1.

Explain the law of electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.

First Law. It states :Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always
induced in it.
Or Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.
Second Law. It states : The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux-

linkages.
Lenz’s law:
The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that it tends to set up a current opposing the motion
or the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f.
An alternative method to Lenz’s law of determining relative directions is given by Fleming’s Right-
hand rule (the Generator rule).
2. State Fleming's left and right hand rule

Fleming’s Right-hand rule:

Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand be extended such that they are all at
right angles to each other. If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb
points in the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the second finger
will point in the direction of the induced e.m.f.The direction of the force exerted on a conductor can
be pre-determined by using Fleming’s left-hand rule (often called the motor rule).

Fleming’s left-hand rule:

Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the left hand be extended such that they are all at
right-angles to each other. If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the
second finger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the
motion of the conductor.

3. Write the principle of DC generator

The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically (or motionally)
induced e.m.f. ,whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in it
according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the
conductor circuit is closed.

4. Write the principle of Dc motor

An Electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Its action
is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and whose
magnitude is given by F = BIlNewton.
5. Explain the construction and operation principle of a DC generator

Working
Imagine the coil to be rotating in clock-wise direction (Fig. 26.2). As the coil assumes successive
positions in the field, the flux linked with it changes. Hence, an e.m.f. is induced in it which is
Cut-away view of dc generator proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages (e =
NdØ/dt). When the plane of the coil is at right angles to lines of flux i.e. when it is in position, 1,
then flux linked with the coil is maximum but rateof change of flux linkages is minimum.
It is so because in this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut or shear the flux, rather they
slide along them i.e. they move parallel to them. Hence, there is no induced e.m.f. in the coil. Let
ustake this no-e.m.f. or vertical position of the coil as the starting position. The angle of rotation
ortime will be measured from this position.
As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence
induced e.m.f. in it) increases, till position 3 is reached where = 90º. Here, the coil plane is
horizontal i.e. parallel to the lines of flux. As seen, the flux linked with the coil is minimum but
rate of change of flux linkages is maximum. Hence, maximum e.m.f. is induced in the coil when
in this position (Fig. 26.3). In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 90º to 180º, the flux linked
with the coil gradually increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence,
 theinduced e.m.f. decreases gradually till in position 5 of the coil, it is reduced to zero value.
So, we find that in the first half revolution of the coil, no (or minimum) e.m.f. is induced in it when in
position 1, maximum when in position 3 and no e.m.f. when in position 5. The direction of this induced
e.m.f. can be found by applying Fleming’s Right-hand rule which gives its direction from A to B and C to
D. Hence, the direction of current flow is ABMLCD (Fig. 26.1). The current through the load resistance R
flows from M to L during the first half revolution of the coil. In the next half revolution i.e. from 180º to
360º, the variations in the magnitude of e.m.f. are similar to those in the first half revolution. Its value is
maximum when coil is in position 7 and minimum when in position 1. But it will be found that the
direction of the induced current is from D to C and B to A as shown in Fig. 26.1 (b). Hence, the path of
current flow is along DCLMBA which is just the reverse of the previous direction of flow. Therefore, we

find that the current which we obtain from such a simple generator reverses its direction after every half
revolution. Such a current undergoing periodic reversals is known as alternating current. It is, obviously,
different from a direct current which continuously flows in one and the same direction. It should be noted
that alternating current not only reverses its direction, it does not even keep its magnitude constant while
flowing in any one direction. The two half-cycles may be called positive and negative half-cycles
respectively (Fig. 26.3). For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the slip-
rings are replaced by split-rings (Fig. 26.4). The split-rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is
cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica or some other insulating
material (Fig. 26.5). result that brush No. 1 comes in touch with the segment which is positive i.e.
segment ‘b’ in this case. Hence, current in the load resistance again flows from M to L. The waveform of
the current through the external circuit is as shown in Fig. 26.7. This current is unidirectional but not
continuouslike pure direct current. It should be noted that the position of brushes is so arranged that the
change over of segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ from one brush to the other takes place when the plane of the rotating
coil is at right angles to the plane of the lines of flux. It is so because in that position, the induced e.m.f. in
the coil is zero.Another important point worth remembering is that even now the current induced in the
coil sides is alternating as before. It is only due to the rectifying action of the split-rings (also called
commutator) that it becomes unidirectional in the external circuit. Hence, it should be clearly
understoodthat even in the armature of a d.c. generator, the induced voltage is alternating.
 6. Explain the construction and operation principle of a single phase transformer
Transformer Construction

The simple elements of a transformer consist of two

coils having mutual inductance and a laminated steel
core. The
two coils are insulated from each other and the steel
core. Other necessary parts are :some suitable
container for assembled core and windings ; a
suitable medium for insulating the core and its
windings from its container ; suitable bushings (either
of porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor-type) for
insulating and bringing out the terminals of windings
from the tank. In all types oftransformers, the core is
constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations
assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path
with a minimum of air-gap included. The steel used is
of high silicon content, sometimes heat
treated to produce a high permeability and a low
hysteresis loss at theusual operating flux densities.
The eddy current loss is minimizedby laminating the
core, the laminations being insulated from each other
by a light coat of core-plate varnish or by an oxide
layer on the surface. The thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm for a frequency of 50 Hz to 0.5
mm for a frequency of 25 Hz. The core laminations (in the form of strips) are joined as shown in Fig.
32.2. It is seen that the joints in the alternate layers are staggered in order to avoid the presence of narrow
gaps right through the cross-section of the core. Such staggered joints are said to be ‘imbricated’.
Constructionally, the transformers are of two general types, distinguished from each other merely by the
manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated core. The two types are
known as (i) core-type and (ii) shelltype. Another recent development is spiral-core or wound-core type,
thetrade name being spirakoretransformer.In the so-called core type transformers, the windings surround
aconsiderable part of the core whereas in shell-type transformers, the coresurrounds a considerable
portion of the windings

Working Principle of a Transformer

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus

by means of which electric power in one circuit is
transformed into electric power of the same frequency in
another circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit
but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.
The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction
between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux.
In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils
which are electrically separated but magnetically linked
through a path of low reluctance as shown in Fig. 32.1.
The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil
is connected to a source of alternating voltage, an
alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of
which is linked with the other coil in which it produces
mutually-induced e.m.f. (according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction e = MdI/dt). If the
second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely
magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil, in which electric energy is fed from the
a.c. supply mains, is called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called
secondary winding. In brief, a transformer is a device that
1. transfers electric power from one circuit to another
 2. it does so without a change of frequency
3. it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.

7. Explain the construction and operation principle of a single phase induction motor
Single-phase Induction Motor
Constructionally, this motor is, more or less, similar to a polyphase induction motor, except that(i) its
stator is provided with a single-phase winding and (ii) a centrifugal switch is used in some typesof motors,
in order to cut out a winding, used only for starting purposes. It has distributed statorwinding and a
squirrel-cage rotor. When fed from a single-phase supply, its stator winding producesa flux (or field)
which is only alternating i.e. one which alternates along one space axis only. It is nota synchronously
revolving (or rotating) flux, as in the case of a two- or a three-phase stator winding,fed from a 2-or 3-phase
supply. Now, an alternatingor pulsating flux acting on a stationary squirrel-cagerotor cannot produce
rotation (only a revolving fluxcan). That is why a single-phase motor is not selfstarting.However, if the
rotor of such a machine is givenan initial start by hand (or small motor) or otherwise,in either direction,
then immediately a torque arisesand the motor accelerates to its final speed (unlessthe applied torque is too
high).This peculiar behaviour of the motor has beenexplained in two ways :(i) by two -field or double field
revolving theory and (ii) by cross-field theory.

Working
As

discussed above, a single-phase induction motor is not self-starting. To overcome this drawback and make
the motor self-starting, it is temporarily converted into a two-phase motor during starting period. For this
purpose, the stator of a single-phase motor is provided with an extra winding, known as starting (or
auxiliary) winding, in addition to the mainor running winding. The two windings are spaced 90º
electrically apart and are connected in parallelacross the single-phase supply as shown in Fig. 36.4. It is
so arranged that the phase-difference between the currents in the two stator windings is very large (ideal
value being 90º). Hence, the motor behaves like a twophasemotor. These two currents produce a
revolving flux and hence make the motor self-starting. There are many methods by which the necessary
phase-difference between the two currents can be created. (i) In split-phase machine, shown in Fig. 36.5
(a), the main winding has low resistance but high reactance whereas the starting winding has a high
resistance, but low reactance. The resistance of the starting winding may be increased either by
connecting a high resistance R in series with it or by choosing a high-resistance fine copper wire for
winding purposes. Hence, as shown in Fig. 36.5 (b), the current Isdrawn by the starting winding lags
behind the applied voltage V by a small angle whereas current Imtaken by the main winding lags behind V
by a very large angle. Phase angle between Isand Imis made as large as possible because the starting
torque of a split-phase motor is proportional to sin α. A centrifugal switch S is connected in series with
the starting winding andis located inside the motor. Its function is to automatically disconnect the starting
winding from the supply when the motor has reached 70 to 80 per cent of its full-load speed. In the case
of split-phase motors that are hermetically sealed in refrigeration units, instead of internally-mounted
centrifugal switch, an electromagnetic type of relay is used. As shown in Fig. 36.6, the relay coil is
connected in series with main winding and the pair of contacts which are normally open, is included in
the starting winding.During starting period, when Imis large, relay contacts close thereby allowing Isto
flow and the motor starts as usual. After motor speeds up to 75 per cent of full-load speed, Imdrops to a
value that is lowenough to cause the contacts to open. A typical torque/speed characteristic of such a
motor is shown in Fig. 36.7. As seen, the starting torque is 150 to 200 per cent of the full-load torque with
a starting current of 6 to 8 times the full-load current. These motors are often used in preference to the
costlier capacitor-start motors. Typical applications are : fans and blowers, centrifugal pumps and
separators, washing machines, small machine tools, duplicating machines and domestic refrigerators and
oil burners etc. Commonly available sizes range from 1/20 to 1/3 h.p. (40 to 250 W) with speeds ranging
from 3,450 to 865 r.p.m. As shown in Fig. 36.8, the direction of rotation of such motors can be reversed
by reversing the connections of one of the two stator windings (not both). For this purpose, the four leads
are brought outside the frame. As seen from Fig. 36.9, the connections of the starting winding have been
reversed. The speed regulation of standard split-phase motors is nearly the same as of the 3-phase motors.
Their speed varies about 2 to 5% between no load and full-load. For this reason such motors are usually
regarded as practically constant-speed motors.
8. Draw the layout of hydro and thermal power plant