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FLUID DYNAMICS
Submitted by
Iqra Ashraf
K6F17ASPM0007

In the partial fulfillment for the degree of

ADS (Double Math, Physics)

FACULTY OF SCIENCES
Prof. Arshad Saeed

UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL PUNJAB

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DECLARATION

I am Iqra Ashraf. Registration# K6F17ASPM0007 was held on at faculty of

science, university of central Punjab. The supervisory and examination gave
satisfactory remarks on the project and viva and were accepted for the award of the
degree of ADS (double math’s and physics).

……………. ……………
Supervisor principle
Faculty of sciences faculty of sciences,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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First, praises and thanks to the God, the Almighty, for His showers of blessings
throughout my research work to complete the research successfully. I would like to
express my special thanks gratitude to our physics professor Arshad saeed, who
give us the opportunity to make this project on the topic fluid dynamics which is
helpful me in doing a lot of research and I come to know about a new thing so I’m
very thankful to them.

Secondly I would like to thank my parents and friends who helped me in making
this project with a limited frame of time. Finally, my thanks go to all the people
who have supported me to complete the research work directly or indirectly.
Finally, my thanks go to all the people who have supported me to complete the
research work directly or indirectly

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ABSTRACT:-
This project will be suitable for all those readers who wish to learn the basic
concepts of fluid dynamic. After reading this project, I hope you will be able to
learn the importance of fluid dynamics. The ultimate goal of fluid dynamics is to
understand the physical events that occur in the flow of fluids around and within
designated objects. These events are related to the action and interaction of
phenomena such as , Steady and unsteady flows, Flow dimensionality, Uniform
and non-uniform flows, Rotational and irrotational flows, Viscous and inviscous
flows, Incompressible and compressible flows, Laminar and turbulent flows, line
of low, and streamline flow.. In the field of aerodynamics, all of these phenomena
are governed by the compressible Navier-Stokes equations. Since there is no
analytical solution, therefore, the idea of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
comes to mind where the flow equation being discretized and solved with
appropriate simplification. For fluids which are sufficiently dense to be a
continuum, do not contain ionized species, and have flow velocities small in
relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for Newtonian fluids are the
Navier–Stokes equations, which is a non-linear set of differential equations that
describes the flow of a fluid whose stress depends linearly on flow velocity
gradients and pressure. The simplified equations do not have a general closed-form
solution, so they are primarily of use in Computational Fluid Dynamics. The
equations can be simplified in a number of ways, all of which make them easier to
solve. In some cases, further simplification is allowed to appropriate fluid
dynamics problems to be solved in closed form.

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Table of content
Chapter# 1
INTRODUCTION ...................................2

Chapter #2
LITERATURE REVIEW. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .3

Chapter# 3
METHODOLOGY ………………………………………..4
3.1 Fluid ………………………………………………………………

3.1.2 Importance of Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3.1.3 Fluid dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.4 Conservation law in fluid dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
3.1.5 Drag force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1.6. Basic Fluid Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.3.1.7 Computational fluid dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.8 Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.9 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Chapter#4
Discussion ……………………………………………………….
4.1 fluid flow ……………………………………………………………
4.1.1 Steady and unsteady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1.2 Steady and unsteady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1.3 Flow dimensionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1.4 Uniform and non-uniform flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1.5 Rotational and irrotational flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1.6 Viscous and inviscous flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1.7 Incompressible and compressible flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.8 Laminar and turbulent flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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4.1.9 Separated and unseparated flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.2 Fluid Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Terminal velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2.2 Equation of continuity…………………………………….
4.3 Bernoulli’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3.1 Derivation of Bernoulli’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.3.2 General expression of Bernoulli’s Equation……..

4.3.3 Calculation of Bernoulli’s Equation………………………………………………

4.3.2 Blood flow …………………………………………………………
Chapter#5
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………..

Chapter #6
REFERENCE ……………………………………………………….

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Chapter #1
INTRODUCTION
Fluid dynamics is "the branch of applied science that is concerned with the movement of liquids
and gases," according to the American Heritage Dictionary. Fluid dynamics is one of two
branches of fluid mechanics, which is the study of fluids and how forces affect them. (The other
branch is fluid statics, which deals with fluids at rest.) Scientists across several fields study fluid
dynamics. Fluid dynamics provides methods for studying the evolution of stars, ocean currents,
weather patterns, plate tectonics and even blood circulation. Some important technological
applications of fluid dynamics include rocket engines, wind turbines, oil pipelines and air
conditioning systems. Fluid dynamics is subdisciplines of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid
flow the science of liquids and gases in motion. Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure
which underlies these practical disciplines that embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws
derived from flow measurement and used to solve practical problems. The solution to a fluid
dynamics problem typically involves calculating various properties of the fluid, such as velocity,
pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space and time. It has several subdisciplines
itself, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics
(the study of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including
calculating forces and movements on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum
through pipelines, predicting evolving weather patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar
space and modeling explosions. Some fluid-dynamical principles are used in traffic engineering
and crowd dynamics. Scientists use both experiments and mathematical models and calculations
to understand fluid dynamics. A wind tunnel is an enclosed space in which air can be made to
flow over a surface, such as the model of an airplane. Smoke is added to the air stream so that the
flow of air can be observed and photographed. The data collected from wind tunnel studies and
other experiments are often very complex. Scientists today use models of fluid behavior and
powerful computers to analyze and interpret those data. Fluid mechanics, especially fluid
dynamics, is an active field of research, typically mathematically complex. Many problems are
partly or wholly unsolved, and are best addressed by numerical methods, typically using
computers. A modern discipline, called computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this
approach. Particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid
flow, also takes advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid flow. Fluid dynamics offers a
systematic structure which underlies these practical disciplines that embraces empirical and semi-
empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to solve practical problems. The
solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves the calculation of various properties of
the fluid, such as flow velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space and
time. Before the twentieth century, hydrodynamics was synonymous with fluid dynamics. This is
still reflected in names of some fluid dynamics topics, like magneto hydrodynamics and
hydrodynamic stability, both of which can also be applied to gases.

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Chapter #2
Literature review
The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece, when
Archimedes investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his famous law known now
as the Archimedes' principle, which was published in his work On Floating Bodies—generally
considered to be the first major work on fluid mechanics. In the Greek school at Alexandria,
which flourished under the auspices of the Ptolemies, attempts were made at the construction of
hydraulic machinery, and about 120 BC the fountain of compression, the siphon, and the forcing-
pump were invented by Ctesibius and Hero. Notwithstanding these inventions of the Alexandrian
school, its attention does not seem to have been directed to the motion of fluids; and the first
attempt to investigate this subject was made by Sextus Julius Frontinus, inspector of the public
fountains at Rome in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. In his work De aquaeductibus urbis Romae
commentarius, he considers the methods which were at that time employed for ascertaining the
quantity of water discharged from ajutages (tubes), and the mode of distributing the waters of an
aqueduct or a fountain. Islamicate scientists, particularly Abu Rayhan Biruni (973–1048) and
later Al-Khazini (fl. 1115–1130), were the first to apply experimental scientific methods to fluid
mechanics, especially in the field of fluid statics, such as for determining specific weights. They
applied the mathematical theories of ratios and infinitesimal techniques, and introduced algebraic
and fine calculation techniques into the field of fluid statics. In the 9th century, Banū Mūsā
brothers' Book of Ingenious Devices described a number of early automatic controls in fluid
mechanics. Two-step level controls for fluids, an early form of discontinuous variable structure
controls, were developed by the Banu Musa brothers. They also described an early feedback
controller for fluids. According to Donald Routledge Hill, the Banu Musa brothers were "masters
in the exploitation of small variations" in hydrostatic pressures and in using conical valves as "in-
line" components in flow systems, "the first known use of conical valves as automatic
controllers. In 1206, Al-Jazari's Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices described
many hydraulic machines. Of particular importance were his water-raising pumps. Benedetto
Castelli, and Evangelista Torricelli, two of the disciples of Galileo, applied the discoveries of
their master to the science of hydrodynamics. In 1628 Castelli published a small work, Della
misura dell' acque correnti, in which he satisfactorily explained several phenomena in the motion
of fluids in rivers and canals; but he committed a great paralogism in supposing the velocity of
the water proportional to the depth of the orifice below the surface of the vessel. In viscid flow
was further analyzed by various mathematicians Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Joseph Louis
Lagrange, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Siméon Denis Poisson) and viscous flow was explored by a
multitude of engineers including Jean Leonard Marie Poiseuille and Gotthilf Hagen. Further
mathematical justification was provided by Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes in
the Navier–Stokes equations, and boundary layers were investigated (Ludwig Prandtl, Theodore
von Kármán), while various scientists such as Osborne Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov, and
Geoffrey Ingram Taylor advanced the understanding of fluid viscosity and turbulence.

Chapter#3
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METHODOLOGY
3.1 Fluid
Definition
A fluid is any substance that flows or deforms under applied shear stress. Fluids comprise a
subset of the states of matter and include liquids, gases, and plasma.
Example
All liquids and gases are fluids (air, water, oil)
3.1.2 Importance of Fluids
We have already emphasized the overall importance of fluids in a general way, and here we will augment
this with a number of specific examples. We somewhat arbitrarily classify these in two main categories: i)
physical and natural science, and ii) technology. Clearly, the second of these is often of more interest to an
engineering student, but in the modern era of emphasis on interdisciplinary studies, the more scientific
and mathematical aspects of fluid phenomena are becoming increasingly important.
3.1.3 Fluid dynamics
Definition

The branch of physics which deals with the study of fluid in motion is called fluid dynamics .

3.1.4 Conservation law in fluid dynamics

Three conservation laws are used to solve fluid dynamics problems, and may be
written in integral or differential form. The conservation laws may be applied to a region of the
flow called a control volume. A control volume is a discrete volume in space through which fluid
is assumed to flow. The integral formulations of the conservation laws are used to describe the
change of mass, momentum, or energy within the control volume.

We use the following Conservation law.

 Law of conservation of mass which gives basis of the equation of conservation.
 Law of conservation of energy which gives basis of Bernoulli’s theorem.

Law of conservation of Energy.

The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be
transformed from one form to another. Hence, the total energy of an isolated system never change For
instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes. If one adds
up all the forms of energy that were released in the explosion, such as the kinetic energy and potential
energy of the pieces, as well as heat and sound, one will get the exact decrease of chemical energy in the
combustion of the dynamite. Classically, conservation of energy was distinct from conservation of mass;
however, special relativity showed that mass is related to energy and vice versa by E = mc2, and science
now takes the view that mass–energy is conserved. The Law of Mass Conservation is fundamental in fluid
mechanics and a basis for the Equation of Continuity and the Bernoulli Equation.

Law of conservation of Mass.

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. The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system
closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over
time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity can neither be added nor be removed. Hence,
the quantity of mass is conserved over time. For example, in chemical reactions, the mass of the
chemical components before the reaction is equal to the mass of the components after the
reaction. Thus, during any chemical reaction and low-energy thermodynamic processes in an
isolated system, the total mass of the reactants, or starting materials, must be equal to the mass of
the products.

3.1.5 Drag force

A drag force is the resistance force caused by the motion of a body through a fluid, such as water or air. A
drag force acts opposite to the direction of the oncoming flow velocity. This is the relative velocity
between the body and the fluid.
The drag force D exerted on a body traveling though a fluid is given by 5 Drag force

Where:

C is the drag coefficient, which can vary along with the speed of the body. But typical values range from
0.4 to 1.0 for different fluids (such as air and water)
ρ is the density of the fluid through which the body is moving
v is the speed of the body relative to the fluid

A is the projected cross-sectional area of the

body perpendicular to the flow direction (that is, perpendicular to v).

4.1.6. Basic Fluid Principles

The fluid concepts that apply in fluid statics also come into play when studying fluid that is in motion.
Pretty much the earliest concept in fluid mechanics is that of buoyancy, discovered in ancient Greece by
Archimedes.

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As fluids flow, the density and pressure of the fluids are also crucial to understanding how they will
interact. The viscosity determines how resistant the liquid is to change, so is also essential in studying the
movement of the liquid. Here are some of the variables that come up in these analyses:
Bulk viscosity: μ
Density: ρ
Kinematic viscosity: ν = μ / ρ

.4.1.7 Computational fluid dynamics

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) provides a qualitative (and sometimes even quantitative)
prediction of fluid flows by means of
• Mathematical modeling (partial differential equations)
• Numerical methods (discretization and solution techniques)
• Software tools (solvers, pre- and post processing utilities)
CFD enables scientists and engineers to perform ‘numerical experiments’
(I.e. computer simulations) in a ‘virtual flow laboratory’

Uses of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

Numerical simulations of fluid flow (will) enable
• architects to design comfortable and safe living environments
• Designers of vehicles to improve the aerodynamic characteristics
• Chemical engineers to maximize the yield from their equipment
• Petroleum engineers to devise optimal oil recovery strategies
• Surgeons to cure arterial diseases (computational hemodynamic)

4.1.8 Fluid Properties

Any characteristic of a system is called property. It may either be intensive (mass
independent) or extensive (that depends on size of system). The state of a system is

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Described by its properties. The number of properties required to fix the state of the
System is given by state postulates. Most common properties of the fluid are:
1- Pressure (p):
It is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. In SI system the unit and
Dimension of pressure can be written as, N/m2 and -1 -2 ML T, respectively.
2. Density:
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in unit volume of the substance. It is
Mass
expressed in three different ways; mass density (P= ¿ , specific weight (ρg) and relative
volume
p
density/specific gravity water (SG= ¿ , the units and dimensions are given as,
p water
For mass density; Dimension: 3 M L− Unit: kg/m3
For specific weight; Dimension: -2 -2 ML T Unit: N/m3
3. Temperature (T):
It is the measure of hotness and coldness of a system. In thermodynamic sense, it is the measure of
internal energy of a system. Many a times, the temperature is expressed in centigrade scale (°C) where the
freezing and boiling point of water is taken as 0°C and 100°C, respectively. In SI system, the temperatures
expressed in terms of absolute value in Kelvin scale (K = °C+ 273).

3.1.9 Viscosity
Definition
The internal friction effect between different layers of flowing Fluid is described internal of
viscosity of the fluid.
Example
When we put our hand of the window of a fast moving car we feel that air exert a considerable force
opposite to our motion. This shows that there is a frictional force in fluid due to the viscosity of the fluids.
Symbol of viscosity
F
The symbol of viscosity is  (= )
6 πrv
Unit of viscosity

The unit of viscosity is kg m−1 s

−1

Dimension of viscosity

Its dimension is [M L−1 T −1 ]

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Chapter#4
DISCUSSION
4.1 fluid flows
Moving fluid is of great importance to study the behavior of the fluid in motion. We consider their flow
through the pipes. When a fluid in motion it flow can be either .

4.1.1. Classifications of Flow Phenomena

The Fluid Flow is classified as, steady and unsteady, compressible and in compressible, viscous and no
viscous, and rotational and irrotational. Some of these characteristics reflect properties of the liquid itself,
and others focus on how the fluid is moving.

4.1.2 Steady and unsteady flows.

Fluid flow can be steady or unsteady, depending on the fluid’s velocity:
• Steady: In steady fluid flow, the velocity of the fluid is constant at any point.
• Unsteady: When the flow is unsteady, the fluid’s velocity can differ between any two points.
For example, suppose you’re sitting by the side of a stream and note that the water flow is not steady: You
see eddies and backwash and all kinds of swirling. Imagine velocity vectors for a hundred points in the
water, and you get a good picture of unsteady flow — the velocity vectors can be pointing all over the
map, although the velocity vectors generally follow the stream’s overall average flow.

Diagram

4.1.3 Flow dimensionality

Term one, two, or three dimensional flows refers to the number of space coordinated required to describe
a flow. It appears that any physical flow is generally three-dimensional. But these are difficult to calculate
and call for as much simplification as possible. This is achieved by ignoring changes to flow in any of the
directions, thus reducing the complexity. It may be possible to reduce a three-dimensional problem to a
two-dimensional one, even a one-dimensional one at times.

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4.1.4 Uniform and non-uniform flows

Uniform flow
Flow is said to be uniform, when the velocity of flow does not change either in magnitude or in direction
at any point in a flowing fluid, for a given time. For example, the flow of liquids under pressure through
long pipelines with a constant diameter is called uniform flow.

Non-uniform flow
Flow is said to be non-uniform, when there is a change in velocity of the flow at different points in a
flowing fluid, for a given time. For example, the flow of liquids under pressure through long pipelines of
varying diameter is referred to as non-uniform flow. All these type of flows can exist independently of
each other.

4.1.5 Rotational and irrotational flows

Fluid flow can be rotational or irrotational. If, as you travel in a closed loop, you add up all the
components of the fluid velocity vectors along your path and the end result is not zero, then the flow is
rotational.
To test whether a flow has a rotational component, you can put a small object in the flow and let the flow
carry it. If the small object spins, the flow is rotational; if the object doesn't spin, the flow is irrotational.

4.1.6 Viscous and inviscous flows

(a) If fluid flow in a tube has negligible resistance, the speed is the same all across the tube.

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4.1.7 Incompressible and compressible flows

Compressible Fluid:
Compressible fluid is defined as the fluids which change their density for even small changes in
temperature or pressure are termed as compressible fluids.
Example of compressible fluid is: Air, Vapors and gases.
Incompressible Fluid:
The fluids are defined as the substances for which the density of every particle remains constant at any
temperature (or) pressure irrespective of the state of stress.
Example of incompressible fluid is: H2O and mercury.

4.1.8 Laminar and turbulent flows

Fluid flow can be laminar then the fluid particles move along well-defined paths or stream line and all the
stream lines are straight and parallel. Thus the particles move in laminas or layers glinding smoothly over
the adjacent layer. This type of flow is also called stream line flow or viscous flow.
Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a Zigzag way. Due to movement of
fluid particles in a Zigzag way, the eddies formation takes place which are responsible for high energy
loss.

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4.1.9 Line of flow.

The path followed by a particle o a fluid is called line of fluid.
Streamline flow.
The streamline or viscous flow of a fluid is a flow for which the velocity at any point is constant or varies
in a smoothly. In this case the velocity can be represented by streamlines - lines drawn in the fluid so that
the fluid flows along the lines, and fluid does not flow across a line. It can be represented by streamlines.

4.2 Fluid Statics

The study of properties of fluid at rests known as fluid statics .
4.2.1 Terminal velocity.
Definition
When the magnitude o drag force become equal to weight of the body the net force acting on
the body is zero. Then will fall with constant velocity is called terminal velocity.

Explanation
Terminal velocity is the highest velocity attainable by an object as it falls through a fluid (air is the most
common example). It occurs when the sum of the drag force (Fd) and the buoyancy is equal to the
downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object
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has zero acceleration. In fluid dynamics, an object is moving at its terminal velocity if its speed is constant
due to the restraining force exerted by the fluid through which it is moving.
As the speed of an object increases, so does the drag force acting on it, which also depends on the
substance it is passing through (for example air or water). At some speed, the drag or force of resistance
will equal the gravitational pull on the object (buoyancy is considered below). At this point the object
ceases to accelerate and continues falling at a constant speed called the terminal velocity (also called
settling velocity).

Derivation for terminal velocity

Using mathematical terms, defining down to be positive, the net force acting on an object falling
1
near the surface of Earth is (according to the drag equation): Fnet = ma =mg - P V2 A
2
Cd

1
Fnet = ma =mg - P V 2 A Cd
2
With v (t) the velocity of the object as a function of time t.
At equilibrium, the net force is zero (Fnet = 0) and the velocity becomes the terminal velocity
Limit→∞ v (t) = Vt:
1
mg - P V 2 A C d =0
2
Solving for VT yields

Vt =
√ 2 mg
pA C d
Where
V t Represents terminal velocity,
m is the mass of the falling object,

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g is the acceleration due to gravity,

Cd Is the drag coefficient

P is the density of the fluid through which the object is falling, and
A is the projected area of the object.

4.2.2 Equation of continuity

Definition
For a non vicious and a incompressible fluid in steady flow , the net rate of flow of mass inward across
any close surface is equal to the net rate of flow of mass outward. This is called equation of continuity.

Derivation of Continuity Equation:

Continuity equation represents that the product of cross-sectional area of the pipe and the fluid speed at
any point along the pipe is always constant. This product is equal to the volume flow per second or simply
the flow rate.
To Derive:
R = A v = constant
Where,
R= volume flow rate,
A= flow area, and
v= flow velocity
Derivation:
Consider the following diagram:

Now, consider the fluid flows for a short interval of time in the tube. So, assume that short interval of time
as Δt. In this time, the fluid will cover a distance of Δx1 with a velocity v1 at the lower end of the pipe.

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At this time, the distance covered by the fluid will be

Δx1 = v1Δt
Now, at the lower end of the pipe, the volume of the fluid that will flow into the pipe will be-
V = A1 Δx1 = A1 v1 Δt
It is known that mass (m) = Density (ρ) × Volume (V). So, the mass of the fluid in Δx1 region will be->
Δm1= Density × Volume
=> Δm1 = ρ1A1v1Δt ——– (Equation 1)

Now, the mass flux has to be calculated at the lower end. Mass flux is simply defined as the mass of the
fluid per unit time passing through any cross-sectional area. For the lower end with cross-sectional area
A1, mass flux will be
Δm1/Δt = ρ1A1v1 ——– (Equation 2)
Similarly, the mass flux at the upper end will be
Δm2/Δt = ρ2A2v2 ——– (Equation 3)
Here, v2 is the velocity of the fluid through the upper end of the pipe i.e. through Δx2 , inΔttime andA2, is
the cross-sectional area of the upper end.
In this, the density of the fluid between the lower end of the pipe and the upper end of the pipe remains
same with time as the flow is steady. So, the mass flux at the lower end of the pipe is equal to the mass
flux at the upper end of the pipe i.e.
Equation 2 = Equation 3.
Thus,
ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 ——– (Equation 4)
This can be written in a more general form as
ρ A v = constant
With equation proves the law of conservation of mass in fluid dynamics. Also, if the fluid is
incompressible, the density will remain constant for steady flow. So, ρ1 =ρ2.
Thus, Equation 4 can be now written as
A 1 v1 = A 2 v2
This equation can be written in general form as
A v = constant
Now, if R is the volume flow rate, the above equation can be expressed as->
R = A v = constant
This was the derivation of continuity equation.

4.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

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Bernoulli’s principle, also known as Bernoulli’s equation, will apply for fluids in an ideal state. Therefore,
pressure and density are inversely proportional to each other. This means that a fluid with slow speed will
exert more pressure than a fluid which is moving faster.
In this case, fluid refers to not only liquids but gases as well. This principle forms the basis of many
applications. Some very common examples are an aero plane that tries to stay aloft or even the most
common everyday things such as a shower curtain billowing inward. The same phenomenon happens in
the case of the river when there is a change in the width of the river. The speed of the water decreases in
wider regions whereas the speed of water increases in the narrower regions. You will think that the
pressure within the fluid will increase.

4.3.1 Deriving Bernoulli’s Equation

Mechanism of fluid flow is a complex process. However, it is possible to get some important properties
with respect to streamline flows by using the concept of conservation of energy. Let us take an example of
any fluid moving inside a pipe. The pipe has different cross-sectional areas in different parts and is present
in different heights. Refer to the diagram below

..
Bernoulli’s equation is the general equation that describes the pressure difference in two different points
of pipe with respect to velocity changes or change in kinetic energy and height changes or change in
potential energy. The relationship was given by Swiss Physicist and Mathematician “Bernoulli” in the
year 1738.

4.3.2 General Expression of Bernoulli’s Equation

Let us consider two different regions in the above diagram. Let us name the first region as BC and the
second region as DE. Now consider the fluid was previously present in between B and D. However, this
fluid will move in a minute (infinitesimal) interval of time (∆t).
If the speed of fluid at point B is v1 and at point D is v2. Therefore, if the fluid initially at B moves to C
then the distance is v1∆t. However, v1∆t is very small and we can consider it constant across the cross-
section in the region BC.

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Similarly, during the same interval of time ∆t the fluid which was previously present in the point D is now
at E. Thus, the distance covered is v2∆t. Pressures, P1 and P2, will act in the two regions, A1 and A2,
thereby binding the two parts. The entire diagram will look something like the figure given below.
Finding the Work Done
First, we will calculate the work done (W1) on the fluid in the region BC. Work done is
W1 = P1A1 (v1∆t) = P1∆V
Moreover, if we consider the equation of continuity, the same volume of fluid will pass through BC and
DE. Therefore, work done by the fluid on the right-hand side of the pipe or DE region is
W2 = P2A2 (v2∆t) = P2∆V
Thus, we can consider the work done on the fluid as – P2∆V. Therefore, the total work done on the fluid is
W1 – W2 = (P1 − P2) ∆V
The total work done helps to convert the gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy of the fluid.
Now, consider the fluid density as ρ and the mass passing through the pipe as ∆m in the ∆t interval of
time.
Hence, ∆m = ρA1 v1∆t = ρ∆V

Change in Gravitational Potential and Kinetic Energy

Now, we have to calculate the change in gravitational potential energy ∆U.

Similarly, the change in ∆K or kinetic energy can be written as

4.3.3 Calculation of Bernoulli’s Equation

Applying work-energy theorem in the volume of the fluid, the equation will be

Dividing each term by ∆V, we will obtain

the equation\

Rearranging the equation will yield

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The above equation is the Bernoulli’s equation. However, the 1 and 2 of both the sides of the equation
denotes two different points along the pipe. Thus, the general equation can be written as

Thus, we can state that Bernoulli’s equation state that the Pressure (P), potential energy (ρgh) per unit
volume and the kinetic energy (ρv2/2) per unit volume will remain constant.

4.3.4 Blood flow

 Blood is incompressible fluid.
 Density of blood is nearly equal to that of water.
 Viscosity of blood increase three to five times that of water Due to high concentration of red
blood cells (~50%).

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