elkington, J. (1999). Cannibals with Forks: The Triple
Nerenius & Santérus Förlag.
Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Oxford, UK:
Dodge, M. (1999). Measuring and mapping the geographies Capstone Publishing Limited.
of Cyberspace: a research note. NETCOM, 1(2), 53–66.
Elkinton, J. (2004). Enter the triple bottom line. In A.
Dodge, M., & Kitchin, R. (2001). Mapping Cyberspace. Henriques & J. Richardson, (Eds.) The triple bottom
London: Routledge. line Does it all add up? Assessing the sustainability of
business and CSR (pp.1-17). Earthscan: London.
Donaldson, T., & Eerhane, P. (2008). Ethical Issues in
Business, A philosophical approach, (8th ed.). Upper Elmhester, K. (2008). Småföretag i strategiska
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. nätverk. Linköping Studies in Science and Technology
Dissertations, No.1217
Dourish, P., & Bly, S. (1992). Portholes: Supporting
Awareness in a Distributed Work Group. In Proceedings Emling, E. (2000). Svenskt familjeföretagande.
of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing Stockholm: EFI.
systems (pp. 541-547).
Epstein, M. (2008). Making Sustainability Work: Best
Doyle, S., & Batty, M. (1998). Vitrual Regeneration. Practices in Managing and Measuring Corporate Social,
London, UK: Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Environmental and Economic Impacts. Sheffield, UK:
University College London. Greenleaf Publishing Limited.
Drewe, P. (2000). ICT and Urban Form Urban Planning Ercoskun, O. Y. (2007). Ecological and Technological
and Design- Off The Beaten Track, Design Studio Study, (Eco-Tech) Design for A Sustainable City: A Case Study
Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology, on Gudul, Ankara. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Delft. Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey.
282
Eriksson-Zetterquist, U. (2007). Editorial: Gender and Firmino, R. J., Duarte, F., & Moreira, T. (2008). Pervasive
New Technologies. Gender, Work and Organization, Technologies and Urban Planning in the Augmented
14(4), 305–311. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2007.00345.x City . Journal of Urban Technology, 15(2), 77–93.
doi:10.1080/10630730802401983
Essed, P. (1996). Diversity, Color, and Culture. Amherst:
University of Massachusetts Press. Fiske, J. (1990). Kommunikationsteorier. En introduction.
Wahlström & Widstrand, Stockholm.
Etzkowitz, H., & Leydesdorff, L. (2000). The dynamics
of innovation: from National Systems and “Mode 2” Flichy, P. (n.d.). Linnovation technique. Récents
to a Triple Helix of university-industry-government développements en sciences sociales. Vers une nouvelle
relations. Research Policy, 29, 109–123. doi:10.1016/ théorie de linnovation. Paris: La Découverte.
S0048-7333(99)00055-4
Foldy, E. G. (2003). Managing diversity: Power and
Faraj, S., & Sproull, L. (2000). Coordinating expertise identity in organizations. In I. Aaltio, & A. Mills (Eds.),
in software development teams. Management Science, Gender, Identity and the Culture of Organizations, (pp.
46(12), 1554–1568. doi:10.1287/mnsc.46.12.1554.12072 92-112). London: Routledge.
Faulkner, W. (2000). The Power and the Pleasure? Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (1994). Interviewing: The art of
A Research Agenda for “Making Gender Stick” to the science. In N. Denzin, & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook
Engineers. Science, Technology & Human Values, 25(1), of qualitative research, (pp. 361-376). London: Sage.
87–119. doi:10.1177/016224390002500104
Forsberg, P. (2001). Berättelser och omdömen i en redares
Faulkner, W., & Lie, M. (2007). Gender in the vardag (Judging and storytelling in the everyday life of
Information Society: Strategies of Inclusion. Gender, a ship owner). Gothenburg, Sweden: BAS.
Technolog y and Development, 11(2), 157–177.
Forsberg, P. (2009). Crowding-in and crowding-out of the
doi:10.1177/097185240701100202
community principle. International Journal of Critical
Feely, A. J., & Harzing, A.-W. (2003). Language Accounting, 1(3).
management in multinational companies. International
Forsberg, P., & Westerdahl, S. (2007). For the sake of
Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 10(2), 37–53.
serving the broader community: sea piloting compared
doi:10.1108/13527600310797586
with auditing. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 8,
Femenías, P. (2004). Demonstration projects for 7.
Sustainable Building: Towards a strategy for Sustainable
Forsgren, O. (2005). C West Churchman and the new
Development in the building sector based on Swedish
world of co-design. In J.P. van Gigch & J. (Eds.), McIntyre
and Dutch experience. Dissertation thesis, Chalmers
Rescuing the Enlightenment from Itself, (Vol. 1 in
University of technology, Sweden.
Churchman’s Legacy and Related Works). Amsterdam:
Fennell, D. A. (2007). Ecotourism. London: Routledge Springer/Kluwer.
Publishing.
Foss, N. J., & Pedersen, T. (2002). Transferring
Fiedler, F. E. (1966). The effect of leadership and knowledge in MNCs: the role of sources of subsidiaries
cultural heterogeneity on group performance: A test knowledge and organizational context. Journal of
of the contingency model. Journal of Experimental International Management, 8, 49–67. doi:10.1016/S1075-
Social Psychology, 2, 237–264. doi:10.1016/0022- 4253(01)00054-0
1031(66)90082-5
283
Fountain, J. E. (2000). Constructing the information Garfinkel, H. (1967/2002). Studies in Ethnomethodology.

society: women, information technology, and design. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Technology in Society, 22, 45–62. doi:10.1016/S0160-
Gattorna, J. & Walters, D. (1996). Managing the Supply
791X(99)00036-6
Chain: A Strategic Perspective. Hampshire.
Fredendall, L., & Hill, E. (2001). Basics in Supply Chain
Gauzin-Müller, D. (2002). Sustainable Architecture And
Management. Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie Press.
Urbanism. Berlin: Birkhäuser.
Friedich, S., & Schoaafsma, M. (1999). Cyberspace
Gaver, W. W. (1992). The Affordances of Media Spaces for
and the Loss of the Concentracion and Centrifugation.
Collaboration. In Proceedings of the 1992 ACM conference
Paper presented in TAN 3 Conference report. Berlin,
on Computer-supported Cooperative Work (pp. 17-24).
Germany.
Gaver, W., Moran, T., MacLean, A., Lövstrand, L., Dourish,
Friedman (1962). Capitalism and Freedom. University
P., Carter, K., & Buxton, W. (1992). Realizing a Video
of Chicago Press.
Environment: Europarc’s Rave System. In Proceedings of
Friedman, J. 1994. Cultural Identity and Global Process. the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing
London: Sage Publications. Systems, (pp. 27-35).
Friedman, M. (1970, September 13). The social Gherardi,S.(1995).Gender,SymbolismandOrganizational

responsibility of business is to increase its profits. New Cultures. London: Sage.
York Times Magazine.
Giddens, A. (1984/2004). The Constitution of Society.
Friedman, Y. (1980). A better life in towns. Brussels: EU, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Council of Europe.
Gillespie, A. (2001). The Illusion of Progress:
Fulk, J., & DeSanctis, G. (1995). Electronic communication Unsustainable Development in International Law and
and changing organizational forms. Organization Policy. London, UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
Science, 6(4), 337–349. doi:10.1287/orsc.6.4.337
Glad, W. (2008). Individuell mätning - mjuk reglering
Gabberty, J. W., & Thomas, J. D. E. (2006). Modeling för minskad energianvändning i hyreslägenheter. In
Creativity For The Multinational Firm. International Vardagsteknik: energi och IT: forskning om hållbar
Business & Economics Research Journal, 5, 73–76. användning av samhällets IT- och energisystem. Stockholm:
Carlsson.
Gadde, L.-E., Huemer, L., & Håkansson, H. (2003).
Strategizing in industrial networks. Industrial Glasson, J., Therivel, R., & Chadwick, A. (2005).
Marketing Management, 32, 357–364. doi:10.1016/S0019- Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment (3rd
8501(03)00009-9 ed.). London, UK: Routledge.
Gajjala, R., & Mamidipudi, A. (1999). Cyberfeminism, Gluch, P. (2000). Managerial Environmental Accounting
technology, and international “development.” . Gender in Construction Projects - Discussions on its Usability and
and Development, 7(2), 8–16. doi:10.1080/741923122 Role in Decision Making. Göteborg, Sweden: Chalmers
University of Technology.
Galbraith, J. (1973). Designing complex organizations.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Gluch, P. (2005). Building green – Perspectives on
environmental management in construction. Dissertation
Gann, D. M., & Salter, A. (2000). Innovation in project-
thesis, Chalmers University of technology, Sweden.
based, service-enhanced firms: the construction of
complex products and systems. Research Policy, 29(7-8),
955–972. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(00)00114-1
284
Gluch, P. (2006). Effektivare miljöinformation i Gray, R., & Milke, M. J. (2002). Sustainability Reporting:
byggprojekt Illustrationer från ett tunnelprojekt. Who’s kidding whom? Chartered Accountants Journal
Göteborg, Sweden: Chalmers Repro. of New Zealand., 81(6), 66–70.
Gluch, P., & Baumann, H. (2004). The life cycle Gray, R., Dey, C., Owen, D., Evans, R., & Zadek, D.
costing (LCC) approach: a conceptual discussion of (1997). Struggling with the praxis of social accounting:
its usefulness for environmental decision-making. stakeholders, accountability, audits and procedures.
Building and Environment, 39(5), 571–580. doi:10.1016/j. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 10(3).
buildenv.2003.10.008 doi:10.1108/09513579710178106
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Grayson, D., & Hodges, A. (2004). Corporate social
Bantam books. opportunity!: 7 steps to make corporate social
responsibility work for your business Greenleaf Pub.
Goodall, K., & Roberts, J. (2003). Only connect: teamwork
Sheffield
in the multinational. Journal of World Business, 38,
150–164. doi:10.1016/S1090-9516(03)00008-7 Gregory, D., & Urry, J. (Eds.). (1985). Social Relations
and Spatial Structures. London: Macmillan.
Goode, W. J. (1963). World Revolution and Family
Patterns. New York: The Free Press. Grey, S., & Healy, G. (2004). Women and IT contracting
work – a testing process. New Technology, Work
Goold, M., & Campbell, A. (1987). Strategies and Styles.
and Employment, 19(1), 30–42. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
The role of centers in managing diversified corporations.
005X.2004.00126.x
Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Griffin, A., & Hauser, J. R. (1992). Patterns of
Graham, S. (2002). Bridging Urban Digital Divides?
communication among marketing, engineering and
Urban Polarisation and Information and Communications
manufacturing – a comparison between two new product
Technologies (ICTs). Urban Studies (Edinburgh, Scotland),
teams. Management Science, 38(3), 360–373. doi:10.1287/
39(1), 33–56. doi:10.1080/00420980220099050
mnsc.38.3.360
Graham, S. (Ed.). (2004) The Cybercities Reader. London:
Griffith, D., A. (2002). The role of communication
Routledge.
competencies in international business relationship
Graham, S., & Marvin, S. (1996). Telecommunications development. Journal of World Business, 37, 256–265.
and the City: Electronic Spaces, Urban Place. New York: doi:10.1016/S1090-9516(02)00092-5
Routledge.
Grönlund, Å. (2000). Managing electronic services: A
Graham, S., & Marvin, S. (1999). Planning Cyber-Cities? Public Service Perspective. London: Springer.
Integrating Telecommunications into Urban Planning.
Gross National Happiness (1999). Report of the Centre
The Town Planning Review, 70(1), 89–114.
for Bhutan Studies, Thimphu, Bhutan.
Graham, S., & Marvin, S. (2001) Splintering Urbanism:
Grübler, A. (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures.
Networked Infrastructures, Technological Mobilities, and
Heidelberg, Germany: Physica-Verlag.
the Urban Condition. London: Routledge.
Gudmunson, D., Hartman, E. A., & Tower, C. B. (1999).
Gray, R. (2002). The social accounting project and
Strategic Orientation: Differences between Family and
privileging engagement, imaginings, new accountings
Nonfamily Firms. Family Business Review, 12(1).
and pragmatism over critique? Accounting, Organizations
and Society, 27(7). doi:10.1016/S0361-3682(00)00003-9
285
Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (1997). Communicating Håkansson, H. (Ed.). (1982). International Marketing
with strangers: an approach to intercultural and Purchasing of Industrial Goods - An Interaction
communication (3rd Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill. Approach. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Gulledge, T. (2006). What is integration . Industrial Håkansson, H., & Snehota, I. (1995). Developing
Management & Data Systems, 106(1), 5 –20. Relationships in Business Net works. London:
doi:10.1108/02635570610640979 Routledge.
Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2000). Knowledge flows Hall, J. (2000). Supply Chain Dynamics. Journal of
within multinational corporations. Strategic Management Cleaner Production, 8(6), 455–471. doi:10.1016/S0959-
Journal, 21, 473– 496. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097- 6526(00)00013-5
0266(200004)21:4<473::AID-SMJ84>3.0.CO;2-I
Hall, J. (2006). Environmental supply chain innovation,
Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2001). Building an In J. Sarkis (Ed.). Greening the supply chain, (pp. 233-
effective global business team. Sloan Management 249).
Review, (Summer): 63–71.
Hambrick, D. C., Cho, T. S., & Chen, C. C. (1996). The
Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2001). Converting global influence of top management team heterogeneity on firms’
presence into global competitive advantage. The Academy competitive moves. Administrative Science Quarterly,
of Management Executive, 15(2), 45–56. 41, 659–684. doi:10.2307/2393871
Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2002). Cultivating a Hambrick, D. C., Davison, S. C., Snell, S. A., &
global mindset. The Academy of Management Executive, Snow, C. C. (1998). When Groups Consist of Multiple
16(1), 116–126. Nationalities. Organization Studies, 19(2), 181–206.
doi:10.1177/017084069801900202
Gustavsson, E. (2005). Virtual Servants: Stereotyping
Female Front-Office Employees on the Internet. Gender, Hambrick, D., Davison, S., Snell, S., & Snow, C. (1998).
Work and Organization, 12(5), 400–419. doi:10.1111/ When groups consist of multiple nationalities: towards a new
j.1468-0432.2005.00281.x understanding of the implications. Organization Studies,
19(2), 181–205. doi:10.1177/017084069801900202
Haasis, H. D., & Kriwald, T. (2001). Wissensmanagement
in Produktion und Umweltschutz. Berlin: Springer. Hancock, T. (1993). Strategic Directions for Community
Sustainability”, publication of the B.C. Roundtable on
Haasis, H.-D. (1997). Ein Überblick über Betriebliche
the Environment and the Economy, Canada.
Umweltinformationssysteme. uwf 3/97, 4-6.
Hängst, M., & Sol, H. G. (2001). The Impact of Information
Haastrup, P., & Wurtz, J. (2007). Environmental Data
and Communication Technology on Interorganizational
Exchange Network for Inland Water. The Amsterdam:
Level. International Conference on System Sciences,
Elsevier Science & Technology.
Hawaii, 2001.
Hagedorn-Rasmussen, P., & Kamp, A. (2003).
Hansson, S. O. (2007). What is technological science?
Mangfoldighedsledelse: mellem vision og ledelse.
Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 38, 523–527.
København, Denmark: Socialforskningsinstituttet.
doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2007.06.003
Hagel, J., & Armstrong, A. (1997). Net gain - expanding
Haraway, D. (1988). Situated Knowledges: The
markets through virtual communities. Boston: Harvard
Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of
Business School Press.
Partial Perspective. Feminist Studies, 14(3), 575–599.
doi:10.2307/3178066
286
Hardi, P. (2007). The long and winding road of sustainable Heinonen, K. (2004). Reconceptualizing customer
development evaluation In C. George, & C. Kirkpatrick, perceived value – the value of time and place.
(Eds). Impact Assessment and Sustainable Development Managing Ser vice Qualit y, 14(2/3), 205 –215.
– European Practice and Experience (pp.15-30). doi:10.1108/09604520410528626
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
Helo, P., & Szekely, B. (2005). Logistics information
Hardin, G. (1967). The Tragedy of Commons. In D. systems – An analysis of software solutions for supply
VanDeVeer, & C. Pierce, (Eds.) The Environmental chain co-ordination. Industrial Management & Data
Ethics & Policy Book (2nd ed.). London, UK: Wadsworth Systems, 105(1), 5–18. doi:10.1108/02635570510575153
Publishing Company.
Henderson, J. K. (2005). Language diversity in
H a r m s e n , D. - M . , H i e s s l , H . , L a n g , J . , international management teams. International Studies
Matuschewski, A., & Zoche, P. (1998). Betriebliche of Management and Organization, 35(1), 66–82.
Umweltinformationssysteme: Entwicklungstrends und
Henriksson, G. (2008). Stockholmarnas resvanor - mellan
Anwenderbedarf zur Unterstützung des betrieblichen
trängselskatt och klimatdebatt. Stockholm: Avdelningen
Umweltmanagements, unpublished research report,
för miljöstrategisk analys – fms, KTH Royal Institute of
Karlsruhe.
Technology. TRITA-INFRA-FMS No., 2008, 5.
Harrison, D. A., & Klein, K. J. (2007). What’s the
Henriques, A., & Richardson, J. (Eds.). (2004). The triple
difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety,
bottom line: does it all add up? Earthscan: London,
or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management
UK.
Review, 32(4).
Henwood, F. (1993). Establishing Gender Perspectives
Harty, C. (2005). Innovation in construction: a sociology of
on Information Technology: Problems. Issues and
technology approach. Building Research and Information,
Opportunities. In E. Green, J. Owen & D. Pain (Eds.),
33(6), 512–522. doi:10.1080/09613210500288605
Gendered by Design? Information Technology and Office
Harvey, D. (1990) The Condition Of Postmodernity. Systems (pp. 31-49).
Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Hepworth, M. E. (1990). Geography of the Information
Harvey, D. (2000). Spaces of Hope. Berkley, CA: U of Economy. New York: Guilford.
California Press.
Herring, S. C. (1994). Gender differences in computer-
Hearn, J. (2004). From Hegemonic Masculinity to the mediated communication: bringing familiar baggage
Hegemony of Men. Feminist Theory, 5(49), 49–72. to the new frontier. Paper presented at the American
doi:10.1177/1464700104040813 Library Association annual convention, Miami. ID
(2001, May 23). Gender Differences in CMC: Findings
Heath, C., & Luff, P. (1992). Collaboration and Control:
and Implications. CPSR Newsletter, 18(1). Retrivied from
Crisis Management and Multimedia Technology in London
http://cpsr.org/issues/womenintech/herring/
Underground Line Control Rooms. Journal of Computer
Supported Cooperative Works, 1(1), 24–48. Hervik, P. (1999). Forskellighedens logik: Fremstillingen,
forestillingen og forskningen. In P. Hervik (Ed.), Den
Heath, C., Hindmarsh, J., & Luff, P. (1999). Interaction in
generelle forskellighed: Danske svar på den stigende
Isolation: The Dislocated World of the London Underground
multikulturalisme, (pp. 15-50). København, Denmark:
Train Driver. Sociology, 33(3), 555–575.
Hans Reitzels Forlag.
Hedetoft, U. (2003). The Global Turn - National
encounters with the World. Aalborg, Denmark: Aalborg
University Press.
287
Hill, R. C., & Bowen, P. A. (1997). Sustainable Hoopes, D. G., & Postrel, S. (1999). Shared knowledge,
construction: principles and a framework for attainment. “glitches” and product development performance.
Construction Management and Economics, 15(3), Strategic Management Journal, 20, 837–865.
223–239. doi:10.1080/014461997372971 doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199909)20:9<837::AID-
SMJ54>3.0.CO;2-I
Hilty, L. (2006). The relevance of information and
communication technologies for environmental Hsu, L. (2005). Supply chain management effects on
sustainability – A prospective simulation study. performance for interaction between suppliers and
Environmental Modelling & Software, 21, 1618–1629. buyers. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 105(7),
doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2006.05.007 857–875. doi:10.1108/02635570510616085
Hilty, L. (2007). Nachhaltige Informationsgesellschaft: Huyer, S., & Carr, M. (2002). Information and
Einf luss moder ner Infor mations- u nd Communication Technologies: A Priority for Women.
Kommunikationstechnologien. In R. Isenmann, M. Gender, Technology and Development, 6(1), 85–100.
v. Hauff (Ed.), Industrial Ecology: Mit Ökologie doi:10.1177/097185240200600105
zukunftsorientiert wirtschaften, (pp. 189-208).
ID. (1991). Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The
München.
Reinvention of Nature. New York: Routledge.
Hilty, L. M., & Rautenstrauch, C. (1995). Betriebliche
ID. (1992). The circuit of technology. Gender, identity and
Umweltinformatik, In B. Page, L. Hilty, M. Lorenz
power. In R. Silverstone & E. Hirsch (Eds.), Consuming
(Ed.), Umweltinformatik: Informatikmethoden für den
Technologies. Media and Information in Domestic Spaces
Umweltschutz und Umweltforschung, (2nd Ed., pp. 295-
(pp. 32-47). London: Routledge.
312). Handbuch der Informatik Band 13.3, München,
Wien, Oldenbourg. ID. (1994). Feminist Theories of Technology. In S.
Jasanoff, et al. (Eds.), Handbook of science and technology
Hirsh, B., & Bishop, D. (2000). (Ed.) Computer in
studies (pp. 189-204). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Education. New York: Dushkin/McGraw-Hill.
ID. (1995). Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the
Hoegl, M., & Gemuenden, H. G. (2001). Teamwork quality
Internet. New York: Simon and Schuster.
and the success of innovative projects: a theoretical
concept and empirical evidence. Organization Science, ID. (1997). Modest_Witness@Second_ Millennium.
12(4), 435–449. doi:10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635 Female Man Meets Onco Mouse. London: Routledge.
Hoegl, M., & Weinkauf, K. (2005). Managing task ID. (2000). From the Woman Question in Technology
interdependencies in multi-team projects: a longitudinal to the Technology Question in Feminism. European
study. Journal of Management Studies, 42(6), 1287–1308. Jour nal of Women’s Studies, 7(2), 209 –227.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2005.00542.x doi:10.1177/135050680000700209
Högdahl, E. (2003). Göra gata. Om gränser och kryphål på ID. (2001). The technology question in feminism: a view
Möllevången och i Kapstaden. Gidlunds förlag. Etnologiska from feminist technology studies. Women’s Studies
institutionen, Lunds universitet. International Forum, 24(1), 79–95. doi:10.1016/S0277-
5395(00)00166-7
Homan, A. C., Hollenbeck, J. R., Humphrey, S. E., van
Knippenberg, D., Ilgen, D. R., & Van Kleef, G. A. (In ID. (2002). Exploring the gender question in critical
print). Facing differences with an open mind: Openness information systems. Journal of Information Technology,
to experience, salience of intra-group differences, 17, 59–67. doi:10.1080/02683960210145959
and performance of diverse work groups. Academy of
Management Journal.
288
ID. (2002). Gendering the Internet: Claims, Controversies Izza, M. (2007). An overview of Corporate Responsibility
and Cultures. European Journal of Communication, - Institute of Chartered Accountants in England & Wales,
17(5), 5–23. July, 2007
ID. (2004). Techno Feminism. Cambridge, UK: Polity Jacobs, B., Lûtzen, D. C., & Plum, E. (2001).
Press. Mangfoldighed som virksomhedsstrategi - På vej mod
den inkluderende organisation. København, Denmark:
ID. (2008). Life in the fast lane? Towards a sociology of
Nordisk Forlag.
technology and time. The British Journal of Sociology,
59(1), 59–77. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2007.00182.x Jacobsson, B. (2006). Standardization and Expert
Knowledge. In N. Brunsson, & B. Jacobsson, et al (Eds)
Imagawa, N. (n.d.). Metamorphosis of Space: Long-
A World of Standards (pp. 40-49). Oxford, UK: Oxford
life space connecting time-thoughts on materials and
University Press.
structures-difference between possible and impossible.
Retrieved from http://www.um.u-tokyo.ac.jp/dm2k- Jacobsson, M. (2008a). Samordning och kommunikation i
umdb/publish_db/books/va/english/virtual/08.html ett anläggningsprojekt Mellan en laminerad A3-karta
och ett dike. Sweden . BA-Publications, 2008, 201.
Inmon, W. H., Zachman, J. A., & Geiger, J. G. (1997).
Data stores, data warehousing, and the Zachman Jacobsson, M. (2008b). Liaison devices in an information
framework, Managing enterprise knowledge. New York: reduction process - Observations from a Swedish case
McGraw Hill. stud, EDEN seminar and Summer Workshop in Project
Management. Lille, France, 18-22 Aug. 2008
Integer web site “Intelligent and Green Projects”
Jacobsson, M. (2009). Understanding project
INTELCITY. (2003). EU Final Report, VTT Finland.
communication in a construction process: The importance
IRPET. (2008). Tuscany Info and Databases. Retrieved of project liaisons, Proceeding of 5th Nordic Conference on
June 2008, from http://www.irpet.it Construction Economics and Organisation, 1, Reykjavík,
Iceland, (pp. 155-166).
Isaksson, A., Linde, A., & Vanyushyn, V. (2009).
Environmental management in construction companies: Janson, M., Mörtberg, C., & Berg, E. (2007). Old Dreams,
Decisions, technologies and effects. Proceeding of 5th New Means: an Exploration of Visions and Situated
Nordic Conference on Construction Economics and Knowledge in Information Technology. Gender, Work
Organisation, 1, Reykjavík, Iceland (pp. 193-204) and Organization, 14(4), 371–387. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
0432.2007.00349.x
ISTAG. (2006). Report from the Information Society
Technologies Advisory Group. Retrieved from http:// Janssens, M., Lambert, J., & Steyaert, C. (2004).
www.cordis.lu/ist/istag.htm Developing language strategies for international
companies: The contribution of translation studies.
ISTAT. (2007). Le Tecnologie dell’Informazione e della
Journal of World Business, 39, 414–430. doi:10.1016/j.
Comunicazione: Disponibilita’ delle Famiglie e Utilizzo
jwb.2004.08.006
degli Individui. Retrieved June 2008, from http://www.
istat.it Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Leidner, D. E. (1999). Communication
and trust in global virtual teams. Organization Science,
Ivić, I., Marojević, S., Chinapah, V., Uvalić Trumbić, S.,
10(6), 791–815. doi:10.1287/orsc.10.6.791
Ivanović, S., Damjanović, R., et al. (2001). Sveobuhvatna
analiza sistema obrazovanja u SRJ. Beograd, Srbija: Jenkins, R. (1997). Rethinking Ethnicity - Arguments and
UNICEF. Explorations. London: Sage Publications.
289
Jensen, M., & Meckling, W. (1994). The nature of man. Kelly, E., & Dobbin, F. (1998). How Affirmative
Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, (Summer). Action Became Diversity Management - Employer
Response to Antidiscrimination Law, 1961 to 1996.
Jonker, J., & Witte, M. (Eds.). (2006). Management
The American Behavioral Scientist, 41(7), 960–984.
models for corporate social responsibility. Heidelberg:
doi:10.1177/0002764298041007008
Springer Publication.
Ketola, T. (Ed.). (2007). Paradigms of corporate
Jönsson, S. (1973). Decentralisering och utveckling.
Sustainability. Vaasan Yliopisoto. Report 146.
Gothenburg, Sweden: BAS.
Proceedings of Track 16, International Development
Kahn, H., Bronjn, W., & Martel, L. (1976). The next 200 Research Conference 2007.
years. New York: Hudson Institute.
Kibert, C. J. (2007). The next generation of sustainable
Kakihara, M., & Sörensen, C. (2004). Mobile Urban construction. Building Research and Information, 35(6),
Professionals in Tokyo. Info, 6. 595–601. doi:10.1080/09613210701467040
Kandachar, P., & Halme, M. (Eds.). (2008). Sustainability Kim, Y. Y. (1991). Intercultural communication
Challenges and Solutions at the Base of the Pyramid. competence: a systems-theoretic view. In T-S. Toomey
Business, Technology and the Poor. London: Greenleaf & F. Korzenny (Eds.), International and intercultural
Publishing Ltd. communications annual, (pp. 259-275). Newbury Park,
CA: Sage publications.
Karaaslan, S., & Ercoskun, O. Y. (2006). Eco-Tech
Planning for Turkish Cities. Paper presented at 12th Kim, Y. Y. (2005). Inquiry in intercultural and development
Annual Sustainable Development Research Conference, communication. The Journal of Communication,
Hong Kong. (September): 554–577. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.
tb02685.x
Kayongo, M., & Onyango, P. (1984). The Sociology of
the African Family. London: Longman. Klein, K. J., & Harrison, D. A. (2007). On the Diversity
of Diversity: Tidy Logic, Messier Realities. Academy of
Kellerman, A. (1993). Telecommunication and Geography.
Management Review, 32(4), 26–34.
London: Belhaven.
Knights, D., & Kerfoot, D. (2004). Between Representations
Kellerman, A. (1999). Leading Nations in the Adoption
and Subjectivity: Gender Binaries and the Politics of
of Communications Media 1975-1995. Urban Geography,
Organizational Transformation. Gender, Work and
20, 377–389.
Organization, 11(4), 430–454. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
Kellerman, A. (2000). Where does it happen? The Location 0432.2004.00241.x
of the Production and Consumption of Web Information.
Kolarevic, B. (1996). Space, Place, and the Infobahn:
Journal of Urban Technology, 7, 45–61. doi:10.1080/7136
Architecture, Urbanism and the Electronic Infromation
84101doi:10.1080/713684101
Age. In Architecture& Urbanism at the Turn of the III
Kellerman, A. (2002). The Internet on Earth. A Geography Millennium [). Beograd, Srbija: Faculty of Architecture
of information. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. University of Belgrade.]. Proceedings, 1, 61–69.
Kellerman, A., & Paradiso, M. (2007). The Geographical Konrad, A. M. (2003). Defining the domain of
Location in the Information Age: from Destiny to workplace diversity scholarship. Group & Organization
Opportunity? GeoJournal, 70, 195–211. doi:10.1007/ Management, 28, 4–16. doi:10.1177/1059601102250013
s10708-008-9131-2doi:10.1007/s10708-008-9131-2
290
Korhonen, J. (2002). Two paths of industrial ecology: Kuhre, W. L. (1998). ISO 14031- Environmental
applying the product-based and geographical approaches. Performance Evaluation (EPE): Practical Tools for
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, Conducting an Environmental Performance Evaluation.
45(1), 39–57. doi:10.1080/09640560120100187 Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kostov, Z. (2006). Global tendecies and local Kulp, S., Ofek, E., & Whitaker, J. (2004). Supply-Chain
implications: Cyber exslusion and within Western Coordination: How Companies Leverage Information
Balkan countries. Discussion paper 40, Proceedings Flows to Generate Value. In T. Harrison, H. Lee, & J.
of the Informing Science & IT Education Conference Neale (Ed.), The Practice of Supply Chain Management:
(InSITE), Centre for the Study of Global Governance, Where Theory and Application Converge, (Part 2, pp.
London School of Economics and Political Science, 91-107). New York.
London. Retrieved from http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/
Kumar, K. (2004). From Post-industrial to Post-modern
global/Publications/DiscussionPapers/DP40.pdf
Societies. New Theories of the Contemporary World.
Kotler, P., & Lee, N. (2005). Corporate social Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell.
responsibility: doing the most good for your company and
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews - An Introduction to
your cause. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Publication.
Qualitative Research Interviewing. Thousand Oaks,
Kotler, P., Bowen, R. J., & Makens, C. J. (2006). Marketing CA: Sage.
for Hospitality and Tourism. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Kytle, B., & Ruggie, J. (2005). Corporate Social
Pearson Education Inc.
Responsibility as Risk Management: A Model for
Kotler, P., Haider, D. H., & Rein, I. (2008). Marketing Multinationals, Social Responsibility Initiative Working
Places: Attracting Investment, Industry, and Tourism to Paper No. 10. John F. Kennedy School of Government.
Cities, States, and Nations. New York: The Free Press. Boston: Harvard University.
Kraft, J. F., & Siegenthaler, J. K. (1989). Office Automation, Lagerström, K. (2001). Transnational projects within
Gender, and Change: An Analysis of the Management multinational corporations. Uppsala, Sweden:
Literature. Science, Technology & Human Values, 14(2), Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University.
195–212. doi:10.1177/016224398901400204
Lagerström, K., & Andersson, M. (2003). Creating
Krcmar, H. (2003). Informationsmanagement. 3. Aufl. and sharing knowledge within a transnational team:
Berlin: Springer. The development of a global business system. Journal
of World Business, 38, 84–95. doi:10.1016/S1090-
Kreeb, M., et al. (2005). Web Portals: A Tool for
9516(03)00003-8
Environmental Management. In L. Hilty, E. K. Seifert, &
R. Treibert, (Eds.), Information Systems for Sustainable Lagerström, K., & Andersson, M. (2003). Creation
Development (pp. 213-228). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. and sharing knowledge within a transnational team
– development of a global business system. Journal
Kristoffersen, S., & Ljungberg, F. (1999). Mobile use
of World Business, 38(2), 84–95. doi:10.1016/S1090-
of IT. In Proceedings of the 22nd Information Systems
9516(03)00003-8
Research Seminar in Scandinavia, IRIS 22.
Lamming, R., & Hampson, J. (1996). The environment
Kristoffersen, S., & Ljungberg, F. (2000). Mobility: From
as a supply chain management issue. British Journal of
Stationary to Mobile Work. In K. Braa, C. Sorenssen,
Management, 7, 45–62. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.1996.
& B. Dahlbom (eds.) Planet Internet. Lund, Sweden:
tb00147.x
Studentlitteratur.
291
L a n d s t r ö m , C. (2 0 0 7 ). Q u e e r i n g fe m i n i s t Letmathe, P., Schwarz, E., & Steven, M. (1996).

technology studies. Feminist Theory, 8(7), 7–26. Grundlagen der Umweltberichterstattung. UE, 4, 415-
doi:10.1177/1464700107074193 443.
Lang, C. (2000). Betriebliche Umweltinformationssysteme Levenson, N. G. (1990). Educational Pipeline Issues

auf dem Prüfstand – ein Forschungskonzept. In for Women. Paper presented at Computer Research
L. Hilty & R. Schulthess (Ed.), Strategische und Association Annual Meeting, Snowbird, UT.
betriebsübergreifende Anwendungen betrieblicher
Li, H. Z. (1991). Communicating infor mation
Umweltinformationssysteme, Marburg, (pp. 47-58).
in conversations: A cross-cultural comparison.
Lanza, A. (1999). Lo Sviluppo Sostenibile. Bologna, IT: International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(3),
Il Mulino. 387–409. doi:10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00003-6
Lash, S. (2002). Critique of Information. London: Lieberman, B. (2007). Applying an analytical

Sage. framework - Organize and reuse valuable techniques,
tools, and examples. BioLogic Software Consulting, S.
Latour, B. (1987). Science in action. Cambrigde, MA:
Houstoun.
Harvard University Press.
Li f f , S. (19 9 6 ). Two r ou t e s t o m a n a g i n g
Latour, B. (1998a). Artefaktens återkomst. Ett möte mellan
diversity: individual differences or social group
organisationsteori och tingens sociologi. Stockholm:
characteristics. Employee Relations, 19(1), 11–26.
Nerenius & Santérus förlag.
doi:10.1108/01425459710163552
Latour, B. (1998b). Teknik är samhället som gjorts hållbart.
Liff, S., & Wajcman, J. (1996). ‘Sameness’ and
In Artefaktens återkomst. Ett möte mellan organisationsteori
‘Difference’ revisited: Which Way Forward for Equal
och tingens sociologi. Stockholm: Nerenius & Santérus
Opportunity Initiatives? Journal of Management Studies,
förlag.
33(1), 79–94. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.1996.tb00799.x
Lauring, J. (2005). Når organisationen bliver mangfoldig
Lin, C., & Tseng, H. (2006). Identifying the pivotal role
- om vidensdeling og interaktion i etnisk mangfoldige
of participation strategies and information technology
organisationer. Århus, Denmark: Handelshøjskolen i
application for supply chain excellence. Industrial
Århus.
Management & Data Systems, 106(5), 739–756.
Lauring, J., & Ross, C. (2004). Cultural Diversity doi:10.1108/02635570610666476
and Organisational Effiency. New Zealand Journal of
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry.
Employment Relations, 29(1), 89–103.
London: Sage Publications.
Lawrence, P., & Lorsch, J. (1967). Organization
Lind, M., & Forsgren, O. (2008). Co-design and Web 2.0:
and environment: managing differentiation and
Theoretical foundations and application. In Cunningham
integration, Boston, MA: Graduate School of Business
P., Cunningham M. (Eds.) Collaboration and the
Administration.
Knowledge Economy: Issues, Applications, Case Studies
Lehmann-Waffenschmidt, M. (2007). Innovations (pp. 1105-1112). IOS Press, Amsterdam.
Towards Sustainability: Conditions and Consequenses.
Lind, M., & Rittgen, P. (2009). Challenges of Co-Design:
Berlin: Springer.
The Case of e-Me. In B. Whitworth & A. de Moor (eds.),
Leonard, D., & Swap, W. (1999). When Sparks Fly: Handbook of Research on Socio-Technical Design and
Igniting Creativity in Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Social Networking Systems. Hershey, PA: IGI Global
Business School Press.
292
Lind, M., Albinsson, L., Forsgren, O., & Hedman, J. Loosemore, M., & Lee, P. (2002). Communication
(2007). Integrated Development, Use and Learning in problems with ethnic minorities in the construction
a Co-design Setting: Experiences from the Incremental industry. International Journal of Project Management,
Deployment of e-Me, eChallenges e-2007, The Hague, 20, 517–524. doi:10.1016/S0263-7863(01)00055-2
The Netherlands.
Loretzon, S. (1998). The Role of ICT as a Locational Factor
Linderoth, C. J. H., & Jacobsson, M. (2008). Understanding in Peripheral Regions: Examples from ‘IT-active’ Local
adoption and use of ICT in construction projects through Authority Areas in Sweden. NETCOM, 1(2), 303–333.
the lens of context, actors and technology. In L.
Loretzon, S. (2004). Call Centres – a Swedish Geographical
Rischmoller, (Ed.), Proceeding of CIB W78, Improving
Perspective Exemplified by Conditions in the West of
the management of construction projects through IT
Sweden. NETCOM, 18, 203–223.
adoption. Talca, Chile, (pp. 203-212).
Loretzon, S. (Ed.). (2000). The Use of ICT in a Geographical
Lindgreen, A., & Wynstra, F. (2005). Value in business
Context: Research at Gotheborg University, Sweden.
markets: What do we know? Where are we going?
NETCOM, 14.
Industrial Marketing Management, 34(7), 732–748.
doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2005.01.001 Lowe, E. (1997). Creating by-product resource
exchanges: strategies for eco-industrial parks. Journal
Linstead, A., & Brewis, J. (2004). Editorial: Beyond
of Cleaner Production, 5(1-2), 57–65. doi:10.1016/S0959-
Boundaries: Towards Fluidity in Theorizing and
6526(97)00017-6
Practice. Gender, Work and Organization, 11(4), 355–362.
doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2004.00237.x Luff, P., & Heath, C. (1998). Mobility in collaboration. In
Proceedings of the 1998 ACM conference on Computer
Litvin, D. R. (2002). The business case for diversity
supported cooperative work. Seattle, Washington.
and the iron cage. In B. Czarniawka, & H. Hopfl (Eds.),
Casting the Other: The Production and Maintenance of Luke, T. (1994). The Politics of Arcological Utopia: Soleri
Inequalities in Work Organizations, (pp. 20-39). London: on Ecology, Architecture and Society. Telos, 101(55).
Routledge.
Luke, T. (2005). Neither Sustainable nor Development:
Liu, K., Sun, L., & Bennett, K. (2002). Co-Design of Reconsidering Sustainability in Development. Journal
Business and IT Systems. Information Systems Frontiers, of Sustainable Development, 13, 228–238. doi:10.1002/
4(3), 251–256. doi:10.1023/A:1019942501848 sd.284
Lockwood, C. (2006). Building the green way. Harvard Lynch, K. (1981). Good City Form. Cambridge, MA:
Business Review, 84(6), 129–137. The MIT Press
Locoh, T. (1988). L’évolution de la famille en Afrique. Lyons, A., Coleman, J., Kehoe, D., & Coronado, A. (2004).
In E. Van De Walle, (ed.), Létat de la démographie Performance observation and analysis of an information
africaine, (pp. 45-66). Liège, Belgium: UIESP. re-engineered supply chain: a case study of an automotive
firm. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 104(8),
Locoh, T. (1988). Structures familiales et changements
658–666. doi:10.1108/02635570410561645
sociaux. In D. Tabutin (Ed.), Populations et sociétés
en Afrique au sud du Sahara, (pp. 441-478). Paris: Machlup, F. (1984). The Economics of Information and
L’Harmattan. Human Capital. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
Logan, K. (2001). Seaside Turns 20. Architecture Week,
0919, 1–2.
293
Macintosh J.C.C (1999). The issues, effects and Marschan-Piekkari, R., Welch, D., & Welch, L. (1999a).
consequences of the Berle-Dodd debate. Accounting, In the shadow: the impact of language on structure, power
Organizations and Society, 24(2), 139-153(15). and communication in the multinational. International
Business Review, 8, 421–440. doi:10.1016/S0969-
Macintosh, N. B., & Baker, C. R. (2002). A literary
5931(99)00015-3
theory perspective on accounting: towards heteroglossic
accounting reports. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Martinez, J. I., & Jarillo, J. C. (1991). Coordination
Journal, 15(2). doi:10.1108/09513570210425600 Demands of International Strategies. Journal of
International Business Studies, 22(3), 429–444.
Mackie, J. L. (1977). Ethics. Inventing right and wrong.
doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490309
Penguin Group: London, UK.
Mason-Jones, R. & Towill, D. (1997). Information
Madden, P., & Weißbrod, I. (2008). Connected ICT and
enrichment: designing the supply chain for competitive
sustainable development, Forum for the Future. Menlo
advantage. Supply chain management, 2(4), 137-148.
Park, CA: Sun Microsystems Publication.
Mattelart, A. (1999). Histoire de l’Utopie Planétaire: de
Madinipour, A. (1996). Design of Urban Space. New
la Cité Prophétique à la Société Globale. Paris, FR: La
York: John Wiley & Sons.
découverte.
Mahizhnan, A. (1999). Smart Cities the Singapore Case.
Maznevski, M. L. (1994). Understanding our differences:
Cities (London, England), 16(1), 13–18. doi:10.1016/
Perfor mance in decision-making groups with
S0264-2751(98)00050-X
diverse members. Human Relations, 47(5), 531–553.
Mainardi, (1996). Geografia delle Comunicazioni. Turin, doi:10.1177/001872679404700504
IT: NIS.
Maznevski, M. L., & Chudoba, K. M. (2000). Bridging
Mantei, M. M., Baecker, R. M., Sellen, A. J., Buxton, W. Space over Time: Global Virtual Team Dynamics and
A. S., Milligan, T., & Wellman, B. (1991). Experiences in Effectiveness. Organization Science, 11(5), 473–492.
the Use of a Media Space. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI doi:10.1287/orsc.11.5.473.15200
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp.
McAdam, R., & Galloway, A. (2005). Enterprise resource
203-208).
planning and organisational innovation: a management
Markus, M. L., & Robey, D. (1988). Information perspective. Industrial Management & Data Systems,
technology and organizational change: Causal structure 105(3), 280–290. doi:10.1108/02635570510590110
in theory and research. Management Science, 34(5),
McDonough, E. F., Kahn, K. B., & Barczak, G. (2001). An
583–598. doi:10.1287/mnsc.34.5.583
investigation of the use of global, virtual, and colocated
Marlin, A. & Tepper, J. (2003). new product development teams. Journal of Product
Innovation Management, 18(2), 110–121. doi:10.1016/
Marras, A. (1999). ECO-TEC Architecture of the In-
S0737-6782(00)00073-4
Between. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
McDonough, E. III, & Kahn, K. (1996). Using
Marschan-Piekkari, R., Welch, D. E., & Welch,
hard and soft technologies for global new product
L. S. (1999b). Adopting a common cor porate
development. R & D Management, 26(2), 241–253.
language: IHRM implications. International Journal
doi:10.1111/j.1467-9310.1996.tb00959.x
of Human Resource Management, 10(3), 377–390.
doi:10.1080/095851999340387
294
McDonough, E. III, Kahn, K., & Griffin, A. (1999). MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Center For
Managing communication in global product development Real Estate. (2005). New Century Cities: Real Estate
teams. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Value in a Digital World. Symposium Case Studies
46(4), 375–386. doi:10.1109/17.797960 Report, 1-24.
McLeod, P. L., & Lobe, S. A. (1992). The effects of ethnic Mitchell, W. (1995). City of Bits: Space, Place and the
diversity on idea generation in small groups. Academy Infobahn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
of Management Executive, Best Papers Proceedings,
Mitchell, W. (1999). E-topia: Urban Life, Jim-But Not
(pp. 227-231).
as We Know It. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
McWilliams, A., Siegel, D. S., & Wright, P. M. (2006).
Mitroff, I. I., & Mason, R. O. (1981). Creating a dialectical
Corporate social responsibility: strategic implications.
social science. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel.
Journal of Management Studies, 43(1), 1–18. doi:10.1111/
j.1467-6486.2006.00580.x Mitropoulos, P., & Tatum, C. B. (1999). Technology
adoption decisions in construction organizations. Journal of
Meadows, D., Meadows, D. L., Randers, J., & Behrens,
Construction Engineering and Management, 125(5), 330–
W. (1971). The Limits to Growth. New York: Universe
339. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(1999)125:5(330)
Books.
Mitter, S. (2001). Asian Women in the Digital Economy:
Miege, B. (1997). La société conquise par la
Policies for Participation. Malaysia, UNDP.
communication, tome 2. Grenoble, France: PUG.
Moberg, Å., Hedberg, L., Henriksson, G., Räsänen, M.,
Miller, D., & Le Breton-Miller, I. (2005). Managing for
& Westermark, M. (2008). Hållbarhetsbedömning av en
the long run: lessons in competitive advantage from
medierad tjänst - en pilotstudie (Report from the KTH Centre
great family business. Boston: Harvard business school
for Sustainable Communications. No. [). KTH Centre for
press.
Sustainable Communications.]. TRITA-SUS, 2008, 1.
Miller, M., Fields, R., Kumar, A., & Ortiz, R. (2000).
Mohr, J., & Nevin, J. (1990). Communicating strategies
Leadership and organizational vision in managing a
in marketing channels: a theoretical perspective. Journal
multiethnic and multicultural project team. Journal of
of Marketing, 54(4), 36–51. doi:10.2307/1251758
Management Engineering, 16(6), 18–23. doi:10.1061/
(ASCE)0742-597X(2000)16:6(18) Mohr, J., Fischer, R., & Nevin, J. (1996). Collaborative
communication in interfirm relationships: moderating
Millikin, F. J., & Martins, L. L. (1996). Searching
effects of integration and control. Journal of Marketing,
for common threads: Understanding the multiple
50, 103–115. doi:10.2307/1251844
effects of diversity in organizational groups.
Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 402–433. Molnár, M., Anderson, R., & Ekholm, A. (2007). Benefits
doi:10.2307/258667 of ICT in the construction industry – Characterization of
the present situation the house building processes. In D.
Milovanović, D. (2001). Interaktivni urbanizam:
Rebolj, (Ed.) Proceeding of CIB 24th W78 Conference
novi oblici saradnje podrzani internetom i novim
Maribor - Bringing ITC knowledge to work. Maribor,
kompjuterskim tehnologijama. In N. Randjelović, & M.
Slovenia, (pp. 423-428).
Ralevic (Ed.), Urbani menadzment, urbani marketing i
preduzetnistvo, (pp. 63-71). Beograd, Srbija: Udruzenje Monteiro, E. (2003). Integrating health information
urbanista Srbije. systems: A critical appraisal. Methods of Information
in Medicine, 42, 428–432.
Minas (1987). Colloque sur la famille en Afrique noire.
Yaoundé, Cameroon: Imprimerie nationale.
295
Montoya-Weiss, M. M., Massey, A. P., & Song, M. Narushige, S. (2000, August). Urban Planning,
(2001). Getting it together: temporal coordination Information Technology, and Cyberspace. Journal of
and conflict management in global virtual teams. Urban Technology, 7(2), 105. doi:10.1080/713684111
Academy of Management Journal, 44(6), 1251–1262.
Naughton, J. (1999). A Brief History of the Future:
doi:10.2307/3069399
The Origins of the Internet. London: Weidenfeld and
Moore, K., Griffiths, M., Richardson, H., & Adam, A. Nicolson.
(2008). Gendered Futures? Women, the ICT Workplace
Neimanis, A. (2002). Gender mainstreaming in practice:
and Stories of the Future. Gender, Work and Organization,
a Handbook. UNDP.
15(5), 523–542. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2008.00416.x
Nelson, K. M., & Cooprider, J. G. (1996). The Contribution
Mor-Barak, M. E., Cherin, D. A., & Berkman, S. (1998).
of Shared Knowledge to IS group performance. MIS
Organizational and personal dimensions in diversity
Quarterly, (December): 409–432. doi:10.2307/249562
climate. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science,
43(1), 82–104. doi:10.1177/0021886398341006 Neutopia, D. (1994, July 16). The feminization of
Cyberspace. Retrieved from http://feminism.eserver.
Morgan, G. (1988). Accounting as reality construction:
org/gender/cyberspace/feminization-of-cyberspace.txt
towards a new epistemology for accounting practice.
Accounting, Organizations and Societ y, 13(5). Newman, K. (1988). Falling from Grace; the Experience
doi:10.1016/0361-3682(88)90018-9 of Downward Mobility in the American Middle Class.
New York: Vintage Books.
Mudambi, R. (2002). K nowledge management
in multinational firms. Journal of International Nisancioglu, S. (2008). Climate Change and environmental
Management, 8, 1–9. doi:10.1016/S1075-4253(02)00050- urban planning: Implementations of Haringey
9 Municipality. Paper Presented at the International
Conference on Ecological and Technological Cities, Gazi
Müller, A. (1995). Umweltorientiertes betriebliches
Uni. Ankara, Turkey.
Rechnungswesen, (2nd rev. ed.). Munich, Vienna.
Nissinen, A. (2007). Developing benchmarks for
Müller-Christ, G. (2001). Umweltmanagement:
consumer-oriented life cycle assessment-based
Umweltschutz und nachhaltige Entwicklung, Munich.
environmental information on products, services and
Munshi, K. (2004). Social Learning in a Heterogeneous consumption patterns. Journal of Cleaner Production,
Population: Technology Diffusion in the Indian Green 15, 538–549. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.05.016
Revolution. Journal of Development Economics, LXXIII,
Nohria, N., & Ghoshal, S. (1997). The differentiated
185–215. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.03.003
network: organizing multinational corporations for value
Mvesso, A. (2006). Préface. In F. Pierre, Intégration des creation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Publishers.
TIC dans le processus enseignement-apprentissage au
Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The Knowledge-
Cameroun, éditions terroir, (pp. 11-12).
creating company. New York: Oxford University
Nardi, B. A. (1996). Studying Context: A Comparison of Press.
Activity Theory, Situated Action Models, and Distributed
Norman, R., & Ramirez, R. (1993). From Value Chain
Cognition. In B. A. Nardi (Ed.), Context and consciousness:
to Value Constellation: Designing Interactive Strategy.
Activity Theory and Human-Computer Interaction.
Harvard Business Review, 65–77.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
296
O’Dwyer, B. (2005). The construction of a social account: Orlikowski, W. J., & Robey, D. (1991). Information
a case study in an overseas aid agency. Accounting, technology and structuring of organizations. Information
Organizations and Society, 30(3). Systems Research, 2(2), 143–169. doi:10.1287/
isre.2.2.143
Ó’Riain. S. (2004). Networking for a Living. In A. Amin &
N. Thrift (Eds.), The Blackwell Cultural Economy Reader. Orlitzky, M., Schmidt, F., & Rynes, S. (2003).
London: Blackwell Publishing. Corporate Social and Financial Performance: A
Meta-analysis. Organization Studies, 24(3), 403–441.
Odendaal, N. (2003). Information and Communication
doi:10.1177/0170840603024003910
Technology and local governance: understanding the
difference between cities in developed and emerging Osnovni pravci tehnoloskog razvoja Autonomne
economies . Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, pokrajine Vojvodine (2007). Novi Sad, Srbija: Izvrsno
6(27), 585–607. doi:10.1016/S0198-9715(03)00016-4 vece Autonomne pokrajine Vojvodina.
Ofori, G. (1998). Sustainable construction: principles Otteson (2002). Adam Smith’s marketplace of life.
and a framework for attainment - comment . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge university press.
Construction Management and Economics, 16(2),
Oudshoorn, N., Rommes, E., & Stienstra, M. (2004).
141–145. doi:10.1080/014461998372448
Configuring the Users as Everybody: Gender and
Olhager, J., & Selldin, E. (2004). Supply chain Design Cultures in Information and Communication
management survey of Swedish manufacturing firms. Technologies. Science, Technology & Human Values,
International Journal of Production Economics, 89, 29(1), 30–63. doi:10.1177/0162243903259190
353–361. doi:10.1016/S0925-5273(03)00029-X
Paavilainen, J. (2001). Mobile Business Strategies.
Onguene Essono, L. M., & Onguene Essono, C. (2006). Understanding the technologies and opportunities.
TIC et Internet à l’école: analyse des nouvelles pratiques London: Addison-Wesley.
enseignantes dans les salles de classes d’Afrique noire.
Paehlke, R. (1999). Towards Defining, Measuring and
In F. Pierre, Intégration des TIC dans le processus
Achieving Sustainability: Tools and Strategies for
enseignement-apprentissage au Cameroun, éditions
Environmental Valuation. In E. Becker, & T. Jahn,
terroir, (pp. 55-75).
(Eds.) Sustainability and the Social Sciences. A Cross-
Ono, H., & Zavodny, M. (2003). Gender and the Disciplinary Approach to Integrating Environmental
Internet. Social Science Quarterly, 84(1), 111–121. Considerations into Theoretical Reorientation (pp 243-
doi:10.1111/1540-6237.t01-1-8401007 263). London, UK: Zed Books.
Oreilly, T. (2007). What is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and Page, S. E. (2007). Making the difference: Applying
Business Models for the Next Generation of Software. a logic of diversity. The Academy of Management
Communications & Strategies, (1), 17. Perspectives, 21(4), 6–21.
Orlikowski, W. J. (1992). The duality of technology: Palm, J., & Ellegård, K. (Eds.). (2008). Vardagsteknik: energi
Rethinking the concept of technology in organizations. och IT: forskning om hållbar användning av samhällets
Organization Science, 3(3), 398–427. doi:10.1287/ IT- och energisystem. Stockholm: Carlsson.
orsc.3.3.398
Palmer-Silveira, J. C., Ruiz-Garrido, M. F., & Fortanet-
Orlikowski, W. J., & Baroudi, J. J. (1989). The Information Gómes, I. (2006). Facing the future of intercultural and
systems profession: myth or reality? Office: Technology international business communication. In J. C. Palmer-
& People, 4, 13–30. doi:10.1108/eb022652 Silveira, M. F. Ruiz-Garrido, & I. Fortanet-Gómes, (Ed.),
Intercultural and International Business Communication.
Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang.
297
Pandey, N. & Sahay, A. (2008). Towards a New Paradigm Pearce, D., & Turner, R. (1990). Economics of Natural
of Sustainable Development. International Journal of Resources and the Environment. Baltimore, MD: John
Environment and Development, June, 2008. Hopkins University Press.
Panteli, N., Stack, J., & Ramsay, H. (2001). Gendered Pearce, D., & Warford, J. (1993). World without End:
patterns in computing work in the late 1990s. New Economics, environment and sustainable development.
Technology, Work and Employment, 16(1), 3–17. New York: Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1111/1468-005X.00073
Penev, G. (2006). Stanovnistvo i domacinstva Srbije
Paradiso, M. (2003a). Geography, Planning and the prema popisu 2002. Belgrade, Serbia: Statistical office
Internet: Introductionary Remarks. NETCOM, 3-4, of the Republic of Serbia, Institute of Social Sciences and
129–138. Association of Demographers of Serbia. SCORE-045384
in FP6 (2007). The ICT Research environment in Serbia.
Paradiso, M. (2003c). Geografia e Pianificazione
Strengthening the Strategic Cooperation Between the EU
Territoriale della Società dell’informazione. Milano, IT:
and Western Balkan Region in the field of ICT Research.
FrancoAngeli.
Retrieved from http://consultations.score-project.eu/
Paradiso, M. (2006). Le Logiche della Globalizzazione: gli attach/ictcr_rs_en.pdf
Studi in Tema di Geografia della Società dell’Informazione.
Pe r l , E . (2 0 0 6). I m pl e m e n t i e r u n g vo n
Paper presented at the meeting of Societa’ Geografica
Umwelt i n fo r m a t io n s s y s t e m e n : I n d u s t r iel le r
Italiana, Florence, Italy.
Umwelt schut z u nd d ie Kom mu n i k at ion von
Paradiso, M. (Ed.). (2003b). Geocyberspaces Dynamics Umweltinfor mationen in Unter nehmen und in
in an Interconnected World. NETCOM, 3-4. Netzwerken, Graz.
Paradiso, M., & Wilson, M. (Eds.). (2006a). The Role of Perry, R., & Greber, L. (1990). Women and Computers:
Place in the Information Age: ICT Use and Knowledge an Introduction. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and
Creation. NETCOM, 1-2. Society, 16(1), 74–101. doi:10.1086/494646
Paradiso, M., & Wilson, M. (Eds.). (2006b). Technology, Philips, D. (2006). Quality of Life: Concept, Policy and
Knowledge and Place. Journal of Urban Technology, 3. Practice. New York: Routledge
Parsons, T. (1965). The ‘’normal’’ American Family’. In S. Picot, A., Reichwald, R., & Wigand, R. T. (2003). Die
M. Faber (ed.), Man and Civilization: The Family’s Search grenzenlose Unternehmung Information, Organisation
for Survival, (pp. 34-36). New York: McGraw-Hill. und Management: Lehrbuch zur Unternehmensführung
im Informationszeitalter, (5 rev. ed.), Wiesbaden.
Paulus, P. B. (2000). Groups, teams, and creativity: The
creative potential of idea generating groups. Applied Pillmann, W., Geiger, W., & Voigt, K. (2006). Survey
Psychology: An International Review, 49, 237–262. of environmental informatics in Europe. Environmental
doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00013 Modelling & Software, 21, 1519–1527. doi:10.1016/j.
envsoft.2006.05.008
Pava, M. L., & Krausz, J. (1997). Criteria for
evaluating the legitimacy of cor porate social Pistrui, D., Huang, W. V., Welsch, H. P., & Jing, Z. (2006).
responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 17, 337–347. Family and Cultural Forces: Shaping Entrepreneurship
doi:10.1023/A:1017920217290 and SME Development in China. In P. Z. Poutziouris, K.
X. Smyrnios, & S. B. Klein (Eds.), Handbook of Research
Payne, A., & Holt, S. (2001). Diagnosing Customer
on Family Business. Cheltenham, UK: Edgar Elgar.
Value: Integrating the Value Process and Relationship
Marketing. British Journal of Management, 12(2),
159–182. doi:10.1111/1467-8551.00192
298
Pistrui, D., Welsch, H., & Roberts, J. (1997). The [Re] Preston, A. (2006). Enabling, enacting and maintaining
– Emergence of Family Business in the Transforming action at a distance: An historical case study of the
Soviet Bloc: Family Contribution to Entrepreneurship role of accounts in the reduction of the Navajo herds.
Development in Romania. Family Business Review, Accounting, Organizations and Society, 31, 559–578.
10(3). doi:10.1111/j.1741-6248.1997.00221.x doi:10.1016/j.aos.2005.03.003
Pistrui, D., Welsch, H., Wintermantel, O., Liao, J., & Prugh, T., Costanza, R., & Daly, H. (2000). The Local
Pohl, H. J. (2000). Entrepreneurial Orientation and Family Politics of Global Sustainability. Washington DC: Island
Forces in the New Germany: Similarities and Differences Press.
Between East and West German Entrepreneurs.
Pycock, J., & Bowers, J. (1996). Getting Others To Get
Family Business Review, 13(3). doi:10.1111/j.1741-
It Right. An Ethnography of Design Work in the Fashion
6248.2000.00251.x
Industry. In Proceedings of the 1996 ACM Conference on
Plant, S. (1998). Zeros and Ones: Digital Women and the Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 219-228).
New Technoculture. London: Fourth Estate.
Räsänen, M. (2006). Om möten i Distansen: Uppfattningar
Poggio, B. (2006). Editorial: Outline of a Theory of om möten på distans mellan arbetssökande och handläggare
Gender Practices. Gender, Work and Organization, 13(3), (Technical report, HCI-report series, No. HCI-42).
225–233. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2006.00305.x Stockholm: Avdelningen för Människa-Datorinteraktion.
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Pope, J., Annandale, D., & Morrison-Saunders, A.
(2004). Conceptualising sustainability assessment. Räsänen, M. (2007). Islands of Togetherness: Rewriting
Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 24, 595–616. Context Analysis. Stockholm: Royal Institute of technology,
doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2004.03.001 KTH.
P o s c h , A . ( 2 0 0 6 ). Zw i s c h e n b e t r i e b l i c h e Räsänen, M., & Nyce, J. M. (2008). Rewriting Context and

Rückstandsverwertung: Kooperationen für eine Analysis: Bringing Anthropology into HCI Research. In S.
nachhaltige Entwicklung am Beispiel industrieller Pinder (Ed.), Advances in Human Computer Interaction (pp.
Verwertungsnetze, Wiesbaden. 397-414). Vienna: InTech Education and Publishing.
Posch, A. (2007). Nachhaltigkeitsorientierte Supply Chains R a u t e n s t r a u c h , C . (19 9 9) . B e t r i e b l i c h e

– Voraussetzungen und potentielle Maßnahmenbereiche. Umweltinformationssysteme: Grundlagen, Konzepte
In M. Tschandl, & S. Bäck (Ed.) Einkauf optimieren: und Systeme. Berlin Heidelberg.
Effizienz und Effektivitäten in Einkauf und Logistik,
Rayner, S., & Malone, E. L. (1998). Why study human
Kapfenberg, (pp. 84-90).
choice and climate change? In S. Rayner & E. L. Malone,
Poutziouris, P., O’Sullivan, K., & Nicolescu, L. (Eds.), Human Coice and Climate Change. Volume two.
(1997). The [Re] – Generation of Family-Business Resources and Technology (pp. xiii-xlii). Columbus, Ohio:
Entrepreneurship in the Balkans. Family Business Review, Batelle Press.
10(3). doi:10.1111/j.1741-6248.1997.00239.x
Reinharz, S. (1992). Feminist methods in Social Research.
Prahalad, C. K. (2005). The Fortune at the Bottom of the New York: Oxford University Press.
Pyramid, eradicating poverty through profits. Boston:
Wharton School Publishing.
Prahalad, C.K. & Hart, S. (2002). The Fortune at

the Bottom of the Pyramid. Strategy + Business,
(January).
299
Reisch, L., Bietz, S., & Kreeb, M. (2006). How to Rifkin, J. (1995). The end of work: the decline of the
communicate sustainable lifestyles to hard-to-reach global labor force and the dawn of the post-market era,
consumers? A report on the large scale experiment New York: Putnam’s Sons.
“balance-f”. In M. Charter & A. Tucker (Eds.), Proceedings
Rikhardsson, P., & Welford, R. (1997). Clouding the
of the SCORE! Launch Conference “Sustainable
Crisis: the Construction of Corporate Environmental
Consumption and Production: Opportunities and
Management. In R. Welford, (Eds.) Hijacking
Threats”, (pp. 39-52). Wuppertal, Germany: Wuppertal
Environmentalism. Corporate Response to Sustainable
Institute for Climate, Energy, and Environment, in
Development (pp. 40-62). London, UK: Earthscan
cooperation with the UNEP Centre for Sustainable
Publications Limited.
Consumption and Production (CSCP).
Ritzer, G. (2004). Enchanting a Disenchanted World,
Reisch, L., Bietz, S., & Kreeb, M. (2007). An alternative
(2nd Ed.). New York: SAGE Publishers.
to “preaching to the choir” - Communicating sustainable
lifestyle options to a low interest target group. In Robb, D. (2002). Virtual workplace. HRMagazine, 47(6),
Proceedings of the International Society of Marketing 105–110.
and Development and the Macromarketing Society
Roberson, Q. M. (2006). Disentangling the meanings
Joint Conference “Macromarketing and Development:
of diversity and inclusion in organizations. Group
Building Bridges and Forging Alliances”, (pp. 187-193),
& O rga ni zat ion Ma nage me nt, 31, 212 –236.
June 2-5, 2007, Washington DC.
doi:10.1177/1059601104273064
Rheingold, H. (1994). Virtual Community: Homesteading
Roberts, J. (2000). From Know-how? Questioning the
on the Electronic Frontier. Boston: Addison-Wesley.
Role of Information and Communication Technologies in
Rheingold, H. (2002). Smart Mobs: The Next Social Knowledge Transfer. Technology Analysis and Strategic
Revolution. Cambridge, UK: Perseus Publishing. Management, 12(4), 429–429. doi:10.1080/713698499
Richard, O. C., & Shelor, M. (2002). Linking top Robichaud, D. (2006). Steps toward a relational view
management team heterogeneity to firm performance: of agency. In F. Cooren, J. R. Taylor, & E. J. Van every
Juxtaposing two mid-range theories. International (Eds.), Communication as Organizing, (pp. 101-115).
Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(6), London: LEA.
958–974. doi:10.1080/09585190210134309
Robins, K. (Ed.). (1992). Understanding Information.
Richardson, B., & Callegari, N. (2008). WIZZIT. Mobile Business, Technology and Geography. London:
banking for the poor in South Africa. In Kandachar, P. & Belhavenpress.
M. Halme (Eds) Sustainability Challenges and Solutions
Robins, K., & Gillespie, A. (1992). Communication,
at the Base of the Pyramid: business, technology and the
Organization, and Territory. In K. Robins, (Ed.),
poor. London: Greenleaf Publishing Ltd.
Understanding information. Business, Technology and
Riedl, C., Böhmann, T., Rosemann, M., & Krcmar, H. Geography (pp.145-164). London: Belhavenpress.
(2008). Quality Management in Service Ecosystems.
Robson, K. (1992). Accounting numbers as “Inscriptions”:
Information Systems And eBusiness Management,
Action at a distance and the development of Accounting.
(accepted for publication) [Ranking WKWI: B]
Accounting, Organizations and Society, 685–708.
Rieffer, R. (2001). Sociologie des medias. Paris: doi:10.1016/0361-3682(92)90019-O
Ellipses.
300
Rodrigues Araújo, E. (2008). Technology, Gender and Sahay, A. (2008). Perception of Pollution and Exprctation
Time: A Contribution to the Debate. Gender, Work from NTPC’s Talcher Sper Thermal Plant. In Progress
and Organization, 15(5), 477–503. doi:10.1111/j.1468- in Industrial Ecology, (inderscience, UK), 5(5/6), 536-
0432.2008.00414.x 554.
Roosens, E. E. (1989). Creating ethnicity. London: Sahay, A. (2009). Organization: Structures, Frameworks.
Sage. Reporting Business Management and Environmental
Stewardship (pp. 138 – 154). London: Palgrave
Rorarius, J. (2007). Existing Assessment Tools and
Macmillan.
Indicators: Building up Sustainability Assessment (Some
Perspectives and Future Applications for Finland). Sahay, B., & Gupta, A. (2003). Development of
Helsinki, Finland, Project paper for Finland’s Ministry of software selection criteria for supply chain solutions.
the Environment. Retrieved from http://www.ymparisto. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 103(2), 97–110.
fi/download.asp?contentid=73204&lan=en doi:10.1108/02635570310463429
Rorarius, J. (2008). Assessing Sustainability from the Sahay,A.(2004). Indian Corporate Environmental and
Corporate Perspective: An interdisciplinary approach. Financial Performance: Empirical Relationship between
Uppsala, Sweden: Department of Economics, SLU, them.
thesis vol. 530.
Saleh, M. A. E. (2004). Learning from tradition: the
Rotmans, J. (2006). Tools for Integrated Sustainability planning of residential neighborhoods in a changing
Assessment: A two-track approach. The Integrated world. Habitat International, 28(4), 625–639. doi:10.1016/
Assessment Journal, 6, 35–57. S0197-3975(03)00031-6
Rouncefield, M., Viller, S., Hughes, J. A., & Rodden, T. Salvato, C., & Melin, L. (2008). Creating Value Across
(1995). Working with “Constant Interruption”: CSCW and Generations in Family-Controlled Business: The Role of
the Small Office. The Information Society, 11, 173–188. Family Social Capital. Family Business Review, 21(3).
Rowlinson, S. (2007). The temporal nature of forces Samuelson, O. (2002). IT-Barometer 2000 - The use of IT
acting on innovative IT in major construction projects. in the Nordic construction industry. ITcon - . Electronic
Construction Management and Economics, 25(3), Journal of Information Technology in Construction, 7,
227–238. doi:10.1080/01446190600953698 1–26.
Ryan, C. (1999). Information Technology and DfE: From Scanzoni, H. J. (1971). The Black Family in Modern
Support Tool to Design Principle. Journal of Industrial Society. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Ecology, 3(1), 5–8. doi:10.1162/108819899569359
Schary, P. & Skjøtt-Larsen T. (2001). Managing the
Sachs, W. (1999). Planet Dialectics: Explorations in Global Supply Chain. Copenhagen.
Environment and Development. London, UK: Zed
Schor, J. (1992). The Overworked American: the
Books.
Unexpected Decline of Leisure. New York: Basic
Sahay, A. (2006 a). Environmental Management in India: Books.
Its Social, Economic and Legal Aspects. Journal of the
Schreyögg, G. (2001). Wissen, Wissenschaftstheorie und
Social Sciences, 1(2).
Wissensmanagement. In G. Schreyögg (Ed.), Wissen
Sahay, A. (2007). Euro IV Norms in India: Social in Unternehmen: Konzepte, Maßnahmen, Methoden,
Historical and Legal Background. Vikramshila Journal Berlin, (pp. 3-20).
of Social Sciences, 4(1), January – June.
301
Schulz, W. F., & Kreeb, M. (2005). Cooperate Social Seuring, S. (2004b). Industrial ecology, life cycles, supply
Responsibility. In Umweltmagazin, 35, Jg., Heft 1, chains: differences and interrelations. Business Strategy
Januar, 70. and the Environment, 13(5), 306–319. doi:10.1002/
bse.418
Schumacher, P., & Morahan-Martin, J. (2001). Gender,
Internet and computer attitudes and experiences. Seu r i ng, S., & Mü ller, M. (20 0 4).
Computers in Human Behavior, 17, 95–110. doi:10.1016/ Beschaffungsmanagement und Nachhaltigkeit – eine
S0747-5632(00)00032-7 Literaturübersicht. In M. Hülsmann, G. Müller-Christ, & H.
Haasis (Ed.), Betriebswirtschaftslehre und Nachhaltigkeit
Schwaiger, B., Wall, A., & Gotsch, P. (2007). Sustainable
Bestandsaufnahme und Forschungs¬programmatik,
Holistic Approach and Know-how Tailored to India, The
Wiesbaden, 117-170.
SHAKTI-Project. Trialog, 92/2007, 16–21.
Seuring, S., & Müller, M. (2008). From a literature
Schwartz, B. (2006). Environmental Strategies as
review to a conceptual framework for sustainable supply
Automorphic patterns of Behaviour. Business Strategy
chain management. Journal of Cleaner Production, 16,
and the Environment . Retrieved from, 2006. doi:.
1699–1710. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.04.020
doi:10.1002/bse.567
Shapiro, C., & Varian, H. R. (1999). Information Rules.
Schwarz, E., & Steininger, K. (1997). Implementing
Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
nature’s lessons: the industrial recycling network
enhancing regional development. Journal of Cleaner Shekhar, S., & Sahay, A. (2007). Firm financial
Production, 5(1-2), 47–56. doi:10.1016/S0959- management and Corporate Social Responsibility: A
6526(97)00009-7 literature review of and perspectives for India. Journal
of Social and Environment Policy, 4(2).
Schweiger, D., Atamer, T., & Calori, R. (2003).
Transnational project teams and networks: making the Sheppard, E. (2002). The Space and Time of Globalization:
multinational organization more effective. Journal of Place, Scale, Networks, and Positionality. Economic
World Business, 38(2), 127–140. doi:10.1016/S1090- Geography, 78(3), 307–330. doi:10.2307/4140812doi:10.
9516(03)00006-3 2307/4140812
Scott, A. J. (2001). The Cultural Economies of Cities. Shove, E. (2003a). Comfort, cleanliness and convenience:
London: Sage Publications. the social organization of normality. Oxford, UK: Berg.
Scott, A. J. (2004). Cultural Product Industries and Urban Shove, E. (2003b). Converging Conventions of Comfort,
Economic Development. Prospects for Growth and Market Cleanliness and Convenience. Journal of Consumer Policy,
Contestation in Global Context. Urban Affairs Review, (26): 395–418. doi:10.1023/A:1026362829781
39(4), 461–490. doi:10.1177/1078087403261256doi:10.117
Shove, E., Lutzenhiser, L., Guy, S., Hacket, B., & Wilhite,
7/1078087403261256
H. (1998). Energy and social systems. In E. L. M. Steve
Segre, A., Vittuari, M., & Ricci, R. (2005). ICT and Rayner (Ed.), Human Coice and Climate Change. Volume
rurality, the role of information in the development two. Resources and Technology. Columbus, Ohio: Batelle
process of the rural areas of the Western Balkans. Rural Press.
development 2005 - Development of knowledge and
Shrivastava, H., & Venkateswaran, S. (2000). The
information society in rural areas. Retrieved from http://
Business of Social Responsibility: The Why, What and
www.lzuu.lt/rural_development/archive/2005
How of Corporate Social Responsibility in India, Partners
Sennett, R. (1992). The Fall of Public Man. New York: in Change, New Delhi, India.
W.W. Norton & Company.
302
Sieridis, A. B. (2006). New ICT Concepts and Projects Söderholm, A. (2006). Kampen om kommunikationen.
for the Development of Rural Areas: The project Bio@ In Ö. Wikforss (Ed.), Kampen om kommunikationen -
gro. Retrieved from http://bioagro.aua.gr/modules/ Om projektledningens Informationsteknologi. Sweden:
wfsection/html/sideridis_2006.pdf Research report, Royal Institute of Technology.
Simonovic, D. (1976). Sistem seoskih naselja u uzoj Srbiji. Soja, E. (2000). Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities
Belgrade, Serbia: IAUS. and Regions. Oxford: Blackwell.
Simons, T., Pelled, L. H., & Smith, K. A. (1999). Sorkin, M. (Ed.). (1992). Variations on a Theme Park:
Making use of difference: Diversity, debate, and The New American City and the End of Public Space.
decision comprehensiveness in top management New York: Hill and Wang.
teams. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 662–673.
Spence, R., & Mulligan, H. (1995). Sustainable
doi:10.2307/256987
Development and the Construction Industry. Habitat
Singh, K. A. (2004). Bo01, A New Ecological Urban International, 19(3), 279–292. doi:10.1016/0197-
District in Malmö, Sweden, A Post-Occupancy 3975(94)00071-9
Assessment of The Area”, Unpublished Masters thesis,
Spender, D. (1995). Nattering on the net: Women, Power
IHS-HDM, Rotterdam, Lund.
an Cyberspace. North Melbourne, Australia: Spinifex
Sjöström, C., & Bakens, W. (1999). CIB Agenda 21 Press.
for sustainable construction: why, how and what.
Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant Observation. New
Building Research and Information, 27(6), 347–353.
York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
doi:10.1080/096132199369174
Squires, J. (2008). Intersecting Inequalities: Reflecting
Slessor, C. (1997). Eco-tech: Sustainable Architecture
on the Subjects and Objects of Equality. The
and High Technology. London: Thames & Hudson.
Political Quarterly, 79(1), 53–61. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
Smelik, A. (2000). Die virtuele matrix. Het lichaam in 923X.2008.00902.x
cyberpunkfilms. Tijdschrift voor Genderstudies, 3(4),
Srinivasan, B., & Mehta, L. (2003). Assessing gender
4–13.
impacts. In H. Becker, & F. Vanclay, (Eds). The
Smith, C. (1994). The New Corporate Philanthropy. International Handbook of Social Impact Assessment
Harvard Business Review, 72(3), 105–116. (161-178). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Snow, C., Snell, S., Davison, S., & Hambrick, D. (1996). Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (1991).
Use transnational teams to globalize your company. Statistical Yearbook of Serbia 2007. Belgrade, Republic
Organizational Dynamics, 32(Spring), 30–32. of Serbia: Author.
Sobotka, A., & Wyatt, D. P. (1998). Sustainable development Steen, A., & Welch, L. (1998). Dancing With Giants;
in the practice of building resources renovation. Facilities, Acquisation and Survival of the Family Firm. Family
16(11), 319–325. doi:10.1108/02632779810233584 Business Review, 19(4).
Söderbaum, P. (2000). Ecological Economics: A Political Steiner, G., & Steiner, J. (1991). Business, Government
Economics Approach to Environment and Development. and Society: A Managerial Perspective (6th Ed.). New
London, UK: Earthscan Publications Limited. York: McGraw Hill.
Steinle, C., & Reiter, F. (2002). Mitarbeitereinstellungen

als Gestaltungsgrundlage eines ökologieorientierten
Anreizsystems. uwf, 10(1), 66-70.
303
Sterr. T. (1998). Aufbau eines zwischenbetrieblichen Subramaniam, M., & Venkatraman, N. (2001).
S tof f ve r we r t u ngsne t z we rk s im Heidelbe rge r Determinants of transnational new product development
Industriegebiet Pfaffengrund, Heidelberg. capability: Testing the inf luence of transferring
and deploying tacit overseas knowledge. Strategic
Stevanovic, R. (2006). Migrantsko stanovnistvo Srbije.
Management Journal, 22, 359–378. doi:10.1002/
In G. Penev (Ed.), Stanovnistvo i domacinstva Srbije
smj.163
prema popisu 2002 (pp. 71- 106). Belgrade, Serbia:
Statistical office of the Republic of Serbia, Institute of Subramaniam, M., Rosenthal, S., & Hatten, K. (1998).
Social Sciences and Association of Demographers of Global new product development processes: preliminary
Serbia. findings and research propositions. Journal of
Management Studies, 35(6), 773–796. doi:10.1111/1467-
Stewart, G. L. (2006). A meta-analytic review of
6486.00119
relationships between team design features and team
performance. Journal of Management, 32, 29–54. Suchman, L. A. (1987/1990). Plans and Situated Actions: The
doi:10.1177/0149206305277792 Problem of Human Machine Communication. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
Stivers, R. (1976). The Sustainable Society: Ethics and
Economic Growth. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Sustainable Development Strategies New York, (2007,
November).
Stolp, A. (2003). Citizen values assessment. In H. Becker,
& F. Vanclay, (Eds). The International Handbook of Social Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup
Impact Assessment: Conceptual and Methodological relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 1–39.
Advances (pp. 231-257). Cheltenham, UK: Edward doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.000245
Elgar Publishing.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory
Stone, A. R. (1995). The War of Deside and Technology, of intergroup conflict. In S. Worchel, & W. G. Austin
at the Close of the Mechanical Age. Cambridge, MA: (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations,
MIT Press. (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publ.
Strack, C. (1995). Managing cities with the help of Takayoshi, P. (2000). Complicated Women: Examining
telecomunications. Retrieved from http://www.kpnqwest. Methodologies for Understanding the Uses of Technology.
at. /give/gv95/straclec.html Computers and Composition, 17, 123–138. doi:10.1016/
S8755-4615(00)00025-6
Strebel, H. (1995). Regionale Stoffverwertungsnetze
am Beispiel der Steiermark. Umweltwirtschaftsforum Taylor, F. (2006). Coorientation: a conceptual framework.
UWF, 3(4), 48–55. In F. Cooren, J. R. Taylor, & E. J. Van Every (Eds.),
Communication as Organizing, (pp. 141-157). London:
Struch, N., & Schwartz, S. H. (1989). Intergroup
LEA.
aggression: Its predictors and distinctness from in-group
bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, The Aalborg Charter. (1994). Charter of European
364–373. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.3.364 Cities and Towns Towards Sustainability. Copenhagen:
Denmark.
Stupar, A. (2003). Informacione tehnologije i razvoj
ruralnih podrucja- mogucnosti i ogranicenja. In R. Thin, N. (2002). Social Progress and Sustainable
Bogdanovic, & M. Ralevic (Eds.), Selo u novim razvojnim Development. London, UK: ITDG Publishing. UN,
uslovima. Beograd, Srbija: Udruzenje urbanista Srbije. (n.d.). Agenda 21: Chapter 8, Integrating environment
and development in decision-making. Retrieved April
4, 2008 from http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/
agenda21/english/agenda21chapter8.htm
304
Thomas, D. A., & Ely, R. J. (1996). Making difference UN (1987). Report of the World Commission on
matter: A new paradigm for managing diversity. Harvard Environment and Development: Our Common Future.
Business Review, (Sep-Oct): 79–90. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to
document A/42/427 - Development and International
Thompson, J. D. (1967). Organizations in Action. New
Co-operation: Environment.
York: McGraw-Hill.
UN (2008). Overview of progress towards sustainable
Thrift, N. (2000). Communications Geography. In R.J.
development: a review of the implementation of Agenda
Johnston, D. Gregory, G. Pratt, & M. Watts, (Eds.), The
21. Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda
Dictionary of Human Geography (pp.98-100). Oxford,
21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. Report
UK: Blackwell Publishing.
of the Secretary-General E/CN.17/2008/2
Todd, N. J., & Todd, J. (1993). From Eco-Cities to Living
UN Commission on Science and Technology for
Machines; principles for ecological design. Berkeley,
Development. (1995). Missing Links: Gender Equity
CA: North Atlantic Books.
in Science and Technology for Development, Canada,
Tofler, A. (1980). The third way. New York: Bantam International Development Research Centre.
books.
UNCAT-United Nations Conference on Trade and
Towley, B., Cooper, D., & Oakes, L. (2003). Performance Development (2002). E-Commerce and development
Measures and the Rationalization of Organizations. report. New York: United Nations.
Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 24(7).
UNDP (2001). World Development Report.
Trauth, M. E. (2002). Odd girls out: an individual
UNDSD. “Addressing climate change in national
differences perspective on women in the IT profession.
sustainable development strategies –common practices”
Information Technology & People, 15(2), 98–118.
Background Paper, Expert Group Meeting on Integrating
doi:10.1108/09593840210430552
Climate Change into National University of New Mexico
Triandis, N. C., Hall, E. R., & Ewen, R. B. (1965). Member Management Presentation, Van Buren, 2006
homogeneity and dyadic creativity. Human Relations,
United Nations (1987). Report of the World Commission
18, 33–54. doi:10.1177/001872676501800104
on Environment and Development. General Assembly
Tsui, A., Egan, T., & O’Reilly, C. (1992). Being different: Resolution 42/187. Retrieved December 16, 2008.
Relational Demography and Organizational Attachment.
United Nations. (1997). The Report of the Economic
Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 549–579.
and Social Council for 1997. New York: United Nations,
doi:10.2307/2393472
Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division
Tuan, Y.-F. (1977). Space and place: the perspective of for the Advancement of Women.
experience. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota
Vaara, E., Risberg, A., Søderberg, A.-M., & Tienari,
Press.
J. (2003a). Nation talk: The construction of national
Turkle, S. (1984). The second self: Computers and stereotypes in a merging multinational. In A. Søderberg &
the Human Spirit. London: Granada. ID. (1988). E. Vaara (ed.), Merging across borders: People, cultures
Computational reticence: why women fear the intimate and politics, (pp. 61-86).
machine. In C. Kramarae (Ed.), Technology and women’s
Vaara, E., Tienari, J., & Säntti, R. (2003b). The international
voices (pp. 41-61). New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul
match: Metaphors as vehicles of social identity-building
Inc.
in cross-border mergers. Human Relations, 56, 419–451.
doi:10.1177/0018726703056004002
305
Vaara, E., Tienari, J., Piekkari, R., & Säntti, R. Vanclay, F. (2004). The Triple Bottom Line and Impact
(2005). Language and the circuits of power in a Assessment: How do TBL, EIA, SEA and EMS relate
merging multinational cor poration. Journal of to each other? Journal of Environmental Assessment
Management Studies, 42, 595–623. doi:10.1111/j.1467- Policy and Management, 6(3), 265–288. doi:10.1142/
6486.2005.00510.x S1464333204001729
Valor, C. (2005). Corporate Social Responsibility Varey, R. J. (2006). Accounts in interactions: Implications
and Corporate Citizenship: Towards Corporate of accounting practices for managing. In F. Cooren, J.
Accountability. Business and Society Review, 110(2), R. Taylor, & E. J. Van every (Eds.), Communication as
191–212. doi:10.1111/j.0045-3609.2005.00011.x Organizing, (pp. 181-197).
Van der Ryn, S., & Cowan, S. (1999). Ecological Design. Varney, W. (2002). Of Men and Machines: Images of
Washington DC: Island Press. Masculinities in Boys’ Toys. Feminist Studies, 28(1),
153–174. doi:10.2307/3178498
van der Zwan, F., & Bhamra, T. (2003). Alternative
function fulfilment: incorporating environmental Velibeyoglu, K., & Gencel, Z. (2001). Urban Design
considerations into increased design space. Journal of in Changing Public Spaces of Information Age. Paper
Cleaner Production, 11, 897–903. doi:10.1016/S0959- Presented at 1st International Urban Design Meeting,
6526(02)00161-0 rendez-vous Istanbul.
van Knippenberg, D., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Homan, A. Velibeyoglu, K., & Gencel, Z. (2006). Reconsidering
C. (2004). Work group diversity and group performance: the Planning and Design of Urban Public Spaces in the
An integrative model and research agenda. The Journal of Information Age: Opportunities & Challenges, Public
Applied Psychology, 89(6), 1008–1022. doi:10.1037/0021- Spaces in the Information Age. Paper Presented at 42nd
9010.89.6.1008 ISoCaRP Congress, Istanbul.
van Schooten, M., Vanclay, F., & Slootweg, R. (2003). Vidal, P. (Ed.). (2007). European ICT Spatial Policies.
Conceptualizing social change processes and social Does a political European Information Society Model
impacts. In H. Becker, & F. Vanclay, (Eds), The Exist? NETCOM, 1-2.
International Handbook of Social Impact Assessment:
Viikki- Science Park & Latokartano Guide. (2004).
Conceptual and Methodological Advances (pp. 74-91).
City of Helsinki Planning Department, Town Planning
Division, (pp. 1-10).
Van Zoonen, L. (1991). Feminist theory and information
Vilhelmson, B. (2002). Rörlighet och förankring -
technology. Media Culture & Society, 14(1), 9–29.
Geografiska aspekter på människors välfärd ( [). Göteborg,
doi:10.1177/016344392014001002
Sweden: Department of Human and Economic Geography.].
Vanclay, F. (2003). Conceptual and methodological Choros, No., 2002, 1.
advances in social impact assessment. In H. Becker, &
Virilio, P. (2000). Informaticka bomba. Novi Sad, Srbija:
F. Vanclay, (Eds), The International Handbook of Social
Svetovi.
Impact Assessment: Conceptual and Methodological
Advances (pp. 1-9). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Vitalis, A. (1944). Médias et nouvelles technologies.
Publishing. Pour une sociopolitique des usages. Rennes, France:
Apogée.
Vukmirovic, D., Pavlovic, K., & Sutic, V. (Eds.). (2008).

Upotreba informaciono- komunikacionih tehnologija
306
u Republici Srbiji, 2008. Beograd, Republika Srbija: Weick, K. E. (1979). The social psychology of
Republicki zavod za statistiku Srbije. organization. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Waddock, S. (2004). Parallel universes: companies, Company.
academics and the progress of corporate citizenship.
Weilenmann, A. (2003). Doing Mobility. PhD Thesis,
Business and Society Review, 109(1), 5–42. doi:10.1111/
Gothenburg Studies in Informatics, Report 28,
j.0045-3609.2004.00002.x
Gothenburg, Sweden: Gothenburg University.
Wajcman, J. (1991). Feminism confronts Technology.
Weiling, K., & Kwok-Kee, W. (2008). Trust and Power
Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Influences in Supply Chain Collaboration. Operations
Walley, N., & Whitehead, B. (1994). It’s not easy to be Research & Management Sciences, 119(1), 223–239.
green. Harvard Business Review, (May-June): 46–53.
Welch, D., Welch, L., & Marschan-Piekkari, R.
Wasserman, I. M., & Richmond-Abbott, M. (2005). (2001). The Persistent Impact of Language on
Gender and the Internet: Causes of Variation in Access, Global Operations. Prometheus, 19(3), 193–209.
Level, and Scope. Social Science Quarterly, 86(1), doi:10.1080/08109020110072180
252–270. doi:10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00301.x
Welford, R. (Ed.). (1998). Corporate Environmental
Wathern, P. (1995). An introductory guide to EIA. In Management Systems and Strategies, (2nd ed.). London,
P. Wathern, (Ed.), Environmental Impact Assessment: UK: Earthscan Publications Limited.
Theory and Practice (pp. 3-30). London, UK:
Wellman, B. (2001). Physical Place and Cyberspace:
Routledge.
The Rise of Personalized Networking. International
Watson, W., Kumar, K., & Michaelsen, L. K. (1993). Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 25(2), 227–252.
Cultural diversity’s impact on interaction process and doi:10.1111/1468-2427.00309
performance: Comparing homogeneous and diverse task
Welsh, D. H. B., & Raven, P. (2006). Family Business
groups. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 560–602.
in the Middle East: An Exploratory Study of Retail
doi:10.2307/256593
Management in Kuwait and Lebanon. Family Business
WBCSD. (2000). Corporate Social Responsibility: Review, 19(1). doi:10.1111/j.1741-6248.2006.00058.x
Making good business sense. World Business Council
Welsh, G. (1996). A review of Manuel Castells’ The
for Sustainable Development.
Informational City. Department of Computer Science
WCDE-World Commission on Environment and and Information Systems, American University,
Development. (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford, Washington, DC.
UK: Oxford University Press.
Wenblad, A. (2001). Sustainability in the Construction
Webber, S. S., & Donahue, L. M. (2001). Impact of highly Business - A Case Study. Corporate Environmental
and less job-related diversity on work group cohesion and S t ra teg y, 8 (2), 157–16 4. doi:10.1016/S10 66 -
performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 7938(01)00096-3
27, 141–162. doi:10.1016/S0149-2063(00)00093-3
Wenger, E., & Snyder, W. (2000). Communities of
Weeler, D., & Elkington, J. (2001). The end of the practice: the organizational frontier. Harvard Business
corporate environmental report? Business Strategy Review, (January-February): 139–145.
and the Environment, 10(1), 1–14. doi:10.1002/1099- West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing
0836(200101/02)10:1<1::AID-BSE274>3.0.CO;2-0 G e nde r. G e n d e r & S o cie t y, 1(2), 125 –151.
doi:10.1177/0891243287001002002
307
WETA. (2004).Waitakere Municipality web site, Action World Commission on Environment and Development.
Plan. Retrieved October 13, 2004 from http://www. (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford, UK: Oxford
workraft.org.nz/WETA.htm (13/10/2004) University Press.
European Comission. (2002). eWORK 2002-Status
Wiegand, M. (1996). Prozesse organisationalen Lernens,
Report on New Ways to Work in the Knowledge Economy.
Wiesbaden.
Retrieved from http://europa.eu.int/information_society/
Wikforss, Ö. (Ed.). (2006). Kampen om kommunikationen: topics/ework
Om projektledningens Informationsteknologi. Sweden:
Yalciner, O. (2002). Depreme Dayanikli Kentler icin
Research report, Royal Institute of Technology.
Cografi Bilgi Sistemleri (Geographic Information
Wikforss, Ö., & Löfgren, A. (2007). Rethinking Systems for Earthquake-Resistant Cities). Journal of
communication in construction. ITcon - . Electronic Gazi University . Engineering and Architecture Faculty,
Journal of Information Technology in Construction, 17(3), 153–165.
12, 337–345.
Yamin, M., & Otto, J. (2004). Patterns of knowledge
Wikipedia (2009). Sustainable Development. Retrieved
flows and MNE innovation performance. Journal of
April 30, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
International Management, 10, 239–258. doi:10.1016/j.
Sustainable_development
intman.2004.02.001
Wiklund, J. (1998), Small firm growth and performance.
Yin, R. K. (1993). Case study research: design and
Jönköping, Sweden: Jönköpings Internationella
methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Handelshögskola.
Young, P. (2004). Understanding NLP Principles and
Williams, K., & O’Reilly, C. A. (1998). Demography and
Practice. Carmarthen, UK: Crown House Publishing
diversity: A review of 40 years of research. In B. Staw,
Ltd.
& R. Sutton (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior,
Young, R. (2000). Managing residual disposition:
(pp. 77-140). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Achieving economy, environmental responsibility, and
Willim, R. (2002). Framtid.nu: flyt och friktion i ett snabbt competitive advantage using the supply chain framework.
företag. Stockholm/Stehag: Symposion. Etnologiska Journal of Supply Chain Management, 36(1), 57–66.
institutionen, Lunds universitet. doi:10.1111/j.1745-493X.2000.tb00070.x
Wincent, J. (2006). On building Competitiveness in
Yu, Z., Yan, H., & Cheng, T. (2001). Benefits of
strategic SME Networks: Empirical analysis of 54 firms in
information sharing with supply chain partnerships.
two networks. Luleå, Sweden: Luleå tekniska Universitet.
1
Industrial Management & Data Systems, 101(3), 114–119.
Scandinavian Shipping Gazette (2001) nr 17
doi:10.1108/02635570110386625
Windsor, D. (2006). Corporate social responsibility: three
key approaches. Journal of Management Studies, 43(1), Zahan, D. (1970). Religion, spiritualité et pensée
93–114. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2006.00584.x africaine. Paris: Payot.
Zander, I. (1998). The evolution of technological
Wittgenstein, L. (1996). Philosophical Investigations.
capabilities in the multinational corporation –
Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
dispersion, duplication and potential advantages
Wolton, D. (1999). Internet et après? Une théorie critique from multinationality. Research Policy, 27(1), 17–35.
des nouveaux médias. Paris: Flammarion. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(97)00068-1
Zenger, T. R., & Lawrence, B. S. (1989). Organizational
Woodruff, R. B., & Gardial, S. F. (1996). Know Your
demography: The differential effects of age and
Customer: New Approaches to Understanding Customer
tenure distributions on technical communication.
Value and Satisfaction. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell
Publishers.
308
Academy of Management Journal, 32, 353–376. Zook, M. A. (2000b). Internet Metrics: Using Hosts
doi:10.2307/256366 and Domain Counts to Map the Internet Globally.
Ziliotti, M. (2001). L’economia dell’informazione. Telecommunications Policy, 24, 6–7. doi:10.1016/S0308-
Bologna, IT: Il Mulino. 5961(00)00039-2doi:10.1016/S0308-5961(00)00039-2
Zillig, U. (2001). Integratives Logistikmanagement Zook, M. A. (2001). Connected is a Matter of Geography.

i n Unter neh mensnet z werken: Gest alt u ng Networker, 5, 13–17. doi:10.1145/383719.383724doi:10.11
interorganisatorischer Logistiksysteme für die 45/383719.383724
Zulieferindustrie, Wiesbaden. Zukin, S. (1995). Culture of Cities. Oxford, MA:
Zook, M. A. (2000a). The Web of Production: the Economic Blackwell Publishers.
Geography of Commercial Internet Content Production
in the United States. Environment & Planning A, (32):
411–426. doi:10.1068/a32124doi:10.1068/a32124
309
310
About the Contributors
Anette Hallin is a researcher at the Department of Industrial Economy and Management at the Royal
Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden where she also teaches. She takes a general interest in
the creation of organizational images and the relationship between image making and organizing and
has written on the matter, both in journals as well as in books (see for eg “Information Communication
Technologies and City Marketing. Digital Opportunities for Cities Around the World”, Eds. Mila Gascó-
Hernández & Teresa Torres-Coronas). An example of a recent text relevant to the theme of this book is
“Managing Death. Corporate Social Responsibility and Tragedy” in the Corporate Social Responsibility
and Environmental Management, 16:4.
Dr. Tina Karrbom-Gustavsson, PhD, is currently working as Development Director of “Flem-

ingsberg – From Brains to Business”, a joint initiative by Stockholm County Council, Huddinge and
Botkyrka municipalities, with support from Karolinska Institute, the Royal Institute of Technology and
Södertörn University, to promote and coordinate the development of Flemingsberg, one of the most
interesting areas in Europe and Stockholm – “the Capital of Scandinavia”. Dr. Karrbom Gustavsson has
previously worked as Ass. Professor at the Department of Industrial Management at the Royal Institute
of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden. Her teaching and research concerns organization and manage-
ment in general and the management of project organizations in particular.
***
Maria Adenfelt, PhD in International Business, is an associated researcher to the Department of

Business Studies at Uppsala University and a Senior Management Consultant (e-mail: maria.adenfelt@
gmailcom). She received her PhD in International Business at the Department of Business Studies at
Uppsala University in 2003 with a thesis titled ”Creating and Sharing Subsidiary Knowledge within
Multinational Corporations”. In 2004-2005, she was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University. Her re-
search interests include knowledge creation and sharing in multinational corporations, the strategy role
of excellence and the management of transnational projects in the MNC. Her research on transnational
projects concerns IT, product development and business projects as well as different aspects of project
management such as performance, knowledge management, communication and coordination.
Per Andersson is Professor at the Centre for Information and Communication Research (CIC),
Stockholm School of Economics. Since 1993 he has participated in several research projects related to
mobile communications, which have resulted in published articles in journals, conference proceedings,
and books. In 1996 the focus of these projects changed to user organizations, particularly where related
to the term “mobility” (including “mobile organizations”). A recently initiated project involves exam-
ining how firms and other organizations co-produce and create values from new mobile technologies
and applications. His research projects involve analyzing processes of value creation in this emerging
market, focusing on co-production processes in the context of mobility offerings provided by emerging
constellations of firms.
Michela Cozza holds a PhD in Information Systems and Organizations from the University of Trento,
Italy. She is a member of Research Unit on Communication, Organizational Learning and Aesthetics
(www.unin.it/rucola). Her research interests centre on issues addressed by feminist/gender studies and
feminist/gender technology studies: in particular, the construction of male and female careers in work
settings. She teaches Public Policies-Gender Auditing at the University of Trento-Master in Gender
policies in the labor world. Her current research concerns the storytelling and organizational change and
the social construction of gender in organizations and scientific-technological sectors, with particular
regard to the construction of gender through discursive practices.
Aleksandra Djukic, MSc in architecture and urban planning, is Ass. Professor at the Faculty of
Architecture (Department of Urbanism), University of Belgrade. Besides lecturing on “Open Public
Spaces- Composition”, “Urban design studio” and “Urban Morphology” she has been a research fel-
low in several national and international research studies and projects. She is currently engaged in the
research project, founded by the Ministry of Science of the Republic of Serbia and two COST actions.
At the moment she is Vice chief of Department and the member of the Council of the Ministry of En-
vironment and Spatial Planning. She studied at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade,
participated in numerous international conferences, workshops and summer schools and her papers have
been published in various national and international professional journals, magazines and monographs
and two times won best paper rewards. She is also a project leader in a couple of Master plans and Urban
Designs. She is a member of Serbian Town Planners Association. Her professional interests in research
and teaching are urban design, urban morphology and transformations, sustainable development and
development policies.
Dr. Georg Dold has studied economics, business administration and commercial information sys-
tems. He graduated from Hohenheim University in Stuttgart, Germany in 1991 and obtained a doctoral
degree in 1996. He researched in the area of information management and its application in the area
of corporate sustainability management. He developed environmental information systems in various
contexts of corporate management. Together with Daimler-Benz Research he developed an IT system
to support the holistic evaluation of products and processes in the automotive industry. He currently
works in the design and development of IT banking applications and lectures at Potsdam University of
Management and Communication and Hohenheim University.
Per Forsberg is a lecturer and researcher at University of Borås. His previous research consists of
critical ethnographical studies and critical perspectives on accounting. His ongoing research projects
concern the challenge how to make companies and organizations more connected to each other and to
the wider community. The focus is mainly on what accounting and different accounting systems do to
human relations and what relations they constitute.
311
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Hans-Dietrich Haasis studied industrial engineering, graduated in 1987 and pro-
moted in 1993 to professor at the University of Karlsruhe. Since 1994 he is full professor for Business
Administration, Production Management and Industrial Economics at the University of Bremen. From
1998 to 2001 he was Dean of the Department of Economics. Since December 2001 he is director of the
ISL - Institute of Shipping Economics and Logistics, Bremen. He is member of the Council of Supply
Chain Management Professionals as well as member of the Editorial and Review Boards of „Logistics
Research“, „OR Spektrum“, „International Journal of Operations and Quantitative Management“, and
the “International Journal of Applied Logistics”. He was invited to give guest lecturers amongst others
at the St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Finance, and the Hunan University of Changsha,
China. In 2003 he received the B.A.U.M.-Environment Award.
Greger Henriksson is a senior researcher at the Division of Environmental Strategies Research at

KTH Royal Institute of technology, Stockholm. His research draws on habits and cultural patterns of
travel and consumption in relation to environmental issues. He has been employed at the Stockholm
University 1996-2001; at the Swedish Defense Research Agency 2002-2004; and at the Royal Institute
of Technology (KTH), Stockholm 2004-current. At present he is conducting research on communica-
tions respectively waste handling. Earlier he has worked in research programmes on sustainable cities,
sustainable consumption (EU-funded) and the introduction of congestion charges in Stockholm. Henriks-
son holds a MA (1994) and a Ph.D. (2008) in European Ethnology at Lund University. Henriksson has
participated at a handful of national and international conferences on sustainability and has also been
teaching students of planning at the Royal Institute of Technology in matters of cultural patterns and
future study methodology. Earlier work-life experience includes educational tasks and museum work
Mattias Jacobsson is a Lecturer and a PhD candidate at Umeå School of Business, Umeå University.
His current research mainly concerns projects, project communication, ICT and coordination issues
-- with a present empirical focus on the construction industry. He moreover primarily teaches project
management, organizational theory and leadership. Jacobsson has a Degree of Licentiate of Philosophy,
a Master of Social Science with a major in Business Administration, a Degree of Master in Information
Technology in Business Development and a University diploma in Law. His previous work experiences
span from the ICT industry to the insurance and real estate business
Anders Klitmøller, Research Assistant at Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus University. He conducts
research on cross-cultural management and innovation. He has published in several Danish journals,
and is currently working with Lean Management in a cross-cultural and international perspective.
Prof. Dr. Martin Kreeb has studied economics, business administration and environmental manage-
ment at Hohenheim University and St. Gallen University. He graduated from Witten/Herdecke University
, Germany in 1999 and obtained a doctoral degree at Bremen University. Since 2009 he is professor
for Sustainable Marketing at the Potsdam University of Management and Communication (UMC) for
Applied Science. Kreeb´s research fields are corporate sustainability management, environmental infor-
mation systems, environmental cost management, sustainable communication and media. Since 2003
he was management director of the research projects ecoradar and balance, financed by the German
ministry of research and communication. He gives lectures at Potsdam University of Management and
Communication (UMC), Hohenheim University and Tübingen University.
312
Katarina Lagerström is Associate Professor at the Department of Business Administration, School

of Business, Economics, and Law, Göteborg University. She received her PhD at the Department of
Business Studies, Uppsala University in 2001 with a thesis titled Transnational Project in Multinational
Corporations. Thereafter, she worked at the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administra-
tion in Bergen until 2005. Her primary research interests include knowledge development and knowledge
sharing in MNCs, global projects as organizational mechanisms and there-to related aspects such as
performance, communication, culture, and languages. In the last few years, Katarina has also been part
of a research program aiming at increasing the understanding of how the internationalization process
of firms unfolds, where her special interest has been in the internal change processes. Katarina mainly
teaches within the fields of International Business and Project Management in the Bachelor and Master
of Science Programs, as well as in the Executive MBA program.
Jakob Lauring, Associate Professor at Aarhus school of Business, Aarhus University. He conducts
research on cross-cultural management and interaction, multicultural teams and diversity management.
Specifically he has focused on intercultural communication, knowledge sharing and language use. He
has published in international books and journals such as the International Journal of Cross Cultural
Management, Journal of Business Communication and International Journal of Human Resource Man-
agement. He has received a number of research awards for his work on cross-cultural management and
diversity management.
Associate professor Mikael Lind (http://www.adm.hb.se/~ML) is connected to the University of Borås,

Viktoria Institute, and Linköping University, Sweden. He is the director of the informatics department
and the founder of the InnovationLab at the School of Business and Informatics in Borås. He is also
the co-founder of the Swedish GSI (Graduate School of Informatics). He is associated to the research
network VITS in Sweden and is active in different international communities such as Language/action
and Pragmatic Web. He is also part of the management board for the AIS special interest group SIGPrag
(www.sigprag.org). His research focus is on Management, e-Service Innovation, Method Engineering,
and Research Methods for Information Systems Development. His research is mainly characterized by
empirically driven theory and method development, action research, design science, multi-grounded
theory, and practical theory. He is also the project manager of the citizen-centric e-service project e-Me
– turning the Internet around (www.e-me.se) as well as associate editor for the open journal Systems,
Signs & Actions (www.sysiac.org).
Anneli Linde is a Lecturer at Umeå School of Business, Umeå University. Her research is inter-
est in primarily on IT based management systems in multi-project organizations and she has several
international publications in this area. Present research focuses on the relation between ICT and sustain-
ability and environmental issues in the construction industry. Linde has a long experience of teaching
management and leadership both at Chalmers University of Technology as well as at Umeå University.
She has a Master’s Degree in Civil Engineering (construction management) as well as several years of
work experience from the construction industry.
Henrik Linderoth, PhD, assistant professor at Umeå School of Business, and University of Skövde.
His research interest is primarily focused on ICT-triggered change processes and consequences of project
based organizing. Linderoth has accomplished studies of ICT use in for example the health care sector
313
and in the building and construction industry. His publications have appeared in for example Interna-
tional Journal of Project Management, Enterprise Information Systems, Journal of Telemedicine and
Telecare and Journal of Change Management.
Cecilia Mark-Herbert is an associate professor at the Department of Economics at the Swedish

University of Agricultural Sciences. She works as a researcher and lecturer in marketing. Her spe-
cialization is in sustainable marketing management and most of her research is related to economic,
environmental, social and ethical aspects of agricultural production. In her scientific perspective of
marketing management communication holds a central role – as a basis for building relationships in a
long-term perspective. Much or her previous research is in the field of R&D Management with a focus
on the development of health related food products (so called functional foods).
Holder of a PhD in Sociology from the University of Yaounde I (Cameroon), Honoré Mimche
worked at the National Center of Education (Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation) as Senior
Researcher. He is currently teaching at the “Institut de Formation et de Recherche Démographiques”
(IFORD) of the University of Yaoundé II, where he offers courses on qualititative approaches, Sociol-
ogy of population, family and household demography as well as field surveys. Since 2006, he is country
coordinator of the Network “Family and Schooling in Africa”. He is the author of several articles in
national and international journals and has been co-author in several scientific documents.
Tohnain Norbert Lengha, has a PhD in Rural Sociology from the University of Yaounde I, Cameroon.
He is a researcher with the Cameroon Ministry of Scientific research and Innovation. He is also lecturer
of Rural Sociology at the University of Yaounde I. He has published several articles in the domain of
sociology in general and Rural Sociology in particular. He has been involved in many research projects
funded by both the national and International research organizations. He is currently the coordinator of
a project on: Children living with disabilities and Education in Cameroon: Challenges and perspectives,
funded by the Educational Research network for West and Central Africa.
Elke Perl-Vorbach studied business administration and environmental systems sciences at the
University of Graz, Austria, and Lund University, Sweden. Since 2005 she is a scientific assistant at
the Institute of Systems Sciences, Innovation and Sustainability Research (former Institute of Innova-
tion and Environmental Management) at the Karl-Franzens-University of Graz. In her dissertation on
“Implementing environmental information systems – An analysis on an internal and inter-company level”
she investigated informational aspects as enablers for sustainable development in an interorganisational
perspective. Further research projects cover sustainable supply chains and recycling networks, sustain-
ability networks, sustainable product service systems, sustainable systems innovation and innovation
management for SME.
Jonas Rorarius has professional experience from both the public and the private sector related to
sustainable development and corporate social responsibility. His academic background includes Bachelor
Degree in International Politics and Economics from the University of Wales, Aberystwyth (UK). He has
also a Master Degree in Ecological Economics from the Mälardalen University (Sweden) and a Master
of Science Degree in Environmental Science from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
and Uppsala University (joint degree). Both master degrees had an interdisciplinary approach focusing
314
on sustainability issues. Jonas Rorarius’ current academic interest is related to corporate sustainability
issues focusing on environmental communication aspects.
Christopher Rosenqvist is Assistant Professor at the Centre for Information and Communication
Research (CIC), Stockholm School of Economics. Since 1996 he has participated in several research
projects within the field of media product development. After completing his Ph.D. thesis at the Royal
Institute of Technology he joined the Stenbeck Group (Metro, MTG, and Tele2). In 2003 he returned to
academia to assume responsibility for media management education at the Stockholm School of Eco-
nomics. His main research interest is customer-oriented product development, specifically in helping
media corporations to react faster to market changes and to seize business opportunities.
Minna Räsänen is a senior researcher in the Human-Computer Interaction group at KTH Royal
Institute of technology, Stockholm and a lecturer in Media Technology at Södertörn University. She
has studied computer science, holds an M Sc with major in social anthropology (1998) and a Ph D in
Human Computer Interaction (KTH, 2007). Räsänen’s research draws primarily on investigation and
analysis of social practices. She is interested in encounters between people and their acting with and
through technology. She has worked in projects where communication environments with audio and
video have been established to span and connect geographically distant workplaces (2002-2004, 2006)
and in a project (EU-funded), in which communication with and among robots was in focus (2007). Her
current research concern in part; social practices of ICT use with explicit objectives of sustainability
and in part; work organization and work processes.
Dr. Arun Sahay¸ a hard-core business executive turned an academician has been a champion of both
the corporate and academic world. Starting his career as an academician¸ he turned to the corporate
world early in life and wading through both public and private sectors¸ he made to the top to become the
Chairman and Managing Director of Scooters India Limited¸ a company that was declared a mortuary
case only to be given a ceremonial burial. The turnaround of Scooters India Limited¸ under his leader-
ship¸ is considered a management miracle both by the practicing managers as well as academicians. In
recognition of this¸ he was made the founder President of the Strategic Management Forum of India.
As a mastermind in strategy¸ he was invited to serve on many Corporate Boards as well as those of
the technical and management Institutions. He has been conferred many corporate awards, has written
three books, further two are in pipeline and has written several articles in the field of Environmental
Management, Sustainability and CSR. He was awarded the Best Researcher of the year 2006 by Man-
agement Development Institute.
Susanne Sweet is Associate Professor at Stockholm School of Economics (SSE), with a specialization
in sustainable market and marketing research. She is the founder and acting chair of Sustainability Re-
search Group, SuRe, at SSE since 2003 (http://www.suregroup.se). Her research field includes Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) and Social and Environmental Sustainable Business Development. Current
research projects at SuRe includes sustainable business models at the base-of-the-pyramid; markets and
marketing of ecological foods; micro finance and poverty alleviation; the role of the financial market in
shaping CSR etcetera. She is also a board member of the international research network Greening of
Industry Network, GIN (http://www.greeningofindustry.org), with offices in Europe, North America and
315
Asia. She is chairing the publishing group in GIN and part of the editorial board in the journal Business
Strategy and the Environment. She is also acting and founding member of the Nordic research group,
NCCR, Nordic Center of Corporate Responsibility (members are SSE, CBS, HSE, BI and Reykjavik
University). Her research appears in journals and books, for example: Scandinavian Journal of Manage-
ment; Journal of Cleaner Production; Business Strategy and the Environment.
Vesna Tomic, BSc in architecture and urban planning, worked in the Institute for Architecture and
Urban Planning of Serbia, the Town Planning Institute of Belgrade, and presently working in Ski Resorts
of Serbia. He was also a Board Member of Town Planner Association of Belgrade and Association of
Architects of Belgrade. She was born in 1964, in Novi Sad, Serbia, and studied at the Faculty of Archi-
tecture, University of Belgrade. Worked as a project leader on several detailed town planning designs
of housing settlements, town planning projects and studies, and was as a member of the synthesis team
of the Master Plan of Belgrade 2021. Also received several awards for her professional accomplish-
ments at the Urban Exhibition, organized by the Serbian Town Planners Association. Her professional
interests are in the field of new urban planning ideas and practice, especially relevant to problems of
methodology and implementation of new technologies.
Marco Tortora is Adjunct Professor in Economic Geography and Geopolitics at the University of
Florence, and in International Business at Kent State University, Florence Program. He is also a faculty
member of the Florentine School of Communication and collaborates with the Economics Department
at University of Florence. His research interests are: international business and globalization, media and
communication, information markets, sustainable development and energy. Current and recent research
projects include: sustainable tourism and the marketing of places, new media and business organizations,
global and international news agencies. Dr. Tortora also works as a consultant in the communication
and marketing industry and has been member of National Committees and Board of Directors for not-
for-profit associations in the Media and Education field.
Ozge Yalciner Ercoskun is a research assistant in the City and Regional Planning Department of
the Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. She graduated from the City and Regional Planning Department
of the Istanbul Technical University in 1998. She completed her master’s studies in the Geodetic and
Geographic Information Technologies Department of the METU in 2002. She got her Ph.D. degree from
the City and Regional Planning Department of the Gazi University in 2007. She has attended several
national and international congresses; summer schools and workshops related to ecological urban plan-
ning and geographic information systems. She has written more than 35 papers on sustainable urban
design and ecological and smart urban planning, geographic information systems and information
technologies. She worked as a researcher in many national and institutional projects. She has awards
about sustainability and urban growth, sustainable tourism and is the member of International Sustain-
able Development Research Society.
316
317
Index
A building and construction industry 170, 171–

188
Aarhus Convention 27 building information models 183–188
ACBE Guide 89 bureaugamy 252–255
accessibility 8 bush faller 252–255
actants 208, 212 business development 2, 4, 15
actor-network-theory (ANT) 208, 212 business processes 2
actual geography 229
agency costs 197 C
agenda 21 27, 85
agents 190, 195, 198, 200, 201 carbon neutrality 210
agents of economy 190, 198, 201 CBA 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 114
alien speech communities 136 celibacy 251–255, 252–255
androgynous 266–274 Central Serbia
ANT 208, 212, 220 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 31, 33, 37
Arabianranta-Helsinki 44 charitable giving 78
archipelago shipping companies 191, 192 charity based solutions 5
architecture of participation 200 City of Milton 46
City of Waitakere 52
B classical planner’s approach 19
Coalition for Environmentally Responsible
Balkan Peninsula 36 Economies (CERES) 90, 95
Base of the Pyramid 4, 5, 6, 16, 17 co-design 199, 200, 201, 202, 203
Basta list 181–188 communication 153, 154, 155, 156, 157,
Belgrade 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 38, 39, 40 158, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166,
benevolence 76, 78 167, 168
Bhopal 93 communication management 136
biodiversity 6 community-based initiatives. 85
biotope pond 47 community-based innovative networks 191
bitstores 42 Company Radar 65
Bo01 46, 58 Computer Supported Cooperative Work
BoP 2, 5, 6, 7 (CSCW) 206
boundaries 211, 214 conceptual geography 229
boundary creation 140, 141, 143 connectivity 3, 8, 14
bride price 252–255 construction industry 170, 171, 172, 173,
Bristol-Myers Squibb 90, 97 179, 187, 188
Brundtland Commission 86
Index
consumption 2, 3, 5, 9, 15 DuPont, Canada 90, 97

convenience 213, 216, 220, 224 dynamism 8
convergence 209 dystopian 262–274
Core and Additional Indicators 89
corporate philanthropy 78, 96 E
corporate responsibility 101 Eastern Serbia 22
Corporate Social Performance (CSP) 82 East Serbia 22, 34
Corporate Social Reporting 82 eco-industrial parks 120, 131
Corporate Social Responsibility Ecological Footprint (EF) 103, 114
80, 81, 96, 98, 99 ecological tourism 239, 244
corporate social responsibility (CSR) 2, 76 E-community 236
corporate sustainability 76, 77, 88, 95 E-competitiveness 236
corporate sustainability index 88 ECORadar 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68,
Cost Benefit Analysis 103, 105, 106, 107 69, 70, 71, 72
Cost Benefit Analysis, CBA 103 ECORadar-Shakti 60, 61, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72
creep 216 ECORadar Shakti India 60
Crna Trava 23 eco-systems 3, 5, 15
Crossroads-Copenhagen 44 eco-tech 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49,
CSCW 206, 207, 224 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56
CSP 82 eco-tech cities 42, 45, 56
CSR 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, eco-tech city 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 52, 55
86, 92, 95, 96, 97 ‘eco-tech’ (ecological and technological) city
cultural competitiveness 189 42
cultural differences 136, 137, 138 ecotourism 35, 238, 239, 244
cultural diversity 6, 137, 139, 140, 142, 152 Eco-Viikki 46
Cultural diversity 137, 145, 151 eco-village 45
culture 5 educational pipeline 266–274
customer value 1, 9, 10 e-empowerment 199
cyber-cafés 252, 253, 255 eEurope Action Plan 27
cybernetic theory 232 EIA 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108,
112, 114
D
EIP 62
decision-making 171, 172, 174, 176, 180, 181, Electrolux 90, 97
183, 184, 186, 188, 190, 194, 195, 201 electronic data interchange, EDI 121
democratization 20 e-logistics 62
development 227, 228, 229, 230, 233, e-marriages 252–255, 254–255
234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, emerging markets 2, 6
243, 244 EMS 68, 69, 70, 71
Digicel 5, 11, 12 endangered species 3
digital divide 256, 260, 263, 264 end-goals 212
digital gender gap 256, 258, 260, 265, 266, energy use 206, 209
268, 269 enroll 212
Digital Network 234, 236 enterprise 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 10, 15
distance meeting place 218, 219 “Enterprise Information Portal” (EIP) 62
diversity management 136, 138, 139, 146 environmental damage 3
DMP 218, 219, 220 environmental decisions 174, 176, 178, 185,
Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI), 88 188
318
Index
environmental enterprise 1, 2 family-run business culture 189, 202

Environmental Impact Assessment, EIA family-run businesses 189, 191, 193, 198
102, 103 family situation 214
environmental information 115, 116, 117, family structures 245, 246, 249, 250, 251,
118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 253, 254
126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131 femininity 257, 261, 268, 274
environmental information systems 115, 116, feminism 262, 263, 265, 268, 271, 272, 274
117, 119, 120, 121, 125, 126, 127, feminist 256, 257, 258, 260, 261, 262, 268,
129 269, 271, 272, 274
environmental issues 174–188, 185–188 first generation ICTs 156
environmentally sound design 120 FOGAPE (support fund for small and medium
environmental management 61, 69, 171, 173, size entreprises) 253–255
174, 175, 176, 179, 180, 181, 184, 185, Friedrich Nietzsche 80
186, 188
Environmental Management Systems (EMS) G
68 GaBi® 127
environmental performance measurement sys- Gates Foundation’s 79
tem 119 GDP 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159,
environmental problems 3 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166
environmental protection GDPs 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 161, 163,
115, 116, 122, 123, 124, 126 164, 166
Environmental supply chains 118 gender 256, 256, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261,
environmental sustainability 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269,
205, 208, 209, 210, 221 270, 271, 272, 274
Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) 114 gender and technology 257, 258, 260, 262,
environmental systems 174–188 263, 268, 269, 274
environment management system 118 gender blindness 256–274
e-procurement 62 gender gap 256, 258, 260, 263, 264, 268, 269,
equivocality 156, 157 274
escalation 209 gender in technology 257–274
eSEEurope Agenda for the Development of gender mainstreaming 256, 267, 274
Information Society 32 gender of technology 257–274
E-services 236 gender science 257–274
ethnomethodology 207 General Motors 90
European 25, 32, 38 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 48
Express Union 250–255 geography of content 233
geography of information 227, 228, 229, 240
F
geography of media 229
face-to-face communication 143, 144 geography of production 229, 233
face-to-face meetings 198 geography of the network 229, 233
facilitators 199 global development projects (GDPs) 153, 154
family 245, 246, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252, global economy 214
253, 254 Global Environmental Charter 89
Family firms 189, 197 globalization 3, 19, 20, 24, 37, 143
family-run business 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, global mindset 157, 161, 164, 166, 167
199, 200, 202
319
Index
global product development Information Society 228, 229, 230, 232,

154, 155, 156, 157, 164, 168 234, 235, 243
global products 154, 155, 159, 164 infrastructure 19, 21, 25, 28, 29, 32, 34,
Global Reporting Initiative 36, 37
82, 89, 90, 91, 95 infrastructures 3, 20, 34
global strategy 157, 165 Integrated Sustainability Assessment, ISA 103
granularity 199 integration 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 15
Gray water 47 interaction 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140,
green decisions 171–188 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 151
greening the ICT 53 interactional mobility 8, 15
green tourist networks 238 internal embedding 212
GRI 89, 90, 92, 93, 95, 97 Internet 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251,
GRI - III 89 252, 253, 254, 255
Gross National Happiness (GNH), 86 inter-organizational cooperation 122
Gross National Product (GNP) 86 interpersonal attraction 138
groupthink 137 ISA 103, 104, 106, 108, 109, 114
Groupware systems 121 ISO 14001 management system 101
Guide to Environmental and Energy Reporting ISO 14031 89
and Accounting 89 iWIZZ 14
H J
Haringey Municipality, London 54 JN Tata Endowment 79
HCI 206, 207, 224 Johannesburg Plan of Implementation 85
heuristics 137
holistic perspective 201 K
Homogeneity 137 key informants 139
homogenization 143 key stakeholders 52
Human-computer interaction (HCI) 206 knowledge-based economy 143
human rights 3 knowledge creation 199, 200
hydel 94 knowledge creation process 199
Hyderabad 60, 61, 62, 68, 69, 72, 74 knowledge economy 262–274
knowledge intensive jobs 139
I
Knowledge Management 64, 67
ICTs 1, 2, 10, 15, 16, 205, 208, 209, 210 Knowledge Warehouse 64, 65
, 213 Kosovo 21, 22
identity markers 143 Kragujevac 35
iDVT 29, 37
incentive programs 197 L
income gap 5 Language diversity 136, 148
InfoGlobal 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163 language management 136
InfoGlobal project 158, 159, 161, 162, 163 lean production 104
information 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) 103
12, 15 life cycle assessment (LCA) 90
information and communication technologies life cycle costing approaches 173–188
(ICTs) 2, 41 line organization 172–188, 173–188
information sharing 3
320
Index
Lisbon Strategy 2000 and 2005 27 N

local development strategies 227, 230
locational mobility 8, 12 National Agency for the Use of Informatics in
logics 4 the Public Administration sector (CNI-
PA) 235
M National Investment Plan (NIP) 28
nationality 137, 138, 143
Madenfield 158, 159, 163 National Strategy 25, 32
Maestro debit cards 13 National Strategy for Sustainable Development
management systems 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, (2008) 25
178, 179, 185, 188 national sustainable development strategy
marginalized 19 (NSDS) 85
masculinity 257–274, 260–274, 268– nature 5, 6
274, 274 needs 2, 4, 5, 6, 12, 14, 15, 16
maximum level of entropy 232 netropolis 50
Médias et sociétés 247–255 network approach 3
megacities 60, 61 networks 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194,
Memorandum for a Common Electricity Mar- 196, 198, 200, 201, 203, 204
ket 37 Network Society 231, 241
metadata systems 119 New Economy 230
Methods and Tools for Integrated Sustainability New information and communication technolo-
Assessment (MATISSE) 103 gies (NICTs) 246–255
methyl isocynide 93 NFE (national fund for employment) 253–255
Metohia 21, 22 NGOs 33, 34, 35, 50
migratory influx 249–255, 250–255 NICTs 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251,
Ministry of Finance 25 253, 254
Mixed used area 49 Nike 3, 96
MNC 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 161, 164, non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
165, 166 260–274
mobile communications 3, 4, 7, 11, 12, 15 Norsk Hydro 90, 97
mobile phone 246–255, 249–255 Novi Sad 22, 26, 39, 40
mobile solutions 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11 NSDS 85
mobile technologies 4
mobility 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, O
13, 14, 15, 16
Money Gram 250–255 occupational community 196, 197
MUDs 262–274, 263–274 occupational health and safety decisions 118
Mulidisciplinarity 118 office hotel 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 221
multilingualism 136 One north-Singapore 44
Multi-National Corporations 85 online tools 156
multinational corporations (MNCs) 154 Ontario Power Generation 91, 97
Multi User Dungeons (MUDs) 262–274 operational mobility 8
Multi-User Shared Hallucination (MUSH) opinion formation 3
263–274 organization 190, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197,
MUSH 263–274 198, 199, 201
MyC4 5, 7, 12, 13, 14 organizational communication 4, 11
321
Index
P Science and Technology Studies (STS) 206

Second generation ICTs 156
participation 6, 7, 10, 11 second language 142, 143
‘pay-as-you-use’ model 13 SEE countries 32, 37
payment channel 13 semi-public spaces 51
personal consumption 118 Seoul Digital Media City 44
Phallotechnology 260–274, 270–274 Serbia 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
Philanthropy 76, 78, 80, 83, 98 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
Photovoltaic (PV) systems 47 39, 40
pisciculture 94 Service, Development and Communication
poachers 3 Dalarna 218
Policy of Sustainable Development 28 shareholders 79, 81, 82, 97
polysemic 232 Shell Oil 96
POS, Point of Sales 14 sIA 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 114
post-apartheid 13 SIA 103, 104, 106, 108, 109, 114
post-fordist industrial metropolis 49 Sima Pro® 127
postindustrial 20 SIM cards 13
poverty penalty 13 Small and Medium size enterprise (SME) 2, 61
practice in action 174–188 Smart cities 43
Private Sector Units 94 smart metering 48, 49
Procter and Gamble 91, 97 SME 61, 68
product development 4 SME enterprises 61
production 2, 3, 15 SMEs 61, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72
project-based organization 172–188 social boundaries 135, 141, 143, 144
Public System of Connectivity 235 social categorization 138, 143, 145
Q social categorization paradigm 145
social divide 42
Quality infrastructures 236 social fragmentation 135, 140, 143, 144, 145
Social Impact Assessment, sIA 103
R social interaction 214, 216
recycling networks 115, 120, 127 social juniors 246–255
regional communication system 228, 233 social practices 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 21
Regional Digital Network 236 0, 215
relational transaction costs 13 Social practices 206, 208
renewal 171–188, 173–188, 186–188 social reproduction 207
Republic Agency for Telecommunications 29 social tool 143
resource depletion 5 social transformation 245
resource-intensity 209 solidarity crisis 246–255, 254–255
rhetoric of technology 259–274 spatial effects 227, 229, 231
Rio Tinto 91, 97 spatio-temporal 216, 217
rural depopulation 21 spatio-temporal structure 216
stakeholders 3, 7, 9, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,
S 85, 87, 88, 90
standardization 103, 109, 183, 184, 185, 188
satellite coverage 248–255
standardized accounting systems 189
scenario development 54
standards 173, 183, 186, 188
scenario techniques 200
322
Index
Stara Planina 34 technology use and work practices 207

“steady state economy” 86 telecom 12
strategic CSR 76, 97 tele-cooperation 61, 64
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) telecosmos 50
103, 114 telecottages 215
strategy 212, 216 teledensity 248–255
Strategy for the Development of Information telefamily meetings 250–255
Society 32 telespaces 42
STS 206 telework 42, 210
super industrial 20 Tele-working 49
supply chain 3 The Company Madenfield 158
supply-chain-management 62 The New Corporate Philanthropy 83, 98
sustainability 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, theory of messages 232
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 41, 42, 45, thermal power 94
47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 55, 76, 77, third generation technologies 156
78, 80, 83, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, third wave 20
95, 96, 97, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, time shifting 216, 220
105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 116, time-space 206
118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 128, time-space compression 51
129, 130, 171 traditional public space 51
sustainability assessment translation 208, 212
101, 102, 103, 104, 108, 111 translations 208
Sustainability Impact Assessment, SIA 103 Tri Hita Karana 96
sustainable 227, 228, 229, 233, 235, 236, 2 “triple bottom line” framework 102
37, 238, 239, 240, 243, 244 Triple Bottom Line (TBL) 82
sustainable communication trust time 217
228, 233, 237, 239
sustainable communities 41, 42, 49, 55 U
sustainable development 76, 82, 85, 86, 87, Umberto® 127
91, 92, 96, 98, 101, 102, 104, 105, uncertainty 156, 157
107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 115, United Nations Millennium Development
116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 124, 128, Goals 85
129, 206, 218, 221 urban infrastructure 61
Sustainable development 86 urban planning
Sympathy 195, 201 41, 42, 48, 51, 53, 54, 55, 58
systemic approach 3 urban space 42, 49
urban systems 41
T
user settings 4
tactics 212 utilitarian market model 138
teamwork 146, 147 utopian 262–274
technological dissemination 227
technological hegemony 261–274 V
technological sociability 250–255 value 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14,
technologies of communication 189, 190, 198 15, 16, 17
technologies studies 256–274 value chain 70
technology 221 value constellations 2
323
Index
value creation 7, 8, 9 WIZZIT 5, 13, 14, 17, 18

vertical hierarchy 197 WIZZkids 14
Video conferencing 43, 218 workflow management systems 121
virtual geography 229 work group 214
virtual meetings 218 work groups 214, 218
virtual mobility 210 working conditions 3
Vojvodina 22, 24, 33, 39 workplace-located 217
workplace-located time 217
W work roles 212, 213, 214, 215, 221, 222
Weak structuring 118 work tasks 210, 211, 213, 214, 221, 222
Web 2.0 199, 200, 201, 203 World Summit on Sustainable Development 85
web-enabled shared workspaces 156 Y
Western Union 250–255
WIMAX technology 48 Yugoslavia 22, 25, 32
Win- Win -Win business strategies 83
wireless 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15 Z
wireless communication 1, 15 Zachmann Framework concept 63
wireless technologies 2 Zlatibor 26
wire line telephone communications 3
324

Marketing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Marketing

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Marketing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are some of the main topics discussed in the document?

What are some of the main topics discussed in the document?

What frameworks or concepts are mentioned?

What frameworks or concepts are mentioned?

Organizational

Tina Karrbom Gustavsson

InformatIon scIence reference

Published in the United States of America by

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Organizational communication and sustainable development : ICTs for mobility /

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................ xiv

Preface ............................................................................................................................................... xvii

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xxii

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 275

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 310

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 317

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................ xiv

Preface ............................................................................................................................................... xvii

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xxii

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 275

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 310

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 317

SuStainable Development anD organizational CommuniCation:

themeS anD ChallengeS

StruCture of the book

Sven Antvik, Tech. Lic. Joakim Lilliesköld, Ph.D.

Anette Hallin & Tina Karrbom Gustavsson

the value of mobility between increased mobility of business enterprises

Figure 1. The concept of sustainable development (retrieved from Wikipedia, 2009)

Union, integrates multidisciplinary capacities pation as key, interdependent building blocks to

Table 1. Mobility dimensions

“Locational mobility” “Operational mobility” “Interactional mobility”

Table 2. Value dimensions and economic effects

Value dimensions “Technical value” “Spatial value” “Temporal value”

introDuCtion scientific theories and insights about life on our

iCt There is practically no country without its

The strategy of AR Vojvodina adopted in 2007 Adopted EU strategic documents permit a

developed countries and urban environments also initiation anD organization

introDuCtion systems. Is there any way to incorporate ICT in

for their sustainability. It is useful to planners, A green street is designed in an eco-tech

Ekostaden web site (n.d.). City of Malmö, Swe- htpp://wsis.org

introDuCtion and urban condensation of humankind is happening

Table 1. Business analysis framework of ECORadar (see Lieberman, 2007)

Element Description ECORadar Activity

Criteria Knowledge Warehouse Knowledge Network

The ECORadar system portal consists of eight

environmental Data environmental policy

environmental goals transfer in the environmental sphere is formed

DeSigning eCoraDar for Summary of research results

Table 3. Benefits of corporate environmental management systems

Category Sub-Category Description Importance indi-

Externally the supply-chain communication 2. Information and Knowledge

• Subject-specific content: Due to a Define the Role of Stakeholders

Table 4. Role-groups and their relevant aspects on ECORadar

Role Group Main purpose of participation Knowledge supplied Knowledge demanded

extend Collaborative functionalities exemplary scenarios of collaboration that are

Table 5. Exemplary scenarios of collaboration in ECORadar-Shakti

Exemplary Scenario of Partners of collaboration Content & Benefits Tools