Topic support guide

Cambridge International AS and A Level

Computer Science

9608
For examination from 2017

Topic 3.2.1 Protocols

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© Cambridge International Examinations 2016

Version 1
Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
How to use this guide .................................................................................................................. 2
Learning objectives ..................................................................................................................... 2
Prior knowledge........................................................................................................................... 2
1. Key terms ................................................................................................................................ 3
2. Theory ..................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 What is a protocol? ................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Layering and the OSI model .................................................................................................. 5
2.3 TCP/IP................................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 The TCP/IP layer model ........................................................................................................ 7
2.5 A TCP/IP communication example ........................................................................................ 8
3. Online resources...................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Websites ............................................................................................................................... 9
4. Class and homework activities ............................................................................................... 10
4.1 Quiz ..................................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Homework questions ........................................................................................................... 11

Topic support guide 9608 Topic 3.2.1 Protocols 1

Introduction

Introduction

How to use this guide

The aim of this guide is to facilitate your teaching of the Cambridge International AS and A Level
Computer Science topic 3.2.1 Protocols, part of the advanced theory topic 3.2 Communication and
internet technologies. This guide concentrates on the learning objectives relating to protocols and
the TCP/IP protocol suite. The guidance and activities in this resource are designed to help
teachers devise programmes of study which provide teaching time devoted to theory work as well
as activities that consolidate learning.

Section 1 lists some key terms used in this topic and their definitions. Section 2 introduces
protocols, the OSI model and the TCP/IP protocol suite. Section 3 lists some online resources that
you or your learners may find useful, Section 4 gives ideas for class and homework activities.

Learning objectives
Using this document should help you guide learners in the following syllabus learning objectives:

 show understanding of why a protocol is essential for communication between computers

 show understanding of how protocol implementation can be viewed as a stack, where each
layer has its own functionality
 show understanding of the function of each layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite
 show understanding of the application of the TCP/IP protocol suite when a message is sent
from one host to another on the internet.

Prior knowledge

Before you begin teaching this topic you should:

 understand what protocols are and why they are needed for communication
 be familiar with the OSI seven-layer model
 be familiar with the TCP/IP protocol suite and how the functions of the layers
compare to those of the OSI model
 understand how the TCP/IP protocol implements data communication between
host computers connected to the internet.

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 Key terms

1. Key terms

Word/phrase Meaning
Internet A protocol that specifies the size of the packets that a message is broken down
Protocol (IP) into, and the address of the recipient device
IPv4 A method of addressing that uses 32-bit numbers to specify internet/network
addresses
IPv6 A method of addressing that uses 128-bit numbers to specify internet/network
addresses
layer A division of the OSI and TCP/IP models that contains a protocol that
implements a specific aspect of communication
OSI model A model that defines standards for communication between any two devices
and across any network
protocol A set of rules governing communication between computers
Transmission A protocol in the TCP/IP suite that handles the transfer of data from one
Control computer to another
Protocol (TCP)
TCP/IP Layer A model that defines standards for communication over the internet
Model
TCP/IP suite A collection of protocols including IP, TCP and UDP that handles
communication between two computers across the internet
User Datagram A protocol in the TCP/IP suite that broadcasts data across a network
Protocol (UDP)

Topic support guide 9608 Topic 3.2.1 Protocols 3

Theory

2. Theory

2.1 What is a protocol?

Modern computers are designed with communication in mind. At a basic level, computers may
need to communicate with peripherals such as a printer, or to send messages to other computers,
which may be connected across a local area network (such as in a business, or a school), a mobile
phone cellular network, or the internet.

Before one computer can communicate with another, there must be a set of agreed rules in place
that manage how the communication is to take place. These rules are known collectively as a
protocol.

To illustrate the need for rules when two or more objects communicate, we will look at some rules
used when humans talk to each other. For example, we:

 use sound to send messages

 use a common language that we both understand
 listen when the other person is talking, so we can hear them speak
 speak at a rate that allows us to clearly transmit words and receive them
 have ways of checking that the other person has heard what we have said.

Without such rules, communication becomes difficult, or even impossible.

Similarly to human communication, computers use rules, and these form the protocols that are
used for computer communication. Protocols need to specify several aspects of communication,
for example:

 the communication medium to be used, such as wired or wireless

 the transmission type, such as duplex or simplex
 whether the handshake is hardware or software in nature
 the method of error checking to be used
 the bit rate
 the character set that will be used.

The protocols allow messages to be transmitted in a structured, specific manner, so that the
receiving device is able to process the data sent from the sending device. Protocols therefore
make sure that communication between any two devices is successful. Different communication
protocols exist to specify rules for different types of communication, for example:

 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – handles transmission of data to and from a website
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) – handles email transmission
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – handles transmission of files across a network
 TCP/IP – handles communication over the internet.

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 Theory

2.2 Layering and the OSI model

Many types of computer – for example, personal computers, laptops, servers, tablets and
smartphones – exist, and they are made by many different manufacturers. As a result, it is
important to have standards in place that designers and equipment manufacturers can follow to
make sure their products can communicate with others’.

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) was introduced to form standards for
computer communication. The model takes the various elements of communication and
conceptually separates them into layers. Each layer can be treated individually, and is independent
from the others. Each layer contains different protocols and handles a different part of the
transmission.

The model specifies seven layers:

Layer Description

Application Layer The interface between applications and the

network. Data/messages from applications are
passed down to / received from the Presentation
Layer.
Presentation Layer Converts the data/message passed down from the
Application Layer into a format usable by the
layers below. Applications use data in different
ways and in different formats. This layer makes
sure all data/messages are standardised into one
format.
Session Layer Controls the communication. Every communication
has a beginning and an end. The Session Layer
initiates the communication and maintains it until it
is terminated.
Transport Layer Orders and assembles data packets for
transmission across the network.
Network Layer Delivers packets. This layer determines the
address of the destination computer and works out
a route for packets to be sent across the network.
Data Link Layer Aids error-free transmission. This layer contains
the error-checking rules and attempts to correct
any transmission errors, as well as determining the
flow rate. Devices may not be able to communicate
at the same speed, so this layer makes sure data
flows at a rate acceptable for both devices.
Physical Layer Handles the physical characteristics of the
hardware that handles the communication, such as
the medium (e.g. wired or wireless) and
transmission type.

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Theory

The layers are numbered and sit one above each other, and can therefore be thought of as a
stack. The output from one layer provides the input for the next. Each layer interacts only with the
layer directly above it and/or below it, and at the bottom of the stack, the Physical Layer transmits
data between the source and destination devices:

7. Application Layer

6. Presentation Layer

5. Session Layer

4. Transport Layer

3. Network Layer

2. Data Link Layer

1. Physical Layer

Dividing protocols into layers provides several benefits:

 Different media (e.g. wired and wireless) are able to use the same protocols in most layers
above the Physical Layer. This makes it easier for a manufacturer to introduce a new
transmission medium.
 Similarly, when testing new equipment, developers only have to test the layers that contain
protocols specific to that equipment (e.g. for a new router, testing would be needed at the
Network Layer, but not the Transport Layer).
 Protocols are sometimes updated, and as the layers are separate and independent, the rules
within them can be changed without affecting the rules contained in the other layers, as long as
the interface to the layers above and below is kept the same.
 Transmission faults are more easily traced, as the type of error is often specific to a layer. A
tester only has to investigate that layer to find the cause of the problem.

2.3 TCP/IP
The development and growth of the internet required specific protocols for internet communication.
Two protocols – Internet Protocol (IP) and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – were developed
as a result. Known collectively as the TCP/IP suite, each protocol is responsible for different
aspects of communication:

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 Theory

 Internet communication uses ‘packet switching’ to handle data transfers from the sending
device to the receiving device – that is, transferred data, such as a downloaded file, is not sent
across the network in a single message, but is broken down into ‘packets’ of smaller pieces of
data. IP specifies the size of the packets that the message is broken down into, and the
address of the receiving device.
 TCP handles the transfer of data between the sending and receiving devices – the ‘end-to-end’
communication. It establishes a connection, then makes sure the packets are sent and
received correctly and in the right order. If a packet does not arrive, TCP re-sends the packet.
TCP differs from some other networking protocols in that it does not broadcast data across a
network – instead it is used for one-to-one communication between two devices. Another
protocol, the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used for broadcasting data. Unlike TCP, UDP
does not guarantee the packet will safely arrive.

2.3.1 IP addresses
The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) uses 32-bit numbers to specify internet addresses. These
addresses are broken down into four numbers in the range 0 to 255, and they are separated by a
dot. For example:

192.168.0.1

Each number is converted to 8 bits:

192 . 168 . 0 . 1

11000000 . 10101000 . 00000000 . 00000001

The four 8-bit numbers form one 32-bit number:

11000000101010000000000000000001

However, using 32 bits limits the total possible number of internet addresses to 4,294,967,296 (232)
addresses (4.3 billion). Although this appears to be a very large number, the huge number of
computer devices currently running in the world means that the number of free addresses is
running out. As a result, a new version of the protocol, IPv6, using 128 bits, is now also in use. This
gives 2128 possible addresses!

2.4 The TCP/IP layer model

The TCP/IP layer model pre-dates the OSI model, but shares similarities. Whereas the OSI model
contains seven layers, the TCP/IP model has just four. The following table shows how the TCP/IP
layers map to the OSI model layers:

TCP/IP model OSI model

Application Layer
Application Layer Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer Transport Layer
Internet Layer Network Layer
Network Interface Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer

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Theory

The TCP/IP layers handle similar communication rules compared to their OSI model equivalents:

Layer Description

Application Layer The interface between applications (e.g. file

transfer, e-mail, web browsing) and the
network. Data/messages from applications
are passed to / received from the Transport
Layer.
Transport Layer Orders and assembles data packets for
transmission across the network. The
Transmission Control Protocol resides in this
layer, as does the User Datagram Protocol.
Internet Layer Exchanges packets between networks,
making all connected individual networks
appear as one big network. The Internet
Protocol is the main protocol in this layer.
Network Interface Layer Defines how to transfers packets between
adjacent nodes on a wide area network and
within a local area network.

2.5 A TCP/IP communication example

If we want to view a webpage on the internet, the TCP/IP suite handles the communication
between our device and the webpage’s webserver:

1. Our browser uses the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to send a request to the Application
Layer.

2. The Application Layer protocol (HTTP) sends the request to the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) in the Transport Layer. The TCP communicates with the Internet Layer to establish a
connection with the webserver across the network(s).

3. The Internet Protocol in the Internet Layer establishes the address of the webserver and
converts the request into packets. The packets are sent to the Network Layer.

4. The Network Layer uses its protocols to send the packets over the internet to the webserver.

5. At the webserver the process is reversed. The packets are sent up through the protocols in the
layers, and re-assembled into the request. The request is passed through the Application Layer
protocols for the webserver to service.

6. In the same manner the webserver uses the protocols in the layers to send the webpage data
back to our device.

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 Online resources

3. Online resources

The following are useful resources for understanding protocols.

The content of websites is dynamic and constantly changing. Schools are strongly advised to check
each site for content and accessibility prior to using it with learners. Cambridge International
Examinations is not responsible for the accuracy or content of information contained in these sites.
The inclusion of a link to an external website should not be understood to be an endorsement of
that website or the site's owners (or their products/services).

3.1 Websites
Scottish Qualifications Authority Higher National Computing website – covers most areas of the
topic, including the OSI model, TCP/IP, IPv4 and IPv6, and includes some useful diagrams:

www.sqa.org.uk/e-learning/HardOSEss04CD/index.htm

An alternative explanation of the OSI model, including example technologies and protocols for
each layer:

http://compnetworking.about.com/od/osimodel/tp/The-Seven-Layers-of-the-OSI-Model-
Illustrated.htm

Explanation, using examples, of the TCP/IP protocol:

www.hardwaresecrets.com/how-tcp-ip-protocol-works-part-1/

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Class and homework activities

4. Class and homework activities

4.1 Quiz
1. A protocol is:

a. a message sent from one computer to another

b. a program used to send messages between computers
c. a set of rules governing communication between computers

2. The OSI Model was developed to:

a. allow communication between two devices

b. define standards for communication
c. allow communication over the internet

3. An advantage of layering is:

a. transmission faults are easier to trace

b. computers can communicate without error
c. the transmission medium can be specified

4. The purpose of the Transmission Control Protocol is to:

a. allow packets to be sent over a network

b. allow packets to be sent over the internet
c. specify packet sizes and allocate packet numbers

5. The purpose of the Internet Protocol is to:

a. determine the address of the recipient computer

b. allow packets to be sent over the internet
c. specify the transmission medium

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 Class and homework activities

4.2 Homework questions

1. Explain how protocols allow communication between computers

2. Describe three advantages of layering

3. Explain the purpose of the TCP and IP protocols

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