Wave Propagation On Metallic Transmission Lines

Using Ohm’s law, the characteristic impedance is simply the ratio of
the source voltage (Eo)

to the line current (Io), given by
Zo = Eo / Io , whereZo is characteristic impedance in ohms,Eo is source
voltage in
volts andIo is transmission line current in amps.
 Characteristic impedance of a two wire parallel transmission line with
an air dielectric
can be determined from its physical dimensions Zo = 276 log D/r
where D is distance
between the centres of the two conductors and R is radius of the
conductors.
 Characteristic impedance of a coaxial cable can also be determined
from its physical
dimensions:
where, D is inside diameter of the conductor andƐr is
relative dielectric constant of the insulating material.
Wave Propagation on Metallic Transmission Lines

EM waves travel at the speed of light through vacuum and nearly the
same through air, but they travel considerably slowly in metallic
transmission lines, where the conductor is generally copper and the
dielectric materials vary with cable type.
Velocity Factor and Dielectric Constant
Velocity factor is defined as the ratio of the actual velocity of
propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a given medium to
the velocity of propagation through a vacuum. Mathematically, given
as: Vf = Vp / c, where Vf is velocity factor, Vp is actual velocity of
propagation and c is velocity of propagation through a vacuum (3×108
m/s). Dielectric constant is simply the relative permittivity of a
material. The dielectric constant depends on the type of insulating
material used. The velocity at which an EM wave propagates along a
transmission line varies with the inductance and capacitance of the
cable. Time can be given as: T =√LC. Inductance, capacitance ad
velocity of propagation can
be given by the formula, velocity × Time = Distance
Therefore, Vp = Distance/ Time = D/T which can be written as Vp=D/
√LC If the distance is normalized to 1 meter, the velocity of
propagation for a lossless transmission line isVp= 1/ √LC
Metallic Transmission Line Losses
Signal power is lost in a transmission line through different ways:
conductor loss, radiation loss, dielectric heating loss, coupling loss and
corona. All these losses are lumped together and are specified as
attenuation loss in decibels per unit length
Conductor Losses: As electrical current flows through a metallic
transmission line, there is an inherent and unavoidable power loss
because of the finite resistance present in the line. This loss is termed
as conductor loss or conductor heating loss and is simply I2r power
loss.
Radiation Losses: Radiation and Induction losses are similar in that
both are caused by the fields surrounding the conductors. Induction
losses occur when the electromagnetic field about a conductor cuts
through any nearby metallic object and a current is induced in that
object. Radiation losses are reduced by properly shielding the cable.
Therefore, STP and coaxial cables have less radiation than UTP, twin
lead and openwire.
Coupling Losses: Coupling loss occurs whenever a connection is
made to or from a transmission line or when two sections of
transmission line are connected together. Discontinuities are the
locations where dissimilar materials meet and they tend to heat up,
radiate energy, and dissipate power.
Corona: Corona is a luminous discharge that occurs between the two
conductors of a transmission line, when the difference of potential
between them exceeds the breakdown voltage of the dielectric
insulator. When corona occurs, the transmission line is destroyed.
OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MEDIA :

Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables, Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Cables, Electromagnetic spectrum, Optical Fiber Communications
System Block Diagram, Optical Fiber construction, The Physics of Light,
Velocity of Propagation, Propagation of Light Through an Optical fiber
Cable, Optical Fiber Modes and Classifications, Optical Fiber
Comparison, Losses in Optical Fiber Cables, Light sources, Light
Detectors, Lasers.
An optical communications system is one that uses light as the carrier
of information. They use glass or plastic fiber cables to contain the
light waves and guide them in a manner similar to the way EM waves
are guided through a metallic transmission media.
Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables
 Wider bandwidth and greater information capacity: The light wave
occupies the frequency range between 2×1012 Hz to 37×1012 Hz.
This makes the information carrying capability of fiber optic cables is
much higher.
 Immunity to crosstalk: Since fiber optic cables use glass and plastic
fibers, which are non-conductors of electrical current, no magnetic field
is present. No magnetic induction means no crosstalk.
 Immunity to static interference: As optical fiber cables are non-
conductors, they are immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
caused by lightning, electric motors, relays, fluorescent lights and
other electrical noise sources.
 Environmental immunity: Optical fibers are more immune to
environmental extremes. They can operate over large temperature
variations and are also not affected by corrosive liquids and gases.
 Safety and convenience: As only glass and plastic fibers are present,
no electrical currents or voltages are associated with them. Also they
can be used around any volatile liquids and gasses without worrying
about their causing explosions or fires.
 Lower transmission loss: Fiber optic cables offers less signal
attenuation over long distances. Typically, it is less than 1 dB/km
 Security: Optical fibers are more secure as they are almost
impossible to tap into because they do not radiate signals. No ground
loops exist between optical fibers hence they are more secure.
 Durability and reliability: Optical cables last longer and are more
reliable than metallic facilities because fiber cables have a higher
tolerance to changes in environmental conditions and are immune to
corrosive materials.
 Economics: Cost of optical fiber cables is same as metallic cables.
Fiber cables have less loss and require fewer repeaters, which in turn
needs lower installation and overall system costs.
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables

 Interfacing costs: As optical cables need to be connected standard
electronic facilities requiring expensive interfaces
 Strength: Optical cables have lower tensile strength than coaxial
cable. They need an extra coating of Kevlar and also a protective
jacket of PVC. Glass fiber is also fragile making them less attractive in
case of hardware portability is required
 Remote electrical power: Occasionally, electrical power needs to be

provided to remote interfaces, which cannot be accomplished using
optical cables
 Losses through bending: Bending the cable causes irregularities in
the cable dimensions, resulting in loss of signal power. Also, optical
cables are prone to manufacture defects causing an excessive loss of
signal power.
 Specialized tools, equipment and training: Special tools are required
to splice and repair cables and special test equipment are needed to
make routine measurements. Technicians working on optical cables
need special skills and training.

Wave Propagation On Metallic Transmission Lines

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Using Ohm’s law, the characteristic impedance is simply the ratio of

the source voltage (Eo)

Wave Propagation on Metallic Transmission Lines

OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MEDIA :

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables

 Remote electrical power: Occasionally, electrical power needs to be

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