Chapter 1. Introduction to Magnetic Testing.

Non-destructive testing (NDT) defined as those methods used to test a part or material without impairing its future
usefulness.

Magnetic Particle testing is a method of detecting surface and near-surface discontinuities in a ferromagnetic
material.
Detects surface discontinuities, cracks, seams and laps.

Advantage to detect surface cracks and sub-surface discontinuities.

Disadvantage is part must be ferromagnetic, the test must be performed in two direction because of lines of flux,
limited by complex geometry and undesirable internal structure characteristics, demagnetization, possible
overheating or production of arcing, limitation in inspector skills.

Ultraviolet Lamps are of mercury vapor bulb.

Ultraviolet radiation is invisible radiant energy, accompanied by visible and infrared light.
UV-A (Long wave UV radiation) are wavelength between 320nm-400nm, used for FPI.
UV-B (Midwave or Erythemal UV radiation) are wavelength from 280nm-320nm, effects human skin.
UV-C (Short wave, actinic or germicidal UV radiation) are wavelength from 100nm-280nm, causes severe burns and
eye damage.
Ultraviolet Sources- Medium pressure, High intensity lamps. External reflector lamps, Ultraviolet bulbs.
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Testing.
Part 1. Introduction to Magnetic Tests

Principle of working is based upon Magnetic Flux Leakage

Test consist of 3 basic operation- application of magnetic flux, application of magnetic particles, examine the test
under suitable light condition, interpreting and evaluate indications.
Magnetic particle reveals surface discontinuities and show location and approximate size of it. Can also find out sub
surface discontinuities.
Applicable only to ferromagnetic materials, magnetic field directionality is important, defects should be nearly
perpendicular, demagnetization.

Part 2. Magnetic Field Theory

Magnetic Domains- materials that can be magnetized possess atoms that can be grouped into magnetically
saturated regions.
Domains have positive & negative polarity at opposite ends
Non-magnetized material have domains randomly oriented.
When subjected to magnetic field, domains attempt to align parallel to external field. Material acts as magnet.

Diamagnetic materials- substance who’s magnetic permeability less than that of air. Mercury, gold, bismuth.
Paramagnetic materials- substance who’s magnetic permeability is slightly more or equal to air. Aluminium, copper,
wood.
Ferromagnetic materials- substance who’s magnetic permeability is greater than air. Iron, nickel, cobalt.
Domains aligns with magnetic field and remains till external fields are not removed.

Sources of Magnetism.
Permanent magnets – produced by heat treating special alloy in intense magnetic field. Magnetos, telephones,
speakers. E.g. - Alnico (Aluminium, Nickel, Cobalt), Cunico (Copper, Nickel, Cobalt), Cunife (Copper, Nickel, Iron),
Comol (Cobalt, Molybdenum)

Earth’s Magnetic Field

Mechanically Induced Magnetism- Cold working of ferromagnetic material, during forming operations or in-service.

Part 3. Magnetic Flux & Flux Leakage

Magnetic Flux Density- The number of lines of flux per unit area (Tesla or Gauss)
Magnet flux leakage field- Area where flux lines leave the pole, travel through air and re-enter the magnet

Circular Magnetization Longitudinal Magnetization

Does not have poles, have closed loops like ring Have poles at the ends
Magnetic flux contained within the magnet Magnetic flux flows through magnet and enter exit at
poles
Magnetic field is around circumference Magnetic field is in axial direction

Effect of discontinuity- Intense magnetic flux leakage field formed when discontinuity is perpendicular to magnetic
flux flow.
When discontinuity is not perpendicular, the intensity of magnetic flux leakage field is reduced.
When discontinuity is parallel to magnetic flux flow, no magnetic flux leakage field is produced.
Part 4. Electrically Induced Magnetism

Circular Magnetization Longitudinal Magnetization

Direct Magnetization method Indirect Magnetization method
Magnetic field is oriented around the circumference of Magnetic field is oriented axially across the conductor
conductor
Magnetic field forms a complete loop within the Consists of Poles
material without poles
Direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the Direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the
current direction current direction in coils
Methods- Direct current, Central or Inner conductor Methods- Yoke, Coils or Solenoids.
(Used for hollow tubes and rings for ID and OD defects),
Prods,
Central conductors- for long steel tubes, insulated
metal rod inserted and wooden plank on ground to
prevent arc

Magnetic field strength is zero at inner surface or axis and maximum at the surface.
Right hand thumb rule applicable for current and magnetic field direction relation

Multi Direction Magnetization- Both circular and longitudinal magnetization induced.

Part 5. Magnet Particle Test System

Stationary or Wet Horizontal Magnetic Particle Test Systems (Shot Magnetization)

Consist of 1- High current, low voltage magnetizing source.

2- Head stock and tail stock to hold test object (Circular magnetization).
3- Movable coil (Longitudinal magnetization)
4- Particle suspension tank with agitation system.
5- Ampere meter, magnetizing control indicators.

Available in sizes 25mm to 6m contact plate testing.

Provides Alternating current, Direct current or combination of both.
Provide current output from 1 to 10kA.

Power Packs
These are electric sources which produce high amperage, low voltage magnetization current.
Used for large test objects.
Cannot be moved due to size and weight.
Current output for commercial power packs vary from 6 to 20 kA magnetization current.
Application by cable wraps, formed coils, prods and clamps.
Consist current control, ammeters, and auto shot duration timer.

Mobile Testing Units

Smaller versions of power packs.
Magnetization current output between 3 and 4kA.
A.C current and H.W.D.C current used.
Application by cable wraps, formed coils, prods and clamps.
Oil Field portable magnetization unit can give up to 15kA by capacitor discharge through internal conductors or cable
wraps.
Portable Testing Units
Compact and light weight units.
Common methods used is prods or clamps. Cable wraps and coils are used as well.

Prods
It’s a magnetizing accessory.
Used with stationary, mobile, power pack and portable unit.
Consist of pair of copper bar, 12 to 20 mm diameter, with handle and connecting cable.
1 handle has a trigger for current.
They setup circular magnetic field.
Avoided with components that can be damaged due to arcing.

Yokes
Often connected to mobile or portable units.
Yoke with self-contained magnetization force is called Hand Probe.
Contains magnetizing coil with a core of laminated transformer iron.
Legs are attached to the core that may be fixed or articulated.
Current through coil generates longitudinal magnetic field and longitudinal magnetic field generates in test object.
Specified by lifting capacity or surface field between legs measured by tesla meter.

Part 6. Ferromagnetic Materials Characteristics

Magnetic Flux and Units of Measure

Magnetic Flux- all the lines of flux in a given area.
Magnetic Flux Density- Flux per unit area or number of lines of flux passing transversely through a unit area.
Flux density decreases when distance increases. Strongest at the poles.

Before,
Unit of Magnetic Flux= Maxwell (1 Maxwell = 1 line of flux)
Flux Density = Gauss (1 Gauss= 1 Maxwell per square centimetre)

Present as per ISO

Flux Intensity measures using Weber.
1 Weber= 108 lines of flux.
Flux Density unit is Tesla (T)
1 Wb.m-2 = 1 T= 10000 Gauss (10 Kg)

Hysteresis
Affected by temperature, chemical composition, grain size and microstructures.
High permeability- Thin Hysteresis curve, Low permeability- Thick Hysteresis curve.
Permeability ↑- Reluctance↓, Residual Magnetism ↓, Retentivity ↓ Coercive Force ↓
Permeability- Ease with which material can be magnetized.
It is the ratio of flux density to magnetic field intensity.
𝐵
𝜇=
𝐻
Reluctance- It is the reciprocal of permeability. Resistance of a material to changes in magnetic field.
Saturation point- where any increase in field intensity does not increase flux density as material is magnetically
saturated.
Residual magnetism or Remanence – Amount of flux density remaining in the material after external field removed.
Retentivity- Ability of a ferromagnetic material to retain certain amount of magnetism after external field removed.
Coercive Force- Amount of reverse field intensity required to remove residual magnetism to zero.
Part 7. Types of Magnetizing Current

Alternating Current
Advantages 1- High sensitivity to surface discontinuities. Skin effect- Current reversal causes inductive effect that
concentrates magnetizing flux at object surface. Useful on irregular shape components.
2- Residual magnetism easy to demagnetize.
3- Increases mobility of particles due to current reversal.
4- A.C is effective than D.C on material with thick non-metallic coatings

Disadvantages 1- Concentration of flux at surface masks sub-surface discontinuities.

2- Some specification do not allow A.C current on plated components when coating is thicker than
0.08mm. Hard to determine when flux in test object is at its peak

Half-Wave Direct Current

Advantages 1- High penetrating power compared to F.W.D.C. Good for sub-surface discontinuities.
2- Max mobility of particles due to pulsating effect.
3- Dry particles enhanced by this current method.
4- Simple electric components, can be combined portable or mobile A.C unit.

Disadvantages 1- Demagnetization, Current does not reverse.

2- A.C current causes incomplete demagnetization due to deeper penetration.

Single Phase Full-Wave Direct Current

Advantages 1- Same penetrating power compared to three phase F.W.D.C.

2- Current fluctuations causes skin effect that is not significant.
3- Incorporates switching device to reverse current. This permits built-in reversing D.C
demagnetization.

Disadvantages 1- Input power requirements. Requires 1.73 times more input current than 3 phase units.

When test for both outer surface and inner surface discontinuities is necessary, it is best to test first the outer
surface discontinuities with alternating current and then test inner surface discontinuities with direct current.

Three Phase Full-Wave Direct Current

Advantages 1- Same advantages as of Single phase F.W.D.C.

2- Reduces the current demands nearly to half. Demand is also balanced.

Demagnetization
Either by heating to its curie temperature or by reverse electro magnetization.
Common methods of demagnetization- pass them through reverse A.C current or place object in coil and gradually
reduce current to zero.
Part 8. Media & Process in Magnetic Particle Testing

Two Classes of Media to define method: Dry & Wet.

Dry method particles applied without the addition of carrier vehicle.
Wet method particles are suspended in a liquid vehicle. (Water or light petroleum distillate similar to kerosene)

Particles also categorized by type of pigment bonded to them to improve visibility.

Visible particles- coloured to produce good contrast with test surface in white or visible light.
Fluorescent particles- coated with pigments that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light.
Third pigment category- coated with material that is both colour contrasting under visible light and fluorescent light.

Magnetic Particle Properties

Magnetic particle media consist of finely divided iron powder, ferromagnetic oxides.
They are irregular shaped, globular shaped, flakes or rod shaped (elongated).
Level of particles in suspension should be maintained consistent, from 0.1 ml to 0.4 ml in 100ml settling test.
Suspension vehicle be frequently changed because of foreign contamination.

Should have highest possible Permeability & Lowest possible Retentivity and Low coercive force.
If Retentivity high, particles will be magnetize during manufacture or first use, masking all discontinuities and
reduced contrast.
Disadvantage of high Retentivity
Magnetized particles attract to any ferromagnetic material causing extensive loss of particles from suspension.
They have tendency to clump forming large clusters

Media
Large particles not likely attracted by weak magnetic field.
Very small particles may adhere to surface where there is no leakage field forming objectionable background.

Effects of Particle Size

Dry Powder Particles

- Sensitivity to fine discontinuities increase as particle size decrease.
- Extremely small particles behave like dust. They settle and stick to surface even if it is smooth.
- Extremely fine particles high sensitive to low level leakage fields but not desirable for production test because of
intense background that obscure or mask relevant indication.
- Large particles not as sensitive to fine discontinuities. For large discontinuities large particles are favourable.
- Small particles provide sensitivity and mobility.
- Large particles help build up large discontinuities and help reduce background by sweeping action brushing fine
particles from test surface. Particle Diameter range ≤50 to 180μm (≤0.002 to 0.007μm).

Wet Method Visible Particles

- Particles here are much smaller than of dry powder. Particle size ≤5 to 20μm(2 x 10-4 to 8 x 10-4μm)
- Large particles difficult to hold in suspension. Particles tends to settle out of suspension rapidly and are stranded
as suspension is drains off. They may be confused with discontinuities.

Wet Method Fluorescent Particles

- Particles treated with fluorescent pigments or some visible pigments differ in size and behaviour from uncoated
visible particles (Black or red).
- Must be made to prevent separation of particles and magnetic material when in use.
- Mixture of loose pigment and unpigmented magnetic material produce dense background and dim indications.
Effect of Particle Shape
- Magnetic particles available in shapes: Sphere, elongated needle (rod) and flakes.
- Shape of particles effect how they form indication.
- Elongated particles have stronger tendency to align with flux line as they develop north & south poles and are
more reliable then spherical shapes.
- Because of actions of poles, they form strings. This result in formation of strong pattern in weaker flux leakage
field.
- Their effectiveness over globe particles can be seen in wide shallow discontinuities and subsurface ones.

Dry Powder Shapes

- Superiority of elongated shapes in diffused magnetic field is true for dry powder testing.

Wet Method Particle Shapes

- Performance of particles in suspension is not shape dependent as of dry powder.
- Due to suspension viscosity and density, particle movement is slow and accumulate reliability on discontinuities.

Visibility & Contrast

- Enhanced by choosing particular colour easy to see against test object surface.
- Natural colour of metallic powder is silver grey, colour of iron oxide in wet method powders are black and red.
- Manufacturers bond pigment to the particles to produce wide colours: black, red, white, blue and yellow.
- White & Yellow has good contrast on mill surface objects.
- Black & red used against silver grey of grit blasted, chemically etched surface, against bright, smooth polished
machine ground surface.
- Fluorescent particles less sensitive than visible particles.
- Military & commercial requirements for test site to be darkened to 20 Lux (2ftc) or less, & UV light intensity of
1000μW.cm-2 at test object surface.

Particle Mobility

Dry Powder Mobility

- Should be applied in a uniform cloud on the surface.
- Alternating current & H.W.D.C gives better mobility compared to direct magnetization.

Wet Method Particle Mobility

- Should be applied in a uniform cloud on the surface.
- Settling rate of particles is directly proportional to 1) their dimensions & 2) difference between their density and
lower density of liquid vehicle.
- Settling rate is inversely proportional to liquids viscosity.

Media Selection
Choice of media selection is influenced by following
- Type of discontinuity: Surface or sub surface, for sub surface discontinuities, dry powder is usually sensitive.
- Size of discontinuity: wet method is best for fine or broad, shallow discontinuities.
- Convenience: Dry powder with portable half wave equipment is easy to use on field, wet particles in aerosols are
also effective to test on field.

- Dry powder is superior for locating sub surface discontinuities because of high permeability and elongated shaper
of particles. AC current with dry powder is good for surface defects.
- For fine surface cracks wet method is the best method regardless of type of current.
- Wet method has advantage of complete coverage of test object and good coverage of irregular shaped object.
Magnetic Particle Testing Process
- Residual Method- When test object is magnetized first and particle is applied after the current has been stopped.
- Continuous Method- When test object is magnetized and particle is applied with current present.
- For test object with high Retentivity, combination of both are used.

Residual Test Method

- The test object is magnetized, the magnetizing current is stopped and the magnetic particle is applied.
- Used on material with sufficient magnetic remanence.
- Residual method is most reliable for surface discontinuities.
- Hard materials have high remanence.
- The difference in hard steel and soft steel is not critical if only surface discontinuities are to be detected.
- Dry and wet method both can be used.
- In immersion technique, the intensity of discontinuity indication is directly affected by objects dwell time in the
bath.
- Indications in immersion technique are more intense on upper horizontal surface and weaker on lower horizontal
or vertical surface.

Continuous Test Method

- Continuous method is more sensitive than residual method for any value of magnetizing current.
- It is the only method for material with low Retentivity, like low carbon steel or iron.
- Used mostly with alternating current for high mobility of magnetic particles.
- In this method if the current is stopped, particles held by discontinuities may be washed away.

Part 9. Magnetic Test Techniques

- Magnetization can be achieved by Permanent Magnets, Electromagnets, electric current used to induce required
magnetic field.
- Permanent Magnets offer least flexibility, they cannot be turned off.
- Electromagnets and electric current are used extensively to magnetize the object.

Capacitor Discharge Devices

- Has advances over battery packs.
- Large capacitance with low voltage has advantage than small capacitance with high voltage, because large
capacitance with low voltage lead to long duration pulses and lower eddy current.
- Lower voltage is an essential safety feature for outdoor use.
- Maximum of 50v is recommended.

Magnetic Test Probe

- Purpose is to detect and quantify the magnetic flux leakage field generated by heterogeneities of the test object.
- Leakage field is divided into 3 orthogonal components Normal (vertical), tangential (horizontal), and axial.
- Probes are designed or oriented to measure one of these components.

Pick Up Coils
- Consist of small coils that are either air core or small ferrite core.
- Voltage induced in coils is given by rate of change of flux linkages associated with pick up coils.
- Only components of flux parallel to coil or perpendicular to plane of coil is instrumental in inducing the voltage.
- Output of pick up coil is proportional to spatial gradient of flux along the coil and velocity of coil.
- Sensitivity of coil can be improved with ferrite coil.
- Coil is used to measure magnetic flux density B in tesla (or gauss) leaking from rectangular slots.
Magnetodiodes
- Suitable for sensing leakage field from discontinuities because of its small size and high sensitivity.
- Because of its small size, it is more sensitive to longitudinally angled discontinuities than coil probes.
- However coil probe is better for large discontinuities than Magnetodiodes such as cavities.

Hall Effect Detectors

- Extensively used in industry to measure leakage field in unit of tesla.

Giant Magnetoresistive Probes

- These are magnetic field sensitive devices.
- Consist of non-magnetic layer sandwich between 2 magnetic layers.
- Apparent resistivity of structure varies depending on whether electron spin is parallel or anti parallel to the
moment of magnetic layers.
- When moment associated with magnetic layer are anti parallel, electron spin in one direction (up) that are not
scattered in one layer will be scattered in other layer. This increases the resistance of device.
- When moment associated with magnetic layer are parallel, electron that are not scattered in one layer are not
scattered in other layer either.
- Uses biasing current to push magnetic layers into anti parallel moment state and external field is used to overcome
effect of bias.
- Resistance of device reduces as field intensity values increases.

Magnetic Tape
- Used for testing flat surfaces.
- Tape is pressed to surface of magnetized billet and then scanned by small probe before it is erased.
- Technique is sometimes called magnetography.
- In automated system, tape is fed from spool.

Imaging of Magnetic Particle Indications

Flying Spot Scanners

- Uses narrow beam of radiation.
- Visible light for non-fluorescent particles and UV radiation for fluorescent particles.

Charged coupled Devices

- Their cameras can be interfaced with computers through film grabbers.
- Object surface is flooded with radiation whose wavelength excites pigments of particles.
- Charged coupled device cameras, consist of optical filter which blocks the radiation but allow light emitted from
magnetic particles.
Part 10. Techniques of Magnetic Testing

Test Object Configurations

Short Asymmetrical Objects

Elongated Objects
Threaded Regions of Pipe
Ball Bearings & Races
Relatively Flat Surfaces

Discontinuity Mechanism

Metal Forming Industry

- Common Discontinuities in metal forming industry found by flux leakage – overlap, seams, quench cracks, gouges,
rolled in slugs and sub surfaces discontinuities.
- Tubular Goods- internal mandrels (plug scores) can be identified, these can act as stress risers. Quench cracks can
originate from them.
- Porosity and laminations may also be detrimental

Metal Processing Industries

- Grinding can cause cracking and to some changes in metallurgy.

Service induced discontinuities

- Crack, corrosion pitting, stress induced metallurgy changes, erosion.

Part 11. Magnetic Testing Applications

Discontinuities are categorized as per their origin in the stages of fabrication and service.

1. Primary Production and Processing Tests

- Used to inspect stages of processing from pouring and solidification of ingot to basic shapes includes sheets, bars,
tubes, castings, forgings.
- 2 subgroups, Inherent discontinuities those formed during solidification process and primary processing
discontinuities those formed during mill reduction.

2. Secondary Processing or Manufacturing and Fabrication Tests

- Used to inspect results of process that convert raw stock to finished components.
- Forming, machining, welding, heat treating discontinuities.

3. Service Tests
- Widely used to detect overstress and fatigue cracking.
- Cannot detect corrosion, deformation or wear.
- Can be used to detect material loss resulting from corrosion and abrasion.

Basic Ferromagnetic Material Production

- While in liquid state, the metal is poured into mold and allowed to solidify into shape called ingot or continuously
cast.
- Ingots are formed into semi furnished shapes called bloom, billets and slabs.
- Bloom- Rectangular shape with cross section larger than 0.02m2
- Billet- can be round or Rectangular shape with cross section from 1600mm2 to 0.02m2
- Slab- Intermediate shape between ingot and plate with width twice its thickness.
INHERENT DISCONTINIUTIES

PIPE
- Depression or cavity formed due to shrinkage during solidification process in mold or cast.
- Last metal to solidify in mold is top and centre.
- Impurities such as oxides and entrapped gases tend to migrate at centre and top and embed in last portions of
solidification.
- After solidification, upper portion is cut off to remove impurities.
- However if cavity is deeper or cropping is short some unsound metal will show up in intermediate shape as a void
called PIPE.
- Pipe is always centered in semi-finished shapes.

NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS
- Deoxidizing metals such as aluminium, manganese, silicon added to steel during refining operations consist non-
metallic matter. They easily get oxidized.
- The oxides and sulphides of the metal makes up majority of non-metallic inclusions.
- If scattered and distributed then it is not objectionable.
- Sometimes they collect during solidification and form large clumps.
- STRINGERS- During primary process these large clumps are rolled out in to large discontinuities.
- Stringers can cause fatigue cracking.
- FREE MACHINING STEELS- addition of lead or sulfur to molten steel.
- These alloys contain large number of non-metallic inclusions that break up and chip during machining operations.

BLOWHOLES
- Gases trapped in the ingot tries to rise up in the molten metal, when trapped forms a discontinuity called blowholes.
- Most of blowholes fills or weld shut during primary and secondary rolling process.
- Those near surface may have an oxidized skin and will not fuse, appearing as a seam in rolled, forged or extruded
products.
- Oxidized blowholes in the interior of slabs appears as laminations in plate product.

INGOT CRACKS
- Contraction of metal during solidification and cooling in ingot generates significant surface stresses and internal
stresses which can result in cracking.
- If cracks are internal and no air reaches them, they are usually welded shut during rolling and no discontinuity.
- If open to air or oxidized, they will not seal but remain in finished product.
- During rolling of ingot into billet, oxidized cracks form long seams.
PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINIUTIES

Primary process includes hot working and cold working methods of producing shapes such as plates, bar, rods, tubes
and pipes.
Forging and castings are also included.

SEAMS
- Originate from ingot cracks.
- Rolling and drawing operations also produce seams in the finished product.
- If reduction at any rolling pass is too great, an OVERFILL may then produce a projection from the billet.
- This projection can be folded or lapped on subsequent passes producing long deep seams.
- If the shape does not fill the rolls, resulting in a depression or surface groove.
- On subsequent pass, this UNDERFILL produces a seam running the full length of the shape.
- Seams from overfill are at acute angle to surface and seams from underfill are normal to the surface.
- Seams or Die marks can be introduced by defective or dirty dies during drawing operations. Such seams are shallow.
- They are objectionable if subjected to cyclic stresses in service causing fatigue cracks.

LAMINATIONS
- In plate, sheet, strips.
- Formed when blowholes or internal cracks are not fused shut during rolling but flattened and enlarged.
- MPT detects laminations only when it reaches and breaks the edge of plate.
- Laminations that are completely internal lie parallel to its surface and cannot be detected by MPT.