 Course Introduction

Time: 86 hours

Free Certificate

 In every career, you must be able to communicate effectively and clearly if you want to be
successful. This course will provide you with a background in the practical, technical writing
skills that are necessary in today's workplace. This course covers internal workplace
communications, external business-to-business and business-to-consumer writing skills,
presentations and how to use visuals effectively, writing clear instructions and process
documents, and using social media effectively.

 Because the goal of this course is to improve your ability to write clear, comprehensible
examples of technical writing, most subunits include short writing activities that will give you
hands-on experience in many different writing tasks. Also, each unit includes a series of
writing self-assessments that will allow you to evaluate your own writing based on specific
criteria, and will provide examples and commentary on how to write successfully. This
practical focus on specific writing skills will help you learn the writing skills you'll need in the
workplace, and by the end of the course you will feel comfortable tackling a wide variety of
workplace communications.

 First, read the course syllabus. Then, enroll in the course by clicking "Enroll me in this
course". Click Unit 1 to read its introduction and learning outcomes. You will then see the
learning materials and instructions on how to use them.

o Course SyllabusPage

o Course Terms of UsePage

 Unit 1: Audience Analysis

Imagine needing to make a phone call, but not knowing what number to dial. Beginning a
communications project without first establishing your audience is a lot like that phone call without a
phone number. If you don’t first know who you are communicating with, you are unable to
determine what information they need and in what format. In this unit, we walk through the steps of
audience analysis to determine who we are writing to, what they know, what they need to know, and
the best ways to reach them.

When we first take on a writing project, we must first consider who we are communicating with. We
should ask ourselves who they are, what they know, and what they need to know to take action.

After we conduct this audience analysis, the next steps in the process apply this analysis to writing
choices. Different audiences require different approaches to word choice, tone, and formatting. We
also use our audience analysis to anticipate issues and any concerns or questions the audience might
have after accessing the communication we have created.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 11 hours.

 Unit 2: Internal Communication: Writing Memos and Emails

Two of the most common forms of technical writing that you will encounter are the memo and the
email. After completing an audience analysis, you must determine which form would be best for
sending the message; memos and emails often rely on smaller amounts of information or requests
for more information. In this unit, we cover the best practices for creating effective memos and
emails.

Once the dominant form of communication in the workplace, memos typically serve as internal
communication within an organization. Memos can update policies and procedures, announce
meetings or organizational changes, or inform the internal audience as needed. Memos must
typically be brief, concise, organized for readability, and addressed to targeted audiences with
specific subject lines.

Emails, which often replace memos for internal communication, can be sent internally or externally.
While this form of business communication must take into account the time constraints most readers
face as a result of high email volume, people use emails to communicate issues both large and small.
Emails must make use of strong subject lines, clear formatting, and concise writing. Email also
presents some ethical challenges as the forwarding and BCC function enables you to easily share
communications with larger audiences quickly and in a way that is documented for the longer term.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 10 hours.

 Unit 3: External Communication: Formal Letters

While memos are used for internal communication and emails for both internal and external
communication, formal letters are mainly used as an external means of communication.
Understanding when a communications context requires the more formal delivery of a physical letter
falls under the initial considerations of the audience analysis and design/formatting stages of the
writing process.

Letters can range from friendly introductions to more formal announcements with accompanying
legal documents. In their more serious capacity, letters seek to create a formal and documented
chain of communication.

Two main formats exist for letters: the block format and the indented format. Both require the
recipient’s and sender’s full names and addresses. They begin with a formal salutation and end with
a complimentary closing. Their formal structure helps to convey authority and credibility.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 11 hours.

 Unit 4: Using Visuals to Convey Information

Words are not the only way to present and share information with an audience. Technical writing
often utilizes visuals to accompany written information and further deliver information to the
audience. This unit leads you through the types of visuals available as well as the best practices for
using them.

Visuals take many forms; they can be as simple as a photograph of a plant specimen or pie chart
breaking down enrollment data or as complex as an embedded video or multi-page, hyperlinked,
organizational chart. Visuals must be carefully selected to support the audience’s understanding of
the topic.
Visuals, however strong they are on their own, must be integrated into the text of the document. The
written word supports the visuals, and the visuals further exemplify the meaning of the text. The two
work in tandem to support the main idea of the document.

This unit will also cover the important tools needed to properly label, title, and document visuals
used in a given communications context.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 14 hours.

 Unit 5: Process Documentation

One of the most common formats of technical writing is the process document. The process
document explains either how to do something or how something was accomplished. This can be
used to teach people or to document a process for the record. These documents vary in level of
formality based on audience, but they all share elements of formatting to keep the communication
organized and effective. This unit takes you through the ways to create process documents.

Formatting is probably the first design concern for a process document. The writer must distinguish
whether or not the audience will have the directions with them as they accomplish the task or if they
must commit the task to memory. Beginning nursing students, for example, are taught the proper
way to wash hands in a roughly 1,500-word document. This document details not just the steps of
hand washing, but also explains why each aspect of the process is critical to overall hand washing
success. This extra detail helps to embed the proper procedure into new nurses’ minds; they will,
after all, be washing their hands countless times during the day without the instructions handy.
Recipes, on the other side of the spectrum, anticipate that the audience will have them close by as
they prepare the food; as a result, these feature lots of white space and step by step formatting.

Process documents must also pay special attention to anticipating potential trouble spots or
questions from the audience. Anticipating these moments enables the writer to save time overall
and increases the chances that the audience can complete the process without difficulty. Note that
in this unit we will work through the writing process to develop complete process documents. We’ll
start with planning before moving to initial drafting, then revising. Complete the assignments in
order and retain your work as one assignment builds on the next.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 14 hours.

 Unit 6: Writing Proposals

Proposals are another common form of technical writing. These reports can either be formal or
informal depending on the context. Some examples of proposal can be simple estimates for home
improvement projects to more complex and formal business plans. This unit covers how to craft
proposals.

Like process documents, proposals also rely on formatting to help them convey professionalism and
appeal to the audience. Appealing to the audience is key given the persuasive nature of proposal
writing. Proposals seek to persuade the audience to take action on a requested item or task.

Like other forms of technical writing, a proposal begins with an audience analysis and moves through
the steps of planning, writing, and revision.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 12 hours.

 Unit 7: Communicating on the Internet

As the Internet rapidly expands, so too does the opportunity for businesses to share information and
reach audiences online. Technical Writers are increasing called upon to craft communications to
reach the broad online audience. The unit explores the ways in which the Internet is used to
communicate and how to apply the foundations of technical writing effectively to reach online
audiences.

Reading from the Internet, and therefore writing for the Internet, presents certain challenges that
the printed word doesn’t. The largest concern is the shortened attention span of Internet-based
readers and the reduction in reading comprehension. Given the scrolling feature and the ease of
clicking away, savvy writers for the Internet tailor their communications with headings, short
paragraphs, clear and engaging visuals, and links for further development.

Additional points to consider when writing for the Internet are how to use social media as a tool for
both communications and marketing. Given how easy it is to share communication online, the
technical writer should be well versed in the social media tools and the common practices for writing
on each of interfaces. For example, what works on a blog post would not work in Tweet. The
technical writer must learn how to translate the same idea for several different types of social media
and in a way that reaches the intended audience.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 14 hours.

 Course Feedback Survey

Please take a few minutes to give us feedback about this course. We appreciate your feedback,
whether you completed the whole course or even just a few resources. Your feedback will help us
make our courses better, and we use your feedback each time we make updates to our courses.

Unit 6: Writing Proposals

Proposals are another common form of technical writing. These reports can either be formal or
informal depending on the context. Some examples of proposal can be simple estimates for home
improvement projects to more complex and formal business plans. This unit covers how to craft
proposals.

Like process documents, proposals also rely on formatting to help them convey professionalism and
appeal to the audience. Appealing to the audience is key given the persuasive nature of proposal
writing. Proposals seek to persuade the audience to take action on a requested item or task.

Like other forms of technical writing, a proposal begins with an audience analysis and moves through
the steps of planning, writing, and revision.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 12 hours.

 Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

 utilize audience analysis to plan, write and revise a proposal; and

 format and organize a written proposal.

 6.1: Planning for a Proposal

his chapter focuses on the proposal—the kind of document that gets you or your organization
approved or hired to do a project.

Be sure to check out the examples.

Some Preliminaries

As you get started, make sure you understand the definition we're using for proposals. Also, if you
are taking a technical writing course, make sure you understand the proposal assignment—not to
write just any proposal but one that, at least in part, proposes to write something.

Real proposals. To begin planning a proposal, remember the basic definition: a proposal is an offer or
bid to do a certain project for someone. Proposals may contain other elements—technical
background, recommendations, results of surveys, information about feasibility, and so on. But what
makes a proposal a proposal is that it asks the audience to approve, fund, or grant permission to do
the proposed project.

If you plan to be a consultant or run your own business, written proposals may be one of your most
important tools for bringing in business. And, if you work for a government agency, nonprofit
organization, or a large corporation, the proposal can be a valuable tool for initiating projects that
benefit the organization or you the employee-proposer (and usually both).

A proposal should contain information that would enable the audience of that proposal to decide
whether to approve the project, to approve or hire you to do the work, or both. To write a successful
proposal, put yourself in the place of your audience—the recipient of the proposal—and think about
what sorts of information that person would need to feel confident having you do the project.

It's easy to get confused about proposals, or at least the type of proposal you'll be writing here.
Imagine that you have a terrific idea for installing some new technology where you work and you
write up a document explaining how it works and why it's so great, showing the benefits, and then
end by urging management to go for it. Is that a proposal? No, at least not in this context. It's more
like a feasibility report, which studies the merits of a project and then recommends for or against it.
Now, all it would take to make this document a proposal would be to add elements that ask
management for approval for you to go ahead with the project. Certainly, some proposals must sell
the projects they offer to do, but in all cases proposals must sell the writer (or the writer's
organization) as the one to do the project.

Types of proposals. Consider the situations in which proposals occur. A company may send out a
public announcement requesting proposals for a specific project. This public announcement—called
a request for proposals (RFP)—could be issued through newspapers, trade journals, Chamber of
Commerce channels, or individual letters. Firms or individuals interested in the project would then
write proposals in which they summarize their qualifications, project schedules and costs, and
discuss their approach to the project. The recipient of all these proposals would then evaluate them,
select the best candidate, and then work up a contract.

But proposals come about much less formally. Imagine that you are interested in doing a project at
work (for example, investigating the merits of bringing in some new technology to increase
productivity). Imagine that you visited with your supervisor and tried to convince her of this. She
might respond by saying, "Write me a proposal and I'll present it to upper management." As you can
see from these examples, proposals can be divided into several categories:

 Internal, external. A proposal to someone within your organization (a business, a

government agency, etc.) is an internalproposal. With internal proposals, you may not have
to include certain sections (such as qualifications) or as much information in them.
An externalproposal is one written from one separate, independent organization or
individual to another such entity. The typical example is the independent consultant
proposing to do a project for another firm.
  Solicited, unsolicited. A solicited proposal is one in which the ecipient has requested the
proposal. Typically, a company will send out requests for proposals (RFPs) through the mail
or publish them in some news source. But proposals can be solicited on a very local level: for
example, you could be explaining to your boss what a great thing it would be to install a new
technology in the office; your boss might get interested and ask you to write up a proposal
that offered to do a formal study of the idea. Unsolicited proposals are those in which the
recipient has not requested proposals. With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes must
convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before you can begin the main part of
the proposal.

Other options for the proposal assignment. It may be that you cannot force your report-project plans
into the proposal context. Another option is to write an academic proposal—you address it to your
instructor and make no pretence of realism. See an example of this type of proposal.

Typical Scenarios for the Proposal

It gets a bit tricky dreaming up a good technical report project and then a proposal project that
proposes at least in part to write that report. Here are some ideas:

 Imagine that a nonprofit organization focused on a particular issue wants an expert

consultant to write a handbook or guide for its membership. This document will present
information on the issue in a way that the members can understand.

 Imagine that a company has some sort of problem or wants to make some sort of
improvement. It sends out a request for proposals; you receive one and respond with a
proposal. You offer to come in, investigate, interview, make recommendations—and present
it all in the form of a report.

 Some organization wants a seminar in your expertise. You write a proposal to give the
seminar—included in the package deal is a guide or handbook that the people attending the
seminar will receive.

 You want to write a business prospectus for the kind of business you intend to start up.
Imagine that you want a top-quality prospectus and don't have the time or expertise to
prepare one; therefore, you send out request for proposals to professional consultants. You
change hats and pretend you are Business Startup Consultants, Inc., and send your other self
a proposal to do the job. Your proposal accepted, you (as Business Startup Consultants, Inc.)
write the prospectus.

 Some agency has just started using a fancy desktop-publishing system, but the
documentation is giving people fits. You receive a request for proposals from this agency to
write some sort of simplified guide or startup guide.

Consider using this planning guide for report-oriented proposals.

Common Sections in Proposals

The following is a review of the sections you'll commonly find in proposals. Don't assume that each
one of them has to be in the actual proposal you write, nor that they have to be in the order they are
presented here—plus you may discover that other kinds of information not mentioned here must be
included in your particular proposal.
As you read the following on common sections in proposals, check out the example proposals listed
at the start of this chapter. Not all of the sections discussed in the following will show up in the
examples, but most will.

Introduction. Plan the introduction to your proposal carefully. Make sure it does all of the following
things (but not necessarily in this order) that apply to your particular proposal:

 Indicate that the document to follow is a proposal.

 Refer to some previous contact with the recipient of the proposal or to your source of
information about the project.

 Find one brief motivating statement that will encourage the recipient to read on and to
consider doing the project (if it's an unsolicited or competitive proposal) and you to do the
project.

 Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.

Take a look at the introductions in the first two example proposals listed at the beginning of this
chapter, and try to identify these elements.

Background on the problem, opportunity, or situation. Often occurring just after the introduction,
the background section discusses what has brought about the need for the project—what problem,
what opportunity there is for improving things, what the basic situation is. For example,
management of a chain of daycare centers may need to ensure that all employees know CPR (maybe
new state guidelines have been enacted about CPR certification). An owner of pine timber land in
east Texas may want to get the land productive of saleable timber without destroying the ecology.

It's true that the audience of the proposal may know the problem very well, in which case this
section might not be needed. Writing the background section still might be useful, however, in
demonstrating your particular view of the problem. And, if the the proposal is unsolicited, a
background section is almost a requirement—you will probably need to convince the audience that
the problem or opportunity exists and that it should be addressed.

Benefits and feasibility of the proposed project. Most proposals discuss the advantages or benefits of
doing the proposed project. This acts as an argument in favor of approving the project. Also, some
proposals discuss the likelihood of the project's success. In the forestry proposal, the proposer
recommends that the landowner make an investment; at the end of the proposal, he explores the
question of the potential return on that investment. In the unsolicited proposal, this section is
particularly important—you are trying to "sell" the audience on the project.
Schematic view of proposals
Schematic view of proposals—continued

Description of the proposed work (results of the project). Most proposals must describe the finished
product of the proposed project. In a technical writing course, that means describing the written
document you propose to write, its audience and purpose; providing an outline; and discussing such
things as its length, graphics, binding, and so forth. In the scenario you define, there may be other
work such as conducting training seminars or providing an ongoing service. Add that too.

Method, procedure, theory. In some proposals, you'll want to explain how you'll go about doing the
proposed work. This acts as an additional persuasive element; it shows the audience you have a
sound, well-thought-out approach to the project. Also, it serves as the other form of background
some proposals need. Remember that the background section (the one discussed above) focused on
the problem or need that brings about the proposal. However, in this section, you discuss the
technical background relating to the procedures or technology you plan to use in the proposed work.
For example, in the forestry proposal, the writer gives a bit of background on how timber
management is done. Once again, this gives you the proposal writer a chance to show that you know
what you are talking about and to build confidence in the audience.

Schedule. Most proposals contain a section that shows not only the projected completion date but
also key milestones for the project. If you are doing a large project spreading over many months, the
timeline would also show dates on which you would deliver progress reports. And if you can't cite
specific dates, cite amounts of time for each phase of the project.

Qualifications. Most proposals contain a summary of the proposing individual's or organization's

qualifications to do the proposed work. It's like a mini-resume contained in the proposal. The
proposal audience uses it to decide whether you are suited for the project. Therefore, this section
lists work experience, similar projects, references, training, and education that shows familiarity with
the project.
Costs, resources required. Most proposals also contain a section detailing the costs of the project,
whether internal or external. With external projects, you may need to list your hourly rates,
projected hours, costs of equipment and supplies, and so forth, and then calculate the total cost of
the complete project. Internal projects of course are not free, but you should still list the project
costs: for example, hours you will need to complete the project, equipment and supplies you'll be
using, assistance from other people in the organization, and so on.

Conclusions. The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring readers back to a focus on
the positive aspects of the project (you've just showed them the costs). In the final section, you can
end by urging them to get in touch to work out the details of the project, to remind them of the
benefits of doing the project, and maybe to put in one last plug for you or your organization as the
right choice for the project.

Special project-specific sections. Remember that the preceding sections are typical or common in
written proposals, not absolute requirements. Always ask yourself what else might my audience
need to understand the project, the need for it, the benefits arising from it, my role in it, my
qualifications to it. What else might my readers need to be convinced to allow me to do the project?
What else do they need to see in order to approve the project and to approve me to do the project?

Organization of Proposals

As for the organization of the content of a proposal, remember that it is essentially a sales, or
promotional kind of thing. Here are the basic steps it goes through:

1. You introduce the proposal, telling the readers its purpose and contents.

2. You present the background—the problem, opportunity, or situation that brings about the
proposed project. Get the reader concerned about the problem, excited about the
opportunity, or interested in the situation.

3. State what you propose to do about the problem, how you plan to help the readers take
advantage of the opportunity, how you intend to help them with the situation.

4. Discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project, the advantages that come from
approving it.

5. Describe exactly what the completed project would consist of, what it would look like, how it
would work—describe the results of the project.

6. Discuss the method and theory or approach behind that method—enable readers to
understand how you'll go about the proposed work.

7. Provide a schedule, including major milestones or checkpoints in the project.

8. Briefly list your qualifications for the project; provide a mini-resume of the background you
have that makes you right for the project.

9. Now (and only now), list the costs of the project, the resources you'll need to do the project.

10. Conclude with a review of the benefits of doing the project (in case the shock from the costs
section was too much), and urge the audience to get in touch or to accept the proposal.

Notice the overall logic of the movement through these section: you get them concerned about a
problem or interested in an opportunity, then you get them excited about how you'll fix the problem
or do the project, then you show them what good qualifications you have—thenhit them with the
costs, but then come right back to the good points about the project.

Format of Proposals

You have the following options for the format and packaging of your proposal. It does not matter
which you use as long as you use the memorandum format for internal proposals and the business-
letter format for external proposals.

 Cover letter or memo with separate proposal: In this format, you write a brief "cover" letter
or memo and attach the proposal proper after it. The cover letter or memo briefly announces
that a proposal follows and outlines the contents of it. In fact, the contents of the cover
letter or memo are pretty much the same as the introduction (discussed in the previous
section). Notice, however, that the introduction to the proposal proper that follows the cover
letter or memo repeats much of what preceded. This is because the letter or memo may get
detached from the proposal or the recipient may not even bother to look at the letter or
memo and just dive right into the proposal itself.

 Consolidated business-letter or memo proposal: In this format, you consolidate the entire
proposal with a standard business letter or memo. You include headings and other special
formatting elements as if it were a report. (This consolidated memo format is illustrated in
the left portion of the following illustration.)
Proposal that uses the consolidated memo format (left) and a proposal that is separate from its cover
letter (right)

Special Assignment Requirements

Remember that, in a technical writing course, the proposal assignment serves several purposes: (1)
to give you some experience in writing a proposal; (2) to get you started planning your term report;
(3) to give your instructor a chance to work with you on your report project, to make sure you've got
something workable. For the second and third reasons, you need to include certain specific contents
in (or with) your proposal, some of which may not seem appropriate in a real-world proposal. If it
doesn't fit in the proposal proper, put it in a memo to your instructor as is done in first example
proposal listed at the beginning of this chapter.
Here's a checklist of what to include somewhere in the proposal or in an attached memo to the
instructor:

 Audience: Describe the audience of the proposal and the proposed report (they may be
different) in terms of the organization they work for, their titles and jobs, their technical
background, their ability to understand the report you propose to write.

 Situation: Describe the intended audience of the proposal: who they are, what they do, what
their level of knowledge and background on the proposal topic is. Describe the situation in
which the proposal is written and in which the project is needed: what problems or needs
are there? who has them, where are they located?

 Report type: Explain what type of report you intend to write: is it a technical background
report? a feasibility report? Provide enough explanation so that your instructor can see that
you understand the type of report. See the chapter on types of reports.

 Information sources: List information sources; make sure you know that there is adequate
information for your topic; list specific books, articles, reference works, other kinds of
sources that you think will contribute to your report.

 Graphics: List the graphics you think your report will need according to their type and
their content. (If you can't think of any your report would need, you may not have a good
topic—do some brainstorming with your instructor.)

 Outline: Include an outline of the topics and subtopics you think you'll cover in your report.

Revision Checklist for Proposals

As you reread and revise your proposal, watch out for problems such as the following:

 Make sure you use the right format. Remember, the memo format is for internal proposals;
the business-letter format is for proposals written from one external organization to another.
(Whether you use a cover memo or cover letter is your choice.)

 Write a good introduction as discused in the preceding.

 Make sure to identify exactly what you are proposing to do.

 Make sure that a report—a written document—is somehow involved in the project you are
proposing to do. Remember that in a technical writing course we are trying to do two things:
write a proposal and plan a term-report project.

 Make sure the sections are in a logical, natural order. For example, don't hit the audience
with schedules and costs before you've gotten them interested in the project.

 Break out the costs section into specifics; include hourly rates and other such details. Don't
just hit them with a whopping big final cost.

 For internal projects, don't omit the section on costs and qualifications: there will be costs,
just not direct ones. For example, how much time will you need, will there be printing,
binding costs? Include your qualifications—imagine your proposal will go to somebody in the
organization who doesn't know you.
  Be sure and address the proposal to the real or realistic audience—not your instructor. (You
can use your instructor's name as the CEO or supervisor of the organization you are sending
the proposal to.)

 Watch out for generating technobabble. Yes, some of your proposal readers may know the
technical side of your project—but others may not. Challenge yourself to bring difficult
technical concepts down to a level that nonspecialists can understand.

 Be sure to include all the information listed in "Special assignment requirements." If it

doesn't logically or naturally fit in the proposal itself, put it in a memo to your instructor.

Example Proposal 1

Explanation of Who You Are

No, I'm not being metaphysical here. I'm just attaching a note explaining who you will pretend to be
as you read my proposal.

You will imagine that you are the personnel manager of the Automation Division of the Highway
Department. The Automation Division employs approximately three hundred people. As you can tell
from the name, the Automation Division employs mostly sedentary workers: analysts, programmers,
managers, opertors, and technicians.

The personnel manager is the liaison between the Human Resources Division of the Highway
Department and the employees of the Automation Division. This person is responsible for informing
employees of any changes in departmental policy that will affect employees' health, safety, or
finances.

MEMORANDUM

TO: Dr. David David McMurrey

FROM: Joan A. Student
DATE: March 1, 1990
RE: Proposal to Write a Feasibility Report for an Employee Wellness Program

The following is a proposal to conduct a feasibility study for the personnel section on the need for,
and the benefits to be expected from, instituting an employee wellness program for the Automation
Division of the Highway Department. The following proposal contains background on the need for
and benefits from a wellness program, an outline of the work I plan to do, my qualifications, and a
schedule. This study may have to be expanded to include the entire department. I understand that
the Automation Division cannot arbitrarily effect such a drastic policy change. I look forward to
hearing your ideas on the scope of this feasibility report.

Need for a Wellness Program

Current work and home schedules prevent employees from exercising enough. Current health
insurance policies focus on curing illnesses rather than prventing them. Medical research has proven
that healthy choices can prevent many diseases. The current system has resulted in steeply
increasing group health insurance costs. Also, current budget restrictions force us to think of new
ways to increase employee productivity.
Benefits of a Wellness Program

In the report, I will document the following: (1) wellness programs produce healthier employees, (2)
healthy employees are more productive, (3) healthy employees file fewer health insurance claims, (4)
healthy employees live longer, and (5) employee group health insurance costs will decrease.

Report Audience

I will address the report to you. However, I will target the report to the administration of the Highway
Department and to the directors of the Employees Retirement System. As you know, the ERS
negotiates and administers our group health insurance plans.

My Qualifications

I have worked for the Highway Department for thirteen years. I have been in the Automation Division
for eight years. I have an eleven-year old son. I go to night school at Austin Community College.
Therefore, I have personal experience with how difficult it is to find enough time during the day to
exercise or to prepare healthy, nutritious meals. I have no experience in the medical or actuarial
fields. However, I know that I can find documentation to support the establishment of a wellness
program. Please review the tentative bibliography.

Plan for Feasibility Report

I will deliver the report to your office on April 26, 1990. Here is my plan for completing the project:

1. Library research through March

2. Correspondence 15
3. Review correspondence through March
received 5
4. Conduct interviews finish March 23
5. Write preliminary draft finish March 30
6. Produce graphics finish April 18
7. Finalize preliminary draft finish April 23
8. Deliver preliminary draft finish April 25
on April 2

Costs

There will be no costs involved in producing this study, other than the minimal costs of an hour a day
for the next four weeks to do the study and write the report, and costs for typing, binding, and
duplicating the report.

List of Graphics

A list of graphics I plan to use is presented here:

1. Health and longevity relationship Graph

2. Health and absenteeism relationship Graph
3. Reduction in health insurance costs by companies that have Graph
wellness programs
4. Cost of wellness programs versus cost of health insurance Table
5. Recent increases in group health insurance rates Graph
Tentative Outline

I. Introduction

A. Description of wellness programs

B. History of wellness programs

II. Need for a Wellness Program

A. Need to contain rising health insurance costs

1. Private sector costs

2. Public sector costs

B. Need to increase productivity

1. Budget restrictions

2. Workplace constraints

3. Employee-related problems

III. Benefits of a Wellness Program

A. Healthier employees

B. More productive employees

C. Lower health costs

IV. Instituting a Wellness Program

A. Workplace changes

B. Education needs

1. Nutrition education
 2. Exercise education

3. Substance abuse counseling

C. Cost

D. Policy changes

V. Conclusion

A. Summarize benefits

B. Summarize costs

C. Recommend action

TENTATIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "Advances in Preventive Medicine: New Ways Not to Get Sick." Cosmopolitan (November
1989), 272.

2. "Better Than Cure." The Economist (October 3, 1987).

3. Bloom, Jill. HMOs: What They Are, How They Work, and Which One Is Best for You. Tucson:
Body Press, 1987.

4. Brackenridge Hospital. Choices: A Catalog of Wellness Courses. Austin: The Hospital, 1985.

5. Bud, Brian. Executive Guide to Fitness. Toronto: Von Nostrand Reinhold, 1982.

6. "Cutting Back on Fringe Benefits." Management Today (October 1987).

7. Dres, Fredrick R. and Jerel M. Zoltick and James B. Emerson. A Healthy Life: Exercise,
Behavior and Nutrition. U. S.: Benchmark Press, 1986.

8. Eilers, Robert and Robert M. Crowe. Group Insurance Handbook. New York: R. D. Irwin, 1965.

9. Fein, Rashi. Medical Care, Medical Costs. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.

10. "Fending Off the Leading Killers." U. S. News and World Report (August 17, 1987), 56.

11. Harrington, Geri. The Health Insurance Fact and Answer Book. New York: Harper and Row,
1985.

12. "Health." Encyclopaedia Brittanica. 15th Ed., 1986.

13. "Health Costs: What? Me Worry?" Esquire (June 1989), 82.

14. Health Insurance Institute. Source Book of Health Insurance Data. New York: Health
Insurance Institute of America, 1988.

15. "Health Insurance Trends in Cost Control." Monthly Labor Review (September 1986).
 Example Proposal 2

MEMORANDUM

To: David A. McMurrey

From: Sean Wolliscz

Date: June 21, 1998

Subject: Photolithography and the

semiconductor manufacturing process

This is in response to the proposal assignment due on June 21st of this month. As I had mentioned in
the topic planner and proposal bulletin board recently, I intend to provide an informational view of
contemporary microchip fabrication and the way in which the photolithography section of the wafer
fab affects the manufacture of microchips. The following proposal describes the problem that this
project addresses, outlines the information I intend to present, and discusses the time and resources
required to complete the study.

Background: Class Situation

Students in the Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology (SMT) program at Austin Community

College often hear that the photolithography section of the wafer fabrication facility is the most
important part of the fab. However, this aspect of the process in manufacturing semiconductors
receives little or no in-depth coverage in any of the SMT courses I am aware of. Students graduating
from the SMT program may be at some disadvantage when they seek jobs in industry if they have no
understanding of the photolithography process.

Proposal

In the report, I'll present how and why the photolithography section of the wafer fab is so important
to the manufacturing of semiconductors (microchips.) This section will also cover the basics of
manufacturing microchips in a specific manufacturing process flow. I will not be presenting any
information that may be trade secrets to particular companies, such as data about the copper chips
that IBM currently has in development, or the steps that IBM is taking to build a 1 GHz chip.

Benefits

The primary benefit I see from writing this report will be the educational value—or SMT students
and others interested in the semiconductor manufacturing process. To my knowledge, this direction
in learning about how the different sections of the wafer fab has never been taken before. Another
benefit is that this report will be written in a student's point of view, so that may help others
understand the process more effectively. One other benefit is that this project ought to show my
interest in the field and the professionalism of my work. I intend to list this project on my resume and
have a copy of the report in my portfolio when I interview for jobs in this field.

Feasibility
I do not anticipate problems in obtaining the information I need for this report. I project that the
report will be completed by the deadline date.

Procedure

In writing the report, I will take three steps to obtain the information I require:

1. My first source of information will be the textbooks I have available at home and information
I can find in a local library.

2. I will also be searching for information in the Internet, either with search engines or with the
addresses provided to me by others.

3. I will solicit interviews from experts that work within the wafer fabs, plus information I can
obtain from instructors.

These steps will help tie together everything involved in how and why the photo section of the fab is
so important.

Results

The end product will consist of at least four single-spaced pages for a written version, and at least
four files for the HTML version. It will consist of the microchip fabrication process flow and the
explanations of how and why photolithography is important to fab operations. Graphics illustrating
the universal process flow and effects of photolithography on the microchip fabrication process will
be included to emphasize points presented in the report. To clarify the technical language used in the
report, I will append a glossary.

Information Sources

At present, I have most of the basic theoretical knowledge required to begin work on the report. For
the finer details and other information that I have not received in my studies, I am certain that I can
get what I need in and out of my course work. I can obtain data from my textbooks, the library, my
current and former instructors, the Internet, and from experts in the microchip fabrication industry. I
foresee little if any difficulty in using these sources for information. (See the
tentative bibliography below for specific sources.)

Graphical Aids

The following is a tentative list of graphics I intend to use in my report:

CMOS process flow in wafer fab flowchart

Steps in manufacturing CMOS devices flowchart (31 individual diagrams)

Presence of photolithography in fab diagram

Photolithography process flowchart (10 individual diagrams)

Condition of wafer (before patterning) photograph

Condition of wafer (before patterning) photograph

Importance of resolution and overlay diagram

Factors affecting wafter in photo flowchart

This list of graphics is subject to change as required, due to points that come up in my research
requiring graphics to better explain the situations involved. Some of the graphics may or may not be
included from this preliminary list, depending on if they are actually needed to illustrate the points I
will discuss.

Projected Schedule

The following is a tentative schedule for the report:

June 21 Proposal uploaded; begin research.

July 7 Complete compiling research from library, Internet, and textbooks.

July 19 Complete interviews and visits to wafer fabs.

August 6 Final copy of report uploaded.

This schedule is subject to change as required, but I do not foresee any problems in maintaining this
timeline.

My Qualifications

Here are my qualifications to do this project:

 I am currently an ACC student pursuing a major in Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology,

and I will receive my certification by early August of this year.

 My current grade point average in the program is 4.0 out of 4.0. My studies have included
the basics of manufacturing industry operations, the microchip manufacturing process flow,
the theories behind the processes in the manufacture of microchips, and basic electronics.

 I am familiar with both PC and Macintosh computers, and can use MS-DOS 6.22, Windows
3.11, Windows 95, and MacOS 8.1. My software knowledge includes Ami Pro 3.1, Microsoft
Works 4.0 for Windows 95, and Netscape 4.05.

 I have written personal web pages since 1994, and can utilize HTML 3.2. I have also made
some graphics for my web pages, using Microsoft Paint and Jasc's Paint Shop Pro (3.11 to
5.0.)

With the experience I had mentioned, I can easily write a report for both Works and HTML formats.

Projected Expenses

The following is an anticipated breakdown:

Internet service: AOL 5.60

Travel: Bastrop to Austin (round trip) 261.00

TOTAL $266.60

The Internet service charge by AOL is based on the sum of accumulated time totaling 8 days at
$21.00 a month for access. Travel expense is based on a total of 15 trips averaging 60 miles at 29
cents per mile.

Other expenses include the time required to research the report by other means I had previously
mentioned, the time to format the report in both Works and HTML, and the time involved in making
the HTML version of the report available for viewing on the Internet.

Undertaking the work involved in this report is feasible, regardless of the costs I have stated above.
These costs are already part of my educational expenses, and while they may seem significant, they
will have a negligible influence on my ability to finish this report. The study of how photolithography
and its importance to the microchip manufacturing process is a direction in education that has not
been traveled before. This will be something that I, other SMT students, and people interested in the
operations of a wafer fab can learn from. The educational value this report will provide can be very
important, especially since the information covered is part of the curriculum in the SMT major.

I encourage you to contact me if you have questions regarding the report. My home phone number is
(512) 000-0000, and my email address is somebody@somewhere.net.

Tentative Outline

Tentative Bibliography
 1. Day, Richard, et al., Sematech: Furnace Processes and Related Issues in Semiconductor
Manufacturing. Texas A&M University: Texas Engineering Extension Service, 1994.

2. Serda, Julian. Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology II: Advanced Technology Education

in Semiconductor Training. Austin: AMD, 1997

3. Van Zant, Peter. Microchip Fabrication. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.

Writing Commons: "Principles of Persuasion"

Learning Objective

1. Identify and demonstrate how to use six principles of persuasion.

What is the best way to succeed in persuading your listeners? There is no one “correct” answer, but
many experts have studied persuasion and observed what works and what doesn’t. Social
psychologist Robert Cialdini[1] offers us six principles of persuasion that are powerful and effective:

1. Reciprocity

2. Scarcity

3. Authority

4. Commitment and consistency

5. Consensus

6. Liking

You will find these principles both universal and adaptable to a myriad of contexts and environments.
Recognizing when each principle is in operation will allow you to leverage the inherent social norms
and expectations to your advantage, and enhance your sales position.

Principle of Reciprocity

Reciprocity is the mutual expectation for exchange of value or service. In all cultures, when one
person gives something, the receiver is expected to reciprocate, even if only by saying “thank you.”
There is a moment when the giver has power and influence over the receiver, and if the exchange is
dismissed as irrelevant by the giver the moment is lost. In business this principle has several
applications. If you are in customer service and go out of your way to meet the customer’s need, you
are appealing to the principle of reciprocity with the knowledge that all humans perceive the need to
reciprocate—in this case, by increasing the likelihood of making a purchase from you because you
were especially helpful. Reciprocity builds trust and the relationship develops, reinforcing everything
from personal to brand loyalty. By taking the lead and giving, you build in a moment where people
will feel compelled from social norms and customs to give back.

Principle of Scarcity

You want what you can’t have, and it’s universal. People are naturally attracted to the exclusive, the
rare, the unusual, and the unique. If they are convinced that they need to act now or it will
disappear, they are motivated to action. Scarcity is the perception of inadequate supply or a limited
resource. For a sales representative, scarcity may be a key selling point—the particular car, or theater
tickets, or pair of shoes you are considering may be sold to someone else if you delay making a
decision. By reminding customers not only of what they stand to gain but also of what they stand to
lose, the representative increases the chances that the customer will make the shift from
contemplation to action and decide to close the sale.

Principle of Authority

Trust is central to the purchase decision. Whom does a customer turn to? A salesperson may be part
of the process, but an endorsement by an authority holds credibility that no one with a vested
interest can ever attain. Knowledge of a product, field, trends in the field, and even research can
make a salesperson more effective by the appeal to the principle of authority. It may seem like extra
work to educate your customers, but you need to reveal your expertise to gain credibility. We can
borrow a measure of credibility by relating what experts have indicated about a product, service,
market, or trend, and our awareness of competing viewpoints allows us insight that is valuable to the
customer. Reading the manual of a product is not sufficient to gain expertise—you have to do extra
homework. The principal of authority involves referencing experts and expertise.

Principle of Commitment and Consistency

Oral communication can be slippery in memory. What we said at one moment or another, unless
recorded, can be hard to recall. Even a handshake, once the symbol of agreement across almost
every culture, has lost some of its symbolic meaning and social regard. In many cultures, the written
word holds special meaning. If we write it down, or if we sign something, we are more likely to follow
through. By extension, even if the customer won’t be writing anything down, if you do so in front of
them, it can appeal to the principle of commitment and consistency and bring the social norm of
honoring one’s word to bear at the moment of purchase.

Principle of Consensus

Testimonials, or first person reports on experience with a product or service, can be highly
persuasive. People often look to each other when making a purchase decision, and the herd
mentality is a powerful force across humanity: if “everybody else” thinks this product is great, it must
be great. We often choose the path of the herd, particularly when we lack adequate information.
Leverage testimonials from clients to attract more clients by making them part of your team. The
principle of consensus involves the tendency of the individual to follow the lead of the group or
peers.

Principle of Liking

Safety is the twin of trust as a foundation element for effective communication. If we feel safe, we
are more likely to interact and communicate. We tend to be attracted to people who communicate to
us that they like us, and who make us feel good about ourselves. Given a choice, these are the
people with whom we are likely to associate. Physical attractiveness has long been known to be
persuasive, but similarity is also quite effective. We are drawn to people who are like us, or who we
perceive ourselves to be, and often make those judgments based on external characteristics like
dress, age, sex, race, ethnicity, and perceptions of socioeconomic status. The principle of liking
involves the perception of safety and belonging in communication.

Key Takeaway

A persuasive message can succeed through the principles of reciprocity, scarcity, authority,
commitment and consistency, consensus, and liking.

Exercises
 1. Think of a real-life example of the principle of scarcity being used in a persuasive message.
Were you the one trying to persuade someone, or were you the receiver of the scarcity
message? Was the message effective? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.

2. Do you think the principle of consensus often works—are people often persuaded to buy
things because other people own that item, or are going to buy it? Are you susceptible to
this kind of persuasion? Think of some examples and discuss them with classmates.

3. Do people always use reason to make decisions? Support your opinion and discuss it with
classmates.

4. Make a list of five or six people you choose to associate with—friends, neighbors, and
coworkers, for example. Next to each person’s name, write the characteristics you have in
common with that person. Do you find that the principle of liking holds true in your choice of
associates? Why or why not? Discuss your findings with your classmates.

Pavel Zemliansky's "Methods of Discovery: A Guide to Research Writing - Chapter 1: Research Writing
and Argument"

All Writing is Argumentative

This chapter is about rhetoric—the art of persuasion. Every time we write, we engage in argument.
Through writing, we try to persuade and influence our readers, either directly or indirectly. We work
to get them to change their minds, to do something, or to begin thinking in new ways. Therefore,
every writer needs to know and be able to use principles of rhetoric. The first step towards such
knowledge is learning to see the argumentative nature of all writing.

I have two goals in this chapter: to explain the term rhetoric and to give you some historical
perspective on its origins and development; and to demonstrate the importance of seeing research
writing as a rhetorical, persuasive activity.

As consumers of written texts, we are often tempted to divide writing into two categories:
argumentative and non-argumentative. According to this view, in order to be argumentative, writing
must have the following qualities. It has to defend a position in a debate between two or more
opposing sides; it must be on a controversial topic; and the goal of such writing must be to prove the
correctness of one point of view over another.

On the other hand, this view goes, non-argumentative texts include narratives, descriptions,
technical reports, news stories, and so on. When deciding to which category a given piece of writing
belongs, we sometimes look for familiar traits of argument, such as the presence of a thesis
statement, of “factual” evidence, and so on.

Research writing is often categorized as “non-argumentative.” This happens because of the way in
which we learn about research writing. Most of us do that through the traditional research report,
the kind which focuses too much on information-gathering and note cards and not enough on
constructing engaging and interesting points of view for real audiences. It is the gathering and
compiling of information, and not doing something productive and interesting with this information,
that become the primary goals of this writing exercise. Generic research papers are also often
evaluated on the quantity and accuracy of external information that they gather, rather on the
persuasive impact they make and the interest they generate among readers.
Having written countless research reports, we begin to suspect that all research-based writing is non-
argumentative. Even when explicitly asked to construct a thesis statement and support it through
researched evidence, beginning writers are likely to pay more attention to such mechanics of
research as finding the assigned number and kind of sources and documenting them correctly, than
to constructing an argument capable of making an impact on the reader.

Arguments Aren't Verbal Fights

We often have narrow concept of the word “argument.” In everyday life, argument often implies a
confrontation, a clash of opinions and personalities, or just a plain verbal fight. It implies a winner
and a loser, a right side and a wrong one. Because of this understanding of the word "argument," the
only kind of writing seen as argumentative is the debate-like "position" paper, in which the author
defends his or her point of view against other, usually opposing points of view.

Such an understanding of argument is narrow because arguments come in all shapes and sizes. I
invite you to look at the term “argument” in a new way. What if we think of "argument" as an
opportunity for conversation, for sharing with others our point of view on something, for showing
others our perspective of the world? What if we see it as the opportunity to tell our stories, including
our life stories? What if we think of "argument" as an opportunity to connect with the points of view
of others rather than defeating those points of view?

Some years ago, I heard a conference speaker define argument as the opposite of “beating your
audience into rhetorical submission.” I still like that definition because it implies gradual and even
gentle explanation and persuasion instead of coercion. It implies effective use of details, and stories,
including emotional ones. It implies the understanding of argument as an explanation of one’s world
view.

Arguments then, can be explicit and implicit, or implied. Explicit arguments contain noticeable and
definable thesis statements and lots of specific proofs. Implicit arguments, on the other hand, work
by weaving together facts and narratives, logic and emotion, personal experiences and statistics.
Unlike explicit arguments, implicit ones do not have a one-sentence thesis statement. Instead,
authors of implicit arguments use evidence of many different kinds in effective and creative ways to
build and convey their point of view to their audience. Research is essential for creative effective
arguments of both kinds.

To consider the many types and facets of written argumentation, consider the following exploration
activity.

Writing Activity: Analyzing Writing Situations

 Working individually or in small groups, consider the following writing situations. Are these
situations opportunities for argumentative writing? If so, what elements of argument do you
see? Use your experience as a reader and imagine the kinds of published texts that might
result from these writing situations. Apply the ideas about argument mentioned so far in this
chapter, including the “explicit” and “implicit” arguments.

 A group of scientists develops a hypothesis and conducts a series of experiments to test it.
After obtaining the results from those experiments, they decide to publish their findings in a
scientific journal. However, the data can be interpreted in two ways. The authors can use a
long-standing theory with which most of his colleagues agree. But they can also use a newer
 and more ambitious theory on which there is no consensus in the field, but which our
authors believe to be more comprehensive and up-to-date. Using different theories will
produce different interpretations of the data and different pieces of writing. Are both
resulting texts arguments? Why or why not?

 An author wants to write a memoir. She is particularly interested in her relationship with her
parents as a teenager. In order to focus on that period of her life, she decides to omit other
events and time periods from the memoir. The finished text is a combination of stories,
reflections, and facts. This text does not have a clear thesis statement or proofs. Could this
“selective” memory” writing be called an argument? What are the reasons for your
decision?

 A travel writer who is worried about global warming goes to Antarctica and observes the
melting of the ice there. Using her observations, interviews with scientists, and secondary
research, she then prepares an article about her trip for The National Geographic magazine
or a similar publication. Her piece does not contain a one-sentence thesis statement or a
direct call to fight global warming. At the same time, her evidence suggests that ice in the
Arctic melts faster than it used to. Does this writer engage in argument? Why or why not?
What factors influenced your decision?

 A novelist writes a book based on the events of the American Civil War. He recreates
historical characters from archival research, but adds details, descriptions, and other
characters to his book that are not necessarily historic. The resulting novel is in the genre
known as “historical fiction.” Like all works of fiction, the book does not have a thesis
statement or explicit proofs. It does, however, promote a certain view of history, some of
which is based on the author’s research and some—on his imagination and creative license.
Is this a representation of history, an argument, or a combination of both? Why or why not?

You can probably think of many more examples when argument in writing is expressed through
means other than the traditional thesis statement and proofs. As you work through this book,
continue to think about the nature of argument in writing and discuss it with your classmates and
your instructor.

Definitions of Rhetoric and the Rhetorical Situation

The art of creating effective arguments is explained and systematized by a discipline called rhetoric.
Writing is about making choices, and knowing the principles of rhetoric allows a writer to make
informed choices about various aspects of the writing process. Every act of writing takes places in a
specific rhetorical situation. The three most basic and important components of a rhetorical
situations are:

 • Purpose of writing

 • Intended audience,

 • Occasion, or context in which the text will be written and read

These factors help writers select their topics, arrange their material, and make other important
decisions about their work.

Before looking closely at different definitions and components of rhetoric, let us try to understand
what rhetoric is not. In recent years, the word “rhetoric” has developed a bad reputation in American
popular culture. In the popular mind, the term "rhetoric" has come to mean something negative and
deceptive. Open a newspaper or turn on the television, and you are likely to hear politicians accusing
each other of "too much rhetoric and not enough substance." According to this distorted view,
rhetoric is verbal fluff, used to disguise empty or even deceitful arguments.

Examples of this misuse abound. Here are some examples.

A 2003 CNN news article “North Korea Talks On Despite Rhetoric” describes the decision by the
international community to continue the talks with North Korea about its nuclear arms program
despite what the author sees as North Koreans’ “rhetorical blast” at a US official taking part in the
talks. The implication here is that that, by verbally attacking the US official, the North Koreans
attempted to hide the lack of substance in their argument. The word “rhetoric” in this context
implies a strategy to deceive or distract.

Another example is the title of the now-defunct political website “Spinsanity: Countering Rhetoric
with Reason.” The website's authors state that "engaged citizenry, active press and strong network of
fact-checking websites and blogs can help turn the tide of deception
that we now see." (http://www.spinsanity.org). What this statement implies, of course, is that
rhetoric is "spin" and that it is the opposite of truth.

Here, perhaps, is the most interesting example. The author of the video below, posted on YouTube, is
clearly dissatisfied with the abundance of "rhetoric" in Barack Obama's 2008 campaign for the White
House.

What is interesting about this clip is that its author does not seem to realize that she is engaging in
rhetoric as she is criticizing the term. She has a purpose, which is to question Obama's credentials;
she is addressing an audience which consists of people who are perhaps considering voting for
Obama; finally, she is creating her video in a very real context of the heated battle between Senators
Obama and Clinton for the Presidential nomination of the Democratic Party.

Rhetoric is not a dirty trick used by politicians to conceal and obscure, but an art, which, for many
centuries, has had many definitions. Perhaps the most popular and overreaching definition comes to
us from the Ancient Greek thinker Aristotle. Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in
any given case
the available means of persuasion" (Ch.2). Aristotle saw primarily as a practical tool, indispensable
for civic discourse.

Elements of the Rhetorical Situation

When composing, every writer must take into account the conditions under which the writing is
produced and will be read. It is customary to represent the three key elements of the rhetorical
situation as a triangle of writer, reader, and text, or, as they are represented on this image, as
"communicator," "audience," and "message."

The three elements of the rhetorical situation are in a constant and dynamic interrelation. All three
are also necessary for communication through writing to take place. For example, if the writer is
taken out of this equation, the text will not be created. Similarly, eliminating the text itself will leave
us with the reader and writer, but without any means of conveying ideas between them, and so on.
Moreover, changing on or more characteristics of any of the elements depicted in the figure above
will change the other elements as well. For example, with the change in the beliefs and values of the
audience, the message will also likely change to accommodate those new beliefs, and so on.

In his discussion of rhetoric, Aristotle states that writing’s primary purpose is persuasion. Other
ancient rhetoricians’ theories expand the scope of rhetoric by adding new definitions, purposes, and
methods. For example, another Greek philosopher and rhetorician Plato saw rhetoric as a means of
discovering the truth, including personal truth, through dialog and discussion. According to Plato,
rhetoric can be directed outward (at readers or listeners), or inward (at the writer him or herself). In
the latter case, the purpose of rhetoric is to help the author discover something important about his
or her own experience and life.

The third major rhetorical school of Ancient Greece whose views have profoundly influenced our
understanding of rhetoric were the Sophists. The Sophists were teachers of rhetoric for hire. The
primary goal of their activities was to teach skills and strategies for effective speaking and writing.
Many Sophists claimed that they could make anyone into an effective rhetorician. In their most
extreme variety, Sophistic rhetoric claims that virtually anything could be proven if the rhetorician
has the right skills. The legacy of Sophistic rhetoric is controversial. Some scholars, including Plato
himself, have accused the Sophists of bending ethical standards in order to achieve their goals, while
others have praised them for promoting democracy and civic participation through argumentative
discourse.

What do these various definitions of rhetoric have to do with research writing? Everything! If you
have ever had trouble with a writing assignment, chances are it was because you could not figure out
the assignment’s purpose. Or, perhaps you did not understand very well whom your writing was
supposed to appeal to. It is hard
to commit to purposeless writing done for no one in particular.

Research is not a very useful activity if it is done for its own sake. If you think of a situation in your
own life where you had to do any kind of research, you probably had a purpose that the research
helped you to accomplish. You could, for example, have been considering buying a car and wanted to
know which make and model would suite you best. Or, you could have been looking for an
apartment to rent and wanted to get the best deal for your money. Or, perhaps your family was
planning a vacation and researched the best deals on hotels, airfares, and rental cars. Even in these
simple examples of research that are far simpler than research most writers conduct, you as a
researcher were guided by some overriding purpose. You researched because you had a purpose to
accomplish.

How to Approach Writing Tasks Rhetorically

The three main elements of rhetorical theory are purpose, audience, and occasion. We will look at
these elements primarily through the lens of Classical Rhetoric, the rhetoric of Ancient Greece and
Rome. Principles of classical rhetoric (albeit some of them modified) are widely accepted across the
modern Western civilization. Classical rhetoric provides a solid framework for analysis and
production of effective texts in a variety of situations.

Purpose
Good writing always serves a purpose. Texts are created to persuade, entertain, inform, instruct, and
so on. In a real writing situation, these discrete purposes are often combined

Writing Activity: Analyzing Purpose

Recall any text you wrote, in or outside of school. Think not only of school papers, but also of letters
to relatives and friends, e-mails, shopping lists, online postings, and so on. Consider the following
questions.

 Was the purpose of the writing well defined for you in the assignment, or did you have to
define it yourself?

 What did you have to do in order to understand or create your purpose?

 Did you have trouble articulating and fulfilling your writing purpose?

Be sure to record your answers and share them with your classmates and/or instructor.

Audience

The second key element of the rhetorical approach to writing is audience-awareness. As you saw
from the rhetorical triangle earlier in this chapter, readers are an indispensable part of the rhetorical
equation, and it is essential for every writer to understand their audience and tailor his or her
message to the audience’s needs.

The key principles that every writer needs to follow in order to reach and affect his or her audience
are as follows:

 Have a clear idea about who your readers will be.

 Understand your readers’ previous experiences, knowledge, biases, and expectations and
how these factors can influence their reception of your argument.

 When writing, keep in mind not only those readers who are physically present or whom you
know (your classmates and instructor), but all readers who would benefit from or be
influenced by your argument.

 Choose a style, tone, and medium of presentation appropriate for your intended audience.

Writing Activity: Analyzing Audience

Every writer needs to consider his or her audience carefully when writing. Otherwise, you writing will
be directed at no one in particular. As a result, your purpose will become unclear and your work will
lose its effectiveness.

Consider any recent writing task that you faced. As with all the exploration activities included in this
chapter, do not limit yourself to school writing assignments. Include letters, e-mails, notes, and any
other kinds of writing you may do.

 Did you have a clearly defined audience?

 If not, what measures did you take to define and understand your audience?

 How did you know who your readers were?

  Did your writing purpose fit what your intended audience needed or wanted to hear?

 What were the best ways to appeal to your audience (both logical and emotional)?

 How did your decision to use or not to use external research influence the reception of your
argument by your audience?

Occasion

Occasion is an important part of the rhetorical situation. It is a part of the writing context that was
mentioned earlier in the chapter. Writers do not work in a vacuum. Instead, the content, form and
reception of their work by readers are heavily influenced by the conditions in society as well as by
personal situations of their readers. These conditions in which texts are created and read affect every
aspect of writing and every stage of the writing process, from topic selection, to decisions about
what kinds of arguments used and their arrangement, to the writing style, voice, and persona which
the writer wishes to project in his or her writing. All elements of the rhetorical situation work
together in a dynamic relationship. Therefore, awareness of rhetorical occasion and other elements
of the context of your writing will also help you refine your purpose and understand your audience
better. Similarly having a clear purpose in mind when writing and knowing your audience will help
you understand the context in which you are writing and in which your work will be read better.

One aspect of writing where you can immediately benefit from understanding occasion and using it
to your rhetorical advantage is the selection of topics for your compositions. Any topic can be good
or bad, and a key factor in deciding on whether it fits the occasion. In order to understand whether a
particular topic is suitable for a composition, it is useful to analyze whether the composition would
address an issue, or a rhetorical exigency when created. The writing activity below can help you
select topics and issues for written arguments.

Writing Activity: Analyzing Rhetorical Exigency

 If you are considering a topic for a paper, think whether the paper would address a specific
problem or issue. In other words, will it address a real exigency, something that needs to be
solved or discussed?

 Who are the people with interests and stakes in the problem?

 What are your limitations? Can you hope to solve the problem once and for all, or should
your goals be more modest? Why or why not?

Share your results with your classmates and instructor.

To understand how writers can study and use occasion in order to make effective arguments, let us
examine another ancient rhetorical concept. Kairos is one of the most fascinating terms from
Classical rhetoric. It signifies the right, or opportune moment for an argument to be made. It is such
a moment or time when the subject of the argument is particularly urgent or important and when
audiences are more likely to be persuaded by it. Ancient rhetoricians believed that if the moment for
the argument is right, for instance if there are conditions in society which would make the audience
more receptive to the argument, the rhetorician would have more success persuading such an
audience.

For example, as I write this text, a heated debate about the war on terrorism and about the goals and
methods of this war is going on in the US. It is also the year of the Presidential Election, and political
candidates try to use the war on terrorism to their advantage when they debate each other. These
are topics of high public interested, with print media, television, radio, and the Internet constantly
discussing them. Because there is an enormous public interest in the topic of terrorism, well-written
articles and reports on the subject will not fall on deaf ears. Simply put, the moment, or occasion, for
the debate is right, and it will continue until public interest in the subject weakens or disappears.

Rhetorical Appeals

In order to persuade their readers, writers must use three types of proofs or rhetorical appeals. They
are logos, or logical appeal; pathos, or emotional appeal; and ethos, or ethical appeal, or appeal
based on the character and credibility of the author. It is easy to notice that modern words “logical,”
“pathetic,” and “ethical” are derived from those Greek words. In his work Rhetoric, Aristotle writes
that the three appeals must be used together in every piece of persuasive discourse. An argument
based on the appeal to logic, or emotions alone will not be an effective one.

Understanding how logos, pathos, and ethos should work together is very important for writers who
use research. Often, research writing assignment are written in a way that seems to emphasize
logical proofs over emotional or ethical ones. Such logical proofs in research papers typically consist
of factual information, statistics, examples, and other similar evidence. According to this view, writers
of academic papers need to be unbiased and objective, and using logical proofs will help them to be
that way.

Because of this emphasis on logical proofs, you may be less familiar with the kinds of pathetic and
ethical proofs available to you. Pathetic appeals, or appeals to emotions of the audience were
considered by ancient rhetoricians as important as logical proofs. Yet, writers are sometimes not
easily convinced to use pathetic appeals in their writing. As modern rhetoricians and authors of the
influential book Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student (1998), Edward P.J. Corbett and Robert
Connors said, “People are rather sheepish about acknowledging that their opinions can be affected
by their emotions” (86). According to Corbett, many of us think that there may be something wrong
about using emotions in argument. But, I agree with Corbett and Connors, pathetic proofs are not
only admissible in argument, but necessary (86-89). The most basic way of evoking appropriate
emotional responses in your audience, according to Corbett, is the use of vivid descriptions (94).

Using ethical appeals, or appeals based on the character of the writer, involves establishing and
maintaining your credibility in the eyes of your readers. In other words, when writing, think about
how you are presenting yourself to your audience. Do you give your readers enough reasons to trust
you and your argument, or do you give them reasons to doubt your authority and your credibility?
Consider all the times when your decision about the merits of a given argument was affected by the
person or people making the argument. For example, when watching television news, are you
predisposed against certain cable networks and more inclined towards others because you trust
them more?

So, how can a writer establish a credible persona for his or her audience? One way to do that is
through external research. Conducting research and using it well in your writing help with you with
the factual proofs (logos), but it also shows your readers that you, as the author, have done your
homework and know what you are talking about. This knowledge, the sense of your authority that
this creates among your readers, will help you be a more effective writer.
The logical, pathetic, and ethical appeals work in a dynamic combination with one another. It is
sometimes hard to separate one kind of proof from another and the methods by which the writer
achieved the desired rhetorical effect. If your research contains data which is likely to cause your
readers to be emotional, it data can enhance the pathetic aspect of your argument. The key to using
the three appeals, is to use them in combination with each other, and in moderation. It is impossible
to construct a successful argument by relying too much on one or two appeals while neglecting the
others.

Consider two recent examples of fairly ineffective use of the three appeals. In the beginning of April
2008, two candidates for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination, Senators Hillary Clinton
and Barack Obama began airing campaign television ads in Pennsylvania ahead of their party's
primary presidential election in that state.

Clinton's ad is called "Scranton" and it is very heavy of pathos, or emotional appeal. It invokes very
warm childhood memories which, the ad's creators hoped, would show Senator Clinton's "softer
side" thus persuading more people to vote for her. The purpose of the ad is to stir emotion, and it
does it rather well. The problem with this approach is, however, that it does not tell voters much
about the concrete steps and activities Senator Clinton would undertake if elected. The ad is rather
thin on the logical appeal, and this, in turn, affects Clinton's ethos or credibility.

Barack Obama's ad is called "One Voice," and is calling on his supporters to "change the world."

While this is certainly a worthy cause, it is not clear from this ad how exactly Senator Obama intends
to change the world should he be elected. The reason for this lack of clarity is the heavy emphasis on
the pathetic appeal at the expense of logos. If you followed the presidential campaign of 2008, you
would know that the call for change which is so clear in this ad was Obama's main slogan, a
statement than became a large part of his ethos, or persona as a politician and as a rhetorician. This
ad succeeds in highlighting that part of Obama's political persona once again while, probably
intentionally, under-emphasizing logos.

Research Writing as Conversation

Writing is a social process. Texts are created to be read by others, and in creating those texts, writers
should be aware of not only their personal assumptions, biases, and tastes, but also those of their
readers. Writing, therefore, is an interactive process. It is a conversation, a meeting of minds, during
which ideas are exchanged, debates and discussions take place and, sometimes, but not always,
consensus is reached. You may be familiar with the famous quote by the 20th century rhetorician
Kenneth Burke who compared writing to a conversation at a social event. In his 1974 book The
Philosophy of Literary Form, Burke writes,

Imagine that you enter a parlor. You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and
they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you
exactly what it is about. In fact, the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there,
so that no one present is qualified to retrace for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for
a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar.
Someone answers; you answer him, another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against
you, to either the embarrassment of gratification of your opponent, depending upon the quality of
your ally's assistance. However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late, you must depart.
And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress (110-111).
This passage by Burke is extremely popular among writers because it captures the interactive nature
of writing so precisely. Reading Burke’s words carefully, we will notice that the interaction between
readers and writers is continuous. A writer always enters a conversation in progress. In order to
participate in the discussion, just like in real life, you need to know what your interlocutors have
been talking about. So you listen (read). Once you feel you have the drift of the conversation, you say
(write) something. Your text is read by others who respond to your ideas, stories, and arguments
with their own. This interaction never ends!

To write well, it is important to listen carefully and understand the conversations that are going on
around you. Writers who are able to listen to these conversations and pick up important topics,
themes, and arguments are generally more effective at reaching and impressing their audiences. It is
also important to treat research, writing, and every occasion for these activities as opportunities to
participate in the on-going conversation of people interested in the same topics and questions that
interest you.

Our knowledge about our world is shaped by the best and most up-to-date theories available to
them. Sometimes these theories can be experimentally tested and proven, and sometimes, when
obtaining such proof is impossible, they are based on consensus reached as a result of conversation
and debate. Even the theories and knowledge that can be experimentally tested (for example in
sciences) do not become accepted knowledge until most members of the scientific community
accept them. Other members of this community will help them test their theories and hypotheses,
give them feedback on their writing, and keep them searching for the best answers to their
questions. As Burke says in his famous passage, the interaction between the members of intellectual
communities never ends. No piece of writing, no argument, no theory or discover is ever final.
Instead, they all are subject to discussion, questioning, and improvement.

A simple but useful example of this process is the evolution of humankind’s understanding of their
planet Earth and its place in the Universe. As you know, in Medieval Europe, the prevailing theory
was that the Earth was the center of the Universe and that all other planets and the Sun rotated
around it. This theory was the result of the church’s teachings, and thinkers who disagreed with it
were pronounced heretics and often burned. In 1543, astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus argued that
the Sun was at the center of the solar system and that all planets of the system rotate around the
Sun. Later, Galileo experimentally proved Copernicus’ theory with the help of a telescope. Of course,
the Earth did not begin to rotate around the Sun with this discovery. Yet, Copernicus and Galileo’s
theories of the Universe went against the Catholic Church’s teachings that dominated the social
discourse of Medieval Europe. The Inquisition did not engage in debate with the two scientists.
Instead, Copernicus was executed for his views and Galileo was sentenced to house arrest for his
views.

Although in the modern world, dissenting thinkers are unlikely to suffer such harsh punishment, the
examples of Copernicus and Galileo teach us two valuable lessons about the social nature of
knowledge. Firstly, Both Copernicus and Galileo tried to improve on an existing theory of the
Universe that placed our planet at the center. They did not work from nothing but used beliefs that
already existed in their society and tried to modify and disprove those beliefs. Time and later
scientific research proved that they were right. Secondly, even after Galileo was able to prove the
structure of the Solar system experimentally, his theory did not become widely accepted until the
majority of people in society assimilated it. Therefore, new findings do not become accepted
knowledge until they penetrate the fabric of social discourse and until enough people accept them as
true.

Writing Activity: Finding the Origins of Knowledge

 Seeing writing as an exchange of ideas means seeing all new theories, ideas, and beliefs as
grounded in pre-existing knowledge. Therefore, when beginning a new writing project,
writers never work “from scratch.” Instead, they tap into the resources of their community
for ideas, inspiration, and research leads. Keeping these statements in mind, answer the
following questions. Apply your answers to one of the research projects described in this
book. Be sure to record your answers.

 Consider a possible research project topic. What do you know about your topic before you
begin to write?

 Where did this knowledge come from? Be sure to include both secondary sources (books,
websites, etc.) and primary ones (people, events, personal memories). Is this knowledge
socially created? What communities, groups, or people created it, how, and why?

 What parts of your current knowledge about your subject could be called “fact” and what
parts could be called “opinion?”

 How can your current knowledge about the topic help you in planning and conducting the
research for the project?

Share your thoughts with your classmates and instructor.

Conclusions

In this chapter, we have learned the definition of rhetoric and the basic differences between several
important rhetorical schools. We have also discussed how to key elements of the rhetorical situation:
purpose, audience, and context. As you work on the research writing projects presented throughout
this book, be sure to revisit this chapter often. Everything that you have read about here and every
activity you have completed as you worked through this chapter is applicable to all research writing
projects in this book and beyond. Most school writing assignments give you direct instructions about
your purpose, intended audience, and rhetorical occasion. Truly proficient and independent writers,
however, learn to define their purpose, audiences, and contexts of their writing, on their own. The
material in this chapter is designed to enable to become better at those tasks.

When you receive a writing assignment, it is very tempting to see it as just another hoop to jump
through and not as a genuine rhetorical situation, an opportunity to influence others with your
writing. It is certainly tempting to see yourself writing only for the teacher, without a real purpose
and oblivious of the context of your writing.

The material of this chapter as well as the writing projects presented throughout this book are
designed to help you think of writing as a persuasive, rhetorical activity. Conducting research and
incorporating its results into your paper is a part of this rhetorical process.