Cell biology

Cell Cycle • Repeating cycle of growth and division • Interphase—takes up ~ 80% of cell’s life;
3 phases.

• G1—cell is rapidly growing and carrying out routine functions (longest)

• S—synthesis phase when DNA replicates from a single chromatid into a full chromosome.

• G2—organelles replicate and chemicals needed for mitosis are produced and sent to proper
locations within the cell

Cell Division and Mitosis

• When a cell becomes too large to function properly due to surface area-to-volume ratio it will
be stimulated to divide • Prokaryotic cells (bacteria) undergo binary fission: asexual reproduction
that produces identical daughter cells • Can occur every 20 minutes!! • First the single circular
strand of DNA replicates, then the cell divides into 2 cells that are identical in every way—think
“cloning”!

Eukaryotic Mitosis and Cell Division

• Due to all the organelles in eukaryotes, process more complex • Mitosis—nuclear division—
nucleus divides into 2 identical nuclei; made of 4 phases • Replaces old cells in an organism •
Replaces damaged cells • Remembered by the acronym: PMAT • Occurs only in somatic cells—
gametes are a whole another process!

P = Prophase • Chromosomes begin to condense into fuzzy X’s and are visible under a light
microscope • Nuclear membrane starts to dissolve • Centrioles start to move apart to opposite
sides of cell • Spindle fibers (protein microtubules) form between centrioles—these fibers help
pull the chromosomes apart later • Plants do not have centrioles, but they do have spindle fibers

M = Metaphase • Second set of spindle fibers extend out from each chromosome’s
centromere—2, one in each centriole direction • Grow until they reach the first set of spindle
fibers • Spindle fibers line the chromosomes up at the center (equator) of the cell
A= Anaphase • Centromeres divide and the 2 chromatids separate • Spindle fibers shorten and
the chromatids move toward opposite sides of the cell • Looks like centrioles are reeling them in
as if fishing!

T = Telophase • Chromatids undergo name change and are now called chromosomes again •
Chromosomes start to uncoil at opposite sides of cell • New nuclear membranes form around
them • Spindle fibers break and dissolve

Cytokinesis • Cell then starts to divide: cytoplasm is split into 2 new cells • In animals a
cleavage furrow forms between the nuclei—cytoplasm is pinched in half • In plants vesicles
(created by Golgi bodies) fuse at center of the cell and form a cell plate • New cell wall is created
on either side of the plate • In both plants and animals, the 2 new cells each have their own
organelles (formed during G2).

MEIOSIS

2. Organisms that reproduce Sexually aremade up of two different types of cells.

1. Somatic Cells are “body” cells and contain the normal number of chromosomes ….called the
“Diploid” number (the symbol is 2n). Examples would be … skin cells, brain cells, etc.2.
Gametes are the “sex” cells and contain only ½ the normal number of chromosomes…. called
the “Haploid” number (the symbol is n)….. Sperm cells and ova are gametes. n = number of
chromosomes in the set… so….2n means 2 chromosomes in the set…. Polyploid cells have more
than two chromosomes per set… example: 3n (3 chromosomes per set)

3. Gametes • The Male Gamete is the Sperm and is produced in the male gonad the Testes.• The
Female Gamete is the Ovum (ova = pl.) and is produced in the female gonad the Ovaries.

4. During Ovulation the ovum is released from the ovary and transported to an area where
fertilization, the joining of the sperm and ovum, can occur……fertilization, in Humans, occurs in
the Fallopian tube. Fertilization results in the formation of the Zygote. (fertilized egg)
fertilizationSperm + Ovum (egg) Zygote

5. Fertilization• The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote. zygote• A zygote is a fertilized
egg sperm n=23 n=23 egg 2n=46 zygote

6. Chromosomes • If an organism has the Diploid number (2n) it has two matching homologues
per set. One of the homologues comes from the mother (and has the mother’s DNA).… the other
homologue comes from the father (and has the father’s DNA).• Most organisms are diploid.
Humans have 23 sets of chromosomes… therefore humans have 46 total chromosomes….. The
diploid number for humans is 46 (46 chromosomes per cell).

7. Homologous Chromosomes• Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are paternal
similar in shape and size. • Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling the same inherited
traits. • Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same position on homologues.• Humans have 23
pairs of homologous chromosomes. 22 pairs of autosomes 1 pair of sex chromosomes

8. Homologous Chromosomes(because a homologous pair consists of 4 chromatids it is called a

“Tetrad”) eye color eye color locus locus hair color hair color locus locus Paternal Maternal

9. Humans have 23 Sets of Homologous ChromosomesEach Homologous set is made up of 2

Homologues.HomologueHomologue

10. Autosomes (The Autosomes code for most of the offspring’s traits)In Humans the
“Autosomes”are sets 1 - 22

11. Sex Chromosomes The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the offspring. ** If the
offspring has two “X” chromosomes it will be a female. ** If the offspring has one “X”
chromosome and one “Y” chromosome it will be a male. In Humans the “Sex Chromosomes”
are the 23rd set XX chromosome - female XY chromosome - male

12. Sex Chromosomes “Sex Chromosomes” …….the 23rd set This person has 2 “X”
chromosomes… and is a female. 23

13. Meiosis is the process by which ”gametes” (sex cells) , with half the number of
chromosomes, are produced.During Meiosis diploid cells are reduced to haploid cells Diploid
(2n) → Haploid (n) If Meiosis did not occur the chromosome number in each new generation
would double…. The offspring would die.

14. Meiosis

Meiosis is Two cell divisions (called meiosis I and meiosis II) II with only one duplication of
chromosomes.

15. Meiosis in males is called spermatogenesis and produces sperm.

Meiosis in females is called oogenesis and produces ova.

16. Spermatogenesis Secondary Spermatocyte n=23 human sex cell spermPrimary

Spermatocyte n=23 n=23 2n=46 Secondary Spermatocyte haploid (n) n=23 diploid (2n) n=23 4
sperm cells are produced from each n=23 primary spermatocyte. meiosis I meiosis II

17. Oogenesis *** The polar bodies die… only one ovum (egg) is produced from each primary
oocyte.

42. Non-disjunction Non-disjunction is one of the Two major occurrences of Meiosis (The other
is Crossing Over)• Non-disjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes, or sister
chromatids, to separate during meiosis.• Non-disjunction results with the production of zygotes
with abnormal chromosome numbers…… remember…. An abnormal chromosome number
(abnormal amount of DNA) is damaging to the offspring.

43. Non-disjunctions usually occur in one of two fashions.• The first is called Monosomy, the
second is called Trisomy. If an organism has Trisomy 18 it has three chromosomes in the 18th
set, Trisomy 21…. Three chromosomes in the 21st set. If an organism has Monosomy 23 it has
only one chromosome in the 23rd set.

44. Common Non-disjunction Disorders• Down’s Syndrome – Trisomy 21• Turner’s Syndrome
– Monosomy 23 (X)• Kleinfelter’s Syndrome – Trisomy 23 (XXY)• Edward’s Syndrome –
Trisomy 18

.47. Karyotype (picture of an individual’s chromosomes) One of the ways to analyze the
amniocentesis is to make a Karyotype What genetic disorder does this karyotype show?Trisomy
21….Down’s Syndrome

Phases of Meiosis I
 Meiosis I: the reduction division -- diploid mother cell produces 2 haploid cells. 1. Prophase I
i. Leptotene ii. Zygotene iii. Pachytene iv. Diplotene v. Diakinesis 2. Metaphase I 3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I 13

Prophase I
During prophase I, DNA is exchanged between homologous chromosomes in a process called
homologous recombination. This often results in chromosomal crossover. The paired and
replicated chromosomes are called bivalents or tetrads. The process of pairing the homologous
chromosomes is called synopsis. At this stage, non-sister chromatids may cross-over at points
called chiasmata (plural; singular chiasma). 14

Leptotene
The first stage of prophase I is the Leptotene stage Leptotene also known as Leptonema
from Greek words meaning thin threads During this stage, individual chromosomes begin to
condense into long strands within the nucleus However the two sister chromatids are still so
tightly bound that they are indistinguishable from one another 15

Zygotene
The zygotene stage, also known as zygonema, from Greek words meaning "paired threads”
Zygotene, occurs as the chromosomes approximately line up with each other into homologous
chromosomes. The combined homologous chromosomes are said to be bivalent 16

Pachytene
In pachynema, the homologous chromosomes become much more closely associated. This
process is known as synapses The synapsed homologous pair of chromosomes is called a
tetrad, because it consists of four chromatids It can't be observed until the next stage, but the
synapsed chromosomes may undergo crossing over in pachynema The chromosomes continue
to condense 17

Diplotene
During the diplotene stage, also known as diplonema, from Greek words meaning "two
threads," the homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little The
chromosomes themselves uncoil a bit, allowing some transcription of DNA 18

Diakinesis
Chromosomes condense further during the diakinesis stage, from Greek words meaning
"moving through." This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are
actually visible. In this stage, the homologous chromosomes separate further, and the
chiasmata terminalize . Making chiasmata clearly visible

Crossing over
During prophase I of meiosis, a part of chromatid of one chromosome goes over to a
chromatid of the other chromosome and vice versa. This interchange of the parts of the
chromatids of a pair of homologous chromosomes is known as crossing over crossing over is a
process by which two chromosomes of a homologous pair exchange equal segments with each
other Crossing over occurs in the first division of meiosis 21

Homologous chromosomes
in a tetrad cross over each other Pieces of chromosomes or genes are exchanged Produces
Genetic recombination in the offspring

Importance of crossing over Crossing over takes place between the nonsister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes Crossing over is one of the most important events in meiosis
because it allows variation in the produced offspring a. produces new individuals having new
combinations of traits. b. Helped in establishing the concept of linear arrangement of genes. c.
Helps in the mapping of chromosomes. d. Selection of useful recombination.

Mutations powerpoint

Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA May occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed to
offspring).

May occur in gametes (eggs & sperm) and be passed to offspring

Mutations happen regularly. Almost all mutations are neutral Chemicals & UV radiation
cause mutations Many mutations are repaired by enzymes

Some type of skin cancers and leukemia result from somatic mutations Some mutations
may improve an organism’s survival (beneficial)

SPONTANEOUS MUTATION

INDUCED MUTATION

SPONTANEOUS MUTATION they are mainly caused during dna replication or by

incorporation of incorrect nucleotide in the growing dna chain . They occur naturally by
changes in DNA sequence during replication.
 Induced mutation are caused by the changes in DNA brought about by some
environmental factor called mutagens. E.g.- UV light,x-rays,gamma rays etc…,

May Involve: › Changing the structure of a chromosome › The loss or gain of part of a
chromosome

. Five types exist:

› Deletion

› Inversion

› Translocation

› Nondisjunction

› Duplication

Deletion:
Due to breakage A piece of a chromosome is lost.

Inversion:

Chromosome segment breaks off Segment flips around backwards Segment reattaches.

Dupllication
. Occurs when a gene sequence is repeated.

Translocation
. Involves two chromosomes that aren’t homologous Partof one chromosome is transferred
to another chromosomes.

Non disjunction:
13. Failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis Causes gamete to have too many or
too few chromosomes Disorders: Klinefelter’s Syndrome – XXY chromosomes › Down
Syndrome – three 21st chromosomes › Turner Syndrome – single X chromosome.

Gene mutation:
Change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene May only involve a single nucleotide May be
due to copying errors, chemicals, viruses, etc.

. Include: › Point Mutations › Substitutions › Insertions › Deletions › Frameshift

Point mutation
Change of a single nucleotide Includesthe deletion, insertion, or substitution of ONE
nucleotide in a gene

Sickle Cell disease is the result of one nucleotide substitution Occurs in the hemoglobin
gene.

Frame shift mutation:

Inserting or deleting one or more nucleotides Changes the “reading frame” like changing a
sentence Proteins built incorrectly

. Original: The fat cat ate the wee rat. Frame Shift (“a” added): › The fat caa tet hew eer at.

Morphological mutation
This type of mutations generate a visible morphological alterations. E.g-shape,colour,&size.

Lethal mutation
They are fatal in nature leading to the death of individuals .

Conditional mutations are normal under one condition (permissive), but abnormal under
another (restrictive). These are extremely useful for studying processes such as development
and DNA replication.

Biochemical mutation
These mutations cause loss or of some biochemical or nutritional function in the cell.