1 - Oberlender

Estimating
Construction Costs
Fifth Edition
Robert L. Peurifoy
Garold D. Oberlender
Me
Graw
Hill
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ESTIMATING CONSTRUCTION COSTS
Fifth Edition
International Edition 2004
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The photograph on the cover shows a slipform concrete paving machine.

Courtesy of Wittwer, Inc. of Wichita, Kansas. Reproduced by permission.
10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01
20 09 08 07 06 05 04
CTF ANL
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Peurifoy, R. L. (Robert Leroy), 1902-1995

Estimating construction costs / Robert L. Peurifoy, Garold D. Oberlender. — 5thed.
p. cm. — (McGraw-Hill series in construction engineering and project management)
Includes index.
ISBN 0-07-243580-1
1. Building—Estimates—United States. I. Oberlender, Garold D. n. Title. III. Series.
TH435 .P47 2002
692’.5—dc21 2001041039
CIP
When ordering this title, use ISBN 007-123945-6
Printed in Singapore
www.mhhe.com
DEDICATION
In m em ory of R o b e rt L. P e u rifo y, for his pioneering w o rk as an

author, engineer, and teacher of construction engineering. His appli
cation of engineering principles to the construction industry has
greatly contributed to the construction profession. Through out m y
career he w a s an inspiration to m e as a teacher, m entor, colleague,
and friend.
GAROLD D. OBERLENDER
iii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Robert L. Peurifoy (deceased) was a distinguished author and consulting engi

neer in the engineering and construction profession. He received his M.S. from
the University of Texas. He taught civil engineering at the University of Texas
and Texas A &I College and construction engineering at Texas A&M University
and Oklahoma State University. Mr. Peurifoy served as a highway engineer for
the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads and was a contributing editor of Roads and
Streets Magazine. He was the author of two other books: Construction Planning,
Equipment, and Methods and Formwork fo r Concrete Structures, and wrote
over 50 magazine articles dealing with construction. Professor Peurifoy was a
registered professional engineer and a member of the American Society of Civil
Engineers and the American Society for Engineering Education.
Garold D. Oberlender is professor and coordinator of the graduate program in

construction engineering and project management in the School of Civil
Engineering at Oklahoma State University. He received his Ph.D in civil engi
neering from the University of Texas at Arlington. Dr. Oberlender has con
ducted research and presented seminars on a variety of topics related to con
struction engineering and project management. A civil engineer with more than
35 years of experience, he has been a consultant to numerous companies in the
design and construction of projects. He is also author of Project Management for
Engineering and Construction, second edition, and coauthor with Robert L.
Peurifoy of Formwork fo r Concrete Structures, third edition. Dr. Oberlender is
a registered professional engineer in several states and a fellow in the American
Society of Civil Engineers. In addition, he is an active member of and has held
offices in the National Society of Professional Engineers. He is a member of the
American Society for Engineering Education and the Project Management
Institute.
iv
CONTENTS
About the Authors iv Computer Applications 18

Preface xiii Forms for Preparing Estimates 20
C H APT ER 2
C HAPT ER 1 Bid D ocum ents 22
Introduction 1
Bid Documents and Contract
Purpose of This Book 1 Documents 22
Estimating 2 Contract Requirements 23
Importance of the Estimator and the Arrangement of Contract Documents 23
Estimating Team 3 Building Construction Specifications 24
Purpose of Estimating 3 Heavy/Highway Specifications 25
Types of Estimates 4 Bidding Requirements 25
Approximate Estimates 5 Negotiated Work 32
Detailed Estimates 6 Addendum 32
Organization of Estimates 7 Alternates 32
Building Construction Projects 8 Change Order 32
Heavy Engineering Construction Projects 9 Warranties 33
Quantity Takeoff 11 General Conditions of the Contract
Labor and Equipment Crews 12 Documents 33
Checklist of Operations 12 Bonds 33
Bid Documents 13 Insurance 35
Addenda and Change Orders 14 Heavy/Highway Drawings 36
Overhead 14 Building Construction Drawings 37
Material Taxes 15 Symbols and Abbreviations 42
Labor Taxes 15 Problems 43
Workmen’s Compensation Insurance 15
Labor Burden 16
Bonds 16 CHAPT ER 3
Insurance 16 Estim ating P ro c ess 44
Representative Estimates 17 Decision to Bid 44
Instructions to the Readers 17 Estimating Process 44
Production Rates 17 The Estimating Team 46
Tables of Production Rates 18 Estimate Work Plan 47
vi Contents
Methods and Techniques 49 Cost of Labor 82

Preparing Estimates 50 Social Security Tax 82
Estimating Procedures 51 Unemployment Compensation Tax 82
Estimate Checklists 52 Workers’ Compensation and Employer’s
Documentation of Estimate 53 Liability Insurance 83
Estimate Reviews 54 Public Liability and Property Damage
Insurance 83
Risk Assessment 57
Fringe Benefits 84
Risk Analysis 57
Production Rates for Labor 85
Contingency 57
Traditional Methods of Assigning Construction Equipment 88
Contingency 58 Sources of Equipment 88
Estimate Feedback for Continuous Equipment Costs 8 8

Improvement 62 Ownership Costs 90
Problems 63 Operating Costs 93
Problems 99
C HAPT ER 4
C onceptual C ost Estim ating 64 6
C HAPT ER
Accuracy of Conceptual Estimates 64 Handling and Transporting

Liability of Conceptual Cost Estimates 65 Material 101
Preparation of Conceptual Estimates 65 Introduction 101
Broad-Scope Conceptual Estimates 6 6 Cycle Time and Production Rate
Time Adjustments for Conceptual Calculations 102
Estimates 67 Handling Lumber 106
Adjustments for Location 6 8 Transporting Sand and Gravel 108
Adjustment for Size 69 Handling and Transporting Bricks 112
Combined Adjustments 69 Unloading and Hauling Cast-Iron
Unit-Cost Adjustments 70 Pipe 115
Narrow-Scope Conceptual Cost Problems 116
Estimates 72
Factors Affecting Cost Records 72
Conceptual Costs for Process Industry 72
CHAPTER 7
Earthwork and E xcavation 119
Problems 79
Job Factors 119
Management Factors 119
C HAPT ER 5 Methods of Excavating and Hauling
C ost of C onstruction Labor and Earth 120
Equipment 81
Physical Properties of Earth 120
Construction Labor 81 Excavating by Hand 123
Sources of Labor Rates 81 Excavating with Trenching Machines 125
v iii Contents
Prefabricated Form Panels 228 CHAPT ER 11

Commercial Prefabricated Forms 229 S te e l Structures 263
Forms for Concrete Columns 230 Types of Steel Structures 263
Material Required for Concrete Column Materials Used in Steel Structures 263
Forms 232
Estimating the Weight of Structural
Quantities of Materials and Labor-Hours Steel 264
for Column Forms 234
Connections for Structural Steel 264
Economy of Reusing Column Forms 236
Estimating the Cost of Steel Structures 264
Column Heads, Capitals, and Drop
Items of Cost in a Structural-Steel
Panels 238
Estimate 265
Shores and Scaffolding 238
Cost of Standard Shaped Structural
Material and Labor-Hours for Concrete Steel 265
Beams 240
Cost of Preparing Shop Drawings 265
Forms for Flat-Slab Concrete Floors 243
Cost of Fabricating Structural Steel 267
Patented Forms for Floor Slabs 246
Cost of Transporting Steel to the Job 267
Material and Labor-Hours Required for
Cost of Fabricated Structural Steel
Metal-Pan Concrete Floors 247
Delivered to a Project 268
Corrugated-Steel Forms 248
Erecting Structural Steel 270
Cellular-Steel Floor Systems 249
Labor Erecting Structural Steel 275
Concrete Stairs 249
Field Painting Structural Steel 277
Reinforcing Steel 251 Problems 278
Types and Sources of Reinforcing
Steel 251
Properties of Reinforcing Bars 252
CHAPT ER 12
Estimating the Quantity of Reinforcing
Carpentry 279
Steel 252 Introduction 279
Cost of Reinforcing Steel 253 Classification of Lumber 279
Labor Placing Reinforcing Steel Plywood 282
Bars 254 Cost of Lumber 283
Welded-Wire Fabric 256 Nails and Spikes 283
Concrete 256 Bolts and Screws 284
Cost of Concrete 256 Timber Connectors 287
Quantities of Materials for Concrete 257 Fabricating Lumber 288
Labor and Equipment Placing Rough Carpentry Houses 289
Concrete 258 House Framing 289
Lightweight Concrete 260 Sills 290
Perlite Concrete Aggregate 260 Floor Girders 290
Tilt-Up Concrete Walls 261 Floor and Ceiling Joists 291
Problems 262 Studs for Wall Framing 293
Contents v ii
Wheel-Type Trenching Machines 127 Transporting and Laying Asphalt

Ladder-Type Trenching Machines 127 Mixes 183
Excavating with Draglines 129 Compacting Asphalt Concrete Mixes 185
Handling Material with a Clamshell 131 Equipment for Hot-Mix Asphaltic-Concrete
Excavating with Hydraulic Pavement 186
Excavators 132 Cost of Hot-Mix Asphaltic-Concrete
Front Shovels 133 Pavement 186
Computer Estimating of Highway
Hauling Excavated Materials 136
Projects 191
Backhoes 138
Problems 191
Excavating and Hauling Earth with
Scrapers 141
Shaping and Compacting Earthwork 146 C HAPT ER 9
Drilling and Blasting Rock 149 Foundations 193
Cost of Operating a Drill 151
Types of Foundations 193
Problems 154
Footings 194
Sheeting Trenches 194
CHAPT ER 8 Pile-Driving Equipment 196
H ighw ays and P avem en ts 158 Sheet Piling 200
Wood Piles 202
Operations Included 158
Driving Wood Piles 203
Clearing and Grubbing Land 158 Prestressed Concrete Piles 204
Land-Clearing Operations 158 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles 205
Rates of Clearing Land 160 Steel Piles 206
Disposal of Brush 164 Jetting Piles into Position 209
Demolition 165 Drilled Shaft Foundations 209
Problems 213
Concrete Pavements 165
General Information 165
Preparing the Subgrade for Concrete CHA PT ER 10
Pavements 166 C oncrete Structures 215
Construction Methods Used 167
Batching and Hauling Concrete 167 Cost of Concrete Structures 215
Placing Concrete Pavements 168 Forms for Concrete Structures 215
Concrete Pavement Joints 170 Materials for Forms 216
Curing Concrete Pavement 172 Labor Required to Build Forms 220
Forms for Slabs on Grade 220
Asphalt Pavements 179 Materials for Footings and Foundation
Aggregates 179 Walls 220
Asphalts 180 Quantities of Materials and Labor-Hours
Asphalt Plants 181 for Wall Forms 223
Contents ix
Framing for Window and Door Slate Roofing 319

Openings 295 Clay Tile Roofing 319
Rafters 295
Built-Up Roofing 320
Prefabricated Roof Trusses 298 Felt for Built-Up Roofing 320
Roof Decking 299 Pitch and Asphalt 320
Wood Shingles 300 Gravel and Slag 320
Subfloors 300 Laying Built-Up Roofing on Wood
Exterior Finish Carpentry 302 Decking 321
Fascia, Frieze, and Comer Boards 302 Laying Built-Up Roofing on Concrete 321
Soffits 303 Labor Laying Built-Up Roofing 322
Wall Sheathing 303 Flashing 323
Aesthetic Exterior Siding 303 Metal Flashing 323
Heavy Timber Structures 304 Flashing Roofs at Walls 324
Problems 305 Flashing Valleys and Hips 324
Labor Required to Install Flashing 326
Problems 326
C HAPT ER 13
Interior Finish, Millwork, and
W allboards 307 C H APT ER 15
Interior Finish Carpentry 307 Masonry 327
Labor-Hours Required to Set and Trim Masonry Units 327
Doors and Windows 307 Estimating the Cost of Masonry 327
Wood Furring Strips 308 Mortar 328
Gypsum Wallboards 309
Bricks 329
Wall Paneling 309
Sizes and Quantities of Bricks 329
Interior Trim Moldings 310
Pattern Bonds 329
Finished Wood Floors 310
Types of Joints for Brick Masonry 331
Problems 312
Estimating Mortar for Bricks 331
Quantity of Mortar for Brick Veneer
C HAPT ER 14 Walls 332
Roofing and Flashing 314 Accessories for Brick Veneer Walls 333
Cleaning Brick Masonry 333
Roofing Materials 314
Solid Brick Walls 334
Area of a Roof 314
Labor Laying Bricks 335
Steepness of Roofs 315
Roofing Felt 315 Concrete Masonry Units 338
Labor Laying Concrete Masonry
Roofing Shingles 315 Units 339
Wood Shingles 315
Asphalt Shingles 316 Stone Masonry 342
X Contents
Bonds for Stone Masonry 342 Terrazzo Placed on a Wood Floor 364
Mortar for Stone Masonry 342 Labor Required to Place Terrazzo
Weights of Stone 342 Floors 364
Cost of Stone 343 Vinyl Tile 366
Labor Setting Stone Masonry 344 Laying Vinyl Tile on a Concrete
Problems 345 Floor 366
Laying Vinyl Tile on a Wood Floor 366
CHAPT ER 16 Labor Laying Vinyl Tile 366
Floor S y ste m s 347 Problems 367
Steel-Joist System 347

General Description 347 CHAPT ER 18
Floor and Ceiling 347 G lass and Glazing 368
Bridging 348 Glass 368
Metal Decking 349 Glass for Steel and Aluminum Sash 369
Ceiling Extensions 349 Putty Required to Glaze Steel and
Joist End Supports 349 Aluminum Sash 369
Size and Dimensions of Steel Joists 349 Labor Required to Install Glass 369
Cost of Steel Joists 350 Problems 371
Labor Erecting Steel Joists 350
Labor Installing Metal Decking 351
CHA PT ER 19
Labor Placing Welded-Wire Fabric 351 Painting 372
Concrete for Slabs 352
Materials 372
Combined Corrugated-Steel Forms and Covering Capacity of Paints 373
Reinforcement fo r Floor System 355
Preparing a Surface for Painting 374
Description 355
Labor Applying Paint 375
Installing Corrugated Sheets 355
Equipment Required for Painting 375
Labor Installing Corrugated Sheets 356
Cost of Painting 375
Problems 377
C HAPT ER 17
Floor F inishes 359
CHAPTER 2 0
Concrete-Floor Finishes 359
Monolithic Topping 359
Plumbing 378
Separate Concrete Topping 360 Plumbing Requirements 378
Labor Finishing Concrete Floors with a Plumbing Code 379
Power Machine 361 Sizes of Soil and Waste Pipe 380
Terrazzo Floors 363 Steel Pipe 380
Terrazzo Topping Bonded to a Concrete Brass and Copper Pipe 381
Floor 364 Copper Tubing 382
Contents xi
PVC Water-Supply Pipe 382 Labor Required to Install Electric

Indoor CPYC Plastic Water Pipe 384 Fixtures 403
Labor Installing Plastic Water Pipe 384 Problems 404
Soil, Waste, and Vent Pipes 384
House Drain Pipe 385
CHAPTER 2 2
Fittings 385
S ew era g e S y ste m s 406
Valves 386
Traps 386 Items Included in Sewerage Systems 406
Sewer Pipes 406
Roughing in Plumbing 386 Construction Operations 407
Estimating the Cost of Roughing in
Constructing a Sewerage System 408
Plumbing 386
Cost of Materials for Rough Plumbing 386 Trenchless Technology 415
Cost of Lead, Oakum, and Solder 387 Microtunneling 415
Plastic Drainage Pipe and Fittings 387 Microtunnel Boring Machine 416
Labor Required to Rough in Remote Control System 419
Plumbing 388 Active Direction Control 419
Automated Spoil Transportation 419
Finish Plumbing 392
Labor Required to Install Fixtures 394 Jacking Pipe 419
Problems 394 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Microtunneling Methods 420
Microtunneling Process 421
CHA PT ER 21
Electric Wiring 396
CHAPTER 23
Factors That Affect the Cost of Water Distribution S y stem s 423
Wiring 396
Cost of Water Distribution Systems 423
Items Included in the Cost of Wiring 397
Pipelines 423
Roughing in Electrical Work 397 Bell-and-Spigot Cast-Iron Pipe 424
Types of Wiring 397 Push-on Joint Cast-Iron Pipe 425
Rigid Conduit 398 Fittings for Bell-and-Spigot Cast-Iron
Flexible Metal Conduit 398 Pipe 425
Armored Cable 398 Mechanical-Joint Cast-Iron Pipe 426
Nonmetallic Cable 399 Valves 426
Electric Wire 399 Service Lines 426
Accessories 399 Fire Hydrants 427
Cost of Materials 400 Tests of Water Pipes 427
Labor Required to Install Electric Sterilization of Water Pipes 427
Wiring 400 Cost of Cutting Cast-Iron Pipe 427
Finish Electrical Work 402 Labor Required to Lay Cast-Iron Pipe 428
x ii Contents
Labor Required to Lay Cast-Iron Pipe with Commercially Available Estimating

Mechanical Joints 430 Software 451
Labor Required to Lay Push-on Joint Cast- Management of Data 454
Iron Pipe 431 Starting an Estimate 456
Cost of a Cast-Iron Pipe Water Distribution Biditems 458
System 433 Quantity Takeoff 460
Horizontal Directional Drilling 436 Resource Types 460
Procedure for Horizontal Directional Resources 462
Drilling 437
Labor Resources 463
Production Rates 440
Precision in Labor Costing 466
Equipment Resources 467
CHAPTER 24 Material 469
Total C ost of Engineering Crews 470
P rojects 441 Structuring the Estimate 471
Cost of Land, Right-of-Way, and Entering the Estimate 473
Easements 441 Copying from Past Estimates 475
Legal Expenses 442 Checking Estimates for
Bond Expense 442 Reasonableness 477
Cost of Construction 442 Inquiries 478
Engineering Expense 442 Turning a Cost Estimate into a Bid 479
Interest during Construction 443 Bid Pricing 482
Contingencies 444 Quote Solicitation 484
Example Estimate for Total Cost of an Taking Quotes 485
Engineering Project 444 Turning in the Bid 486
Loading HeavyBid/Express from the CD
CHAPTER 25 Included with This Book 488
Computer Estim ating 445 Problems 489
Introduction 445
Importance of the Estimator 446 APPENDIX
Use of Computers in Estimating 446 Exam ple Bid D ocum ents 498
Electronic Media 448
Evolution of Computer Programming 448 Index 549 »■
Fundamentals of Spreadsheets 449
PREFACE
This book presents the basic principles of estimating the time and cost of con
struction projects. To prepare an accurate estimate the estimator must perform a
careful and thorough analysis of the work to be performed. The analysis includes
the type and quantity of work, type and size of equipment to be used during con
struction, production rates of labor and equipment to install the work, and other
job-site conditions that are unique to the project that can impact the time and
cost of construction.
This book emphasizes the thought process that is required of the estimator
to analyze job conditions and assess the required labor, equipment, and method
of construction that will be necessary to perform the work. To assemble a com
plete estimate for bid purposes, the estimator must combine his or her knowl
edge of construction methods and techniques into an orderly process of calcu
lating and summarizing the cost of a project.
Estimating is not an exact science. Knowledge of construction, common
sense, and judgment are required. Experienced estimators agree that the proce
dures used for estimating vary from company to company, and even among indi
viduals within a company. Although there are variations, fundamental concepts
that are universally applicable do exist. The information contained in this book
presents the fundamental concepts to assist the reader in understanding the esti
mating process.
In preparing this fifth edition, the author has retained the fundamental con
cepts of estimating that have made this book successful. Numerous example
problems have been added to illustrate new construction methods and the vari
ous techniques of preparing cost estimates. Throughout the book, the example
problems are presented in a consistent format, beginning with quantities of
materials and production rates through pricing of labor, material, and equipment.
Many of the chapters have extensive revisions. The Conceptual Cost
Estimating chapter has been expanded with additional emphasis on preparing
early estimates. The Highways and Pavements chapter has been completely
rewritten to include modem equipment and illustrative examples of preparing
cost estimates for asphalt and concrete pavements.
This revised edition of the book has three new chapters: Bid Documents,
Estimating Process, and Computer Estimating. The reader is introduced to those
aspects of the contract document that specifically apply to preparing estimates.
The new chapter on Estimating Process presents the total estimating process,
including development of cost databases, establishment of estimating proce
dures, and retrieving costs from completed projects for use in preparing future
estimates. A discussion of assessing and assigning contingency is also covered
in this chapter.
x iii
x iv Preface
A new chapter on computer estimating is presented and a CD-ROM of

HeavyBid/Express is included with this book. This chapter begins with a dis
cussion of the advantages and disadvantages of spreadsheets and progresses to
commercial estimating software. Throughout this chapter helpful insights are
presented in the use of computers for preparing cost estimates. The tutorial on
the CD-ROM assists the reader in the process of computer estimating.
The author would like to thank Heavy Construction Systems Specialists
(HCSS) for permission to include their HeavyBid/Express software with this
book. In particular, a special thanks to Mike Rydin of HCSS for his assistance
in developing the new chapter on computer estimating.
The author would also like to thank Dr. Dennis Luckinbill and Dr.
Mohammad Najafi for their assistance in providing information and editing the
new material on trenchless technology: microtunneling and horizontal direc
tional drilling.
McGraw-Hill and the author would like to thank the following reviewers for
their many comments and suggestions: Stuart Anderson, Texas A&M
University; Daniel Farhey, University of Dayton; Jesus de la Garza, Virginia
Tech; William Maloney, University of Kentucky; Cliff Schexnayder, Arizona
State University; Raymond Werkmeister, University of Kentucky; and Janet
Yates, San Jose State University.
Finally, the author greatly appreciates the patience and tolerance of his wife,
Jana, for her support and encouragement during the writing and editing phases
in producing this fifth edition.
Garold D. Oberlender, Ph.D, P.E.

Introduction
PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK
The purpose of this book is to enable the reader to gain fundamental knowledge
of estimating the cost of projects to be constructed. Experienced estimators
agree that the procedures used for estimating vary from company to company,
and even among individuals within a company. Although there are variations,
fundamental concepts that are universally applicable do exist. The information
contained in this book presents the fundamental concepts to assist the reader in
understanding the estimating process and procedures developed by others. This
book can also serve as a guide to the reader in developing his or her own esti
mating procedures.
There are so many variations in the costs of materials, labor, and equipment
from one location to another, and over time, that no book can dependably give
costs that can be applied for bidding purposes. However, the estimator who
learns to determine the quantities of materials, labor, and equipment for a given
project and who applies proper unit costs to these items should be able to esti
mate the direct costs accurately.
This book focuses on basic estimating, not workbook estimating. Basic esti
mating involves analysis of the work to be performed: including the type and
quantity of work, type and size of equipment to be used during construction, pro
duction rates of labor and equipment to install the work, and other job-site con
ditions that are unique to the project that can impact the time and cost of con
struction. After these items are defined, both the estimated time and cost to build
the project can be determined. The typical question in basic estimating is: How
much time will our labor and equipment be on the job? Once that question is
answered, the cost of labor and equipment can easily be calculated by multiply
ing the hourly or daily rates of labor and equipment times the time they will be
on the job. Based on the quantity and quality of material, the cost of material can
easily be obtained from a material supplier. Both the time and cost to do the
work are obtained in basic estimating.
Estimating Construction Costs
Workbook estimating involves performing a material quantity takeoff,

obtaining unit costs from a nationally published cost manual, and multiplying
the quantity of work times the unit cost of material and labor to determine the
cost estimate. Workbook estimating is quick, simple, and easy to perform.
However, unit costs can vary widely, depending on the volume of work, weather
conditions, competition of prices, variations in the skill and productivity of
workers, and numerous other factors. In workbook estimating, the cost is deter
mined directly from the material quantities, without regard to how long the
workers and/or equipment will be on the job. Workbook estimating emphasizes
obtaining the cost to do the work, rather than the time to do the work.
Subsequent chapters of the book present the principles and concepts of esti
mating construction costs. Emphasis is placed on the thought process that is
required of the estimator to analyze job conditions and assess the required labor,
equipment, and method of construction that will be necessary to perform the
work. These are functions that can be performed only by the estimator because
experience and good judgment are required to prepare reliable estimates.
To assemble a complete estimate for bid purposes, the estimator must com
bine his or her knowledge of construction methods and techniques into an
orderly process of calculating and summarizing the cost of a project. This
process requires the assembly of large amounts of information in an organized
manner and numerous calculations must be performed. The computer is an ideal
tool to facilitate this process by decreasing the time and increasing the accuracy
of cost estimating. The computer can retrieve data and perform calculations in
seconds, enabling the estimator to give more attention to alternative construction
methods, to assess labor and equipment productivity, to obtain prices from sub
contractors and material suppliers, and to focus on bidding strategies. Today,
computers are used extensively for cost estimating.
The final chapter of this book is devoted to computer estimating. Although
the computer is an effective tool for estimating, the estimator must still control
the estimating process. In simple language, the computer should work for the
estimator, the estimator should not work for the computer. The estimator must
know the software that he or she is using, both its capabilities and its limitations.
The results of a computer estimate are only as good as the estimator using the
computer. The computer cannot exercise judgment; only the estimator has that
capability.
ESTIMATING
Estimating is not an exact science. Knowledge of construction, common sense,
and judgment are required. Estimating material costs can be accomplished with
a relatively high degree of accuracy. However, accurate estimating of labor and
equipment costs is considerably more difficult to accomplish.
Estimating material costs is a relatively simple and easy task. The quantity
of materials for a particular job can be accurately calculated from the dimensions
on the drawings for that particular job. After the quantity of material is calcu
lated, the estimator can obtain current unit prices from the supplier and then mul
Chapter 1 Introduction
tiply the quantity of material by the current unit price to estimate the cost of
materials. Applying a percentage for material waste is the only adjustment of the
material cost that may require judgment of the estimator.
Estimating labor and equipment costs is considerably more difficult than
estimating material costs. The cost of labor and equipment depends on produc
tivity rates, which can vary substantially from one job to another. The estimator
and his or her team should evaluate the job conditions for each job and use their
judgment and knowledge of construction operations. The skill of the laborers,
job conditions, quality of supervision, and many other factors affect the produc
tivity of labor. The wage rate of laborers can be determined with relative accu
racy. Also, the quantity of work required by laborers can be determined from the
plans and specifications for a job. However, the estimator must use his or her
judgment and knowledge about the job to determine the expected productivity
rate of laborers. Likewise, the estimator’s judgment and knowledge of equip
ment and job conditions are required to determine the expected equipment pro
ductivity rate.
IMPORTANCE OF THE ESTIMATOR AND THE

ESTIMATING TEAM
Whether using computers, or not, the estimator and his or her team play a vital
role in preparing estimates. Information must be assembled, organized, and
stored. Cost records from previously completed projects and cost quotes from
suppliers, vendors, and subcontractors must be gathered. Assessment of job
conditions and evaluation of labor and equipment and productivity rates must be
performed. The estimator must review and check all parts of an estimate to
ensure realistic costs. The estimator must also document the estimate so it can
be used for cost control during the construction process.
The computer can assist in these activities, but the estimator must manage
and control the estimating process. The estimator has to be able to work under
pressure because most estimates are prepared in stringent time frames. The qual
ity and accuracy of an estimate is highly dependent on the knowledge and skill
of the estimator.
PURPOSE OF ESTIMATING
The purpose of estimating is to determine the forecast costs required to complete
a project in accordance with the contract plans and specifications. For any given
project, the estimator can determine with reasonable accuracy the direct costs for
materials, labor, and equipment. The bid price can then be determined by adding
to the direct cost the costs for overhead (indirect costs required to build the proj
ect), contingencies (costs for any potential unforeseen work), and profit (cost for
compensation for performing the work). The bid price of a project should be
high enough to enable the contractor to complete the project with a reasonable
profit, yet low enough to be within the owner’s budget.
There are two distinct tasks in estimating: determining the probable real cost
and determining the probable real time to build a project. With an increased
emphasis on project planning and scheduling, the estimator is often requested to
provide production rates, crew sizes, equipment spreads, and the estimated time
required to perform individual work items. This information, combined with
costs, allows an integration of the estimating and scheduling functions of con
struction project management.
Because construction estimates are prepared before a project is constructed,
the estimate is, at best, a close approximation of the actual costs. The true cost
of the project will not be known until the project has been completed and all
costs have been recorded. Thus, the estimator does not establish the cost of a
project: he or she simply establishes the amount of money the contractor will
receive for constructing the project.
TYPES OF ESTIMATES
There are many estimates and re-estimates for a project, based on the stage of
project development. Estimates are performed throughout the life of a project,
beginning with the first estimate and extending through the various phases of
design and into construction, as shown in Fig. 1.1. Initial cost estimates form the
basis to which all future estimates are compared. Future estimates are often
expected to agree with (i.e., be equal to or less than) the initial estimates.
However, too often the final project costs exceed the initial estimates.
Figure 1.1 I Estimates and re-estimates through phases of project development.
Although each project is unique, generally three parties are involved: the
owner, the designer, and the contractor. Each has responsibility for estimating
costs during various phases of the project. Early in a project, prior to the design,
the prospective owner may wish to know the approximate cost of a project
before making a decision to construct it. As the design of the project progresses,
the designer must determine the costs of various design alternatives to finalize
the design to satisfy the owner’s budget and desired use of the project. The con
tractor must know the cost required to perform all work in accordance with the
final contract documents, and the plans and specifications.
Cost estimates can be divided into at least two different types, depending on
the purposes for which they are prepared and the amount of information known
when the estimates are prepared. There are approximate estimates (sometimes
called feasibility, screening, authorization, preliminary, conceptual, order-of-

magnitude, equipment-factored, or budget estimates) and detailed estimates
(sometimes called final, bid/tender, or definitive estimates).
There is no industry standard that has been established for defining esti
mates. Individual companies define estimate names and percent variations that
they use based on their experience with a particular type of construction and
operating procedures within the company. Various organizations have also
defined classifications of cost estimates. For example, Table 1.1 is the cost esti
mation classification by the Association for the Advancement of Cost
Engineering (AACE) International. In general, an early estimate is defined as an
estimate that has been prepared before completion of detailed engineering. This
definition applies to Class 5, Class 4, and early Class 3 estimates of AACE
International.
TA B L E 1.1 I AACE International cost estimation classifications (18R-97).
Estimate Level of project End usage— Expected

class definition Typical purpose of estimate accuracy range
Class 5 0% to 2% Concept screening -5 0 % to 100%
Class 4 1% to 5% Study or feasibility -3 0 % to +50%
Class 3 10% to 40% Budget, authorization, or control -2 0 % to +30%
Class 2 30% to 70% Control or bid/tender -1 5 % to +20%
Class 1 50% to 100% Check estimate or bid/tender -1 0 % to +15%
APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES
The prospective owner of a project establishes the budget for a project. For
example, a government agency will need to know the approximate cost before
holding a bond election, or it may need to know the approximate cost to ensure
that the cost of a project does not exceed the funds appropriated during a fiscal
year. The prospective owner of a private construction project will generally con
duct a feasibility study during the developmental phase of a project. As a part of
the study, an economic analysis is undertaken to compare the cost of construc
tion with potential earnings that can be obtained upon completion of the project.
Privately owned utility companies, and other types of multiple-builder owners,
prepare annual construction budgets for all projects proposed during a fiscal
year. An approximate estimate is sufficiently accurate for these purposes.
The designer of a project must determine the costs of various design alterna
tives to obtain an economical design that meets the owner’s budget. An architect
may reduce a building to square feet of area, or cubic feet of volume, and then
multiply the number of units by the estimated cost per unit. An engineer may
multiply the number of cubic yards of concrete in a structure by the estimated cost
per cubic yard to determine the probable cost of the project. Considerable expe
rience and judgment are required to obtain a dependable approximate estimate for
the cost, because the estimator must adjust the unit costs resulting from the
quantities of material, workmanship, location, and construction difficulties.

Approximate estimates are sufficiently accurate for the evaluation of design
alternatives or the presentation of preliminary construction estimates to the
owner, but are not sufficiently accurate for bid purposes.
When the time for completion of a project is important, the owner may
select a construction contractor before the design has been completed. A con
tractor may be asked to provide an approximate cost estimate based on limited
information known about the project. The contractor determines the approxi
mate costs for various work items, such as the cost per cubic yard for founda
tions, the cost per pound of structural steel, and the cost per square foot for fin
ished rooms. Based on preliminary quantities of work, the contractor calculates
a preliminary cost for construction of the project. The owner may then negotiate
a construction contract with the contractor based on the approximate cost esti
mate. Construction projects of this type require owners who are knowledgeable
in project management and contractors who have developed good project record
keeping. Screening of design/build contractors is often based partly on the
approximate estimate for a project.
DETAILED ESTIMATES
A detailed estimate of the cost of a project is prepared by determining the costs
of materials, labor, equipment, subcontract work, overhead, and profit.
Contractors prepare detailed estimates from a complete set of contract docu
ments prior to submission of the bid or formal proposal to the owner. The
detailed estimate is important to both the owner and the contractor because it
represents the bid price—the amount of money the owner must pay for comple
tion of the project and the amount of money the contractor will receive for build
ing the project.
The preparation of the detailed estimate generally follows a systematic proce
dure that has been developed by the contractor for his or her unique construction
operations. The process begins with a thorough review of the complete set of con
tract documents—the bidding and contract requirements, drawings, and technical
specifications. It is also desirable to visit the proposed project site to observe fac
tors that can influence the cost of construction, such as available space for storage
of materials, control of traffic, security, and existing underground utilities.
The compilation of costs begins with a well-organized checklist of all work
items necessary to construct the project. The estimator prepares a material quan
tity takeoff of all materials from the drawings. This involves tabulating the quan
tity and unit of measure of all work required during construction. Upon comple
tion of the quantity takeoff, an extension of prices is performed. The quantity of
material multiplied by the unit cost of the material yields the material cost. The
quantity of work required of equipment is divided by the equipment production
rate and then multiplied by the unit cost of equipment to obtain the total cost of
equipment. Similarly, dividing the quantity of work required for labor by the
labor production rate and then multiplying by the unit cost of labor obtains the
cost of labor.
For many projects, a significant amount of work is performed by subcon
tractors who specialize in a particular type of work. For building type projects,
examples include clearing, drywall, painting, and roofing contractors. For
heavy/highway type projects, examples of subcontract work include guardrails,
striping, signs, and fences. The estimator provides a set of drawings and speci
fications to potential subcontractors and requests a bid from them for their par
ticular work. Subcontractors and suppliers normally quote the cost of their work
by e-mail, fax, or phone just prior to final submission of the bid.
The direct cost of a project includes material, labor, equipment, and sub
contractor costs. Upon completion of the estimate of direct costs, the estimator
must determine the indirect costs of taxes, bonds, insurance, and overhead
required to complete the project. Taxes on labor and materials vary, depending
on geographic locations. Bond requirements are defined in the specifications for
the project. Examples include bid bonds, material and labor payment bonds, and
performance bonds. Insurance requirements are also defined in the contract bid
documents. Examples include workmen’s compensation, contractor’s public lia
bility and property damage, and contractor’s builders risk insurance. The base
estimate is the total of direct and indirect costs.
A risk analysis of uncertainties is conducted to determine an appropriate
contingency to be added to the base estimate. Regardless of the effort and
amount of detailed estimating of a project, there is almost always some unfore
seen work that develops during construction. Caution must be used in assigning
contingency to an estimate. A contingency that is too low might reduce the prof
its in a project, while a contingency that is too high may prevent the bid from
being competitive.
Upon calculation of the direct and indirect costs, analysis of risk, and assign
ment of contingency, a profit is added to the estimate to establish the bid price.
The amount of profit can vary considerably, depending on numerous factors,
such as the size and complexity of the project, amount of work in progress by
the contractor, accuracy and completeness of the bid documents, competition for
work, availability of money, and volume of construction activity in the project
area. The profit may be as low as 5 percent for large projects or as high as 30
percent for small projects that are high risks or remodels of existing projects.
Table 1.2 lists the steps required to compile a detailed estimate for a project.
ORGANIZATION OF ESTIMATES
A comprehensive and well-defined organization of work items is essential to the
preparation of an estimate for any project. Each contractor develops her or his
own procedures to compile the cost of construction for the type of work the
company performs. The contractor’s system of estimating and use of forms
develop over years of experience in that type of w ork.,
T A B L E 1 .2 I Steps for preparing a detailed estimate.
1. Review the scope o f project. Consider the effect of location, security, traffic, available storage
space, underground utilities, method of payment, etc. on costs.
2. Determine quantities. Perform a material quantity takeoff for all work items in the project, and
record the quantity and unit of measure for each item.
3. Obtain suppliers' bids. Receive and tabulate the cost of each supplier on the project.
4. Price material. Extend material costs:
Material cost = Quantity x Unit price
5. Price labor. Based on probable labor production rates and crew sizes, determine labor costs:
Labor cost = (Quantity/Labor production rate) x Labor rate
6. Price equipment. Based on probable equipment production rates and equipment spreads,
determine equipment costs:
Equipment cost = (Quantity/Equipment production rate) x Equipment rate
7. Obtain specialty contractors' bids. Receive and tabulate the cost for each specialty contractor
on the project.
8. Calculate taxes, bonds, insurance, and overhead. Tabulate the costs of material and labor
taxes, bonds, insurance, and job overhead.
9. Contingency and markup. Add costs for potential unforeseen work based on the amount of
risk.
10. Profit. Add costs for compensation for performing the work in accordance with the bid
documents.
Two basic approaches have evolved to organize work items for estimating.
One approach is to identify work by the categories contained in the project’s
written specifications, such as those of the Construction Specification Institute
(CSI) for building construction projects. The other approach uses a work break
down structure (WBS) to identify work items by their location on the project.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

Building construction contractors usually organize their estimates in a format
that closely follows the CSI numbering system, which divides work into 16
major divisions. This organization of work provides a systematic checklist and
serves as a guide for the quantity takeoff, price extensions, and summary of costs
for the final estimate. Since an estimate has 10 to 80 items in each division, a
comprehensive estimate will have at least from 160 to 1,280 line items of costs.
A typical summary of an estimate for a building construction project is
shown in Table 1.3. Each major division is subdivided into smaller items of
work. For example, the work required for division 2, sitework, is subdivided into
clearing, excavation, compaction, handwork, termite control, drilled piers, foun
dation drains, landscape, and paving. Table 1.4 gives the direct costs of material
and labor for these items.
Chapter 1 Introduction 9
T A B L E 1 .3 I Example of building construction project bid summary using the CSI format.
Item Division Material Labor Subcontract Total

1 General requirements $ 16,435 $ 36,355 $ 4,882 $ 57,672
2 Sitework 15,070 20,123 146,186 181,389
3 Concrete 97,176 51,524 0 148,700
4 Masonry 0 0 212,724 212,724
5 Metals 213,224 59,321 0 272,545
6 Wood and plastics 38,753 10,496 4,908 54,157
7 Thermal and moisture 0 0 138,072 138,072
8 Doors and windows 36,821 32,115 0 68,936
9 Finishes 172,587 187,922 0 360,509
10 Specialties 15,748 11,104 9,525 36,377
11 Equipment 0 0 45,729 45,729
12 Furnishings 0 0 0 0
13 Special construction 0 0 0 0
14 Conveying systems 0 0 0 0
15 Mechanical 0 0 641,673 641,673
16 Electrical 0 0 354,661 354,661
Total for Project $605,814 + $408,960 + $1,558,360 $2,573,144
Material tax (5%) $30,291 2,603,435
Labor tax (18%) 73,613 2,677,048
Contingency (2%) 53,541 2,730,589
Bonds/insurance 34,091 2,764,680
Profit (10%) 276,468 3,041,148
Bid price = $3,041,148
TABLE 1 .4 I Division 2 estimate for sitework.
Cost code Division Quantity Material Labor Subcontract Total

2110 Clearing Lump sum $ 0 $ 0 $ 3,694 $ 3,694
2220 Excavation 8,800 cy 0 11,880 9,416 21,296
2250 Compaction 950 cy 0 2,223 722 2,945
2294 Handwork 500 sy 0 1,750 0 1,750
2281 Termite control Lump sum 0 0 3,475 3,475
2372 Drilled piers 1,632 lin ft 14,580 2,800 4,524 31,904
2411 Foundation drains 14 each 490 » 1,470 0 1,960
2480 Landscape Lump sum 0 0 8,722 8,722
2515 Paving 4,850 sy 0 0 105,633 105,633
Totals = $15,070 + $20,123 + $146,186 = $181,389
HEAVY ENGINEERING
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Heavy engineering construction contractors generally organize their estimates in
a WBS unique to the project to be constructed. An example of the WBS orga
nization of an estimate for an electric power construction project is illustrated in
10 Estimating Construction Costs
Tables 1.5 to 1.7. Major areas of the project are defined by groups: switch sta
tion, transmission lines, substations, etc., as shown in Table 1.5. Each group is
subdivided into divisions of work required to construct the group. For example,
Table 1 . 6 provides a work breakdown for all the division of work required to
construct group 2100, transmission line A: steel fabrication, tower foundations,
steel erection, etc. Each division is further broken down into components of
work required to construct each division. For example, Table 1.7 provides a
work breakdown for all the components of work required to construct division
2370, tower foundations: drilling, reinforcing steel, foundation concrete, and
stub angles. The WBS provides a systematic organization of all the information
necessary to derive an estimate for the project.
TA B LE 1.5 I Example of electric power construction bid summary using the WBS organization of work
group-level report for total project.
Labor and
No. Group Material Equipment Subcontract Total
1100 Switch station $1,257,295 $ 323,521 $3,548,343 $ 5,126,167
2100 Transmission line A 3,381,625 1,260,837 0 4,641,462
2300 Transmission line B 1,744,395 0 614,740 2,358,135
3100 Substation at Spring Creek 572,874 116,403 1,860,355 2,549,632
4200 Distribution line A 403,297 54,273 215,040 672,610
4400 Distribution line B 227,599 8,675 102,387 427,661
4500 Distribution line C 398,463 21,498 113,547 532,508
Total for project $7,985,548 + $1,872,215 + $6,453,412 $16,311,175
TA B LE 1.6 1Division-level report for transmission line A— Code 2100.
Code Description Material Labor Equipment Total

2100 TRANSMISSION LINE A
2210 Fabrication of steel towers $ 692,775 $ 0 $ 0 $ 692,775
2370 Tower foundations 83,262 62,126 71,210 216,598
2570 Erection of steel towers 0 144,141 382,998 527,139
2620 Insulators and conductors 2,605,588 183,163 274,744 3,063,495
2650 Shield wire installation 0 78,164 63,291 141,455
Total for 2100 $3,381,625 + $467,594 + $792,243 = $4,641,462
TA B LE 1.7 I Component-level report for tower foundations--C o d e 2370.
Code Description Quantity Material Labor Equipment Total

2370 TOWER FOUNDATIONS
2372 Drilling foundations 4,198 lin ft $ 0 $25,428 $44,897 $ 70,325
2374 Reinforcing steel 37.5 tons 28,951 22,050 15,376 66,377
2376 Foundation concrete 870 cy 53,306 13,831 10,143 66,377
2378 Stub angles 3,142 each 1,005 817 794 2,616
Total for 2370 $83,262 + $62,126 + $71,210 = $216,598
Other types of heavy engineering projects, such as highways, utilities, and

petrochemical and industrial plants, are organized in a WBS that is unique to
their particular types of work. The total estimate is a compilation of costs in a
WBS that matches the project to be constructed.
Regardless of the system of estimating selected, either CSI or WBS, to each
work item in the estimate a code number should be assigned that is reserved
exclusively for that work item for all estimates within the contractor’s organiza
tion. This same number should also be used in the accounting, job cost, pur
chasing, and scheduling functions, to enable one to track the work items during
construction.
QUANTITY TAKEOFF
To prepare an estimate the estimator reviews the plans and specifications and
performs a quantity takeoff to determine the type and amount of work required
to build the project. Before starting the quantity takeoff, the estimator must
know how the project is to be constructed and he or she prepares a well-organized
checklist of all items required to construct the project.
The quantity of material in a project can be accurately determined from the
drawings. The estimator must review each sheet of the drawings, calculate the
quantity of material, and record the amount and unit of measure on the appro
priate line item in the estimate. The unit costs of different material should be
obtained from material suppliers and used as the basis of estimating the costs of
materials for the project. If the prices quoted for materials do not include deliv
ery, the estimator must include appropriate costs for transporting materials to the
project. The cost of taxes on materials should be added to the total cost of all
materials at the end of the estimate.
Each estimator must develop a system of quantity takeoff that ensures that
a quantity is not omitted or calculated twice. A common error in estimating is
completely omitting an item or counting an item twice. A well-organized check
list of work will help reduce the chances of omitting an item. A careful recheck
of the quantity calculations will detect those items that might be counted twice.
The estimator must also add an appropriate percentage for waste for those items
where waste is likely to occur during construction. For example, a 5 percent
waste might be added to the volume of mortar that is calculated for bricklaying.
The material quantity takeoff is extremely important for cost estimating
because it often establishes the quantity and unit of measure for the costs of
labor and the contractor’s equipment. For example, the quantity of concrete
material for piers might be calculated as 20,000 cubic yards (cy). The labor-
hours and the cost of labor required to place the concrete would also be based
on 20,000 cy of material. Also the number and the cost of the contractor’s equip
ment that would be required to install the concrete would be based on 2 0 , 0 0 0 cy
of material. Therefore, the estimator must carefully and accurately calculate the
quantity and unit of measure of all material in the project.
LABOR AND EQUIPMENT CREWS

Prior to preparing the quantity takeoff, an assessment of how the project will be
constructed must be made. The assessment should include an analysis of the job
conditions, labor and equipment crews, and appropriate subdivisions of the
work. To illustrate, consider a grading and paving project. Typically, the quan
tity takeoff for grading is cubic yards of material. An evaluation of the job con
ditions considers the type of soil, including presence of rock, and the required
haul distance to select the appropriate equipment to perform the work. If both
soil and rock are present, the work may be subdivided into ordinary earth exca
vation and rock excavation. For ordinary earth excavation with long haul dis
tances, scrapers may be used for excavating, hauling, and distributing the earth.
For the rock excavation, the equipment crew may include drilling and blasting,
or ripping the rock with a dozer, and a loader with a spread of trucks to haul the
loosened rock. Table 1 . 8 is an example of a labor and equipment crew for a grad
ing operation.
T A B L E 1 .8 i Construction crew for
a grading operation.
Supervisor and pickup

Small self-loading scraper
Medium size scraper
Small dozer for assisting scraper
Dozer with ripper
Front end loader, 3 cy
Hydraulic excavator
Small tractor backhoe/box blade
Self-propelled vibrator sheepfoot roller
Self-propelled nine-wheel pneumatic roller
Motor grader
Water truck
Single axle flatbed dump truck
Tandem axle dump truck
Common laborer
Skilled laborer
Traffic flag person
The paving work can be subdivided into three categories: main line paving,
short run paving, curbs and gutters, and handwork paving. For each of these sub
divisions a different crew and equipment spread would be required. Table 1.9
shows a typical crew and equipment mix for asphalt work in an urban area, and
Table 1.10 shows a typical crew and equipment mix for a curb and gutter con
crete paving crew.
CHECKLIST OF OPERATIONS
To prepare an estimate, an estimator should use a checklist that includes all the
operations necessary to construct the project. Before completing an estimate,
TA B L E 1.9 I Asphalt crew for TA B L E 1.10 I Curb and gutter concrete

urban work. paving crew.
Labor Labor
Supervisor Supervisor
Paving machine operator Concrete finisher—three total
Screed operator Concrete finisher helper
Steel wheel roller operator Form setter— stringline setter
Asphalt raker Form setter—stringline setter helper
Asphalt laborer Laborer
Asphalt distributor operator Equipment
Traffic flag person Supervisor’s pickup
Equipment Flatbed truck and hand tools
Supervisor's pickup Small tool storage van
Service truck and hand tools Slipform curb and gutter machine
Asphalt paver Miscellaneous steel forms/stringline equipment
Asphalt roller Concrete saw/cure spray machine
Asphalt distributor truck Air compressor
Front-end loader/box blade tractor Small tractor
Self-propelled sweeper
one should check this list to be sure that no operations have been omitted. The
CSI master format provides a uniform approach for organizing project informa
tion for building projects. Tables 1.3 and 1.4 illustrate the cost summary of an
estimate following the CSI format.
It is desirable for the operations to appear, as nearly as possible, in the same
order in which they will be performed during construction of the project. Other
checklists, serving the same purpose, should be prepared for projects involving
highways, water systems, sewerage systems, etc.
The checklist can be used to summarize the costs of a project by providing
a space for entering the cost of each operation, as illustrated in Tables 1.3 to 1.7.
A suitable symbol should be used to show no cost for those operations that are
not required. The total cost should include the costs for material, equipment, and
labor for the particular operation, as determined in the detailed estimate.
BID DOCUMENTS
The end result of the design process is the production of a set of bid documents
for the project to be constructed. These documents contain all the drawings and
written specifications required for preparing the estimate and submitting the bid.
Written specifications can be divided into two general parts: one part addresses
the legal aspects between the owner and contractor, while the other part
addresses the technical requirements of the project. The legal part of the written
specifications contains at least four items that are important to the estimator:
procedures for receipt and opening of bids, qualifications required of bidders,
owner’s bid forms, and bonds and insurance required for the project. Bid docu
ments are discussed further in Chapter 2.
ADDENDA AND CHANGE ORDERS

An addendum is a change in the contract documents during the bidding process.
Sometimes the designer or owner may wish to make changes after the plans and
specifications have been issued, but before the contractors have submitted their
bids. Also, a contractor may detect discrepancies in the plans and specifications
while preparing an estimate. When an error is detected, the contractor should
notify the designer to note any discrepancies.
An addendum is issued by the designer to make changes or correct errors in
the plans and specifications. An addendum may be a reissue of a drawing or
pages in the written specifications. Each addendum is given a number. After it
is issued, an addendum becomes a part of the contract document. Thus, it is
important for the estimator to ensure that the cost of all addenda are included in
the estimate before submitting a final bid.
Any change in the contract documents after the contract is signed is called
a change order. For most projects, changes are necessary during the construc
tion process. Examples include additions or modifications requested by the
owner, substitution of materials, or adverse weather conditions. A change
order may add or delete work in the project, increase or decrease costs, or
increase or decrease the time allowed for construction. In some situations, a
change order may make a change that does not include any adjustment in time
or cost.
OVERHEAD
The overhead costs chargeable to a project involve many items that cannot be
classified as permanent materials, construction equipment, or labor. Some firms
divide overhead into two categories: job overhead and general overhead.
Job overhead includes costs that can be charged specifically to a project.
These costs are the salaries of the project superintendent and other staff person
nel and the costs of utilities, supplies, engineering, tests, drawings, rentals, per
mits, insurance, etc., that can be charged directly to the project.
General overhead is a share of the costs incurred at the general office of the
company. These costs include salaries, office rent, permits, insurance, taxes, shops
and yards, and other company expenses not chargeable to a specific project.
Some contractors follow the practice of multiplying the direct costs of a
project, materials, equipment, and labor by an assumed percentage to determine
the probable cost of overhead. Although this method gives quick results, it may
not be sufficiently accurate for most estimates.
While it is possible to estimate the cost of job overhead for a given project,
it is usually not possible to estimate accurately the cost of general overhead
chargeable to a project. Since the cost of general overhead is incurred in operat
ing all the projects constructed by a contractor, it is reasonable to charge a por
tion of this cost to each project. The actual amount charged may be based on the
duration of the project, the amount of the contract, or a combination of the two.
Chapter 1 Introduction 15
EXAMPLE 1.1
This example illustrates a method of determining the amount of general overhead
chargeable to a given project.
Average annual value of all construction = $6,000,000
Average annual cost of general overhead = 240,000
Amount of general overhead chargeable to a project:
$240,000 x 100
= 4% of total project cost
$ 6 ,000,000
MATERIAL TAXES
After the direct costs for materials and labor have been determined, the estima
tor must include the applicable taxes for each. The tax rate for materials will
vary depending on the location. Generally a 3 percent state tax and a 2 to 3 per
cent city or county tax are assessed on materials. Therefore the tax on materials
will range from 3 to 6 percent. It is the responsibility of the estimator to include
the appropriate amount of tax in the summary of the estimate.
Some states and cities charge a tax on the value of equipment used on the
project. It is necessary for the estimator to obtain information on required taxes
for the particular location where the project is to be constructed.
Some owners, such as churches and schools, are tax exempt provided the
owner makes the purchase of material. Thus, the owner may wish to purchase
all materials and equipment that will be permanently installed in the project by
the contractor. For this situation, the contract documents will have a section that
describes how the owner will issue purchase orders for payment by the owner.
LABOR TAXES
There are two basic type of taxes on labor. The federal government requires a
7.65 percent tax on all wages up to $76,000 per year. In addition, an unemploy
ment tax of approximately 3 percent may be required. Therefore, the total tax on
labor is approximately 11 percent. The estimator must determine the appropri
ate tax on labor and include that amount in the summary of the estimate. A dis
cussion of labor costs is presented in Chapter 5.
WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION INSURANCE

Contractors pay workmen’s compensation insurance for workers who may
become injured while working on the project. This insurance provides medical
expenses and payment of lost wages during the period of injury.
Each state has laws and regulations that govern workmen’s compensation
insurance. The cost also varies, depending on the type of work that is performed
by each worker and by geographic location within the state. The cost for this
insurance can range from 10 to 30 percent of the base cost of labor.
LABOR BURDEN
The term labor burden refers to the combined cost of labor taxes and insurance
that a contractor must pay for workers. Some contractors multiply the base cost
of labor by a certain percentage to estimate the total cost of labor. The total labor
burden for construction labor generally ranges from 25 to 35 percent.
BONDS
Generally bidders are required to submit bonds as qualifications for submitting
a bid for a project. To provide financial and legal protection for the owner, the
contractor secures bonds from a surety company on behalf of the owner. Thus,
bonding is a three-party arrangement. It is issued by the security company, paid
by the contractor, for the protection of the owner.
Three types of bonds are commonly required in construction contracts: bid
bond, performance bond, and payment bond. The bid bond ensures the owner
that the contractor will sign the contract for the bid amount. The performance
bond ensures the owner that the contractor will perform all work in accordance
with the contract documents. The payment bond ensures the owner that all mate
rial and labor will be paid. If the contractor defaults, the bonding company
agrees to fulfill the contract agreement.
The purchase cost of bonds depends on the total bid price and the success of
the contractor in completing previous jobs. Chapter 2 provides further informa
tion on bonds and the estimating process.
INSURANCE
There are many risks involved in construction. Many types of insurance are
available for protection to contractors, employees, subcontractors, and the gen
eral public. The two most common types of insurance that are secured by the
contractor are basic builder’s risk, which covers the project that is being con
structed, and public liability and property damage, which covers actions of the
contractor’s employees while performing their work at the jobsite.
Basic builder’s risk insurance affords a contractor protection against loss
resulting from fire and lightning damage during the period of construction.
Public liability and property damage insurance protects the contractor against
injuries to the general public or public property due to actions of the employees
while performing work during construction.
Chapter 2 provides a detailed discussion of insurance costs that should be
included in preparing an estimate.
REPRESENTATIVE ESTIMATES
Numerous examples of estimates are presented in this book to illustrate the steps
to follow in determining the probable cost of the project. Nominal amounts are
included for overhead and profit in some instances to give examples of complete
estimates for bid purposes. In other instances, only the costs of materials, con
struction equipment, and labor are included. The latter three costs are referred to
as direct costs. They represent the most difficult costs to estimate, and they are
our primary concern.
In preparing the sample estimate, unit prices for materials, equipment, and
labor are used primarily to show how an estimate is prepared. Note that these
unit costs will vary with the time and location of a project. An estimator must
obtain and use unit prices that are correct for the particular project. Estimators
do not establish prices; they simply use them.
Remember that estimating is not an exact science. Experience, judgment,
and care should enable an estimator to prepare an estimate that will reasonably
approximate the ultimate cost of the project.
INSTRUCTIONS TO THE READERS

In the examples in this book, a uniform method is used for calculating and
expressing the time units for equipment and labor and the total cost. For equip
ment, the time is expressed in equipment-hours, and for labor it is expressed in
labor-hours. A labor-hour is one person working 1 hour or two people each
working \ hour.
If a job that requires the use of four trucks lasts 16 hours, the time units for
the trucks are the product of the number of trucks and the length of the job,
expressed in hours. The unit of cost is for 1 truck-hour. The calculations are as
follows:
Trucks: 4 trucks X 16 hr = 64 truck-hours @ $28.50/hr = $1,824.00
In a similar manner, the time and cost for the truck drivers are:
Truck drivers: 4 drivers X 16 hr = 64 labor-hours @ $18.50/hr = $1,184.00
The terms “64 truck-hours” and “64 labor-hours” can be shortened to read 64 hr
without producing ambiguity.
PRODUCTION RATES
To determine the time required to perform a given quantity of work, it is neces
sary to estimate the probable rates of production of the equipment or labor.
These rates are subject to considerable variation, depending on the difficulty of
the work, skill of the laborer, job and management conditions, and the condition
of the equipment.
A production rate is the number of units of work produced by a unit of

equipment or a person in a specified unit of time. The time is usually 1 hr. The
rate may be determined during an interval when production is progressing at the
maximum possible speed. It is obvious that such a rate cannot be maintained for
a long time. There will always be interruptions and delays that reduce the aver
age production rates to less than the ideal rates. If a machine works at full speed
only 45 minutes per hour (min/hr), the average production rate will be 0.75 of
the ideal rate. The figure 0.75 is defined as an efficiency factor.
A backhoe with a 1-cy bucket may be capable of handling 3 bucket-loads
per minute under ideal conditions. However, on a given job the average volume
per bucket may be only 0 . 8 cy and the backhoe may be actually operating only
45 min/hr. For these operating conditions, the average output can be calculated
as follows:
The ideal output: 3 cy/min X 60 min/hr = 1 8 0 cy/hr
The bucket factor: 0.8
The efficiency factor: 45/60 = 0.75
The combined operating factor: 0.8 X 0.75 = 0.6
The average output: 0.6 X 180 cy/hr = 1 0 8 cy/hr
The average output should be used in computing the time required to complete
a job.
TABLES OF PRODUCTION RATES

In this book, numerous tables give production rates for equipment and laborers.
In all tables the rates are adjusted to include an operation factor, usually based
on a 45- to 50-min working hour. If this factor is too high for a given job, the
rates should be reduced to more appropriate values.
When preparing an estimate for a project, if access is available to produc
tion rates obtained from actual jobs constructed under similar conditions, an esti
mator should use them instead of rates appearing in tables that represent general
industry averages.
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
An estimator must assemble a large amount of information in an organized man
ner and perform numerous calculations to prepare a cost estimate. The estima
tor can use the computer to organize, store, and retrieve information and to per
form the many calculations necessary to prepare an estimate. It can be an
effective tool for decreasing preparation time and increasing the accuracy of cost
estimating.
The computer is used for estimating in at least five different applications:
quantity takeoff, price extensions and bid summary, historical cost database,
labor and equipment productivity database, and supplier database. Each appli
cation can be subdivided and should be linked together in an overall, integrated
system.
Electronic spreadsheets are widely used for preparing cost estimates. A

spreadsheet program can be used to perform the numerous price extension cal
culations and the bid summary of an estimate. Spreadsheet programs can be eas
ily developed by the estimator using her or his system of estimating for the par
ticular type of construction.
Many companies have developed commercial software for estimating con
struction costs. The software is developed for specific types of work, such as res
idential, building, or infrastructure type projects. Most commercial software is
supplied with cost and productivity databases that can be used by the estimator.
An electronic digitizer can be used to obtain the quantities of materials from
the construction drawings of a project. The estimator can use a digitizer pin to
trace the lines on the drawings to obtain information such as the square yards-of
paving, square feet of brick, linear feet of pipe, or number of windows. Using a
digitizer to calculate the quantity takeoff automates the process and provides the
information to the estimator in an organized form.
Numerous computer databases can be developed by the estimator to auto
mate and standardize the estimating function. The estimator can develop a his
torical cost database from the cost records of projects that have been completed
by the company. This information can be stored as unit costs in the database and
organized in a CSI or WBS system with cost codes for each item. The estimator
can retrieve information from the historical cost database for the preparation of
estimates for future projects. As new information is obtained from current proj
ects, the estimator can update the historical cost database.
Labor and equipment productivity databases can be developed from
records of previously completed projects. For example, the labor-hours per
square foot of formwork, the number of cubic yards of earth per equipment-
day, etc., can be organized and stored for specific job conditions. The estima
tor can retrieve the labor or equipment productivity figures from the database
for the preparation of a cost estimate for a prospective project. Adjustments
to the stored productivity can be made by the estimator to reflect unique job
conditions.
The estimator can prepare a database of information for the material sup
pliers and subcontractors who perform work for the company. The database
can be organized by type, size, and location of the supplier. During the prepa
ration of an estimate for a project, the estimator can retrieve supplier and sub
contractor information pertinent to the project. For example, the estimator can
sort and list all drywall contractors capable of performing $80,000 of work at
a particular job location. The name, address, and phone number of the contact
person for each potential supplier or subcontractor can be retrieved from the
computer.
Different individuals access much of the information used in the opera
tion of a construction company at different times. For example, a project is
planned and scheduled based on the time and cost information prepared by the
estimator. Likewise, the project budget control system is developed from the
cost estimate. The computer can be used to link the information from the esti
mating function to the planning function and to the budget control function of
a contractor’s operation. Common cost codes can be used for each operation
to integrate, automate, and standardize the operations of a construction firm.
Chapter 25 presents a comprehensive discussion of computer estimating.
The CD-ROM included with this book has tutorial and example problems that
enable the reader to gain knowledge and experience in computer methods for
estimating.
FORMS FOR PREPARING ESTIMATES

Experienced estimators will readily agree that it is very important to use a good
form in preparing an estimate. As previously stated, the form should treat each
operation to be performed in a construction project. For each operation, there
should be a systematic listing of materials, equipment, labor, and any other
items, with space for all calculations, number of units, unit costs, and total cost.
Each operation should be assigned a code number, and this number should
be reserved exclusively for that operation on this estimate as well as on estimates
for other projects within a given construction organization. For example, in
Table 1.4 item 2250 refers to compaction, whereas item 2372 refers to drilled
piers. The accounting department should use the same item numbers in prepar
ing cost records.
Table 1.11 illustrates a form that might be used in preparing a detailed esti
mate. When a project includes several operations, the direct costs for material,
equipment, and labor should be estimated separately for each operation, then the
indirect costs.
T A B L E 1.11 I Form to estimate construction costs.
Item Num ber Unit M aterial Equipm ent Labor To ta l

no. Description C alculations of units cost cost cost cost cost
2350-0 Furnish and drive 200 creosote-treated piles.

Drive piles to full penetration into normal soil.
Piles size: 50 ft length, 14-in. butt, 6-in. tip 200 x 50 ft = 10,000 lin ft 10,000 lin ft
-10 Materials
Piles; add 5 for possible breakage 205 x 50 ft = 10,250 lin ft 10,250 lin ft $4.20/1 in ft $43,050 $43,050
-20 Equipm ent
Moving to and from the job lump sum $7,000 $7,000
Crane, 12-ton 200 piles/(2^ piles/hr) = 80 hr 80 hr $ 145/hr $11,600 $11,600
Hammer, single-acting, 15,000 foot pound 80 hr $15/hr $1,200 $1,200
Air compressor equipment 80 hr $9/hr $720 $720
Leads and sundry equipment 80 hr $5/hr $400 $400
-30 Labor
-32 {add 16 hr to set up and take
down equipment) 80 + 16 = 96 hr
-32 Foreman 96 hr 96 hr $25/hr $2,400 $2,400
-34 Crane operator 96 hr 96 hr $18/hr $1,728 $1,728
-36 Laborer (1 total) 96 hr 96 hr $ 14/h r $1,344 $1,344
-38 Workers on hammer (2 total) 96 hr x 2 = 192 hr 192 hr $15/hr $2,880 $2,880
-39 Helpers (2 total) 96 hr X 2 = 192 hr 192 hr $12/hr $2,304 $2,304
-40 S ubtotal d ire ct co sts $43,050 $20,920 $10,656 $74,626
-50 In d ire ct costs

-51 Material taxes
-511 State sales tax 5% X $43,050 $2,052
-512 County sales tax 1% X $43,050 $431
-520 Labor taxes
-521 FICA (social security tax) 7.65% X $10,656 $815
-522 Unemployment tax 3% X $10,656 $320
-530 Insurance
-531 Workman’s compensation insurance 9% X $10,656 $959
-532 Contractor’s liability insurance 4% X $10,656 $426
-540 Overhead
-541 Job overhead 8% X $74,626 $5,970
-542 Office overhead 2% X $74,626 $1,493
-60 Subtotal in d ire ct costs $11,651
-70 Total dire ct and ind irect costs $86,277
-80 Add-ons
-811 Contingency 5% X $86,277 $4,314
-812 Profit 10% X $86,277 $8,628
Subtotal of add-ons $12,942
-90 Performance bond 1% X ($86,277 + $12,942) $922
-91 Total cost, amount of bid $86,277 + $12,942 + $922 $100,141

-92 Cost per lin ft $100,141/10,000 lin ft $10.01 per lin ft
Bid Documents
BID DOCUMENTS AND
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS
The terms bid documents and contract documents are often used interchange
ably, although they are not exactly the same. The bid document applies to before
the contract is signed, whereas the contract document applies to after the con
tract agreement is signed by the owner and contractor.
The bid documents consist of the invitations to bid, instructions to bidders,
bid forms, drawings, specifications, requirements for bonds and insurance, and
all addenda. This information is necessary for the contractor to prepare an esti
mate and submit a bid. After the owner has made the decision to accept the bid,
the owner and contractor sign the contract agreement, which forms the contract
documents. The contract documents consist of the signed agreement, bonds,
insurance, drawings, and specifications. Thus, the bid documents become the
contract documents at the time the contract is signed. Any change orders that are
approved during construction also become a part of the contract documents.
The purpose of the contract is to provide a legal document for construction
and completion of the project. The contract includes the contract agreement,
bonds, insurance, plans, specifications, and all change orders that are required to
complete the construction work.
Designers are responsible for producing the contract documents, which are
the plans and specifications from which the contractor can build the project. The
prime designer for building type projects is the architect, whereas the prime
designer for heavy/industrial type projects is the engineer. The construction con
tractor is required to perform all work in accordance with the contract documents.
The contractor is responsible for providing all labor, materials, tools, trans
portation, and supplies required to complete the work in a timely and workman
like manner and in accordance with the plans, specifications, and all terms of the
contract. This chapter provides a brief description of the contract documents
with emphasis on aspects that can impact the estimator and the estimating
22
C hapter 2 Bid Documents
process. No useful estimate can be prepared without a thorough knowledge of

the drawings and specifications of the contract documents.
CONTRACT REQUIREMENTS
The contracting requirements section includes the contract agreements, require
ments of bonds and certificates, general and supplementary conditions, and
addenda. Each of these items must be included in the final estimate and subse
quent bid that is submitted to the owner.
The agreement is the actual contract that will be awarded to the contractor
and signed by the owner and contractor. Contracts are awarded to the contractor
from the owner by either competitive bidding or negotiation. Most municipal,
state, and federal projects are awarded by competitive bidding. This process
involves an advertisement for bids in the public media with an announced bid
opening date. Bid opening is performed in the open public. The contractor per
forms a detailed estimate and submits a bid price for building the project in
accordance with the contract documents. The engineer and owner perform the
evaluation of bids at a later date, then a final decision is made to award the con
tract. Most government agencies are required by law to award the contract to the
lowest bidder, provided all conditions of the contract have been met. Private
owners are not required to award the contract to the lowest bidder, but may
select the contractor deemed most desirable for the project.
Negotiated contracts are awarded to a contractor independent of the com
petitive bidding process. The owner, or agent of the owner, reviews the plans
and specifications with various contractors. Each contractor prepares a cost esti
mate and quotes the price to perform the various work in the project.
Adjustments in the scope of work, schedule, and cost of the project are negoti
ated to satisfy both the owner and contractor. Award of the contract is then made
to the contractor the owner feels can provide the best total performance, which
may or may not be lowest initial cost.
ARRANGEMENT OF
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS
Contract documents for construction projects consist of two general categories:
information related to business/legal matters and information related to techni
cal matters. Illustrative examples of the business/legal portions of the contract
documents are invitation to bid, instruction to bidders, information available to
bidders, bid forms, bond and insurance requirements, general conditions, and
supplementary conditions of the contract.
The technical portion of the bid documents consists of the plans (drawings)
and written specifications that describe the material, workmanship, and methods
of construction that are required to build the project. It is practically impossible
to describe by words alone how a project is to be built. The drawings are the pic
torial directory of how the project is to be built. To further clarify the quality of
materials and workmanship, the written specifications are used to supplement

the drawings. Where conflicts exist between the drawings and written specifica
tions, it is common practice that the written specifications govern. A clause to
this effect is usually presented in the contract documents.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS

The written specifications for a project are as important as the drawings in defin
ing the total project. The quality of material, performance rating of equipment,
level of workmanship, and warranty requirements are all defined in the written
specifications. Information about the size, type, and performance of equipment
(pumps, generators, etc.) or components (valves, switches, etc.) are defined in
the written specifications rather than on the drawings.
For building type projects, the specifications generally follow the Construc
tion Specification Institute (CSI) Masterformat system of organizing the speci
fications. The CSI Masterformat organizes project information into major divi
sions and is recognized as the industry standard for building construction.
Division 0 applies to the business/legal matters and Divisions 1 through 16 apply
to the technical specifications. For building type projects, a unique set of tech
nical specifications that follow the CSI divisions are written for each project.
Each major division is subdivided into smaller items of work. A list of the CSI
numbers and titles includes:
0—Introductory Information, Bidding and Contracting Requirements
1— General Requirements
2— Site Construction
3—Concrete
4— Masonry
5—Metals
6 — Wood and Plastics
7—Thermal and Moisture Protection
8 —Doors and Windows
9—Finishes
1 0 — Specialties
1 1 —Equipment
1 2 —Furnishings
13—Special Construction
14— Conveying Systems
15—Mechanical
16— Electrical
The introductory information of CSI Division 0 enables the estimating team
to understand the overall content and arrangement of the contract documents and
specific information applicable to the estimator. Division 0 is divided into three
Chapter 2 Bid Documents
subdivisions: introductory information, bidding requirements, and contracting

requirements. The introductory information consists of project title, table of con
tents, list of drawings, and list of schedules.
The bidding requirement section is particularly applicable to the estimator.
It contains a section on bid solicitation, instructions to bidders, information
available to bidders, bid forms, and supplements. This part of the specifications
impacts the requirements of summarizing the estimate in an acceptable format
for submission of the bid to the owner.
HEAVY/HIGHWAY SPECIFICATIONS
For heavy/highway projects the technical specifications are standard for each
state department of transportation. Thus, all highway construction projects within
a state will use the same standard set of technical specifications. Typical arrange
ment of standard specifications for highway projects include these divisions:
1—General Provisions: general information, definition, and terms
2—Excavation and Embankment: soils, sodding
3—Base Courses: aggregate, lime, fly ash, subbases
4— Surfaces Courses: bituminous and concrete pavements
5—Structures: concrete, steel, and timber bridges and foundations
6 —Materials: aggregate, asphalt, concrete, conduits, testing
7—Traffic Control: signals, lighting, signs, striping

8 —Incidental Construction: riprap, gabions, guard rails, fences
Although these technical specifications are standard, a unique set of bidding

requirements, drawings, and list of pay quantities are provided for each specific
project. The bidding requirements pertain to business and legal matters, such as
advertisement for bids, prequalification of bidders, proposal forms, bid opening
date and time, and award of contract. Of particular interest to the estimator is the
date for submission of bid and the list of pay quantities.
Submission of the bid by the bid opening date and time is mandatory, other
wise the bid will be disqualified. Therefore, the estimator must develop a sched
ule for preparing the estimate that meets the required bid opening date and time.
BIDDING REQUIREMENTS
The information contained in this section of the contract documents is extremely
important to the estimating team. Typical information in the bidding require
ments includes:
Bid Solicitation
Instructions to Bidders
Information Available to Bidders
Bid Forms and Supplements
Bidding Addenda
Bid Solicitation
The bid solicitation, sometimes called the invitation to bid, contains the date and
time that bids must be submitted. The estimator must establish a plan to com
plete all work to meet the deadline of the bid date, otherwise the bid will be dis
qualified. The bid solicitation also gives the names and addresses of the owner
and design organization, with instructions on how to obtain the bid documents.
Table 2.1 lists typical items in the invitation to bidders. Figure 2.1 is an exam
ple bid solicitation.
TA B L E 2.1 I Typical contents of an invitation to bid
1. Name, location, and type of project

2. Name and address of owner and designer
3. Date, time, and location for receipt of bids
4. Disqualification criteria for late submission of bids
5. Required amount of bid bond, certified check, or cashier’s check
6. Procedure for obtaining plans and specifications
7. Clarification of owner’s right to reject any and all bids
The instructions to bidders section describes vital information that is required to
submit a bid. For example, bidders may be required to attend a prebid confer
ence. Another example that may appear in the instructions to bidders is a state
ment that the contractor must make provisions during execution of the contract
documents to allow the owner to take advantage of the owner’s tax exempt sta
tus for materials and equipment purchased for the project. Thus, no taxes would
be applied during preparation of the estimate. Early in the estimating process the
estimating team must become thoroughly aware of the requirements that are
placed on preparing the bid in accordance with the contract documents. Table
2 . 2 lists typical information in the instructions to bidders.
Figure 2.2 is an abbreviated example of instructions to bidders. This exam

ple does not contain all of the items typically covered, but it is provided to illus
trate the wording and to show the type of information that must be considered
by the estimator in preparing the estimate and submitting the bid.
Information Available to Bidders

The information available to bidders section may include such items as refer
encing a subsurface exploration report that has been prepared for the project, but
is not shown in the contract documents. The information available to bidders
may include information about the project from a material testing laboratory.
This section may also include reference to standards, such as the American
Institute of Architects (AIA) or the Engineers Joint Contracts Documents
Committee (EJCDC) general conditions of the contract, that apply to the project
but are not included in the contract documents.
Chapter 2 Bid Documents 27
SECTION 00001 - ADVERTISEMENT FOR BIDS:
The OWNER, will receive bids on:
MAINTENANCE FACILITY PROJECT

1234 STREET
CITY, STATE, ZIP
at the office of OWNER, located in Room 200 at 1234 Street in City,

State until 3:00 P.M., MAY 26, 20XX, and then publicly opened and read
aloud at a designated place. Bids received after this time or more than
ninety-six (9 6 ) hours excluding Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays before
the time set for the opening of bids will not be accepted. Bids must be
turned in at the above office during the time period set forth. All interested
parties are invited to attend.
The contract documents may be examined in the office of ABC
DESIGN FIRM, 3456 Street, City, State, Zip Code, and copies may be
obtained there upon receipt of a letter of intent to pay $100.00 for two (2 )
sets of drawings and specifications in the event that they are not returned
in good condition within ten (1 0 ) days of the date of bid opening.
Additional sets may be obtained by paying the cost of printing the
drawings and assembly of specifications.
The OWNER reserves the right to reject any or all bids or to waive
any minor informalities or irregularities in the bidding.
Each bidder must deposit, with his bid, security in the amount and
form set out in the contract documents. Security shall be subject to the
conditions provided in the Instruction to Bidders.
No bidder may withdraw his bid within sixty (6 0 ) days after the
date of opening thereof. Attention of bidders is particularly directed to the
statutory requirements and affidavit concerning nondiscrimination,
nonsegregated facilities, noncollusion, and business relationship
provisions.
The OWNER reserves the right to reject any and all bids.
OWNER
B y :___________ Chairman’s Signature

Chairman Name
FIGURE 2.1 I Example bid solicitation.
TA B L E 2.2 I Typical contents of instructions to bidders.
1. Instructions on submission, receipt, opening, and withdrawal of bids

2. Qualifications of bidders and subcontractors
3. Requirement of bidders to use bid forms in the contract documents
4. Instructions to use both words and figures in submitting cost amounts
5. Statement that all addenda will become a part of the contract
6. Request to state the number of calendar weeks for completing the work
7. Requirement of contractors to notify design of any discrepancies
8. Criteria for extra work that may be specified by the owner or designer
9. Request for unit cost of labor and equipment for extra work
10. Requirement of contractor to abide by local ordinances and regulation
SECTION 00002 - INSTRUCTIONS TO BIDDERS:
RECEIPT AND OPENING OF BIDS:

Bids will be received by the Owner at the time and place set forth in the Advertisement for Bids and then
at said place be publicly opened and read aloud.
BID SUBMISSION:
Each bid must be submitted in a sealed envelope bearing on the outside the name of the bidder, his
address, and the name of the project for which the bid is submitted, and addressed as specified in the Bid
Form.
SUB-CONTRACT:
Any person, firm, or other party to whom it is proposed to award a subcontract under this contract must
be acceptable to the Owner.
WITHDRAWAL OF BIDS:
Bids may be withdrawn on written or telegraphic or facsimile request received from bidders prior to the
time fixed for opening. Negligence on the part of the bidder in preparing the bid confers no right for the
withdrawal of the bid after it has been opened.
BASIS OF BID:
The bidder must include all unit cost items and all alternatives shown on the Bid Forms; failure to
comply may be cause for rejection. No segregated bids or assignments will be considered.
QUALIFICATION OF BIDDER:
The Owner may make such investigation as he deems necessary to determine the ability of the bidder to
perform the work, and the bidder shall furnish to the Owner all such information and data for this
purpose as the Owner may request.
TIME OF COMPLETION:
Bidder must agree to commence work on or before a date to be specified in a written “Notice to
Proceed” of the Owner and to substantially complete the project within 180 consecutive calendar days
thereafter.
CONDITIONS OF THE WORK:

Each bidder must inform himself fully of the conditions relating to the construction of the project and
smployment of labor hereon. Failure to do so will not relieve a successful bidder of his obligation to
furnish all material and labor necessary to carry out the provisions of his contract.
ADDENDA AND INTERPRETATIONS:

All addenda so issued shall become a part of the contract documents. No interpretation of the meaning
of the plans, specifications, or other contract documents will be made to any bidder orally.
LAWS AND REGULATIONS:

The bidder’s attention is directed to the fact that all applicable State Laws, Municipal Ordinances, and
the rules and regulations of all authorities having jurisdiction over construction of the project shall apply
to the contract throughout, and they will be deemed to be included in the contract the same as though
herein written out in full.
OBLIGATION OF BIDDER:
At the time of the opening of bids, each bidder will be presumed to have inspected the site and to have
read and to be thoroughly familiar with the plans and contract documents (including all addenda).
FIGURE 2.2 I Example instructions to bidders.
Bid Forms
The bid form defines the format that is required for submission of the bid. The
format of the bid form impacts the assembly and summary of costs in the final
C hapter 2 Bid Documents
estimate. The owner may request the bid as a single lump sum, unit prices based
on predefined pay quantities in the bid documents, or a combination of both
lump and unit prices. For construction projects, the work may be priced by sev
eral methods: lump sum, unit price, cost plus a fixed fee or cost plus a percent
age of construction, cost plus a guaranteed maximum price, or a combination of
these pricing methods. The method selected depends on the distribution of risk
between the owner and contractors.
Bid form for lump-sum contracts For projects where a complete set of plans
and specifications have been prepared prior to construction and the quantity of
work is well defined, the estimate is normally prepared for the purpose of sub
mitting a lump-sum bid on the project. Building type projects are usually bid on
a lump-sum basis. When the cost of a project is estimated on this basis, only one
final total-cost figure is quoted. Unless there are changes in the plans or specifi
cations, this figure represents the amount that the owner will pay to the contrac
tor for the completed project. Since the contractor provides the lump-sum price
before construction starts, he or she is exposed to uncertainties during construc
tion and thereby assumes risk for the project.
It is common practice for projects to have one or more “alternates” attached
to the bid documents of lump-sum contracts. The alternate may be to add or
deduct a work item from the base lump-sum bid. This allows the owner the
option of selecting the number of alternates so that the total bid cost will be
within the amount specified by the owner’s budget.
A lump-sum estimate must include the cost of all materials, labor, equip
ment, overhead, taxes, bonds, insurance, and profit. It is desirable to estimate the
costs of materials, labor, and equipment separately for each operation; to obtain
a subtotal of these costs for the entire project; and then to estimate the cost of
overhead, taxes, bonds, insurance, and profit.
For a building type project the bid form consists of a page in the specifica
tions for bidders to record the total bid amount. If numerous alternates are in the
bid documents, the base bid is recorded and the bid price for alternates is listed
separately. Figure 2.3 is an example bid form for a building type project with
one alternate.
Bid forms for unit-price contracts Most heavy engineering construction

projects are bid on a unit-price basis. Such projects include pavements, curbs
and gutters, earthwork, various kinds of pipeline, clearing and grubbing land,
etc. These projects are bid unit-price because the precise quantities of material
may not be known in advance of construction. For example, the actual quantity
of material to be excavated, hauled, and compacted in the fill area may vary sub
stantially from the calculated quantity in the bid forms due to unknown settle
ment of the soil and other factors. The contractor bids the work on a unit-price
basis and is paid based on the actual quantity of work. The final cost is deter
mined by multiplying the bid price per unit by the actual quantity of work com
pleted by the contractor. Therefore, for a unit-price contract the cost that the
owner will pay to the contractor is not determined until the project has been
SECTION 00003 - BID FORM:
Place: ______________________________ Date: _____________________________________________
PROPOSAL OF __________________________________________________________________________
(hereinafter called “Bidder”)
TO: The Owner.
Gentlemen:
The bidder, in compliance with your invitation for Bids for the:

1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
having examined the plans and specifications with related documents and the site of the proposed work,
and being familiar with all of the conditions surrounding the work, including the availability of materials
and labor, hereby agree to furnish all labor, materials, equipment, and supplies, and to perform the work
required by the project in accordance with the contract documents, within the time set forth in
Instructions to Bidders, and at the prices stated below. These prices are to cover all expenses incurred in
performing the work required by the contract documents, of which this bid is a part.
Bidder acknowledges receipt of the following addenda: ___________.
All Bid amounts shall be shown in both WORDS and FIGURES. In case of discrepancy, the amount
shown in words will govern.
BASE BID:
Bidder agrees to perform all of the work described in the plans and specifications as being in the Base
Bid for the sum of:_____________ Dollars.
$ _______________
The Bidder agrees to perform all of the work described in the Drawings and Specifications, which has
been designated as Alternate Bids. Alternate Bids shall be add amounts to the Base Bid. Changes shall
include any modifications of the work or additional work that the Bidder may require to perform by
reason of Owner’s acceptance of any or all Alternate Bids.
ALTERNATE NO. 1 :
Add 3" thick Type “C” asphalt paving to compacted crushed limestone as shown on Sheet C -l.
ADD:____________________ Dollars $__________________.
The Bidder hereby agrees to commence work under this contract on or before a date to be specified in a
written “Notice to Proceed” by the Owner and to substantially complete the project within 180
consecutive calendar days thereafter. The Owner reserves the right to reject any and all bids. Bidder
agrees that this bid shall be good and shall not be withdrawn for a period of sixty (60) calendar days
after the opening thereof.
In the event a contract is awarded by the Owner to the Successful Bidder, it shall be executed within
thirty (30) days. The Bidder shall return with his executed contract the Performance Payment Bond,
Statutory Bond, and Warranty Bond as required by the Supplementary Conditions.
(SEAL) if bid is Respectfully submitted by:____________________________________

corporation p H /s s Number;____________________________________
FIGURE 2.3 I Example bid form for lump-sum contract.

completed. Thus, the owner assumes the risk for uncertainty in the actual quan
tity of work.
The cost per unit, submitted in a bid, includes the furnishing of materials,
labor, equipment, supervision, insurance, taxes, profit, and bonds, as required,
for completely installing a unit. Typical designated units include square yards
(sy), cubic yards (cy), linear feet (lin ft) or feet (ft), tons, acres, etc. A separate
estimate should be prepared for each type or size of unit.
The costs of materials, equipment, and labor are determined for each unit.
These are called direct costs. To these costs must be added a proportionate part
of the indirect costs, such as moving in, temporary construction, overhead, insur
ance, taxes, profit, and bonds, since indirect costs are not bid separately.
Figure 2.4 is an example bid form for a unit-price highway project. The esti
mator must carefully check the pay quantities to ensure that they are accurate.
The list of bid items is crucial to the estimator because the contractor will be
paid only for work that is specified in this list of pay quantities.
Item Description Quantity Unit Unit Price Total

1 Mobilization lump sum job
2 Water control lump sum job
3 Common excavation 20,000 cy
4 Rock excavation 12,000 cy
5 Drilling piers 5,350 lin.ft
6 Concrete foundation 250 cy
7 Anchor bolts 185 each
8 Rock anchors 17,500 lb
9 Slope protection 260 each
10 Compacted fill 620,000 cy
11 Random fill 1,790,730 cy
12 Riprap - 24 in. 3,700 cy
13 Drainage structure #1 lump sum job
14 Drainage structure #2 lump sum job
15 Lime-treated subgrade 25,500 sy
16 Aggregate base course 3,350 cy
17 Asphalt pavement 40,100 sy
18 Concrete pavement 150 cy
19 Bermuda sodding 2,080 sy
20 Traffic control lump sum job
21 Demobilization lump sum job
F IG U R E 2 .4 I Bid form for unit-price contract.
During preparation of the estimate, the contractor must place all costs in the
pay quantity list. If an item of work required to complete the project is not on
the bid list, such as traffic control or laboratory testing, then the estimator must
include the cost for this work in one of the other unit-cost bid items. Thus, the
bid form is important to the contractor because it impacts the preparation and
summarization of the cost estimate. This part of the specifications impacts the
requirements of summarizing the estimate in an acceptable format for submis
sion of the bid to the owner.
NEGOTIATED WORK
Sometimes the owner will negotiate the work for a project with a construction
firm prior to completion of a set of plans and specifications. This is usually done
when the owner wants to start construction at the earliest possible date to bene
fit from an early completion and use of the project. A representative of the owner
works with the contractor to evaluate alternatives to obtain a project configura
tion that meets the needs of the owner, yet with a cost within the owner’s allow
able budget.
The final contract agreement usually is a cost plus a fixed fee with a guar
anteed maximum amount. If the cost is above or below the guaranteed maximum
amount, then the owner and the contractor agree to a splitting of the difference.
For example, the contractor might incur 70 percent and the owner 30 percent of
the amount that exceeds the guaranteed maximum price, or the contractor may
receive 60 percent and the owner 40 percent of the amount that is below the
guaranteed maximum price.
ADDENDUM
An addendum is a change in the contract documents during the bidding process,
before award of the contract. An addendum is sometimes called a bulletin.
Typically addenda are issued to correct errors in the contract documents or clar
ify an issue, or it may concern addition to the work at the request of the owner.
The estimate and resulting bid must include all costs required to complete the
work in accordance with the drawings and specifications, together with all of the
addenda. Therefore, the estimating team must be certain that the costs of all
addenda are included in the estimate.
ALTERNATES
An alternate is an addition or subtraction to a base bid price for substitutions
requested by the owner during the bidding process. Each alternate is listed and
numbered separately in the bid documents. For example, an Alternate No. 1 may
be add the parking lot and Alternate No. 2 may be deduct the sidewalks.
CHANGE ORDER
A change order is issued by the designer, but signed by the owner and contrac
tor, to make a change in the contract documents during construction. Although
change orders usually add time and cost to the original contract, some change
orders are issued without extensions of time or changes in cost. Upon approval
by the owner, change orders become a part of the contract documents.
WARRANTIES
Warranties are guarantees by the contractor that specific components of the proj
ect will be free from defects due to materials or workmanship for a specified
warranty period. Warranties cover specific items, such as a roofing warranty or
an equipment warranty, that are part of the construction project. The type of war
ranty and warranty period are defined in the written specifications of the con
tract documents.
GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE

CONTRACT DOCUMENTS
The general conditions is that part of the contract document that establishes the
rules for administration of the construction phase of the project. Most contract
documents incorporate standard general conditions that have been developed by
such organizations as the AIA or the EJCDC. The information contained in the
general conditions applies more to the construction phase of a project rather than
the bidding phase.
BONDS
Most owners require prospective bidders to submit bonds as qualifications for
submitting a bid for a project. The bonding company that issues the bond
requires the contractor to show financial stability and previous experience in
performing the type of work that is required to build the project. In addition, it
is common practice for the owner to require all prospective bidders to be pre
qualified before submitting a bid. The prequalification process usually involves
a review of the prospective contractor’s financial and safety records and an eval
uation of performance on previous projects.
The contractor secures bonds from a bonding company on behalf of the
owner as financial and legal protection for the owner. Three types of bonds are
commonly required in construction contracts: bid bond, performance bond, and
payment bond. The bid bond ensures the owner that the contractor will sign the
contract for the bid amount. The performance bond ensures the owner that the
contractor will perform all work in accordance with the contract documents.
The payment bond ensures the owner that all material and labor will be paid. If
the contractor defaults, the bonding company agrees to fulfill the contract
agreement.
Bid Bond
It is common practice to require each bidder on a project to furnish with the bid
a bid bond, a cashier’s check, or a certified check in the amount equal to 5 to 20
percent of the amount of the bid. In the event that the contract to construct the
project is tendered to a bidder and the bidder refuses or fails to sign the contract,
the owner may retain the bond or check as liquidated damages.
For some projects, cashier’s checks are specified instead of bid bonds. The
bidder purchases these checks, which are issued to the owner of the project by a
bank. They can be cashed easily, whereas it is necessary for the owner to secure
payment on a bid bond through the surety, and the surety may challenge the pay
ment. The use of cashier’s checks requires bidders to tie up considerable sums
of money for periods that may vary from a few days to several weeks in some
instances.
There is no uniform charge for cashier’s checks. Some banks charge $0.23
per $ 1 0 0 . 0 0 for small checks, with reduced rates for large checks, while others
make no charge for checks furnished for regular customers. However, the inter
est cost for a cashier’s check for $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 for 2 weeks at 6 percent interest will
amount to approximately $240.00.
Performance Bond
All government agencies and many private owners require a contractor to fur
nish a performance bond to last for the period of construction of a project. The
bond is furnished by an acceptable surety to ensure the owner that the work will
be performed by the contractor in accordance with the contract documents. In
the event a contractor fails to complete a project, it is the responsibility of the
surety to secure completion. Although the penalty under a performance bond is
specified as 25, 50, or 100 percent of the amount of the contract, the cost of the
bond usually is based on the amount of the contract and duration of the project.
The cost for a contractor to purchase a performance bond varies, depending
on the capacity of the contractor to perform the work and the financial stability
of the contractor. Representative costs of performance bonds per $1,000.00 are:
For buildings and similar projects:
First $ 500,000 = SI 4.40
Next $ 2 ,0 0 0 , 0 0 0 = 8.70
Next $2,500,000 = 6.90
Next $2,500,000 ....6.90
All over $7,500,000 - 5.75
For highways and engineering con;
First $ 500,000 = $ 1 2 . 0 0
Next $ 2 ,0 0 0 , 0 0 0 = 7.50
Next $2,500,000 = 5.75
Next $2,500,000 = 5.25
All over $7,500,000 4.80
Material and Labor Payment Bond

The contractor secures the material and labor payment bond from a surety com
pany. The bond is issued to ensure the owner that all wages and bills for mate
rials will be paid upon completion of the project. In the event the contractor fails
to pay labor and material costs, the Surety company assumes that responsibility.
Typically, the performance bond and the material and labor payment bond are
secured by the contractor as a package.
INSURANCE
The contractor, as required in the contract documents, secures insurance. The
contractor supplies a certificate of insurance to verify insurance coverage. Due to
the many risks involved in construction, most contractors carry insurance in addi
tion to the requirements in the contract documents. The precise losses that are
reimbursable from insurance are based on predetermined losses named in the
insurance policy. Many types of insurance for construction projects are available.
Basic Builder’s Risk Insurance

General builder’s risk, which covers damages to the project due to fire, wind,
and hail, is the insurance commonly required on construction projects.
Numerous other types of insurance are available that cover losses, including
workers on the job, equipment, public liability, and property damage to parties
that are not affiliated with the project. Under the terms of this coverage, the
insurance is based on the estimated completed value of the project. However,
because the actual value varies from zero at the beginning of construction to the
full value when the project has been completed, the premium rate usually is set
at 60 percent of the completed value. In the event of a loss, the recovery is lim
ited to the actual value at the time of the loss.
Although the cost of protection will vary with the type of structure and its
location, these rates are representative costs for basic builder’s risk insurance:
Cost of premiums
per $ 10 0 .00 of value for
Type of construction basic builder’s risk
Framed construction $4,539
Joisted masonry $1,817
Noncombustible $0,626
Basic Builder’s Risk, Extended Coverage

This insurance is a supplement to the basic builder’s risk insurance, and it pro
vides protection against wind, smoke, explosion, and vandalism. The premium
rate for this insurance is about $1.93 per $100.00 of completed value of the
project.
Public Liability and Property Damage Insurance

This insurance protects the contractor against injuries to the general public or
public property due to actions of the employees while performing work during
construction. The cost for this insurance will depend on the type of work and the
safety record of the contractor. The cost can range from 2 to 8 percent of the base
cost of labor.
Workmen’s Compensation Insurance

Contractors pay workmen’s compensation insurance for protection of workers
as a result of injury or death on a project. This insurance provides medical
expenses and payment of lost wages during the period of injury.
Regulations governing workmen’s compensation insurance are established
by state laws and vary widely from one state to another. The cost also varies,
depending on the type of work that is performed by each worker. For example,
different rates exist for bricklayers, carpenters, ironworkers, equipment opera
tors, painters, etc. The cost can range from 10 to 30 percent of the base cost of
labor.
Comprehensive General Liability Insurance

As the result of construction operations, it is possible that persons not employed
by the contractor may be injured or killed. Also, property not belonging to the
contractor may be damaged. Comprehensive general liability insurance should
be carried as a protection against loss resulting from such injuries or damage.
This insurance provides the protection ordinarily obtainable through public lia
bility and property damage insurance. The coverage should be large enough to
provide the necessary protection for the given project. The premium rate varies
with the limits of liability specified in the policy.
Contractor’s Protective Liability Insurance

This is a contingent insurance that protects a contractor against claims resulting
from accidents caused by subcontractors or their employees, for which the con
tractor may be held liable.
Contractors’ Equipment Floater

This insurance provides protection to the contractor against loss or damage to
equipment because of fire, lightning, tornado, flood, collapse of bridges, perils
of transportation, collision, theft, landslide, overturning, riot, strike, and civil
commotion.
The cost of this insurance, which will vary with the location, should be
about $1.50 per $100.00 of equipment value per year.
HEAVY/HIGHWAY DRAWINGS
The drawings for highway projects consist of plan and profile sheets, earthwork
cross sections, pavement cross sections, details, reinforcing steel schedules, and
any supplemental drawings that show the location, dimensions, and details of the
work to be performed.
The plan and profile sheets, combined with the earthwork cross sections,
provide a pictorial description of the three dimensions of the work to be per
formed. The top half of the plan and profile sheets show a vertical view looking
down on the highway project and the bottom half shows the corresponding hor
izontal view along the centerline of the highway. The cross section sheets show
horizontal views along the highway, perpendicular to the centerline of the high
way. The plan and profile sheets are arranged to show the project from the
beginning to the final station.
Cross sections of pavements show the width, thickness, and slope of the
paving surfaces. Details are views that show specific areas of the project.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

Although the drawings are prepared specifically for each project, the arrange
ment of drawings follows a general pattern. The first sheet in a set of drawings
is the title sheet. This sheet contains the name of the project, owner, designer,
and other pertinent information related to the project. Following the title sheet is
the index sheet, which provides a summary of all the remaining sheets in the
drawings.
The index sheet is analogous to the table of contents of a book. It shows the
list of drawings. For building type projects, the remaining sheets generally fol
low this arrangement: civil, architectural, structural, mechanical, electrical,
plumbing, and fire protection. A letter before the sheet number identifies each
drawing. For example, the civil drawings are numbered C l, C2, C3, etc.; the
architectural drawings are numbered as A l, A2, A3, etc.; and structural draw
ings are numbered as SI, S2, S3, etc.
The estimator must thoroughly review the drawings for discrepancies.
Errors in the drawings lead to errors in the quantity takeoff and ultimately errors
in the final cost estimate. A clear understanding of the drawings is a prerequisite
to good estimating.
Plans, Elevations, and Sections

The pictorial presentations used on drawings are shown from several viewing
angles. Views looking vertically down on the object are called plan views.
Views looking horizontally at an object are called elevation views. Views look
ing at an object from a point that is not perpendicular to any face of the object
are called perspective views. A section view of an object is a view of the object
as seen by passing a cutting plane through the object. A detail is an enlargement
of a specific area of a project. Connections of structural components are gener
ally shown as details.
Figure 2.5 shows exterior elevations of all four sides of a building and
Fig. 2.6 shows a section through the building. Figure 2.7 is a floor plan of the
structure, with a schedule for doors, windows, and room finishes.
Some items in a project are difficult to show by plan, elevation, or section
views. Items such as the routing of conduits for electrical or mechanical work
Metal Louvered Project
Owners
HEPA Filter Name
HEPA Filter Stack
Street Address
Exhaust Stack
City, State
John Smith, P.E.
Owners Rep.
Street Address
City, State
Phone Number
1" Away
Overhead Door Slope Grade Away From From All Doors
.WEST ELEVATION Building at Minimum of \EAST ELEVATION
' SCALE: 3/32 5 I'-O’ 6" in 10’-0 " ) SCALE:3/32 0
= r- "
SEAL
HEPA Filter
San. Vent Exhaust Stack
(Typical)
Motorized Dampers 10' - 0 " X 8'-0"

w/ Metal Louvers Overhead Door
.NORTH ELEVATION
1 SCALE: 3/32 = I'-O”
Motorized Dampers
w/ Metal Louvers\
BUILDING NO.
PROJECT NO.
WORK ORDER
'SOUTH ELEVATION
I SCALE: 3/32 = 1-0"
Plot: SCALE: 3/325 l'-0”
VPlojcctsVBuilding\Drawings\BOV-A-3.
FIGURE 2.5 I Illustration of exterior elevations.

Veneer
45' 0"
FIGURE 2.7 I Example of a floor plan and schedules.

Project
Owner's
Green Metal Roof Name
1" Clear Air 10" Batt
On 5/8" PW Sheathing Insulation Street Address
Vent Above Vented
Over 15# Roof Felt City, State
Insulation N
Attic John Smith P.E.
Space Owner's Rep.
Street Address
Vented City, State
1/2" Hardboard Attic Space Phone Number
Fascia \
" Metal Joists
@ 16" O.C.
Pre-Treated
Gyp. Brd. Ceiling Pre-Engineered
1/2" Hardboard Bond Beam with Wood Trusses
Soffit #6 Bar Continuous -7 @ 24" O.C.
Fill with Grout n. I I Supply Air
Duct. Insulated,
Return Air /
4" X 12" Soffit Vents Ceiling Duct. Insulated /
@ 8'-0" O.C. Bond Beam with
’- "
10 1 #6 Bar Continuous
Fill with Grout
Brick Veneer 3 tf 8" Cone. Blk. Wall 1" Rigid
w/Ties @ 16" O.C. ^ ^8 Loose Filled with Perlite Insulation
8" Cone. Blk. Wall
Loose Filled with Perlite
1" Rigid Brick Veneer /
Insulation" w/Ties @ 16" O.C.
Grout Fill to
Plastic Weep Hole ,Weep Hole Plastic Weep Hole QH
Tubing @4' O.C. #6 X 18" Bars @16" O.C. Tubing @ 4’- 0" O.C.N “Nerva-Stral’
Flashing
h >«
Fill Bottom Course w/ Grout
Grout Fill to
“Nerva Stral” n. Slope Floor Weep Hole \
Flashing \ > to Drain "=aJ Drain
FTN G R A D E R s s *'-
"rfj #6 Bar Continuous
4" Cone. Slab with #3 Bars
at 18" O.C. Both Ways on 4" Sand
® Scale: 1/2" = l'-O"

Section @ Footing
)Scale: 1/2" = l'-O"
Section @ Storage R oom
#5 Bars Cont. Top and Bottom #5 Bars Cont. Top and Bottom
with #3 Strusses at 24" O.C. with #3 Strusses at 24" O.C.
FIGURE 2.6 I Illustration of a section view.

are examples. It is a common practice to show the routing in three-dimensional

pictorial drawings called isometric or pictorial drawings.
Line Work
Several types of line work that are used in preparing drawings include:
Thick lines— outline edges of objects (plans and elevations)
Thin lines—denote lengths (dimension lines)
Long lines with short dashes— denote the centerline of an object
Phantom lines— show the path of moving parts
Broken lines—denote the object is longer than shown
Short dashed lines—denote edges on the object that cannot be seen from
the near side surface of the object
Scales
Usually the type of scale used is identified at the bottom of the page on the draw
ings. However, several different scales may be used on a single sheet. Therefore,
it is important to be certain that the correct scale is used in determining the quan
tities for estimating. Occasionally, a portion of the drawing is shown without any
scale. When this condition exists, there should be a note that states the drawing
is not to scale. The estimator must also be cautious because sometimes the draw
ings are reduced in size, such as a half-size drawing, to permit easier handling
during construction.
Two types of scales are used in construction drawings, the architect’s scale
and the engineer’s scale. The architect’s scales that are commonly used for plans
and elevations include 5 5 in. = 1 ft and 77; in. = 1 ft. Complicated areas often use
the 4 in. = 1 ft, or \ in. = 1 ft on the architect’s scale. Special applications that
require high details are I 5 in. = 1 ft, or 3 in. = 1 ft, or may be drawn to a half
or even a full scale.
The engineer’s scale, graduated in tenths of an inch, is often used for civil,
structural, and mechanical drawings. The scales are 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60.
The higher numbers of 50 or 60 are used for large areas, such as site-work or
plot plans. Details of drawings often use the smaller numbers, such as 10, 20, or
30. The 40 on the engineer’s scale is equivalent to the \ in. on the architect’s
scale.
Schedules
To simplify the presentation of repetitious items (such as footings, columns,
doors, windows, room finishes, etc.) a schedule is frequently used. A schedule
is a tabular listing of the repetitive items in the project. For example, a room
schedule is a tabular list of all rooms in the structure, showing the type of floor
covering, wall covering, and type of ceiling. Likewise, a footing schedule is a
listing of all footings in the foundation, showing the diameter, depth, type, size,
and number of reinforcing bars. Thus, a schedule is a concise and convenient

method to show all common types of items in one location. Table 2.3 is a room
finish schedule for a building type project.
T A B L E 2 .3 I Room finish schedule.
Wails
North East South West Ceiling
Room Description Floor Base Mat. Fin. Mat. Fin. Mat. Fin. Mat. Fin. Mat. Fin.
A Corridor VCT 4" VC Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Ex Pt AC 8'-0"
B Office VCT 4" VC Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Ex Pt AC 8'-0"
C Office VCT 4" VC Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Ex Pt AC 8'-0"
D Office VCT 4" VC Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Ex Pt AC 8'-0"
E Storage VCT 4" VC Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Ex Pt Cone varies
F Storage VCT 4" VC Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Ex Pt Ex Ex
G Corridor VCT 4" VC Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Gyp Pt Ex Pt Ex Ex
Abbreviations: VCT— 3/32" vinyl clay tile to match existing Pt— paint, latex
VC— vinyl cove base to match existing Ex— existing items
Gyp— 5/8" fire rated gypsum wall board Cone— concrete
AC— 2 ' x 4 ' lay-in acoustical ceiling tile
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Symbols are used on the drawings to identify the types of materials and work
required during construction. Examples are valves, pumps, type of welds, elec
trical outlets, etc. Abbreviations of organizations that produce technical infor
mation and standards for materials and construction procedures are frequently
referenced in the specifications of contract documents. A list of common abbre
viations in bid documents includes:
AASHTO—American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
ACI—American Concrete Institute
AISC—American Institute of Steel Construction
AITC—American Institute of Timber Construction
ANSI—American National Standards Institute
ASA—American Standards Association
ASHRAE—American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air
Conditioning Engineers
ASTM—American Society of Testing and Materials
AWI—Architectural Woodwork Institute
AWS—American Welding Society
AWWA—American Water Works Association
BIA—Brick Institute of America

CRSI—Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
CSI—Construction Specification Institute
EPA—Environmental Protection Agency
ISO—International Standards Organization
NCMA—National Concrete Masonry Association
NDS—National Design Specification
NEC—National Electrical Code
NEMA—National Electrical Manufacturers Association
NFPA—National Fire Protection Association
OSHA—Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PCA—Portland Cement Association
PCI—Prestressed Concrete Institute
SJI— Steel Joist Institute
UL—Underwriter’s Laboratory
PROBLEMS
2.1 As discussed in this chapter, the bid document becomes a legal document when
the owner and contractor sign the contract agreement. Prepare a list of items that
are in the bid documents that are no longer applicable when the contract is
signed.
2.2 Obtain the standard specifications from two organizations: your local State
Department of Transportation and the Federal Highway Administration.
Compare the list of major divisions of these two organizations.
2.3 Review Division 0 of the Construction Specification Institute and prepare a list
of items for introductory information, bidding requirements, and contracting
requirements.
2.4 Secure copies and compare the general conditions to the contract from three
sources: the American Institute of Architects (AIA), the Associated General
Contractors (AGC), and the Engineers Joint Contract Documents Committee
(EJCDC).
2.5 Discuss problems that may arise during contract negotiations between the owner
and contractor when the contractor’s bid summary is by materials (such as con
crete, metals, etc.), rather than by completed facilities such as Building A,
Building B, Parking Lot, etc.
2.6 List problems that may occur for the owner during the bidding phase of a project
when the estimated pay quantities in a unit-price contract are lower than the
actual amount.
2.7 List problems that may occur for the contractor during construction when the
actual quantity of work is lower than the pay quantities in the bid documents.
Estimating Process
DECISION TO BID
Prior to starting the estimating process, upper management must assess the
desirability to bid the job. A contractor has to consider the investment of time
and money to prepare an estimate and compare that investment to the probabil
ity of winning the bid, the risks that may occur during construction, and the
potential of making a profit after the project is completed.
Numerous factors are considered in determining which projects to bid.
Contractors must determine whether or not the skills and availability of their
labor and equipment will match the requirements of the job to be bid. For a job
to be profitable, the contractor should have experience in building projects sim
ilar to the one being considered for bidding.
They must also assess the dollar amount of work currently under construc
tion by their company to ensure the amount of available bonding credit for bid
ding additional work. Thus, the contractor must consider the amount of work in
progress and the available bonding capacity, compared to the size of the project
that is being considered for bidding.
Other factors that play a role in determining which project to bid include
geographic location, complexity of the project, owner and designer’s reputation,
available working capital, and how much the contractor wants to expand their
construction operations.
After the decision has been made to bid the project, the estimating process
can be started. Management assigns the project to an estimator who will handle
the estimating process.
ESTIMATING PROCESS
After the decision has been made to bid a job, preparation of the estimate can be
started. Estimating is a process, just like any endeavor that requires an end prod
uct. Information must be assembled, evaluated, documented, and managed in an
Chapter 3 Estimating Process 45
Lessons learned for continuous improvement

Revise estimate
(based on external review)
| Establish standards f-»-|
[Update database [-► (based on internal review)
Estimate feedback for continuous improvement
FIGURE 3.1 I Estimating work process.
organized manner. For any process to work effectively, key information must be
defined and accumulated at critical times. Standardization is a key word in
preparing reliable estimates. The estimating team must establish a standard pro
cedure for preparing estimates to ensure organization and consistency, and to
reduce the potential for errors.
People involved in preparing the estimate must know their role, responsi
bility, and authority. Effective communications among members of the estimat
ing team are essential to selecting the estimate methodology commensurate with
the desired level of accuracy, collecting project data and confirming historical
cost information, organizing the estimate into the desired format, reviewing and
checking the estimate, and documenting the estimate after it is complete.
The estimating work process is illustrated in Fig. 3.1. The first step is the
kickoff meeting, which provides background information about the project to
the estimating team, expectations of the team, and any pertinent information that
may be needed to prepare the estimate. After orientation of the estimating team,
a work plan for preparing the estimate is established before starting the estimat
ing process. Preparing the estimate involves calculating the quantities of mate
rials, pricing labor and material, soliciting subcontractor bids, summarizing
direct costs, and adding indirect costs to determine the base estimate. After the
estimate is prepared, there must be a clear documentation and thorough review,
followed by necessary adjustments.
Effective communication is necessary during the estimating process. A sup
port document should be developed and available for presentation, review, and
future use of the estimate. A thorough documentation of the estimate forms a
baseline for project control, so decisions during project execution can be made
with a better awareness of the budget, thereby improving the overall outcome of
the project.
Well-executed estimate reviews will increase the credibility and accuracy of
the estimate. They also help the team and project management to know the level
of scope definition and the basis of the estimate. The review of estimates is an
important part of the estimating process because it helps the customer to under
stand the contents and level of accuracy of the estimate, enabling the customer
to make better business decisions.
Adjustment to the estimate involves analysis of risk and uncertainty to

determine an appropriate contingency to be added to the base estimate.
Contingency is the amount of money that must be added to the base estimate to
account for risk and uncertainty. Contingency is a real and necessary component
of an estimate. Assessing risk and assigning contingency to the base estimate is
one of the most important tasks in preparing estimates. Typically, risk analysis
is a prerequisite to assigning contingency. Based on the acceptable risks and the
expected confidence level, a contingency is established for a given estimate. The
lead estimator for a project must assess the uniqueness of each project and select
the technique of risk analysis that is deemed most appropriate. After the base
estimate and contingency have been determined, the markup for profit can be
added to obtain the bid price for the project.
No estimating process is complete without the feedback loops shown in
Fig. 3.1. The estimating process must be a continuous cycle. During project con
struction, a cost control system should be established to record actual costs for
comparison to the estimated costs. Actual cost information from completed proj
ects must be captured in a feedback system that can be integrated into the cost
database for use in preparing future estimates. Lessons learned during project
execution must also be documented and incorporated into estimating standards
and procedures. The lessons learned during construction must be communicated
back to the estimating team, to enable them to establish better standards for
preparing future project estimates.
THE ESTIMATING TEAM

Upper management and the lead estimator, who has overall responsibility for
preparing an estimate, should perform a thorough review of the bid documents
to make a preliminary evaluation of possible construction methods and the proj
ect schedule, and to identify potential difficulties and any special requirements.
The review should be made before assigning estimating responsibilities to mem
bers of the estimating team. This review provides information regarding the
scope and methods to be used for constructing the project and the experience
required of the estimating team.
An assessment must be made to determine the workloads and capabilities of
the in-house estimating staff. If sufficient in-house estimating staff is not avail
able, additional assistance can be obtained from field personnel with experience
on similar projects, or outside consultants for special requirements that cannot
be handled in-house.
The lead estimator should break down the work and make a preliminary
work plan for preparing the estimate. Development of an estimate work plan for
detailed work assignments is discussed later in this chapter.
It may be necessary to make early arrangements to obtain additional copies
of the bid documents. Additional sets of plans will be needed by material sup
pliers, vendors, and subcontractors to provide cost estimates for specialty work.
Chapter 3 Estimating Process
One of the key responsibilities of the lead estimator is to ensure the team has all
of the necessary resources to perform their work.
Kickoff Meeting of the Estimating Team

The kickoff meeting is the first meeting of the estimating team. The purpose of
the kickoff meeting is to ensure alignment between the customer and the esti
mating team before starting an estimate. The customer is the party requesting the
estimate, which may be upper management of the estimating team or an outside
organization. There must be a clear understanding of the customer’s expecta
tions and the estimating team’s ability to meet those expectations to mitigate
estimate inaccuracies that can result from misunderstandings and miscommuni-
cations. A clear understanding also enables establishment of the estimate work
plan and staffing requirements.
Preparation of estimates requires extensive time and money. Early in the
process there must be a review of the notification to bidders to determine the bid
requirement. The bid documents must be analyzed to determine the feasibility of
bidding the project as well as to review bid forms, general and special condi
tions, and the drawings. There should also be a review of the bidding documents
to determine the time and effort required to prepare the estimate, the availabil
ity of qualified personnel to prepare the estimate, and the cost to prepare the esti
mate. Other factors that should be addressed include bonding capacity, the com
pany’s capability to finance the cost of construction, and available working
capital.
There must also be an assessment of external requirements to determine if
the risks are worth the potential reward. There are times when it is best to not
invest time and costs in preparing the estimate to bid a job. Factors to consider
include competition of other bidders; experience with the architect, engineer,
construction manager, and/or owner; availability of material suppliers and sub
contractors; time allowed for construction; liquidated damages; and the owner’s
ability to pay. The quality and completeness of the bid documents are key fac
tors in the ability to produce a reliable estimate. The estimate kickoff meeting is
an effective method of addressing these issues. Table 3.1 is an illustrative check
list of issues to be discussed at the kickoff meeting of the estimating team.
ESTIMATE WORK PLAN

Effective management of the estimating effort requires planning, scheduling,
and control. Prior to starting the estimate, a work plan for preparing the estimate
should be developed. The estimate work plan identifies the work that is needed
to prepare the estimate, including who is going to do it, when it is to be done,
and the budget for preparing the estimate. The plan also includes the tools and
techniques that are appropriate for the level of scope definition and the expected
accuracy of the estimate.
T A B L E 3.1 I Checklist of issues for the estimate kickoff meeting.
1. What are the driving principles and expectations for the project?
2. What is the level of quality and completeness of the plans and specifications?
3. What level of accuracy and detail is expected in the estimate?
4. Who are potential competitors?
5. What are the experiences with the designer and/or owner?
6. Does the project have unique or unusual characteristics?
7. What is the estimate due date and the anticipated project start and completion dates?
8. What level of confidentiality is required of the team?
9. Who are the customer’s contacts with the team?
10. What is the availability of material suppliers and subcontractors?
11. What is the availability of labor at the construction site?
12. Are there other information sources that can aid the estimating?
13. Have similar projects/estimates been developed previously?
14. What owner-furnished items are to be excluded from the estimate?
15. What owner-furnished costs are to be included in the estimate?
16. Are there specific guidelines to be used in preparing the estimate?
17. Are there special permitting requirements that may affect the cost and schedule?
18. Are there any special regulations that might influence the final total installed cost?
19. Are there other issues that could affect the cost or schedule of the project?
20. What are the company’s current commitments of personnel and equipment?
21. Are there any special licensing requirements?
22. What is the time allowed for construction?
23. Are there liquidated damages?
24. What is the owner’s ability to pay?
25. What are the impacts of community relations?
The leader of the estimating team is responsible for developing an estimate

work plan for the project. The estimate work plan is a document to guide the
team in preparing accurate estimates and improving the estimating process. The
estimate work plan is unique for each project, based on specific project param
eters and requirements. Figure 3.2 illustrates the type of information that should
be included in an estimate work plan. The work plan should contain sufficient
detail to enable all members of the estimating team to understand what is
expected of them. After the work plan is finalized it serves as a document to
coordinate the estimating work and as a basis to control and maintain the esti
mating process.
In almost all situations, professional cost estimators with technical back
grounds can produce higher quality estimates. Like any technical specialty, esti
mating requires specific skills, training, and experience. Involvement of the esti
mating team early in the project is essential in the business development process.
Individuals with many different job titles, responsibilities, and functions
prepare cost estimates for projects in the engineering and construction industry.
Depending on the size and needs of each company, those preparing cost esti
mates may be working alone or as part of a group. They may be centralized in
one location or in multiple locations. In some situations, they may be integrated
with different departments of the company or they may work in one department.
There are advantages and disadvantages to centralizing or decentralizing the
estimating staff. Where an estimate is prepared is not as important as who is
Estimate Work Plan

Project N am e:____________________________
Project Number: -----------------------------------------
Customer’s Name:_________________________
Type of Estimate Required
Desired Level of Accuracy
Level of Effort Required
Deliverables of Estimate
Estimating Services to be Provided
Deliverables of Estimate by In-house Resources
Deliverables of Estimate by Outside Resources
Budget for Preparing Estimate
Anticipated work-hours for estimating staff
Dollars budgeted for non-salary estimating work
Required Staffing for Preparing Estimate
Principle Estimate (leader of estimating team)
In-house and Outside Resources
Availability of Personnel for Staffing
Schedule for Preparing Estimate
Anticipated Start Date
Requirements of Review Date
Customer Due Date
Estimating Methodology
Tools
Technique
Method
Procedures
Estimate Control
Level of Scope Definition
Checklists
Review Process
Presentation
Format for Presenting Estimate
Audience of Presentation
F IG U R E 3 .2 I Typical information to be addressed in the estimate work plan.
preparing the estimate and the process used in preparing the estimate. It is
important to implement and maintain effective control over the estimating
process. Procedures must be in place for
■ Disseminating knowledge and sharing expertise among the estimating staff.
■ Assigning and sharing the workload among estimators to improve
efficiency.
■ Reviewing, checking, and approving work for quality control.
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

Selection of the method for preparing an estimate depends on the level of scope
definition, time allowed to prepare the estimate, desired level of accuracy, and
intended use of the estimate. For example, the level of scope definition may be
a simple plot plan that shows only the location and types of building and the
owner wants only a quick cost estimate to evaluate the economic feasibility of
pursuing the project. For this situation, a conceptual cost estimate using the
square-foot method of estimating would be appropriate. Methods of conceptual
estimating are discussed in Chapter 4.
The level of scope definition may be a complete set of final design drawings
and specifications that define and show everything that must be in the completed
building, including foundations; structural, mechanical, electrical, and architec
tural finishes; etc. The final drawings and specifications are provided to a list of
contractors for bidding the job to select a contractor to build the project. For this
situation, a detailed estimate would be appropriate. This book illustrates meth
ods of detailed estimating for various types of specific construction work, such
as earthwork, concrete structures, roofing, plumbing, painting, etc.
PREPARING ESTIMATES
While preparing an estimate, there must be two-way communications between
the estimating team and management. The estimating team must keep manage
ment informed of the work being performed and management must respond to
questions that may arise from the estimating team. The estimating process can
assist management in identifying areas of uncertainty and additional information
that may be needed, or assumptions that must be made in lieu of definitive infor
mation about the project.
As the estimate is being prepared, it is important to perform periodic “real
ity checks” to make sure the costs developed are within reason. Based on esti
mator experience and familiarity with the project, this can include
■ Simple “intuitive” checks for reasonableness.

■ Comparisons with similar projects.
■ Comparisons with industry data (dollars/square foot, cost/megawatt,
indirect/direct costs, etc.).
■ Check ratios such as lighting costs/fixture, fire protection costs/sprinkler, etc.
Timely exchange of information is critical to ensure current price data,
databases, and feedback. Preparing estimates requires expertise from multiple
disciplines. An effective organization includes experienced field personnel, esti
mators, and managers who are knowledgeable in estimating. An effective team
must be organized to prepare, review, check, and approve the work. This same
team must also capture lessons learned to improve the estimating process and
improve efficiency.
In preparing early estimates, the skill level of the estimator and his or her
experience with the type of facility to be estimated is extremely important. The
quality of any estimate is governed by these major considerations:
■ Quality and amount of information available for preparing the estimate.
■ Time allocated to prepare the estimate.
■ Proficiency of the estimator and the estimating team.
■ Tools and techniques used in preparing the estimate.
The plans and specifications of the project are determined by the design
organization, and the project sponsor determines the completion date for an esti
mate. Therefore, these two elements may be beyond the control of the estimator.
However, the estimator does have control over the selection of the tools and
methodology to be used in preparing the estimate. The approach to selecting the
method of estimating should be commensurate with the expected level of accu
racy of the estimate and the constraints of time.
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES
To prepare an estimate for the entire project, a procedure must be established to
assemble all of the costs. The preparation of a comprehensive detailed estimate
involves five overlapping activities that must be closely coordinated and inte
grated. These activities are development of construction methods, preparation of
the construction schedule, material quantity takeoffs, the estimate of costs, and
assessment of risks for contingency.
To develop an accurate estimate, a site investigation must be conducted. The
primary objective of a site visit is the investigation of the physical characteris
tics of the project site. The investigation team collects information and evaluates
any constraints or limitations observed during the investigation, including
capacity of roads and bridges for transporting material and equipment to the job,
available storage space, and any other factors that can impact the cost of build
ing the project.
The estimate must be based on the planned method of construction. The
selection of construction methods must be established early in the estimating
process because the construction method will affect all other aspects of the esti
mate. A decision must be made to plan the construction operations to be fol
lowed, to allow the estimating team to separate operations to be performed by
contractor’s personnel and the work to be subcontracted to specialty contractors.
These decisions will depend on availability of contractor-owned equipment and
the skills and experience of the contractor’s personnel. For some projects, it may
be necessary to prepare a preliminary estimate for each of the potential con
struction methods, to determine the relative cost of each scheme. These studies
should be in sufficient detail to identify the most economical methods.
The schedule is an integral part of the estimate. It should be prepared fol
lowing the decision on construction method and before estimating the costs. In
preparing the schedule, the estimating team must consider the requirements of the
project, including milestones established by the bid documents. The sequence of
work may be dictated by the needs of the owner, weather, safety, lead-time for
materials or special equipment, and many other factors. Each of these factors may
have a significant impact on the costs. For example, placing concrete during the
winter season would cost more than placing concrete in the summer season.
The time required or the duration of each activity will be consistent with
the productivity rates selected for the estimate and resource limitations of the
contractor, including labor, equipment, material, and money. The total time for
each phase of the project and for the project as a whole will affect the direct
and indirect costs. The construction schedule can be used to determine resource
requirements. Crews may be scheduled for each of the work items to determine
average peak workload requirements as well as total work-hours (WHs)
required. Based on payment provisions in the bid documents, the schedule can
be used to develop a cash flow projection form in which the cost of contractor
financing can be established. In each case, the schedule must integrate with and
confirm determinations made in the detailed cost estimate.
The material quantity takeoff is the systematic breakdown of the project into
units of work for the purpose of evaluating the required cost and time to build
the project. Prior to starting the quantity takeoff, the plans and specifications
must be thoroughly reviewed for requirements that will affect the way in which
quantities will be taken off and assembled. Consideration must be given to the
breakdown required in the bid documents, alternates required, unit prices
required, method of measurement for payment, and bills of materials. The mate
rial quantity takeoff should be handled in a consistent order for all estimates,
generally following the sequence of construction. Each estimator must develop
a system of quantity takeoff to ensure that a quantity is not omitted or calculated
twice, which is a common error in estimating. A well-organized checklist of
work will help reduce the chances of making such an error.
After the quantity takeoff is completed, the direct costs can be calculated.
Direct costs consist of material, labor, equipment, and subcontracts. Material cost
is calculated by multiplying the quantity of material by the unit cost of the mate
rial. The unit cost of material can be obtained from material suppliers. The cost
of labor is calculated by dividing the quantity of work by the production rate of
laborers, multiplied by the labor rate. Labor rates include base wages plus payroll
taxes and insurance. The cost of equipment is calculated by dividing the quantity
of work by the production rate of equipment, multiplied by the equipment rate.
Equipment rates include both ownership cost and operation expenses. Each indi
vidual subcontractor submits the cost of subcontractors’ work. Contractors
develop and continually update a cost database for their particular type of work.
The estimating work process shown in Fig. 2.1 illustrates the feedback loops dur
ing construction to record actual costs and productivity rates into the database.
The indirect costs are estimated after the direct costs have been completed.
Many of the indirect costs depend on the results of the direct costs. Indirect costs
consist of mobilization, field office expenses, insurance, bonds, taxes, final
cleanup, and other expenses required to complete the project.
After the direct and indirect costs are completed and summarized, a risk
analysis of uncertainties is made to determine an appropriate contingency for the
estimate. Contingency is discussed later in this chapter.
ESTIMATE CHECKLISTS
Checklists are valuable tools to reduce the potential of overlooking a cost item.
Checklists act as reminders to the estimator by
■ Listing information required to prepare the early estimate.
■ Listing miscellaneous other costs that may be required in the estimate.
Chapter 3 Estimating Process 53
■ Listing work items that may be required to build the project in accordance
with the plans and specifications.
A listing of information required to prepare an estimate in the process indus
try may include type of unit, feed capacity, and project location. For a computer
generated estimate in the process industry, the required information includes soil
and site data, building requirements, plot plan dimensions, and other specific
engineering requirements. For projects in the building sector, a listing of infor
mation to prepare an estimate may include type of building, functional use of
building, number of occupants, building location, and project location.
Typical examples of miscellaneous cost items may include spare parts, per
mits, training, or other items. Typical scope items that may be required, but are
not identified in the definition provided for the estimate, may include certain util
ity and auxiliary systems. Checklists are also useful during initial client-customer
meetings where they serve as agenda items for discussion. Checklists also assist
in preparing an “estimate work plan” by identifying important points to empha
size in the write-up for the execution of the estimate. Table 3.2 is an illustrative
example of an early estimate checklist for a project in the process industry.
Table 3.3 is an example checklist for a detailed estimate for concrete work.
T A B L E 3 .2 I Checklist for an early estimate in the T A B L E 3 .3 I Checklist for detailed estimate for
process industry. concrete work.
1. Process unit description (delayed coker, hydrogen plant, etc.) 1. Are anchor bolts included?
2. Process licenser 2. Is reinforcing steel included?
3. Feed capacity 3. Is insulation of the slab included?
4. Production capacity 4. Is vapor barrier under the slab included?
5. Product yield 5. Is cost of pumping concrete included?
6. Utility levels at process unit location 6. Are shop drawings for tilt-up panels included?
7. Feedstock specifications 7. Is caulking of the tilt-up panels included?
8. Integration of multiple units 8. Is hardware and rigging included for tilt-up panels?
9. Process pressure and temperature operating levels 9. Is the lifting crane included?
10. Provision for future expansion of capacity 10. Are form liners included?
11. Provision for processing multiple or different feedstocks 11. Is grouting under the wall panels included?
12. Single-train versus multiple-train concept 12. Is waste included in the concrete?
13. Project location 13. Are architectural finishes included?
14. Miscellaneous costs (spare parts, training, chemicals, etc.) 14. Are concrete curing compounds included?
15. Other items, such as unusually high or low recycle rates 15. Is the portable compressor included?
DOCUMENTATION OF ESTIMATE
After the estimate is completed, a document should be prepared that defines the
basis of the estimate. Estimate documentation is essential for presentation,
review, and future use of the estimate. The documentation for an estimate
improves communications between the estimating team and management, estab
lishes a mechanism for estimate reviews, and forms a basis for early project cost
control. The estimating team should develop a standard format for presentation
of the estimate that is easily understood by management.
Inaccurate cost estimates are often the result of omissions in the estimate,
miscommunications of project information, or nonaligned assumptions.
Documenting the estimate will minimize these inaccuracies by
■ Improving communications among all project participants.
■ Establishing a mechanism for review of the estimate.
■ Forming a solid basis for project controls.
As the estimate is being developed, the act of preparing documentation
facilitates communications between the estimating team and management.
Estimate documentation improves the outcome of the estimate through
■ Sharing information.
■ Identifying items that require clarification.
■ Helping the estimator obtain and organize information needed for the
estimate.
■ Avoiding confusion over what is covered, and not covered, by the
estimate.
■ Providing useful information for future estimates.
■ Highlighting weak areas of the estimate.
■ Increasing the credibility of the estimate.
A portion of the documentation may be developed by sources other than the
estimator. For example, procurement personnel may obtain material quotes,
labor information may be obtained from field personnel, etc. However, the esti
mator has overall responsibility for collecting and organizing this information.
Reviewing and clarifying the information with the originator improves the esti
mate accuracy.
A standard default format or outline should be developed to organize and
prepare documentation for the cost estimates. A different standard can be devel
oped for different types of estimates. The process of developing, utilizing, and
storing the documentation for future use should be built into the cost estimate
work process. The items that should be documented are shown in Table 3.4.
ESTIMATE REVIEWS
Once the estimate is complete, a detailed review should be made of the entire
estimate package, including the backup materials, assumptions, unit prices, pro
ductivity rates, etc. The estimate should also be checked against the project
schedule requirements to ensure they are compatible with such elements as over
time rates assumed during outages, price escalation, etc.
The number of reviews will vary depending on the size of project, type of
estimate, length of time allowed for preparing the estimate, and other factors.
For any estimate there should be at least two reviews: an internal review dur
ing development of the estimate and a final review at or near completion of the
estimate.
T A B L E 3 .4 I Recommended documentation of estimates.
1. Standard format for presenting cost categories (codes)—summary and backup levels
2. Basis of estimate—clear understanding of what constitutes the estimate
3. Level of accuracy— expected for the estimate
4. Basis for contingency— risk analysis, if applicable
5. Boundaries of the estimate— limitations of the estimate
6. Scope of work—the quality and completeness of the plans and specifications
7. Labor rates— breakdown and basis of labor rate
8. Assumed quantities—conceptualized etc.
9. Applied escalation— dates and basis of escalation
10. Work schedule— shifts, overtime, etc. to match the milestones (not contradictory)
11. Other backup information— quotes, supporting data, assumptions
12. Checklists used—a list of completed checklists
13. Description of cost categories— codes used in preparing the estimate
14. Excluded costs— list of items excluded from the cost estimate
About halfway through the development of the estimate, a “reality check”

should be scheduled. The purpose of the midpoint check is to avoid spending
unnecessary time and money in pursuing an estimate that may be unrealistic or
based on assumptions that are no longer valid.
The internal midpoint estimate review is brief. Typically the lead estimator
and project manager are involved. This review is intended as a reality check of
the data being developed to assess whether to proceed with the estimate. This is
a “go—no go” point when the results of the review will guide the estimator and
the team in these two steps:
1. Either report to upper management that the costs have gotten outside of
the boundaries established as a target for the project, or
2. Give the team the “go ahead” to proceed with the remaining estimate
process to complete the estimate.
The final estimate review is a more structured process. The depth of the
review depends on the type or class of estimate that is being prepared. The meet
ing is intended to validate assumptions used in preparing the estimate, such as
construction sequence, key supplier selection, and owner’s cost.
The final estimate review may be a lengthy meeting. For a final estimate
review, the attendees should include the lead estimator, experienced field per
sonnel, and a representative of upper management. To be effective, the final esti
mate review meeting should be conducted with a written agenda. The meeting
should be documented with written minutes that are distributed to all attendees.
The estimator must come to the review meeting prepared with this information
for comparisons:
■ Historical data used in preparing the estimate.
■ Actual total installed costs of similar projects.
■ Percentage of total installed cost on key cost accounts.
Comparisons of the estimate with this information provide useful indicators

for the estimate review. The estimator needs to assess each estimate to determine
the appropriate checks that should be included in an estimate review meeting.
In some situations it may be desirable to use outside assistance for estimate
reviews. For example, it may be helpful to obtain a review of the estimate by an
experienced peer group to validate assumptions, key estimate accounts, con
struction sequence, potential omissions, etc. In other situations, it may be advan
tageous to engage a third party to perform an independent review. This will pro
vide a check to compare the estimate with past similar estimates from the
perspective of a different team.
Estimate reviews should focus on the big picture and follow Pareto’s law,
separating the significant few from the trivial many. Generally, an estimate is
prepared bottom up, whereas the review is conducted top down. Table 3.5 is an
illustrative example of review items for an estimate.
T A B L E 3 .5 I Review items for

an estimate.
1. Size, type, and location of facility

2. Key assumptions used
3. Major undecided alternatives
4. Estimate methodology
5. Historical data used
6. Estimate exclusions
7. Estimator's experience
8. Checklists used to prepare estimate
9. Analysis of risks and uncertainties
10. Amount of applied contingency
The estimating team should develop a standard cost estimate presentation

format that includes the level of detail and summary of engineering design, engi
neered equipment, bulk materials, construction directs and indirects, owner’s
costs, escalation, taxes, and contingency. Computer methods, including spread
sheets or estimating programs, provide consistent formats for preparing and pre
senting estimates. Uniform formats provide these benefits:
■ Reduce errors in preparing estimates.

■ Enhance the ability to compare estimates of similar projects.
■ Promote a better understanding of the contents of an estimate.
■ Provide an organized system for collecting future cost data.
Presentation of the estimate is important. The estimating team must develop

a format that is easily understood by management. Using a standard format for
presentations promotes better communication among all participants in the proj
ect and a better understanding of what is included in the estimate. This under
standing is necessary so good decisions can be made based on the estimate.
RISK ASSESSMENT
Assessing risk and assigning contingency to the base estimate is one of the most
important tasks in preparing early estimates. Risk assessment is not the sole
responsibility of the estimators. Key members of the project management team
must provide input on critical issues that should be addressed by the estimators
in assessing risk. Risk assessment requires a participatory approach with
involvement of all project stakeholders including the business unit, engineering,
construction, and the estimating team.
The owner is responsible for overall project funding and for defining the
purpose and intended use of the project. The design organization is responsible
for producing the contract documents, the plans and specifications, to construct
the project. The estimating team is responsible for preparing an estimate of the
probable final cost to construct the project, including direct and indirect costs,
and assessing risk and assigning contingency.
RISK ANALYSIS
Typically, risk analysis is a prerequisite to assigning contingency. Based on the
acceptable risks and the expected confidence level, a contingency is established
for a given estimate. Risk analysis and the resultant amount of contingency help
management to determine the level of economic risk involved in pursuing a proj
ect. The purpose of risk analysis is to improve the accuracy of the estimate and
to instill management’s confidence in the estimate.
Numerous publications have been written to define risk analysis techniques.
Generally, a formal risk analysis involves either a Monte Carlo simulation or a
statistical range analysis. There are also numerous software packages for risk
analysis. The lead estimator for a project must assess the uniqueness of each
project and select the technique of risk analysis that is deemed most appropriate.
For very early estimates, the level of scope definition and the amount of estimate
detail may be inadequate for performing a meaningful cost simulation.
CONTINGENCY
Contingency is a real and necessary component of an estimate. Engineering and
construction are risk endeavors with many uncertainties, particularly in the early
stages of project development. Contingency is assigned based on uncertainty.
Contingency may be assigned for many uncertainties, such as pricing, escala
tion, schedule, omissions, and errors. The practice of including contingency for
possible scope expansion is highly dependent on the attitude and culture toward
changes, particularly within the business unit.
In simple terms, contingency is the amount of money that should be added
to the base estimate to better predict the total installed cost of the project.
Contingency can be interpreted as the amount of money that must be added to
the base estimate to account for work that is difficult or impossible to identify at
the time a base estimate is being prepared. In some owner or contractor organi
zations, contingency is intended to cover known unknowns. That is, the estima
tor knows there are additional costs, but the precise amount is unknown.
However, sometimes an allowance is assigned for known unknowns and a con
tingency is assigned for unknown unknowns.
AACE International document 18R-97 defines contingency as “An amount
of money or time (or other resources) added to the base estimate to: (a) achieve
a specific confidence level; or (b) allow for changes that experience shows will
likely be required.”
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF
ASSIGNING CONTINGENCY
The most effective and meaningful way to perform risk analysis and assign con
tingency is to involve the project management team. Estimators have insights
and can assess imperfections in an estimate to derive an appropriate contin
gency. However, the interaction and group dynamics of the project management
team provide an excellent vehicle to assess the overall project risk. The integra
tion of the project management team’s knowledge and the estimator’s ability to
assign contingency provides management with an appreciation of and confi
dence in the final estimate. The end result is an estimate that represents the
judgment of the project management team, not just the estimator’s perspective.
Figure 3.3 illustrates the risk assessment process. The estimator must select
the method deemed most appropriate for each project, based on information pro
vided by the project management team and based on the intended use of the esti
mate by the business unit. The estimator must communicate the method selected,
risk, accuracy, and contingency for the estimate.
FIGURE 3.3 I Risk assessment process.
Percentage of Base Estimate

For some situations, contingency may be assigned based on personal past expe
rience. A percentage is applied to the base estimate to derive the total contin
gency. Although this is a simple method, the success depends on extensive expe
rience of the estimator and historical cost information from similar projects. It is
less accurate than other more structured methods.
Some organizations apply standard percentages for contingencies based on
the class of estimate. Company policy rather than a numerical analysis governs
this method. In some situations, contingency is applied as a percentage of major

cost items rather than applying a percentage of the total base estimate. Typically,
the amount of the percentage is based on the level of scope definition or on the
stage of project development.
In some instances, a percentage can be applied to major cost items that make
up the estimate, rather than applying a percentage to the total base estimate. The
method typically relies on the personal experience and judgment of the estima
tor, but the percentage can also be from established standard percentages based
on historical data. This method has the advantage of considering risk and uncer
tainty at a lower level than applying contingency on the total base estimate.
The personal experience and judgment of the estimators and engineers
should not be overlooked in the process of assigning contingency. Even the most
advanced computers are not a substitute for the knowledge and experience of the
human mind. Estimators with many years of experience with a particular type of
work can often be quite accurate in assigning contingency. They assign contin
gency based on how they “feel” about the level of uncertainty and risk associ
ated with a project, their knowledge of the cost data used in preparing the esti
mate, and the thoroughness of the effort in preparing the base estimate.
Expected Net Risk

The estimator may determine contingency based on expected maximum risk and
likelihood. After the evaluation of normal contingency of each estimate element,
an individual element may also be evaluated for any specific unknowns or
potential problems that might occur. The first step involves determining the
maximum possible risk for each element, recognizing that it is unlikely that all
the risk will occur for all elements.
The next step involves assessing the percentage probability that this risk will
occur. The expected net risk then becomes a product of the maximum risk times
the probability. The sum of all the expected net risks provides the total maximum
risk contingency required. Table 3.6 illustrates an expected net risk analysis.
TA B L E 3.6 I Expected net risk analysis.
Base . Maximum Maximum Percentage Expected

Element estim ate cost risk probability net risk
1 $400 $500 $100 30 $30
2 $80 $120 $40 80 $32
3 $100 $200 $100 50 $50
Total $580 $820 $240 $112
Simulation
A formal risk analysis for determining contingency is usually based on simula
tion. A simulation of probabilistic assessment of critical risk elements can be per
formed to match the desired confidence level. Monte Carlo simulation software
packages are useful tools for performing simulation. However, knowledge of sta
tistical modeling and probability theory is required to use these tools properly.
Range estimating is a powerful tool that embraces Monte Carlo simulation
to establish contingency. Critical elements are identified that have a significant
impact on the base estimate. For many estimates, there are less than 20 critical
elements. The range of each critical element is defined and probability analysis
is used to form the basis of simulation. Using this method, noncritical elements
can be combined into one or a few meaningful elements.
Range estimating is probably the most widely used and accepted method of
formal risk analysis. In range estimating the first step requires identification of
the critical items in the estimate. The critical items are those cost items that can
affect the total cost estimate by a set percentage, for example ± 4 percent. Thus,
a relatively small item with an extremely high degree of uncertainty may be crit
ical, whereas a major equipment item for which a firm vendor quote has been
obtained would not be considered critical. Typically, no more than 20 critical
items are used in the analysis. If more than 20 critical items are identified, the
set percentage can be increased to reduce the number of critical items.
Once the critical items are identified, a range and a target are applied to each
item. For example, the range may include a minimum value so there is only a
1 percent chance that the cost of the item would fall below that minimum.
Similarly, an upper value may be established so there will be only a 1 percent

chance of going over that value. The target value represents the anticipated cost
for that item. The target value does not need to be the average of the minimum
and maximum values. Usually the target value is slightly higher than the average.
After the critical items have been identified and ranged, a Monte Carlo sim
ulation is performed. The Monte Carlo analysis simulates the construction of the
project numerous times, as many as 1 , 0 0 0 to 1 0 ,0 0 0 , based on the ranges given
to the critical items and the estimated values of the noncritical items. The results
of the simulation are rank ordered, then presented in a cumulative probability
graph, commonly called an S curve. The cumulative probability graph typically
shows the probability of underrun on the horizontal x axis and either the total
project cost or contingency amount on the vertical y axis. The decision maker
can then decide the amount of contingency to add based on the amount of risk.
Caution also must be exercised because it is possible to seriously underesti
mate the cost of a project when using range estimating. There is a risk of under
stating the true risk of a project due to statistical interdependencies among the
critical items in the analysis. Whenever two or more cost items are positively
correlated, meaning they increase together or decrease together, the Monte Carlo
simulation may cause one to be high and the other low so that they cancel each
other out. Thus, the true risk would be understated. Also, underestimating the
ranges on the critical items can have a profound impact on the results, also lead
ing to an understatement of the true risks inherent in the design and construction
of the project.
When used properly, formal risk analysis using Monte Carlo simulation
range estimating can be an extremely valuable tool because it requires a detailed
analysis of the components of the estimate, a process that can identify mistakes
and poor assumptions. However, precautions must be taken when using simula
tion methods for early estimates. For many early estimates there is not enough
detailed information or an adequate number of cost items for a valid simulation.
Assessing Estimate Sensitivity

The contingency applied to an estimate includes the combined impact of all risk
elements. The accuracy of an estimate can be improved by assessing high cost
impact factors, increasing the level of scope definition, or a combination of both.
A sensitivity analysis can be performed to illustrate how a specific risk element
can impact the total estimate.
The sensitivity analysis evaluates the impact of only one risk element at a
time. It is frequently used in conjunction with an economic analysis. During the
process of determining contingency, the risk elements that can have the maxi
mum impact on the total installed cost are prime candidates for sensitivity analy
sis. Tables 3.7 and 3.8 show a sample sensitivity analysis for a $3 million base
estimate.
TA B L E 3.7 I Base estimate summary.
Equipment cost $1,200,000

Material cost $600,000
Labor cost $1,000,000-<- — (= $50/WH X 20,000 WH)
Subcontractor cost $200,000
Total base estimate $3,000,000
TA B L E 3.8 I Sensitivity analysis.
Percentage change New base

Risk element from estim ate estimate
Labor rate ($5 0 /WH) 0 $3,000,000
Labor rate + 10 3,100,000
Labor rate -5 2,950,000
Total work-hours (20,OOOWH) 0 $3,000,000

Total work-hours + 15 3,150,000
Total work-hours -7 2,930,000
Equipment ($1,200M) 0 $3,000,000

Equipment +5 3,060,000
Equipment -5 2,940,000
For any estimate, it is necessary to apply a contingency to the base estimate.

The method used for assigning contingency will vary depending on analysis of
risk and other factors that can impact the cost of a project. This section has pre
sented traditional methods used for assigning contingency.
ESTIMATE FEEDBACK FOR

CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
It is unfortunate, but the perception of many people is that the estimator’s
involvement with a project is over when the estimate is finished. In reality, it is
an advantage to the management of a project, and in the best interest of the cus
tomer, for the estimator to remain connected to the project during execution.
The estimator can be an important asset to project management during the
execution phase of a project. Involvement of the estimator during project exe
cution enables the estimator to stay in touch with the project and provide an
early warning of any potential cost overruns. Including the estimator in the dis
tribution list of monthly project reports can provide input to the project man
agement team to enable them to make good decisions related to costs.
During project execution, the estimator can also be a valuable resource for
recasting the cost estimate into work/bid packages and for analyzing actual bids
with the recast estimate. The estimator can also assist in management of changes
during project execution, by assessing the impact of changes on cost.
No estimating process is complete without the continuous feedback loops
shown in Fig. 3.1. Feedback from project execution provides lessons learned to
the estimator, which enables the estimating team to modify estimating standards
and practices. Feedback from project completion also enables the estimating
team to update the database to improve the accuracy of future estimates.
Terminating the estimator’s involvement when the estimate is finished prevents
continuous improvement of the estimating process.
To provide meaningful feedback, the estimator must explore how the cost
will be tracked during project execution. An estimate should be prepared with
cost breakdowns in a format that enables easy future cost tracking. A standard
code of accounts enables an organization to simplify the estimating process,
update the database, and facilitate cost control. This benefits both the estimating
team and the project management team.
A final project cost report is an extremely valuable document to capture les
sons learned for improving estimates. It provides a real feedback to compare with
the original cost estimate. Pitfalls for future estimates can be eliminated or mini
mized. Both the original estimate and the final project cost reports should be main
tained at a central location. A cost reference with reports sorted by project loca
tion, type, size, etc., can be used to update the cost database for future estimates.
The best source of data for estimators to develop and enhance the estimat
ing tools and techniques is their own organization. There is an abundance of
project data that is available from completed projects and definitive estimates.
The key to success is the establishment of a mechanism to capture and retrieve
this information in a format that can be useful in developing statistical relation
ships, such as percentage of breakdowns of total installed cost by cost category,
total installed cost to equipment cost ratios, construction indirect costs to direct
labor cost ratios, etc. When a project is completed, the actual total installed costs
can be added to the database. Estimate feedback is an integral part of the esti-
C hapter 3 Estimating Process
mating process. It is not an add-on feature. A process for providing feedback

loops is necessary to improve the accuracy of early estimates.
PROBLEMS
3.1 Describe the purpose of a kickoff meeting of an estimating team. What are typi
cal issues that should be discussed?
3.2 List and briefly describe the important factors that should be included in estimat
ing procedures.
3.3 Develop a checklist of items that should be included in a detailed estimate for a
grading operation for a highway project. A review of Chapter 7 provides the
work items necessary for earthwork.
3.4 What values can be obtained from documenting an estimate, other than minimiz
ing inaccuracies?
3.5 Discuss the difference between internal and external reviews of an estimate and
describe a situation when an external review might be especially valuable.
3.6 Review published articles that describe methods of risk assessment and assign
ment of contingency to estimates.
3.7 Interview three estimators, one working for an owner, a designer, and a contrac
tor, respectively, to identify factors that each estimator believes is important for
preparing accurate estimates.
Conceptual Cost Estimating
At the inception of a project by the owner, prior to any design, only limited
information is known about a project. However, the owner must know the
approximate cost to evaluate the economic feasibility of proceeding with the
project. Thus, there is a need to determine the approximate cost of a project dur
ing its conceptual phase.
As discussed in Chapter 1, cost estimates can be divided into at least two
different types, depending on the purposes for which they are prepared and the
amount of information known when the estimate is prepared: approximate esti
mates (sometimes called preliminary, conceptual, or budget estimates) and
detailed estimates (sometimes called final or definitive estimates). Each of these
estimates may be subdivided.
Later chapters of this book discuss methods and procedures of estimating
the construction costs of engineering projects for which detailed information is
known. For example, the cost of excavation is determined for a known quantity
and type of soil, size of excavator, and job conditions. The cost of concrete
forms is determined based on specific sizes, shapes, and numbers of concrete
columns, beams, walls, etc.
This chapter presents methods and procedures for estimating project costs
during the preliminary or conceptual phase. Because there is little definition of
a project at this stage, the accuracy of the estimate will be less than that of a
detailed estimate. However, the conceptual cost estimate is important because
the owner will examine this estimate before continuing with development of the
project.
ACCURACY OF CONCEPTUAL ESTIMATES

The accuracy of any estimate will depend on the amount of information known
about a project. A conceptual cost estimate should be identified by the informa
tion from which the estimate was compiled. For example, a conceptual estimate
that is prepared from the project scope (sometimes called the project charter or
64
Chapter 4 Conceptual Cost Estimating
project mission), when there is little or no design, may be identified as level I, in

terms of accuracy. Level I accuracy can be defined as accurate within + 40 and
- 1 0 percent. A level II conceptual cost estimate can be defined as the estimate
that is prepared upon completion of the preliminary design. Such estimates
might be accurate within + 25 and —5 percent. Level III conceptual estimates
might be identified as estimates that are compiled upon completion of the final
design. A level III conceptual cost estimate might be accurate within + 10 and
—3 percent.
It is important to classify the conceptual estimate by predefined levels of
accuracy similar to those just described. Such classifications provide a measure
of reliability to those who must use the information.
LIABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL
COST ESTIMATES
Generally the designers are not obligated under standard-form contracts to guar
antee the construction cost of a project. However, as a part of their design
responsibility, designers prepare an estimate of the probable construction cost
for the project for which they have prepared the design.
Major decisions are often made by the owner from information contained in
the conceptual cost estimate. This places a responsibility on the estimator.
Although the initial estimate may be prepared from little-known information, it
is the duty of the estimator to re-estimate the project as additional information
about the project becomes available. This is particularly important for a cost-
plus construction contract where the designer has the responsibility to monitor
costs during construction.
PREPARATION OF
CONCEPTUAL ESTIMATES
There are many variations in the contract arrangements among the three princi
pal parties in a project (owner, designer, and contractor). The conceptual esti
mate is generally prepared by the owner during the owner’s feasibility study or
by the designer during the design phase. It may be prepared by the contractor for
negotiated work between an owner and a contractor.
Multibuilder owners are involved with the construction of projects on a con
tinual basis. Examples are electrical utilities, oil and gas firms, retail stores with
nationwide locations, etc. To initiate a project, these firms generally conduct an
owner’s study. The owner’s study consists of a technical feasibility study and an
economic feasibility study of the proposed project. A conceptual cost estimate is
prepared by the owner as part of the economic feasibility analysis.
Designers prepare conceptual cost estimates throughout the design process.
The estimate is used in the selection of design alternatives and to keep the owner
informed of forecast costs. It is the responsibility of the designer to develop a
design that will produce a completed project within the amount of money
authorized in the owner’s budget.
Some projects are of an emergency nature and must be completed in the
least time possible. For such projects the owner will negotiate a contract with a
contractor. The contractor may be asked to prepare a conceptual cost estimate
for the project for which there are no, or limited, plans and specifications.
The preparation of conceptual cost estimates requires knowledge and expe
rience with the work required to complete the project. Cost information from
previous projects of similar type and size is essential. The estimator must com
bine all known information with his or her personal experience and use consid
erable judgment to prepare a reliable conceptual estimate.
BROAD-SCOPE CONCEPTUAL ESTIMATES

A broad-scope conceptual cost estimate of a proposed project is prepared prior
to the design of the project. It is prepared from cost information on previously
completed projects similar to the proposed project. The number of units, or size,
of the project is the only known information, such as the number of square feet
of building area, the number of cars in a parking garage, the number of 345-kV
transmission line, the number of barrels of crude oil processed per day, etc.
The best source of information for preparation of conceptual cost estimates
is the cost records from previous projects. Although the range of costs will vary
among projects, the estimator can develop unit costs to forecast the cost of future
projects.
The unit cost should be developed from a weighting of the data that empha
sizes the average value, yet it should account for the extreme maximum and min
imum values. Equation [4.1] can be used for weighting cost data from previous
projects:
A + 4B + C
UC = ------- -------- [4.1]
o
where UC = forecast unit cost

A = minimum unit cost of previous projects
B = average unit cost of previous projects
C = maximum unit cost of previous projects
Example 4.1 illustrates the weighting of the cost data from a previous proj
ect to determine the forecast unit cost of a proposed project.
EXAMPLE 4 .1
Cost information from eight previously constructed parking garage projects is shown
in the table.
Chapter 4 Conceptual Cost Estimating 67
Project Cost No. cars

1 $466,560 150
2 290,304 80
3 525,096 120
4 349,920 90
5 259,290 60
6 657,206 220
7 291,718 70
8 711,414 180
Use the weighted unit cost to determine the conceptual cost estimate for a proposed
parking garage that is to contain 135 parked cars.
The unit cost per car can be calculated as:
Project Unit cost per car

1 $3,110.40
2 3,628.80
3 4,375.80
4 3,888.00
5 4,321.50
6 2,987.30
7 4,167.40
8 3,952.30
Total = $30,431.50
The average cost per car is $30,431.50 ^ 8 = $3,803.94. From Eq. [4.1] the fore
cast unit cost will be
2,987.30 + 4(3,803.94) + 4,375.80 ^

UC = —----------------- -------------- --------------------= $3,763.14
The conceptual cost estimate for 135 cars will be:
135 cars @ $3,763.14 = $508,023.00
The technique of conceptual cost estimating illustrated in Example 4.1 can

be applied to other types of projects, for example, for apartment units, motel
rooms, miles of electrical transmission line, barrels of crude oil processed per
day, square yards of pavement, etc.
It is necessary for the estimator to adjust the cost information from previ
ously completed projects for use in the preparation of a conceptual cost estimate
for a proposed project. There should be an adjustment for time, location, and size.
TIME ADJUSTMENTS FOR

CONCEPTUAL ESTIMATES
The use of cost information from a previous project to forecast the cost of a pro
posed project will not be reliable unless an adjustment is made proportional to
the difference in time between the two projects. The adjustment should represent
the relative inflation or deflation of costs with respect to time due to factors such
as labor rates, material costs, interest rates, etc.
Various organizations publish indices that show the economic trends of the
construction industry with respect to time. The Engineering News Record (ENR)
quarterly publishes indices of construction costs. An index can be used to adjust
previous cost information for use in the preparation of a conceptual cost estimate.
The estim ator can use the change in value of an index between any two
years to calculate an equivalent compound interest rate. This equivalent interest
rate can be used to adjust past cost records, to forecast future project costs.
Example 4.2 illustrates the use of indices for time adjustments.
EXAMPLE 4 . 2
Suppose the indices for building construction projects show these econom ic trends:
Year Index
3 yr ago 358
2 yr ago 359
1 yr ago 367
Current year 378
An equivalent com pound interest can be calculated based on the change in the cost
index during the 3-yr period:
/ = 1.83%
Suppose that cost information from an $843,500 project com pleted last year is to be
used to prepare a conceptual cost estimate for a project proposed for construction
3 yr from now. The cost of the proposed project should be adjusted for time as follows:
Cost = $843,500 X (1 + 0.018 3 )4
= $906,960
ADJUSTMENTS FOR LOCATION

The use of cost information from a previous project to forecast the cost of a pro
posed project will not be reliable unless an adjustment is made that represents
the difference in cost between the locations of the two projects. The adjustment
should represent the relative difference in costs of materials, equipment, and
labor with respect to the two locations.
Various organizations publish indices that show the relative differences in
construction costs with respect to geographic location. The ENR is an example of
a publisher of location cost indices. Example 4.3 illustrates the use of indices for
location adjustments.
EXAMPLE 4 . 3
The location indices for construction costs show this information:
Location Index
City A 1,025
City B 1,170
City C 1,260
City D 1,105
City E 1,240
Suppose that cost information from a $387,200 project com pleted in city A is to
be used to prepare a conceptual cost estimate for construction of a proposed proj
ect in city D. The cost of the proposed project should be adjusted for location as
Cost = h H X $ 3 8 7 ’2 0 0 = $ 4 1 7 '4 2 0
ADJUSTMENT FOR SIZE

The use of cost information from a previous project to forecast the cost of a
future project will not be reliable unless an adjustment is made that represents
the difference in size of the two projects. In general, the cost of a project is
directly proportional to its size. The adjustment is generally a simple ratio of the
size of the proposed project to the size of the previous project from which the
cost data are obtained.
COMBINED ADJUSTMENTS
The conceptual cost estimate for a proposed project is prepared from cost
records of a project completed at a different time and at a location with a differ
ent size. The estimator must adjust the previous cost information for the combi
nation of time, location, and size.
Example 4.4 illustrates the use of combined adjustments for preparation of
a conceptual cost estimate.
EXAMPLE 4 . 4
Use the time and location indices presented in Examples 4.2 and 4.3 to prepare the
conceptual cost estimate for a building with 62,700 sf of floor area. The building is
to be constructed 3 yr from now in city B. A similar type of building that cost
$2,197,540 and contained 38,500 sf was com pleted 2 yr ago in city E. Estimate the
probable cost of the proposed building.
Proposed cost
= Previous cost x Time adjustm ent x Location adjustm ent x Size adjustment
K 1,170 62,700
= $ 2 ,1 9 7 ,5 4 0 X (1 + 0 .0 1 8 3 )' « — X —
= $2,197,540 X 1.095 X 0.944 X 1.629
= $3,700,360
UNIT-COST ADJUSTMENTS
Although the total cost of a project will increase with size, the cost per unit may
decrease. For example, the cost of an 1,800-sf house may be $53.50 per square
foot whereas the cost of a 2 ,2 0 0 -sf house of comparable construction may be
only $48.75 per square foot. Certain items, such as the kitchen appliances,
garage, etc., are independent of the size of the project.
Size adjustments for a project are unique to the type of project. The estima
tor must obtain cost records from previous projects and develop appropriate
adjustments for his or her particular project. Example 4.5 illustrates a method of
size adjustments for preparation of a conceptual cost estimate.
EXAMPLE 4 . 5
Cost records from previous projects show this information:
Project Total cost Size, no. of units

1 $2,250 100
2 1,485 60
3 2,467 120
4 2,730 150
5 3,401 190
The cost per unit can be calculated as shown:
Project Cost per unit

1 $22.50
2 24.75
3 20.56
4 18.20
5 17.90
A plot of the cost records can be prepared (see Fig. 4.1).

For a first-order relationship, the general equation for a straight line is
Y = b + mX
C hapter 4 Conceptual Cost Estimating 71
30
3
S, 20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 x
Number of units
FIGURE 4.1 I Comparison of size and cost per unit.
where b = intercept of the line and m = slope of the line. Substituting in values for
b and m, we get
= 24.75 - 0.05269 X where 60 < X < 190
The equation for unit cost with respect to the num ber of units can be written as:
Forecast unit cost = 24.75 - 0.05269(S - 60)
where S = the number of units in the proposed project.

This equation represents the relationship between the unit cost and size of the
five previously com pleted projects. This equation can be used to calculate the cost
per unit for future projects whose sizes may range from 60 to 190 units. For exam
ple, the unit cost for a 170-unit project w ould be
Unit cost = 24.75 - 0.05269(S - 60)
= 24.75 - 0.05269(170 - 60)
= $18.95
As illustrated in Example 4.5, the adjustment of unit costs based on the size
of a project is unique and can be obtained only from previous cost records.
The cost data for some types of projects could be nonlinear, rather than lin
ear as previously illustrated. For example, a second-order equation may better fit
the data for some types of projects. The technique presented in Example 4.5 can
also be applied for nonlinear data.
The estimator must evaluate his or her own particular cost records and
develop a unit cost-size relationship. There are numerous methods of curve fit
ting, such as linear regression or least squares.
NARROW-SCOPE CONCEPTUAL
COST ESTIMATES
As the design of a project progresses and more information becomes known
about the various components, a narrow-scope conceptual cost estimate can be
prepared. For example, upon completion of the foundation design, the number
of cubic yards of concrete will be known. When the structural-steel design is
complete, the number of tons of structural steel will be known.
A narrow-scope conceptual estimate is prepared in a manner similar to that
for a broad-scope estimate, except the project is subdivided into parameters. For
a building construction project the parameters might be square yards of asphalt
parking, cubic yards of concrete foundations, tons of structural steel, square feet
of finished floor, number of doors, etc. For a steel-pole electric transmission
line, the parameters might be acres of clearing land, cubic yards of concrete
foundations, tons of steel pole, linear feet of conductor wire, number of insula
tor strings, etc.
The cost of a proposed project is prepared from historical cost records of
previous projects, with an appropriate adjustment for time, size, and location, as
already discussed.
FACTORS AFFECTING COST RECORDS

The estimator must be cautious when using historical cost records from com
pleted projects. A proposed project may have features significantly different
from those of the completed project from which the cost records are obtained.
For example, the cost per square foot for a building with a high ratio of perime
ter to floor area will be significantly higher than for a building with a low ratio
of perimeter to floor area. Other factors that could affect costs are span lengths,
height between floors, quality of furnishings, quality of work, etc.
The estimator must compare the features of the proposed project with those
of previous projects and make appropriate adjustments.
CONCEPTUAL COSTS FOR

PROCESS INDUSTRY
Selection of the methods for preparing early estimates depends on the level of
scope definition, time allowed to prepare the estimate, desired level of accuracy,
and the intended use of the estimate. For projects in the process industry, the
commonly used methods include:
■ Cost capacity curve
■ Capacity ratios, raised to an exponent
■ Plant cost per unit of production
■ Equipment factored estimates

■ Computer-generated estimates
Cost Capacity Curves

A cost capacity curve is simply a graph that plots cost on the vertical axis and
capacity on the horizontal axis. Estimates generated by this method are some
times called curve estimates. These curves are developed for a variety of indi
vidual process units, systems, and services. The minimum information needed to
prepare an estimate by cost capacity curves is the type of unit and capacity. For
example, the type of unit may be a crude unit or alkaline unit in a refinery.
Examples of capacity are barrels of crude oil per day or cubic feet of gas per
hour. Additional information that can enhance the quality of a curve estimate
includes adjustments for design pressure, project location, project schedule, etc.
Cost capacity curves are normally prepared by a conceptual estimating spe
cialist who develops, maintains, and updates those costs vs. capacity curves on
a regular basis. These curves are developed and updated utilizing return cost
data from completed jobs. This information is normalized to a location, such as
U.S. Gulf Coast, and for a particular time frame expressed as a baseline, such as
December of a particular year.
The estimated cost is determined by locating the capacity on the horizontal x
axis, then following a straight line up to the point of intersection with the curve.
The estimated cost is then read from the vertical y axis by a straight line from the
x axis point of intersection with the curve to the y axis. The total installed cost
derived from the curve may be adjusted for escalation to present day or future and
may be further adjusted to reflect other geographic locations. Example 4.6 illus
trates the procedure for preparing a cost capacity curve estimate.
Cost capacity curve estimates are used extensively by owner and engineering-
construction companies to prepare early estimates. Each company develops the
curves for their particular type of work. For example, a set of curves can be
developed to estimate the cost of linear feet of piping, tanks, vessels, and all
types of construction. These companies also develop curves for estimating the
work-hours of labor.
Early cost estimates can be prepared with minimum effort and in a short
amount of time, which is helpful to owners in preparing budgets for capital
expenditures and to engineering-construction contractors for negotiating con
tracts. Since the accuracy of curve estimates is not very high, a reasonable
amount of contingency should be applied.
EXAMPLE 4 . 6
Cost capacity curves for process units in a chem ical plant are shown in the figure.
What is the estimated cost for a project that has a Process Unit C with a capacity of
6,000 barrels per day?
Capacity in barrels per day
Locating the 6,000 barrels per day capacity along the abscissa, draw a vertical
line upward until it intersects the Process Unit C cost curve. Then, draw a horizontal
line to the left to read the estimated cost as $151,000.
Capacity Ratios Raised to an Exponent

Capacity ratios raised to an exponent is another estimating technique for con
ceptual estimating in the process industry. This method takes into account the
effect of economy of scale on the total installed cost. For example, if the cost of
Process Unit B with capacity B is known, then the estimated cost of Process Unit
A is calculated by multiplying the cost of Process Unit B times the ratio of the
process unit capacities raised to an exponent (X), as shown in the equation:
Cost of Process Unit A = (Cost of Process Unit B)
Capacity of Process Unit A
X [4.2]
Capacity of Process Unit B
Essentially, this method is a mathematical solution to the cost capacity
curves, which is a graphical technique. The exponent represented by X is math
ematically derived from historical records from completed projects. It represents
the nonlinear relationship between cost with size, based on economies of scale.
Historical data can be captured from completed projects and a least-squares
fit of the data, or other methods of curve fitting, can be used to determine an
appropriate value of X for similar types of projects. Thus, the exponent distin
guishes the curve of one process unit from another. Typically the range of the
exponent X is between 0.55 and 0.88, depending on the type of process unit.
When utilizing this equation to develop a cost estimate, if the exponent for the
particular process unit is unknown, an exponent of 0 . 6 is used, which represents

a standard or typical exponent for process plants.
EXAMPLE 4 . 7
The cost of a 320 cu b ic feet per hour (cf/hr) process unit is $675,000. From histori
cal cost records, the capacity ratio exponent of a process unit is 0.72. Estimate the
cost of a similar process unit with a ca pacity of 450 cf/hr.
Cost of Process Unit A = (Cost of Process Unit B)

'C a p a c ity of Process Unit A
[4.2]
.C a p a city of Process Unit B
450 c f/h r
Cost of Process Unit A = ($670,000) x
320 cf/hr
= ($675,000) X (1.2782183)
= $862,797
Plant Cost per Unit of Production

This conceptual estimating method is used to estimate the total plant cost based
on the average plant costs per unit of production based on previously completed
projects. This method is a very simple and approximate estimating technique
where the only information available is the product description and the plant
capacity. For example, cost records may show that the average cost per unit for
co-generation facilities is $1,000 per kilowatt ($l,000/kW ) of production. Thus,
for a future 300-megawatt (300 MW) co-generation facility, the estimated cost
would be calculated by multiplying the $l,000/kW times the 300 MW of power
to drive a total estimated cost of $300,000,000.
This estimating technique assumes that the relationship between plant cost
and production capacity is linear and, therefore, would apply best within a fairly
narrow range. Ideally, average plant costs per unit of production capacity are
best developed over various capacity ranges so that the estimator could select the
relationship that is applicable for his or her estimate.
This method of preparing early estimates is similar to the square foot esti
mating method used for projects in the building sector. For building projects, the
total estimated cost of a particular building project is determined by multiplying
the average cost per square foot of previous projects by the total square feet in
the proposed building.
Equipment-Factored Estimates
For the process industry, equipment-factored estimates are derived by applying
various factoring techniques to estimated equipment costs. The factors used are
developed and updated utilizing return cost data from completed. This information
is normalized to a location, usually U.S. Gulf Coast, and base timeline such as
December of a particular year. The estimated total installed cost of a normalized
unit is defined to include these costs:
■ Direct equipment costs
■ Direct bulk material costs
■ Subcontract costs
■ Construction labor costs
■ Construction indirect costs
■ Home office services costs
One example of the factoring technique is the “equipment cost” to “total
installed cost” factor. This factoring technique is relatively simple for projects
where equipment costs have been estimated. As the name implies, “total
installed cost” factors are developed by dividing the equipment costs of a par
ticular process unit into the total installed cost of that unit. The estimated cost of
the project is determined by multiplying the “equipment costs” by the “total
installed cost” factor, or multiplier. The factors for process plants generally
range between 2.5 and 6.0, depending on the nature of the process unit.
Conditions that affect the equipment to “total installed cost” factors are
■ Equipment sizes
■ Pressure
■ Metallurgy
■ Degree of prefabrication
■ Site conditions
■ Equipment costs
■ Special conditions (large structures, pits, buildings, etc.)
■ Explanation of engineering costs included
Another equipment-factored estimating technique develops equipment costs
manually or by utilizing commercially available computer software systems.
Bulk material costs are factored from the estimated equipment costs, using his
torical cost data for the same or similar type units. Field labor work-hours are
estimated for each individual equipment item and bulk material installation work-
hours are ratioed from the bulk material costs by individual bulk material cate
gory. The resultant field labor work-hours are adjusted for productivity and labor
costs by applying local labor rates to the estimated construction work-hours.
Construction indirect costs are developed for the major categories by percentages
of direct labor costs. Home office costs are estimated as a percentage of the total
installed cost. The equipment factored estimating techniques described can be
utilized when there is sufficient technical definition available, consisting of
■ Process flow diagram
■ Equipment list
■ Equipment specifications
■ Project location
■ General site conditions (assumed if not specified)
■ Construction labor information
■ Project schedule
EXAMPLE 4 . 8
The estimating departm ent of a process industry com pany has developed the equip
ment factors from cost records of previously com pleted projects as shown.
Equipment Factor
Condensers 2.4
Control instruments 4.1
Compressors 2.5
Fans 2.7
Furnaces 2.0
Generators 1.7
Heat exchangers 4.5
Motors 1.8
Pumps 5.3
Reactors 4.0
Tower vessels 3.5
Tanks 2.7
Engineering design has progressed such that the size and specifications of major
equipm ent have been determ ined to the level of detail that price quotes can be
obtained from the manufacturers of the equipm ent. Use the listed equipm ent factors
to estimate the cost of the project based on the m anufacturer’s quotes given next.
Equipment quote
Item from manufacturer Factor Plant cost
Condenser $15,000 X 2.4 = $36,000
Control instruments $22,000 X 4.1 = $90,200
Compressors $85,000 X 2.5 = $212,500
Fans $15,000 X 2.7 = $40,500
Furnaces $140,000 X 2.0 = $280,000
Generators $25,000 X 1.7 = $42,500
Heat exchangers $95,000 X 4.5 = $427,500
Motors $55,000 X 1.8 = $99,000
Pumps $18,000 X 5.3 = $95,400
Reactors $120,000 X 4.0 = $480,000
Tower vessels $325,000 X 3.5 = $1,137,500
Tanks $140,000 X 2.7 $378,000
Total $1,055,000 $3,318,900
For this project, the delivered equipm ent cost is $1,055,000, but the estimated cost
of the equipm ent installed in the plant is $3,318,900.
Computer-Generated Estimates
Numerous commercial computer software systems exist for estimating capital
costs for different types of industries, including the process industry, building
construction industry, and the heavy/highway infrastructure industries. These
systems can be simple or very sophisticated. Most of the software packages can
operate on a personal computer and are furnished with a cost database, which is
updated on an annual basis. The more flexible systems enable the purchaser to
customize the database.
These computer software packages are available to assist the estimator in
generating conceptual estimates. They can also be used for detailed material
quantities as well as equipment and material costs, construction work-hours
and costs, indirect field costs, and engineering work-hours and costs. The
detailed quantity and cost output enables early project control, which is essen
tial in the preliminary phases of a project, before any detail engineering has
started. The accuracy of an estimate can be improved because some systems
allow vendor costs, takeoff quantities, project specifications, site conditions,
etc., to be introduced into the program. To maximize benefits of these software
programs, the use of system defaults should be minimized and replaced with
definitions as follows:
■ Specifications, standards, basic practices, and procurement philosophy

■ Engineering policies
■ Preliminary plot plans (if available) and information relating to pipe-rack,
structures, buildings, automation, and control philosophy, etc.
■ Adequate scope definition
■ Site and soil conditions
■ Local labor conditions relating to cost, productivity, and indirect costs
■ Subcontract philosophy
To become proficient in using computer software programs, frequent usage

is required and the user should compare the computer-generated results with
other estimating techniques to determine the limitations and shortcomings of the
programs. Once the shortcomings are known, corrective action to eliminate or
minimize the shortcomings can be taken. To achieve maximum benefits from
computer software, the estimator should
■ Index or benchmark the unit costs and installation work-hours in the

computer software’s databases to match the company’s cost databases.
■ Establish system defaults that correspond to the company’s engineering
and design standards.
■ Create a program that allows conversion of the output of the software
programs to the company’s account codes and format.
Chapter 4 Conceptual Cost Estimating
Confidence in the output of estimating software systems will improve by

adopting these recommendations. This will result in more consistency and reli
ability of computer-generated estimates.
There are other noncommercial computer software systems that are used in
preparing early estimates, in particular spreadsheet programs. Many owner com
panies and contractors have developed in-house spreadsheet programs for esti
mating costs based on their company operations and experience dealing with
their particular type of work.
Chapter 25 presents a detailed discussion of computer estimating.
PROBLEMS
4.1 Use the time and location indices presented in this chapter to estimate the cost of
a building that contains 32,500 sf of floor area. The building is to be constructed
2 yr from now in City A. The cost of a similar type of building that contained
48,300 sf was completed last year in City C for a cost of $3,308,500.
4.2 Calculate the weighted unit cost per square foot for the project data shown, and
determine the cost of a 2,700-sf project.
Project Total cost Size, sf

1 $147,300 2,580
2 153,700 2,900
3 128,100 2,100
4 118,400 1,850
5 135,700 2,300
4.3 Determine the relationship between unit cost and size for the project data shown
in Prob. 4.2, to estimate the cost of a 2,200-sf project.
4.4 Early estimates are extremely important to the owner. From the perspective of
the owner, give examples of problems that may arise if an early estimate is sig
nificantly lower than the final actual cost of a project.
4.5 From the perspective of the owner, give examples of problems that may arise if
an early estimate is significantly lower than the final actual cost of a project.
4.6 Early estimates are important to the designer. From the perspective of the
designer, give examples of problems that may arise if an early estimate is signifi
cantly lower than the final cost of a project.
4.7 Describe the purpose of a kickoff meeting for preparing an early estimate of a
project. What are typical items that should be addressed and confirmed before
starting estimate preparation?
4.8 The cost of a 540-cf/hr process unit is $850,000. From historical cost records,
the capacity ratio exponent of a process unit is 0.6. Use the capacity ratios raised
to an exponent method to determine the estimated cost of a similar process unit
with a capacity of 490 cf/hr.
4.9 Shown are cost capacity curves for process units in a refinery. What is the esti
mated cost for a project that has a Process Unit B with a capacity of 4,000
barrels/day?
Process
Cost in $1 Million
Capacity in Barrels per Day

Cost of Construction Labor
and Equipment
CONSTRUCTION LABOR
Construction laborers influence every part of a project. They operate equipment,

fabricate and install materials, and make decisions that have a major effect on
the project. Most individuals involved in construction will readily agree that
people are the most important resource on a project. The cost to hire a laborer
includes the straight-time wage plus any overtime pay, workers’ compensation
insurance, social security, unemployment compensation tax, public liability and
property damage, and any fringe benefits.
SOURCES OF LABOR RATES

Wage rates vary considerably with the locations of projects and with the various
types of crafts. The hourly rate of construction laborers is determined by one of
three means: union wage, open-shop wage, or prevailing wage. Construction
workers who are members of a labor union are paid a wage rate established by
a labor contract between their local union and the construction contractor’s man
agement. Union wage rates usually include fringe benefits, which are paid
directly to the union. Construction workers who are not members of a union are
paid an open-shop wage agreed to by each individual employee and the
employer. For construction employees who work on projects funded with state
or federal money, their wage rate is established by the prevailing wage at the
project location. The federal government and many states have a government-
established prevailing wage for each construction craft. The prevailing wage rate
is determined for each craft by a wage survey for each geographic location.
81
T A B L E 5.1 I Representative base

wage rates in the United States for 2001.
Craft Rate, $/hr

Bricklayers 20.95
Carpenters 21.56
Cement masons 20.07
Crane operators 21.67
Electricians 24.21
Equipment operators 21.67
Glaziers 20.78
Insulation workers 23.34
Ironworkers 20.97
Laborers 15.56
Painters 19.01
Pipefitters 27.96
Plumbers 27.23
Roofers 19.04
Sheet metal workers 25.69
Truck drivers 18.17
COST OF LABOR
The rates listed in Table 5.1 are representative base rates. In addition to paying
the base rate, an employer must pay or contribute amounts for such items as
social security tax, unemployment tax, workers’ compensation insurance, public
liability and property damage insurance, and any fringe benefits. Fringe benefits
include such items as apprenticeship plans, pension plans, and health and wel
fare insurance. Base rates normally apply to work done during the 40-hr work
week, 8 hr/day and 5 days/week. For work in excess of 8 hr/day or 40 hr/week,
the base rate is generally increased to l j or 2 times the base rate. The base rates
in Table 5.1 are used to determine the costs in the examples in this book. The
effect of fringe benefits, taxes, and insurance is not included in the rates.
SOCIAL SECURITY TAX

The federal government requires an employer to pay a tax for the purpose of pro
viding retirement benefits to persons who become eligible. Currently, the
employer must pay 7.65 percent of the gross earnings of an employee, up to
$76,000 per year. The employee contributes an equal amount through the
employer. This rate is subject to change by Congress.
UNEMPLOYMENT COMPENSATION TAX

This tax, which is collected by the states, is for the purpose of providing funds
with which to compensate workers during periods of unemployment. The base
cost of this tax is usually 3 percent of the wages paid to the employees, all of
Chapter 5 Cost of Construction Labor and Equipment
which is paid by the contractor. This rate may be reduced by establishing a high
degree of employment stability, with few layoffs, during a specified period.
WORKERS’ COMPENSATION AND

EMPLOYER’S LIABILITY INSURANCE
Most states require contractors to carry workers’ compensation and employer’s
liability insurance as a protection to the workers on a project. In the event of an
injury to or death of an employee working on the project, the insurance carrier
will provide financial assistance to the injured person or to his or her family.
Although the extent of financial benefits varies within several states, in general
they cover reasonable medical expenses plus the payment of reduced wages dur
ing the period of injury. Each state that requires this coverage has jurisdiction,
through a designated agency, over the insurance to the extent of specifying the
minimum amounts to be carried, the extent of the benefits, and the premium
rates paid by the employer.
The base or manual rates for workers’ compensation insurance vary consid
erably among states, and within a state they vary according to the classification
of work performed by an employee. A higher premium rate is charged for work
that subjects workers to a greater risk of injury. A contractor who establishes a
low record of accidents on jobs for a specified period will be granted a credit,
which will reduce the cost of the insurance. A contractor who establishes a high
record of accidents over a period will be required to pay a rate higher than the
base rate, thus increasing the cost of the insurance.
The premium rate for this insurance is specified to be a designated amount
for each $100.00 of wages paid under each classification of work. The rate nor
mally varies from about $ 1 0 . 0 0 per $ 1 0 0 . 0 0 of wages paid for low-risk crafts to
approximately $30.00 per $100.00 of wages paid for high-risk crafts. To deter
mine the cost of this insurance for a given project, it is necessary to estimate the
amount of wages that will be paid under each classification of work and then to
apply the appropriate rate to each wage classification. Since the base rates are
subject to changes, an estimator should verify them before preparing an estimate.
PUBLIC LIABILITY AND PROPERTY 9 ^ 0

DAMAGE INSURANCE
This insurance protects the contractor against injuries to the general public or
damage to public property due to actions of the employee while performing
work during construction. The cost for this insurance is specified as a rate for
each $100.00 of base wages. The rate can vary from $2.00 to $5.00 per $100.00
of base wages, depending on the craft and the safety record of the contractor.
Due to the large variations in the premium rates for this insurance, it is neces
sary for the estimator to obtain the rate from an insurance company before esti
mating the cost of this insurance.
FRINGE BENEFITS
As a part of the agreement of employment, the contractor often agrees to pay
benefits for the employee. Examples are health insurance, pension plan, training
programs, paid holidays, and vacations. The cost of these fringe benefits will
depend on the number of different coverages and the amount of coverage.
Generally the costs range from 10 to 20 percent of base wage.
Example 5.1 illustrates the costs that a contractor must incur to hire an
employee. For estimating and bidding purposes, the estimator normally deter
mines the total cost of all labor, using the base wages. The final cost of labor is
then determined by multiplying the base-wage costs by a percentage to account
for taxes and insurance.
EXAMPLE 5 .1
An ironworker works 10 hr/day, 6 days/week. A base w age of $20.97 per hour is paid
for all straight-time work, 8 hr/day, 5 days/week. An overtime rate of time and one-
half is paid for all hours over 8 hr/day, Monday through Friday, and double time is
paid for all Saturday work. The social security tax is 7.65 percent, and the unem
ployment tax is 3 percent of actual wages. The rate for w orker’s com pensation insur
ance is $12.50 per $100.00 of base wage, and public liability and property dam age
insurance rate is $3.25 per $100.00 of base wages. Fringe benefits are $3.15 per
hour. Calculate the average hourly cost to hire the ironworker.
Pay hours and actual hours:
Actual hours: 10 hr/day x 6 days/week = 60 hr
Pay hours = w eekly straight-time + weekly overtime + Saturday overtime
= (5 days x 8 hr/day @ 1.0) + (5 days X 2 hr/day @ 1.5) +
(10 hr x 1 day @ 2 .0 )
= 40 hr + 15 hr + 20 hr
= 75 hr
Base wage and average hourly pay:
Base w age = $20.97/hr
Average hourly pay = (pay hours/actual hours) x base wage
= (75 hr/60 hr) X $20.97/hr = $26.2125/hr
The cost to hire the ironworker will be:
Taxes are paid on actual wage and insurance is paid on base wage.
Average hourly pay: 75/60 x $ 20 .97/hr = $26.2125
Social security tax: 7.65% X $26.2125 = 2.0053
Unemploym ent tax: 3% x $26.2125 = 0.7864
W orkers’ com pensation: $12.50/$100.00 X$20.97/hr = 2.6213
Public liability/property damage: $3.25/$100.00 x $20.97/hr = 0.6815
Fringe benefits are $ 3 .15/hr = 3.1500
Average hourly cost = $35.4570/hr
Chapter 5 Cost of Construction Labor and Equipment 85
Daily cost: 10 hr/day @ $35.4570/hr = $354.57/day

Weekly cost: 60 hr/week @ $35.4570/hr = $ 2 ,127.42/week
Monthly cost:
60 hr/week X (52 weeks/12 months) @ $35.4570 = $9,218.82/month
Yearly cost: 60 hr/week x 52 weeks/year @ $35.4570/hr = $ 1 10,625.84/year
Production unit cost:
Suppose there are five ironworkers in a crew and the crew can place 6,500 lb
per day of reinforcing steel, then the cost of labor per pound of steel in place
can be calculated as:
Crew daily cost: 5 ironworkers x $354.57/day = $1,172.85/day
Crew production rate: 6,500 lb/day
Cost per unit installed = Crew unit cost/crew production rate
= $1,172.85/day/6,500 lb/day
= $0.27/lb
PRODUCTION RATES FOR LABOR

A production rate is defined as the number of units of work produced by a per
son in a specified time, usually an hour or a day. Production rates may also spec
ify the time in labor-hours or labor-days required to produce a specified number
of units of work, such as 12 labor-hours to lay 1,000 bricks. This book uses
hours as the unit of time. Production rates should be realistic to the extent of
including an allowance for the fact that a person usually will not work 60 min/hr.
The time that a laborer will consume in performing a unit of work will vary
between laborers and between projects and with climatic conditions, job super
vision, complexities of the operation, and other factors. It requires more time to
fabricate and erect lumber forms for concrete stairs than for concrete foundation
walls. An estimator must analyze each operation to determine the probable time
required for the operation.
Information on the rates at which work has been performed on similar proj
ects is very helpful. Such data can be obtained by keeping accurate records of the
production of labor on projects as construction progresses. For the information to
be most valuable to an estimator, an accurate record showing the number of units
of work completed, the number of laborers employed, by classification, the time
required to complete the work, and a description of job conditions, climatic con
ditions, and any other conditions or factors that might affect the production of
labor should be submitted with each production report. The reports should be for
relatively short periods, such as a day or week, so that the conditions described
will accurately represent the true conditions for the given period. Reports cover
ing a complete project, lasting for several months, will give average production
rates but will fail to indicate varying rates resulting from changes in working con
ditions. It is not sufficiently accurate for an estimator to know that a bricklayer
laid an average of 800 bricks per day on a project. The estimator should know the
rate at which each type of brick was laid under different working conditions, con
sidering the climatic and any other factors that might have affected production
rates. All experienced construction workers know that the production of labor is
usually low during the early stages of construction. As the organization becomes
more efficient, the production rates will improve; then as the construction enters
the final stages, there will usually be a reduction in the production rates. This is
important to an estimator. For a small job it is possible that labor will never reach
its most efficient rate of production because there will not be sufficient time. If a
job is of such a type that laborers must frequently be transferred from one opera
tion to another or if there are frequent interruptions, then the production rates will
be lower than when the laborers remain on one operation for long periods with
out interruptions.
In this book numerous tables give the rates at which laborers should perform
various operations. These rates include an adjustment for nonproductive time,
by assuming that a person will actually work about 45 to 50 min/hr. Conditions
on some projects may justify a further adjustment in the rates. The frequent use
of a range in rates instead of a single rate will enable the estimator to select the
rate that she or he believes is most appropriate for the project.
EXAMPLE 5 . 2
This exam ple illustrates a method of determ ining the probable rate of placing rein
forcing steel for a given project.
Steel bars are to be used to reinforce a concrete slab 57 ft w ide and 70 ft long.
The reinforcing steel will be #4 bars, 5-in. diameter, with no bends, maximum length
limited to 20 ft, and spaced 12 in. apart both ways. All laps will be 18 in. Precast con
crete blocks, spaced not over 6 ft apart each way, will be used to support the rein
forcing. The bars will be tied at each intersection, by bar ties. The steel will be stored
in orderly stock piles, according to length, about 80-ft average distance from the
center of the slab. The slab will be constructed on the ground.
Quantity of work:
The length of the bars parallel to the 57-ft side will be
Length of the side = 57 ft
Length of laps: 2 x 18in = 3 ft
Total length of bars per row = 60 ft
Use 3 bars 20 ft long = 60 ft
Total num ber of bars required: 3 x 70 = 210
Total length of the bars: 210 x 20 ft = 4,200 ft
The length of the bars parallel to the 70-ft side will be

Length of side = 70 ft
Length of laps: 3 x 18 in = 4 ft 6 in.
Total length of bars per row = 74 ft 6 in.
Use 4 bars 18 ft l\ in. long = 74 ft 6 in.

Total number of bars required: 4 X 57 = 228
Total length of the bars: 228 X 18 ft 7\ in. = 4,246 ft
The w eight of the reinforcing will be

20-ft bars: 4,200 ft @ 0.668 lb/ft = 2,806 lb
18-ft 7^-in. bars: 4,246 ft @ 0.668 lb/ft = 2,836 lb
Total w eight = 5,642 lb
The number of intersections of bars will be 57 x 70 = 3,990
The tim e required to place the reinforcing, using 2 steel setters, should be about
Cycle times:
Carrying bars to slab site:
Time to walk 160 ft @ 100 ft/min = 1 , 6 min
A dd time to pick up and put down reinforcing = 1.0 min
Time for round trip = 2.6 min
Assume that the 2 persons can carry 6 bars, weighing
approxim ately 80 lb each trip
Number of trips required: 438 bars + 6 bars per trip = 73 trips
Total time to carry reinforcing: 73 trips x 2.6 min/trip 60 min/hr = 3.17 hr
Placing the bars on blocks and spacing them:

Assume that 2 persons working together can place 2 bars/min, or 120
bars/hr
Time to place, 438 bars -s- 120 bars/hr = 3.67 hr
Tying the bars at intersections:

Assume that a person can make 5 ties per min
2 people will make 2 x 5 x 60 = 600 ties per hr
Time to tie reinforcing, 3,990 ties -h 600 per hr = 6.65 hr
Total time:
The total working time will be
Carrying the reinforcing = 3.17 hr
Placing the reinforcing = 3.67 hr
Tying the reinforcing = 6.65 hr
Total working time = 13.49 hr
On a project a worker will seldom work more than 45 to 50 min/hr, because of

necessary delays. Based on a 45-min hour, the total clock time to handle and place
the reinforcing will be
Total labor-hours for the job: 2 laborers x 18 hr = 36 hr

No. of tons placed: 5,642 -*■ 2,000 = 2.821 tons
Labor-hours per ton placed: 36 + 2.821 = 12.76 hr/ton
Production rate = 5,642 lb/36 hr = 157 lb/hr, or 1,253 lb/day
If the reinforcing steel is bent to furnish negative reinforcing over the beams
or if it has hooks on the ends and if, in addition, it must be hoisted to the second
floor of a building, then it will require extra time to hoist and place it. An esti
mator should adjust the production rate accordingly instead of using flat rates for
all projects.
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
All projects involve the use of construction equipment to some extent. The pur
chase of equipment represents a capital investment by the construction contrac
tor. The contractor must recover sufficient money to pay the ownership and
operating costs of the equipment during its useful life, and at the same time make
a profit on the investment. Any estimate must include the cost of equipment used
on the project.
SOURCES OF EQUIPMENT
Construction equipment can be purchased or rented. The choice between pur
chase and rental usually depends on the amount of time the equipment will be
used in the contractor’s operations. If extensive use of the equipment is required,
the equipment is often purchased. If the equipment is to be used a limited
amount of time, it is typically rented.
In some situations the contractor may secure equipment by a lease with an
option to purchase the equipment. In this arrangement the contractor will lease the
equipment at a specific monthly rate, then purchase the equipment at a later date
with the option of applying a part of the monthly rate to the purchase amount.
EQUIPMENT COSTS
When equipment is rented, the estimator should include the rental cost in the
estimate. The rental cost for a particular type and size of equipment can be
obtained from the business from which the equipment will be rented. Usually the
rental cost does not include operating cost such as fuel, oil, and lubricants.
Rental Rate Blue Book by Dataquest, Inc. (Equipment Guide-Book Company,
Palo Alto, Calif.) provides a comprehensive list of the rental and operating costs
for all types of construction equipment. This publication is periodically updated
and has become an industry standard for equipment rental rates.
When equipment is purchased, it is necessary to determine the cost of own

ing and operating each unit. Ownership costs are costs that accrue whether or not
the equipment is used. The ownership costs include interest on money required
to purchase the equipment, depreciation of the equipment over its useful life,
taxes, insurance, and storage of the equipment when it is not in use. Operating
costs include fuel, oil, lubricants, minor maintenance, and repairs. Some con
tractors include major maintenance and repairs in ownership costs while other
contractors include them in operating costs. In either case, major maintenance
and repairs must be included in the cost of using the equipment.
Ownership costs
Investment
Depreciation
Taxes and insurance
Operating costs qhj
Maintenance and repairs
Fuel and lubricating oil
Investment Costs
The purchase of construction equipment requires a significant investment of
money. The money to purchase the equipment will be either borrowed from a
lender, or it will be taken from reserve funds of the contractor. In either situation,
there will be interest costs to the contractor. Either the lender will charge an inter
est rate for the borrowed money, or the contractor will lose any interest money
that could be gained from the money that is withdrawn from the reserve fund. The
interest expense, or the interest-income loss, is part of the ownership cost.
Selection of an appropriate interest rate for money depends on economic
conditions. Most companies use the current rate of interest for borrowing money
and add to it an additional amount to account for the risk involved in purchasing
equipment and potential variations in interest rates over the life of the equipment.
Depreciation Costs
Depreciation is the loss in value of equipment resulting from use and age. With
time, the value of a unit of equipment decreases due to wear and tear, deteriora
tion, obsolescence, or reduced need. Thus, at the end of its useful life the value
of the equipment is substantially less than its purchase amount. This loss in
value is depreciation. For example, if a unit of equipment is purchased for an
amount (P ) and sold at a future date for a salvage value (F), then the total depre
ciation is (P — F). Straight-line depreciation is the most simple and probably the
most widely used method in construction. For a purchase amount (P ) and future
salvage value (F) after n years of useful life, the yearly depreciation can be cal
culated as (P - F)/n.
The depreciation cost of construction equipment is commonly determined

for two purposes. One purpose is to determine an appropriate cost that must be
applied to estimates of projects on which the equipment is to be used. The other
purpose is to determine the depreciated costs for tax purposes, by using methods
that are approved by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Therefore, it is
common to utilize two different depreciation methods for a particular unit of
equipment, reporting one value to the estimator for use in estimating projects
and another value to the IRS to obtain the most favorable tax benefits. The
straight-line method is commonly used for allocating equipment costs to proj
ects, whereas the double-declining-balance or sum-of-the-year-digits methods
are commonly used for tax purposes.
Taxes and Insurance

Construction equipment is taxed as property. Thus, taxes are a part of owner
ship costs of equipment. The amount of the tax varies by geographic location.
The construction contractor must secure insurance for owning and operating
equipment. The cost of equipment insurance varies, depending on the type and
size of equipment, and the safety record of the contractor. When the equipment
is not in use, space must be available for storage. Thus, storage is a part of own
ership costs.
OWNERSHIP COSTS
Discussions and examples presented next will illustrate methods of estimating
the hourly cost of owning and operating equipment. These examples are
intended to show the estimator how to determine the probable hourly cost for
any type of construction equipment. The costs that are determined in these
examples apply for the given conditions only, but by following the same proce
dure and using appropriate prices for the particular equipment, the estimator can
determine hourly costs that are suitable for use on any project.
The method described next is widely used by construction contractors for
estimating the probable ownership cost of construction equipment. This method
uses time-value-of-money equations. The development of these equations can be
found in many books on the topic economic analysis. A complete description of
their derivations can be found in Project Management fo r Engineering and
Construction (by G. Oberlender, McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed., 2000). For estimating
the ownership costs of equipment, these capital recovery and sinking fund equa
tions can be used:
Capital Recovery Equation
;(i + *)"
A = P [5.1]
(l + i)n - l
C hapter 5 Cost of Construction Labor and Equipment 91
where P = purchase price

A = equivalent annual value
i = annual interest rate
n = useful life, in years
The capital recovery equation gives the equivalent annual value (A) of the pur
chase price (P), assuming an annual interest rate (i ) during the useful life of (n).
Sinking Fund Equation
r( r T ^ r ] [5-2J
where A = equivalent annual value
F = future salvage value
i = annual interest rate
n = useful life, in years
The sinking fund equation gives the equivalent annual value (A) of the
future salvage value (F), assuming an annual interest rate of (;) during the use
ful life of (n).
These steps are used to estimate the annual ownership costs:
1. Obtain the purchase price (P) of the delivered equipment and estimate the
probable future salvage value (F ) and expected useful life («). Historical
records or manufacturers can provide valuable information on salvage
values and useful life.
2. Select an appropriate interest rate for borrowing money. Most contractors
use the current rate of interest for borrowing money and add an additional
amount for risk.
3. Estimate the average cost for taxes, insurance, and storage each year and
convert these costs into an equivalent interest rate based on the value of
the equipment at any time.
4. Combine the interest rate from steps 2 and 3 to define the annual interest
rate ( i) and use the capital recovery and sinking fund equations to estimate
the equivalent annual ownership cost of the equipment. This annual
interest rate (i) is called the minimum attractive rate o f return (MARR) on
the investment.
EXAMPLE 5 . 3
The purchase price of new equipm ent is $145,000. The estimated salvage value is
$25,000 after the end of its expected useful life of 6 years. Assume interest for bor
rowing money is 9 percent, 5 percent for risk and 3 percent as the equivalent interest
rate for taxes, insurance, and storage. Thus, the total com bined annual interest rate
will be 17 percent, or MARR = 17%. The annual ownership costs can be calculated
using the capital recovery Eq. [5.1] and the sinking fund Eq. [5.2] as
- $25,000 - 017 (Eqs. [5.1] and [5.2])

(1 + 0.17)6 J ' M 1 1
= $145,000 (0.2786148) - $25,000 (0.0662726)
= $38,742
The $38,742 equivalent annual cost will accrue, whether or not the equipm ent
is used. It includes investment, depreciation, insurance, taxes, and storage costs.
To recover this cost, an appropriate amount must be charged for use of the equip
ment. The amount charged depends on the expected num ber of hours the equip
ment will be used. Considering 40 hr/week and 52 weeks/year, it is possible the
equipm ent could be used 2,080 hr/yr. Deducting 2 weeks of vacation time, there
would be 2,000 hr/year. Also, there will be time when the equipm ent may be idle,
due to absence of an operator or downtime of the equipm ent for servicing or repairs.
Therefore, it is likely the equipm ent will be used less than 2,000 hr/year.
Several m ethods can be used for charging ownership costs. One method is to
charge a per hour use based on the expected use rate per year. For example, if
the equipm ent is expected to be used 1,200 hr/year, the hourly ownership charge
w ould be
$38,742
Hourly ownership charge = ^ ^ = $32.29/hr
If the expected use is 1,500 hr/year the ownership charge per hour will be
$38,742 „
Hourly ownership charge = ^ ^ = $25.8 3/hr
Another method is to charge the equipm ent on a daily, weekly, or monthly rate
that the equipm ent is available on the job, whether or not it is used. For example, if
historical records indicate that this type of equipm ent is assigned to projects about
250 days/year, then the ownership cost of availability will be:
The $38,742 represents the total cost of owning the equipm ent over the 6-year
time frame, regardless of the number of hours it is used each year. The hourly
charge for the equipm ent is a function of the num ber of hours used per year as
shown in Fig.5.1. It is desirable to use purchased equipm ent as much as possible
because as the num ber of hours used per year decreases, the cost for charging the
equipm ent to a job increases. If the equipm ent is not used a sufficient num ber of
hours per year, it may be more econom ical to rent the equipm ent.
-c
I3
o
Q<
j5
5c
£
o
X
Hours used per year

FIGURE 5.1 I Distribution of hourly charges of equipment in Example 5.4.
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs accrue only when the unit of equipment is being used, whereas
ownership costs accrue whether or not the equipment is used. Operating costs
include maintenance and repairs, fuel, oil, and lubricants. Maintenance and
repairs may be defined as major or minor. Major maintenance and repairs are
often included in ownership costs, whereas minor maintenance and repairs are
included in operating costs.
Construction equipment that is driven by internal combustion engines
requires fuel and lubricating oil, which should be considered as an operating cost.
Whereas the amounts consumed and the unit cost of each will vary with the type
and size of equipment, the conditions under which it is operated, and the location,
it is possible to estimate the cost with reasonable accuracy for a given condition.
An estimator should be reasonably familiar with the conditions under which a
unit of equipment will be operated. Whereas a tractor may be equipped with a 200-
hp engine, this tractor will not demand the full power of the engine at all times,
possibly only when it is used to load a scraper or to negotiate a steep hill. Also,
equipment is seldom, if ever, used 60 min/hr. Thus, the fuel consumed should be
based on the actual operating conditions. Perhaps the average demand on an
engine might be 50 percent of its maximum power for an average of 45 min/hr.
Maintenance and Repair Costs

The costs for maintenance and repairs include the expenditures for replacement
parts and the labor required to keep the equipment in good working condition.
These costs vary considerably with the type of equipment, operating conditions,
frequency of oil and lubricant services, and skill of the operator. For example, if
an excavator is used to excavate soft earth, the replacement of parts will be con
siderably less often than when the same excavator is used to excavate rock. If a
bearing is greased and adjusted at frequent intervals, its life will be much longer
than if it is neglected.
Historical cost records of maintaining and servicing equipment are the most
reliable guide in estimating maintenance and repair cost. If this information is
not available, the manufacturers of construction equipment provide information
showing recommended costs for maintenance and repairs for the equipment they
manufacture. The annual cost of maintenance and repairs is often expressed as a
percentage of the purchase price or as a percentage of the straight-line depreci
ation costs (P - F)/n. For example, the average cost of maintenance and repairs
for an excavator may vary from 80 to 1 2 0 percent of the depreciation cost, with
100 percent as a fair average value. The annual cost for certain types of rock-
crushing equipment may be much higher, whereas the cost for a compressor will
be lower.
Fuel Consumption
When operating under standard conditions, namely at a barometric pressure of
29.9 in. of mercury and at a temperature of 6 8 °F, a gasoline engine will consume
approximately 0.06 gal of fuel for each actual horsepower-hour developed [0.06
gal/(hp*hr)]. A diesel engine will consume approximately 0.04 gal of fuel for
each actual horsepower-hour developed [0.04 gal/(hp-hr)].
Consider a shovel with a diesel engine rated at 160 hp. During a cycle of 20
sec, the engine may be operated at full power while filling the bucket in tough
ground, requiring 5 sec. During the balance of the cycle, the engine may be oper
ated at not more than 50 percent of its rated power. Also, the shovel may not
operate more than 45 min/hr on average. For this condition the approximate
amount of fuel consumed during 1 hr is determined as
Rated power: 160 hp

Engine factor:
Filling the bucket: 5/20 X 100% = 0.250
Rest of cycle: 15/20 X 50% = 0.375
Total engine factor = 0.625
Time factor: 45/60 = 0.75

Operating factor: 0625 X 0.75 = 0.47
Fuel consumed per hour: 0.47 X 160 hp X [0.04 gal/(hp-hr)] = 3.0 gal/hr
For other operating conditions the quantity of fuel consumed can be estimated
in a similar manner.
Lubricating Oil Consumed

The quantity of lubricating oil consumed by an engine will vary with the size of
the engine, the capacity of the crankcase, the condition of the pistons, and the
number of hours between oil changes. It is common practice to change oil every
100 to 200 hr, unless extreme dust makes more frequent changes desirable. The
quantity of oil consumed by an engine during a change cycle includes the
amount added at the time of change plus the makeup oil added between changes.
Equation [5.3] can be used to estimate the quantity of oil consumed:
^ hp X 0.6 X 0.006 lb/(hp*hr) c re<vi
C) ■ ■ "r L5.3J
^ 7.4 lb/gal t
where Q = quantity consumed, in gallons per hour
hp = rated horsepower of engine
c = capacity of crankcase, in gallons
t = hours between oil changes
Equation [5.3] is based on an operating factor of 0.60, or 60 percent. It
assumes that the quantity of oil consumed between oil changes will be 0.006 gal
per rated horsepower-hour. Using this equation for a 100-hp engine with a
crankcase capacity of 4 gal requiring a change every 100 hr, we find the quan
tity consumed per hour is
~ - 100 hP X °-6 X ° - 0 0 6 gal/ hP>hr + = 0.089 gal/hr

7.4 lb/gal 100 hr
Lubricants other than crankcase oil are required for motor-driven equipment.
Although the costs of such lubricants will vary, an average cost equal to 50 per
cent of the cost of the crankcase oil is satisfactory.
Cost of Rubber Tires

Many types of construction equipment use rubber tires, whose life usually will
not be the same as the equipment on which they are used. For example, a unit of
equipment may have an expected useful life of 6 years, but the tires on the equip
ment may last only 2 years. Therefore, a new set of tires must be placed on the
equipment every 2 years, which would require three sets of tires during the 6
years the equipment will be used. Thus, the cost of depreciation and repairs for
tires should be estimated separately from the equipment.
A set of tires for a unit of equipment, whose cost is $3,800, may have an
estimated life of 2,500 hr, with the repairs during the life of the tires costing 15
percent of the initial cost of the tires. The cost is determined as
Depreciation: $3,800/2,500 hr = $1.52/hr

Repairs of tires: 0.15 X $1.52/hr = 0.23/hr
Total cost = $1.75/hr
EXAMPLE 5 . 4
Determine the probable cost per hour of owning and operating a 165-hp diesel engine
shovel. No future salvage value is assumed for this equipment; the owner prefers to
depreciate the equipm ent to zero and use any salvage value, or trade-in, for acquisi
tion of replacement equipment. Maintenance and repair costs are expected as 80 per
cent of the annual straight-line depreciation cost. This information will apply:
Cost to owner:
Price f.o.b. factory = $ 1 4 5 ,8 6 0
Freight: 42,000 lb x $2.57 per cw t = 1,079
Unloading and assem bling = 700
Sales tax: 5% x $145,860 = 7,293
Total cost to owner = $154,934
Shipping weight: 42,000 lb

Useful life: 6 years
Flours used per year: 1,800 hr
Engine: 165 hp
Operating factor: 0.60
Grease consum ed per hour: 0.5 lb
Crankcase capacity: 6 gal
Flours between oil changes: 100 hr
165 hp x 0.6 x 0.006 gal/hp-hr 6 gal

Lubricating oil consum ed =
7.4 lb /g a l 100 hr
= 0.14 g a l/h r
Ownership cost:
Interest on money = 9%
Risk addition = 3%
Taxes and insurance = 5%
Total interest i= 17%
Thus, the MARR is 17 percent. Since salvage value is not considered, only the capital
recovery equation (Eq. [5.1]) is required for calculating the hourly ownership costs:
/(1 + i)n
Annual ownership cost = P
(1 + /)" - 1
0,17(1 + 0.17)6
$154,934 $43,167/yr
(1 + 0.1 7 )6 - 1_
Hourly ownership cost = $43,167/1,800 hrs = $23.98/hr

Operating costs:
Annual straight-line depreciation cost = $154,934/6 yr = $25,822/yr
Maintenance and repairs cost: 80% ($25,822)/1,800 hr = $ 1 1.48/hr
Fuel: 0.60 X 165 hp x (0.04 gal/hp*hr)
= 3.96 gal/hr @ $1.40/gal = 5.54
Lubricating oil: 0.14 gal/hr x $ 2 .00/gal = 0.28
Grease: 0.5 lb/hr x $0.50/lb = 0.25
Hourly operating cost = $17.55/hr
Total hourly ownership and operating cost:

Ownership cost = $23.98/hr
Operating cost = 17.55/hr
Total (excluding operator) = $41.53/hr
EXAMPLE 5 . 5
Determine the probable cost per hour of owning and operating a bottom -dum p truck
with rubber tires. Maintenance and repairs are expected as 50 percent of the
straight-line depreciation costs. Because the tires will have a different life from the
truck, they are treated separately. This information applies:
Cost to owner:
Cost delivered = $92,700
Less tires = 12,500
Net less tires = $80,200
Expected salvage: $20,000

Useful life: 5 years
Hours used per year: 1,500 hr
Engine: 225 hp diesel
Operating factor: 0.60
Tire life: 5,000 hr
Tire repairs: 20% of annual ownership cost of tires
Grease consum ed per hour: 0.5 lb
Crankcase capacity: 14 gal
Hours between oil changes: 120 hr
225 hp x 0.6 x 0.006 g al/hp-hr 14 gal

Lubricating oil consum ed = -----------------^
= 0.23 g a l/h r
Ownership cost:
Risk addition = 3%
Total interest i =17%
Annual ownership cost from Eqs. [5.1] and [5.2]
/(1 + i ) n /
A- P P
(1 + i ) n - 1_ L(i + o nJ
0.17(1 + 0.17)5 0.17

= $80,200 - $ 20,000
(1 + 0.17)5 - 1 J ■" [_(1 + ° - 17)5.
= $80,200(0.3125639) - $20,000(0.0775389)
= $23,517/year for truck
Annual cost of tires
Tire life, n = 5,000/1,500 = 3.33 years for tire replacem ent
/(1 + 0" 0.17(1 + 0.17) 3.33

A = P $12,500 = $5,219 /ye a r for tires
(1 + i)n - 1 (1 + 0.1 7 )3 1
Total annual ownership cost: $23,517 + $5,219 = $28,736/year

Hourly ownership cost = $28,736/1,500 hr = $ 19.16/hr
Operating costs:
Annual straight-line depreciation cost = $92,700/5 years = $18,540/year
Maintenance and repairs on equipm ent: 50% ($18,540)/1,500 hr = $ 6 .18/hr
Maintenance and repairs on tires: 20% ($5,219/1,500 hr) = 0.70
Fuel: 0.60 X 225 hp (0.04 gal/hp-hr) = 5.4 gal/hr @ $1.40/gal = 7.56
Lubricating oil: 0.23 gal/hr x $2.00/gal = 0.46
Grease: 0.5 lb/hr X $0.50/lb = 0.25
Hourly operating cost = $ 1 5 .15/hr
Total hourly ownership and operating cost:
Ownership cost = $ 19.16/hr
Operating cost = 15.17/hr
Total (excluding operator) = $34.33/hr
As noted, the calculated cost in Example 5.4 neglected salvage, whereas the
costs in Example 5.5 included salvage value of the equipment to illustrate meth
ods of estimating equipment costs under both scenarios. Any unit of construc
tion equipment will have some value at trade-in time or some resale value at the
conclusion of its use. As discussed earlier in this chapter, many owners prefer to
depreciate their equipment to zero and to use the residual value, or salvage, as a
trade-in for replacement of the equipment.
The hourly cost of owning and operating construction equipment, as illus
trated in Examples 5.4 and 5.5, will vary with the conditions under which equip
ment is operated. The estimator should analyze each job to determine the proba
ble conditions that will affect the cost and should appropriately adjust costs. As
interest rates change, the interest rate applied to equipment costs should be appro
priately adjusted and new hourly costs should be applied to charging the equip
ment to projects and to preparing cost estimates that will use the equipment.
If a crawler tractor is used on rock surfaces, the life of the undercarriage will
be significantly reduced. Undercarriage costs can represent a major portion of
operating costs of track-type equipment. Undercarriage costs can be determined
similarly to tire costs, based on the cost of undercarriage replacement and its
useful life. The costs should be based on local costs of parts and labor.
If trucks are operated over smooth and level haul roads that are well main
tained, the cost of repairs will be significantly lower than when the same trucks
are operated over rough and poorly maintained haul roads. Therefore, the esti
mator must know the job-site conditions before appropriate costs can be
assigned to construction equipment.
PROBLEMS
5.1 A crew of four carpenters and two laborers will be used to build the formwork
for a concrete structure. Work is scheduled for 9 hr/day on Monday through
Friday and 8 hr on Saturday. Overtime at a rate of one and one-half will be paid
for all hours over 8 hr/day during the week and double time for all Saturday
work. The base wage, taxes, and insurance rates are given in the table. Calculate
the hourly, weekly, and monthly cost for the crew.
Item Carpenters Laborers

Base wage $21.78/hr $15.56/hr
Workers’ compensation $19.34/$100.00 $16.23/$100.00 of base wage
Public liability/property damage $4.29/$100.00 $3.57/$100.00 of base wage
Social security (FICA) 7.65% 7.65% of actual wage
State unemployment 3.0% 3.0% of actual wage
Federal unemployment 1.5% 1.5% of actual wage
Fringe benefits $3.75/hr $2.80/hr
5.2 A backhoe will be purchased for a cost of $109,750. After a useful life of 5 years
it is assumed the equipment will be sold for $35,000. Assume interest of 8 per
cent for borrowing money, 4 percent for risk, and 2 percent as the equivalent
interest rate for taxes, insurance, and storage. Calculate the annual ownership
cost and the cost per hour assuming the equipment will be used 1,800 hr/year.
5.3 A scraper with a 180-hp diesel engine will be used to excavate and haul earth for
a highway project. An evaluation of job conditions indicates the scraper will
operate 40 min/hr. For this project it is anticipated that the total cycle time will
be 18 min for a round-trip. Previous job records show the scraper operated at full
power during the 2.3 min required to fill the bowel of the scraper and at 70 per
cent at its rated horsepower for the balance of the cycle time. Calculate the gal
lons per hour for fuel consumption of the scraper.
5.4 A 250-hp diesel truck is used for hauling gravel from the rock quarry to a stock
pile at a paving operation. The crankcase capacity is 5 gal and the expected time
between oil changes is 120 hr. Calculate the gallons per hour of lubricating oil
for this operation of the truck.
5.5 Calculate the probable cost per hour of owning and operating a dozer that has a
212-hp diesel engine. The purchase price is $285,000 delivered, including ship
ping and taxes. It is anticipated the dozer will be operated 1,500 hr/year and sold
for $65,000 after 5 years. Assume 17 percent total interest, which includes inter
est on money, risk, taxes, and insurance. Assume a 0.6 operating factor, 0.6 lb/hr
for grease, 6 gal crankcase capacity, and 100 hr between oil changes. Use
$1.65/gal for fuel and $ 2 .15/gal for oil, and $0.85/lb for grease.
5.6 Determine the probable cost per hour for owning and operating the scraper of
Prob. 5.5 when the equipment will be operated 6 years at 1,800 hr/year.
Handling and
Transporting Material
INTRODUCTION
Although material suppliers generally deliver to the jobsite the construction
materials that have been purchased by the contractor, sometimes the materials
must be obtained by the contractor at the storage yard of the material supplier.
Also, the contractor must move material from stockpiles on the jobsite to the
location where the material will be permanently installed.
Some projects require the use of aggregates, sand and gravel, or crushed
stone, which are produced from natural deposits or quarries and hauled to the
project in trucks. A contractor using his or her laborers and equipment may do
the handling and hauling, or it may be accomplished through a subcontractor.
Regardless of the method used, it will involve a cost that must be included in the
estimate for a project.
When estimating the time required by a truck for a round-trip, the estimator
should divide the round-trip time into four elements:
1. Load
2. Haul, loaded
3. Unload
4. Return, empty
These four elements define the cycle time for transporting material. The
time required for each element should be estimated. If elements 2 and 4 require
the same time, they can be combined. Since the time required for hauling and
returning will depend on the distance and effective speed, it is necessary to
determine the probable speed at which a vehicle can travel along the given haul
road for the conditions that will exist. Speeds are dependent on the vehicle, traf
fic congestion, condition of the road, and other factors. An appropriate operat
ing factor should be used in determining production rates. For example, if a
truck will operate only 45 min/hr, this time should be used in determining the
number of round-trips the truck will make in 1 hr.
CYCLE TIME AND PRODUCTION

RATE CALCULATIONS
Cycle times and production rates are used throughout this book to estimate the
time, cost, and cost per unit of work. Production rates are crucial to estimating
the time and cost of construction projects. The time that labor and equipment
will be on the job can be calculated by dividing the total quantity of work by the
production rate. After the time to perform the work is calculated, the cost of
labor and equipment can be determined by multiplying the total time by the
hourly rate of labor and equipment. This process is illustrated in Examples 6 .1
through 6.3.
Examples 6.1 through 6.3 illustrate the basic calculations of cycle times and
production rates to show the procedures and concepts for estimating the time and
cost of handling and transporting materials. These examples are presented in a
progressive sequence: laborers and a single truck, laborers loading multiple
trucks, and replacing laborers with an equipment loader to load multiple trucks.
It is the analysis process that is important when reviewing these examples. For
example, in Example 6.1 it is not practical to load 175 ton (T) of sand using
laborers. As shown in this example, the cost and time are high. Example 6.2
replaces laborers with an equipment loader, which produces a more productive
operation at a lower cost. Example 6.3 shows that adding additional trucks to the
loading operation will improve the production rate and provide a lower cost per
unit for producing the work.
EXAMPLE 6 .1
Given 175 T of sand with a density of 100 lb/cf that must be transported 7 mi using
a 12-cy dum p truck. Two laborers and a driver, at a rate of 1.5 cy/hr each, will load
the truck. Assume a haul speed of 30 mph, return speed of 40 mph, and 3 min to
dum p the load. The cost of the truck is $25/hr, the driver is $18/hr, and the laborers
cost $15/hr each. What is the total time, total cost, and cost per unit for transporting
the material?
Quantity of work:
Volume of sand = 175 T X 2,000 Ib/T X cf/100 lb x cy/27cf = 130 cy
Cycle time:
Load = 1 2 cy/(3 x 1.5 cy/hr) = 2.667 hr
Haul = 7 mi/30 mph = 0.233 hr
Dump = 3 min/(60 min/ hr) = 0.050 hr
Return = 7 mi/40 mph = 0.175 hr
Total cycle time = 3.125 hr/trip
Chapter 6 Handling and Transporting Material 103
Production rate:
Num ber of trips per hour = 1.0/(3.125 hr/trip) = 0.32 trips/hr
Quantity hauled per trip = 12 cy/trip x 0.32 trips/hr = 3.84 cy/hr
Assume 45 min/hr as productive,
Production rate = 3.84 cy/hr x 45/60 = 2.88 cy/hr
Time:
Using 1 truck and 2 laborers = 130 cy/2.88 cy/hr = 45.1 hr
Cost:
Truck = 45.1 hr X 1 truck @ $25/hr = $1,127.50
Driver = 45.1 hr X 1 driver @ $ 18/hr = 811.80
Laborers = 45.1 hr X 2 laborers @ $ 15/hr= 1,353.00
Total cost = $3,292.30
Unit cost:
Cost per cubic yard = $3,292.30/130 cy = $25.33/cy
Cost per ton = $3,292.30/175 T = $18.81/7
The time, cost, and cost per unit of work are high using only laborers to load the
sand. These high costs are a result of the truck sitting idle while the laborers are
loading the truck. Example 6.2 illustrates the econom y of bringing equipm ent to the
job to load the sand.
EXAMPLE 6 . 2
Note that in Example 6.1 the load time is significantly greater than the travel time,
2.667 > 0.458, w hich indicates an im balance between loading and hauling. Assume
a small tractor loader can be rented at a cost of $50/hr with a load production rate
of 95 cy/hr. The loader operator costs $21/hr. Assuming the cost of transporting the
loader to the job is $400.00, what is the time, cost, and cost per cubic yard for trans
porting the 175 T of sand?
Quantity of work:
Volume of sand = 175 T x 2000 Ib/T x cf/100 lb x cy/27cf = 130 cy
Cycle time:
Load = 12 cy/(95 cy/hr) = 0.126 hr
Haul = 7 mi/30 mph = 0.233 hr
Dump = 3 min/(60 m in/ hr) = 0.050 hr
Return = 7 mi/40 mph = 0.175 hr
Production rate:
Number of trips per hour = 1.0/(0.584 hr/trip) = 1.71 trips/hr
Quantity hauled per trip = 12 cy/trip x 1.71 trips/hr = 20.5 cy/hr
Assume 45 min/hr as productive,

Production rate = 20.5 cy/hr X 45/60 = 15.4 cy/hr
Time:
Using 1 truck and 2 laborers = 130 cy/15.4 cy/hr = 8.4 hr
Cost:
Loader = 8.4 hr @ $50/hr = $420.00
Operator = 8.4 hr @ $21/hr = 176.40
Truck = 8.4 hr @ $25/hr = 210.00
Driver = 8.4 hr @ $18/hr = 151.20
Labor and equipm ent = $957.60
A dd transporting loader = $400.00
Unit cost:
Cost per cubic yard = $1,357.60/130 cy = $10.44/cy
Cost per ton = $1,357,607/175 T = $7.76/T
The time, cost, and cost per unit using the equipm ent loader are significantly lower
than using the laborers in Example 6.1. Thus, it is justifiable to rent the equipm ent
and pay the cost to bring it to the job. The number of cubic yards of sand required
to justify the equipm ent loader can be calculated as
Hourly cost loading by laborers = $25/hr + $18/hr + 2 @ $15/hr = $73/hr

Hourly cost loading by equipm ent = $50/hr + $21/hr + $25/hr + $ 18/hr =
$ 1 14/hr
($ 7 3 /h r/2 .8 8 c y / h r ) * = ($114 /h r/1 5.4 c y /h r ) * + $400.00
($ 2 5 .3 5 /h r)X = ($ 7 .4 /c y )X + $400.00
X= 22.3 cy
Thus, if there is less than 22.3 cy of sand it is more economical to use the
two laborers and one truck to transport the sand, whereas if there is more than
22.3 cy, it is more economical to use the rented equipment to load the truck.
In this example the loader remains idle for a significant amount of time
while the single truck is transporting the sand. Thus, it is desirable to add addi
tional trucks to the operation to balance the cycle time of the loader and trucks,
to reduce idle time of equipment on the job. Example 6.3 provides an analysis
of using multiple trucks with the loader.
E X A M P LE 6.3
Note that in Example 6.2 the travel time is significantly greater than the load time,
0.458 > 0.126, w hich indicates an inadequate num ber of trucks to keep the loader
busy. Determine the econom ical num ber of trucks to balance the loader. The
required number of trucks to balance the loader can be calculated by dividing the
cycle time by the load time as
Required num ber of trucks = cycle tim e/load time

= 0.584/0.126
= 4.63
Consider using 4 trucks:
If 4 trucks are used, there will be fewer trucks than needed. The production
rate will be governed by truck production rates:
Production rate:
For 1 truck = 12 cy/truck/0.584 hr/trip = 20.5 cy/hr
For 4 trucks = 20.5 cy/hr x 4 trucks = 82.0 cy/hr
Time = 130 cy/82.0 cy/hr = 1.6 hr
Cost:
Loader = 1 .6 hr @ $50/hr = $80.00
O perator = 1.6 hr @ $ 2 1 /hr = 33.60
Trucks = 1 .6 hr X 4 trucks @ $25/hr = 160.00
Drivers = 1.6 hr x 4 drivers @ $18/hr = 115.20
Total labor and equipm ent = $388.80
Add transporting loader = 400.00
Total cost = $788.80
Cost per cubic yard = $788.80/130 cy = $6.07/cy

If 5 trucks are used, there will be more trucks than needed. The production
rate will be governed by the loader production rate:
Production rate = 95 cy/hr
Time = 130 cy/95.0 cy/hr = 1.4 hr
Cost:
Loader = 1.4 hr @ $50/hr = $70.00
Operator = 1.4 hr @ $21/hr = 29.40
Trucks = 1.4 hr X 5 trucks @ $25/hr = 175.00
Drivers = 1.4 hr X 5 drivers @ $ 18/hr = 126.00
Total labor and equipm ent = $400.40
Add transporting loader = 400.00
Cost per cubic yard = $800.40/130 cy = $6.16/cy
For this project it is more econom ical to use 4 trucks.

In Examples 6 .1 to 6.3 the calculations were shown to illustrate the proce

dure of calculating cycle times and production rates for estimating time and cost.
For example, using 5 trucks the time was 1.4 hr and the cost was $800.40.
Generally, equipment is assigned to a job for a full day, or possibly a half-day,
rather than a partial hour. If such is the case, the appropriate duration should be
used. Also, final estimated costs are usually rounded to a full dollar amount. The
exact time and cost calculations were presented in their entirety to illustrate the
analysis process.
HANDLING LUMBER
Lumber is usually loaded onto flatbed trucks by a forklift or laborers at the lum
beryard and hauled to the job. At the jobsite, the lumber is unloaded and stacked
according to size.
A laborer should be able to handle lumber at a rate of 2,000 to 4,000 board
feet per hour (bf/hr). A reasonable average rate should be about 3,000 bf/hr. For
lumber, one board foot is 1 in. thick by 1 2 in. wide by 1 ft long.
Trucks of the type generally used will haul 2 to 6 T, corresponding to 1,000
to 3,000 bf per load. The average speed will vary with the distance, type of road,
traffic congestion, and weather.
E X A M P LE 6.4
Estimate the cost of transporting 40,000 bf of lumber from a lumberyard to a jobsite.
Trucks that can carry 2,000 bf per load will transport the lumber. The jobsite is 2 mi
from the lumberyard.
An examination of the haul road indicates an average speed of 20 mi/hr for the
trucks, including necessary delays. Assume that a laborer will handle 3,000 bf/hr of
lumber. Based on using 2 workers, a truck driver and a laborer, and 1 truck, the time
and cost of the job can be determined as
Quantity of work:
Lumber to be handled = 40,000 bf
Cycle time:
Assume both the truck driver and a laborer will load a truck.
Rate of loading a truck, 2 workers x 3,000 bf/hr = 6,000 bf/hr
Time to load a truck: (2,000 bf)/(6,000 bf/hr) = 0.33 hr

Travel time: (4 mi)/(20 mi/hr) = 0.20
Time to unload a truck: 2,000 bf/(6,000 bf/hr) = 0.33______
Production rate:
Number of trips per hour: 1.0/(0 .86 hr/trip) = 1.16 trips/hr
Quantity hauled per trip: 2,000 bf x 1.16 trips/hr = 2,320 bf/hr
Time:
Total time = 40,000 bf/2,320 bf/hr = 17.2 hr
An alternative method of determ ining the time to perform the work is

Num ber of truckloads required: (40,000 bf)/(2,000 bf/trip) = 20 truckloads
Round-trip per load: cycle time = 0.86 hr/trip
Total time for the job: 20 truckloads X 0.86 hr/trip = 17.2 hr
Cost:
Truck: 17.2 hr @ $25.32 = $432.50
Truck driver: 17.2 hr @ $ 18.17/hr = 312.52
Laborer: 17.2 hr @ $15.56/hr = 267.63
Cost per 1,000 bf: $1,012.65/40 = $25.32
EX A M P LE 6.5
Estimate the time and cost for transporting the 40,000 bf of lumber in Example 6.4
based on using two laborers who will remain at the yard to load trucks and two labor
ers who will remain at the job to unload trucks. Estimate the time and cost based on
the econom ical num ber of trucks. Assume the driver of each truck will assist in load
ing and unloading the truck. The cost can be determ ined as
Quantity of work:
Lum ber to be handled = 40,000 bf
Cycle time:
Rate of loading a truck: 3 workers x 3,000 bf/hr = 9,000 bf/hr
Time to load a truck: (2,000 bf)/9,000 bf/hr = 0.222 hr

Travel time: (4 mi)/(20 mi/hr) = 0.200 hr
Time to unload a truck: 2,000 bf/(9,000 bf/hr) = 0.222 hr
Production rate:
Number of trips per hour per truck: 1.0/0.644 hr/trip = 1.55 trips/hr
Number of trucks required: (round-trip time)/(time to load) = 0.644/0.222 =
2.9
An alternative method of determ ining the number of trucks required is
Number of trips per hour per truck: 1/0.644 hr/trip = 1.55

Lum ber hauled per hour per truck: 1.55 trips x 2,000 bf = 3,100 bf
Num ber of trucks required: (9,000 bf/hr)/(3,100 bf/trip) = 2.9
Cost using 2 trucks:

Since 2 trucks are used, there are not enough trucks to keep the laborers
busy; the rate of hauling will determine the time required to transport the
40,000 bf of lumber.
Production rate:
For 1 truck: 1.55 trips/hr x 2,000 bf/trip = 3,100 bf/hr
For 2 trucks: 2 trucks x 3,100 bf/hr = 6,200 bf/hr
Total time required for the job: 40,000 bf/6,200 bf/hr = 6.5 hr

Trucks: 6.5 hr x 2 trucks @ $25.32/hr = $329.16
Truck driver: 6.5 hr X 2 drivers @ $ 18.17/hr = 236.21
Laborers: 6.5 hr x 4 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 404.56
Cost per 1,000 bf = $969.93/40 = $24.25

Using 3 trucks there are more trucks than needed, therefore the production
rate will be governed by the load rate of the workers.
Production rate = 9,000 bf/hr

Time = (40,000 bf)/(9,000 bf/hr) = 4.5 hr
Cost:
Trucks: 4.5 hr x 3 trucks @ $25.32/hr = $341.82
Truck drivers: 4.5 hr x 3 drivers @ $18.17/hr = 245.30
Laborers: 4.5 hr x 4 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 280.08
Cost per 1,000 bf: $867.20/40 = $ 21.68
Since the cost using 3 tracks is $867.20 and the cost using 2 tracks is
$969.93, the economical number of tracks is 3. The costs determined in this
example are the minimum amounts, based on the assumption that the durations
can be limited to 4.5 or 6.5 hr. It may be impossible or impractical to limit the
costs to these respective durations. If such is the case, the appropriate duration
should be used. Also, note that the total costs are based on labor and track costs
for the actual time at work, with no allowance for laborers and tracks while they
are waiting their turn to start working. If there will be costs during such nonpro
ductive times, the total cost of the job will be higher than the value calculated.
TRANSPORTING SAND AND GRAVEL

Sand and gravel are trip-mined by companies and stockpiled for use on con
struction projects. Sand is generally excavated from riverbeds by draglines,
loaded into trucks, and transported to a central location for later distribution to
prospective buyers. Similarly, gravel is trip-mined from a rock quarry, crushed
in a rock-crushing machine, screened, and transported by trucks to a central
gravel yard. Several types of equipment, such as clamshells, front-end loaders,
or portable conveyers can handle sand and gravel. Common laborers can handle
small quantities.
Portable belt conveyers are used frequently for handling and transporting
material such as earth, sand, gravel, crushed aggregate, concrete, etc. Because of
the continuous flow of material at relatively high speeds, belt conveyers have
high capacities for handling material.
The amount of material that can be handled by a conveyer depends on the
width and speed of the belt and on the angle or repose for the material. Portable
belt conveyers are available in lengths of 30 to 60 ft, with belt widths of 18 to
30 in. The maximum speeds of conveyer belts range from 250 to 450 ft/min. A
300-ft/min belt speed is representative for many jobsites. Table 6.1 gives the
areas of cross section of materials with various angles of repose.
Table 6.1 I Areas of cross sections of materials for

loaded conveyer belts, sf.
Angle of repose
Width of belt, in. 10° 20° 30°
18 0.134 0.274 0.214
24 0.257 0.331 0.410
30 0.421 0.541 0.668
EXAMPLE 6 . 6
A portable belt conveyer is used to load sand from a stockpile into trucks. The con
veyer has a 24-in.-wide belt that has a travel speed of 300 ft/min. The conveyer will
load 12-cy dum p trucks that will haul the sand 4 mi at an average travel speed of 30
mi/hr. Assume a dum p time of 2 min and an angle of repose of sand of 20°.
Determine the num ber of trucks required to balance the production rate of the belt
conveyer.
Production rate of conveyer:
Production rate of conveyer: 300 ft/min x 0.331 sf = 99.3 cf/min
Hourly production rate: (99.3 cf/m in)/(27 sf/sy) x 60 min/hr = 220.7 cy/hr
Cycle time of construction operation:
Time to load a truck: 12 cy/220.7 cy/hr = 0.05 hr
Time to haul: 4 mi/30 mph = 0.13 hr
Time to dump: 2 min/60 min/hr = 0.03 hr
Time to return: 4 mi/30 mph = 0.13 hr
Total cycle time = 0.34 hr
Production rate of construction operation:

Quantity hauled per hour: 12 cy /0.34 hr = 35.3 cy/hr
Required number of trucks:
Number of trucks required: 220.7 cy/hr/35.3 cy/hr = 6.2
Therefore, 6 or 7 trucks are required to balance the production rate of the belt con
veyer.
EXAMPLE 6 . 7
Estimate the probable time and cost of loading 1,925 cy of gravel from a stockpile
into trucks and hauling it 18 miles to a project. A 1-cy clamshell will be used to load
15-cy dum p trucks. The trucks can maintain an average speed of 40 mph hauling
and returning to the stockpile. The truck time at the dum p will average 8 min, includ
ing delays.
The clamshell should handle an average of 53 cy/hr, allowing time for moving
the clamshell and for other minor delays. The cost of moving the clamshell to and
from the job will be $1,200. The estimated time and cost can be determ ined as
Quantity of work:
Gravel to be transported = 1,925 cy
Cycle time:
Time to load a truck: 15 cy/53 cy/hr = 0.28 hr
Travel time, round-trip: 36 mi/40 mph = 0.90 hr
Time at dump: 8 min/60 min/hr = 0.13 hr
Total cycle time = 1.32 hr
Production rate:
Number of trips per hour per truck: 1.0/1.32 hr/trip = 0.76 trips/hr
Volume hauled per truck per hour: 15 cy x 0.76 trips/hr = 1 1 .4 cy/truck-hr
Number of trucks required: (53 cy/hr)/(11.4 cy/truck-hr) = 4.6 trucks required

If 4 trucks are used, there will be fewer trucks than required. Therefore, the
length of the job will be determ ined by the rate at which the trucks haul the
gravel because the truck production rate is lower than the production rate of
the clamshell that will load the trucks.
Production rate:
For 1 truck = 1 1 .4 cy/hr
For 4 trucks: 11.4 cy/hr x 4 trucks = 45.6 cy/hr
Calculated time = 1,925 cy/45.6 cy/hr = 42.2 hr

Cost:
Clamshell: 42.2 hr @ $75.50/hr = $3,186.10
Operator: 42.2 hr @ $21.67/hr = 914.47
Trucks: 42.2 hr X 4 trucks @ $34.30/hr = 5,789.84
Drivers: 42.2 hr X 4 drivers @ $ 18.17/hr = 3,067.10
Laborers: 42.2 hr x 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 1,313.26
Moving clamshell to and from the job = 1,200.00
Total cost = $15,470.77
Cost per cubic yard, $15,470.77/1,925 cy = $8.04/cy

If 5 trucks are used, there will be more trucks than required. Therefore, the
length of the job will be determ ined by the production rate of the clamshell
that will load the trucks.
Production rate:
Based on clamshell loading = 53 cy/hr
Calculated time = 1,925 cy/53 cy/hr = 36.3 hr
Cost:
Clamshell: 36.3 hr @ $75.50/hr = $2,740.65
Operator: 36.3 hr @ $21.67/hr = 786.62
Trucks: 36.3 hr x 5 trucks @ $34.30/hr = 6,225.45
Drivers: 36.3 hr X 5 drivers @ $18.17/hr = 3,297.86
Laborers: 36.3 hr X 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr= 1,129.66
Moving clamshell to and from the job = 1,200.00
Total cost = $15,380.24
Cost per cubic yard, $15,380.24/1,925 cy = $7.99/cy
Thus, it is more econom ical to use 5 trucks. If a foreman is used to supervise

the job, then his or her salary should be added to the cost of the project.
Other factors may influence the choice of selecting 4 versus 5 trucks. For exam
ple, there may only be 4 trucks available for transporting the gravel. Also, many con
tractors prefer to have more trucks than needed in case one of the trucks become
unavailable, such as due to a breakdown in the truck, or a driver is absent from
work. In this example, if only 4 trucks are used on the project and 1 truck becomes
unavailable, the production rate will decrease from 45.6 cy/hr to only 34.2 cy/hr, a
decrease in production rate of 11.4 cy/hr. Flowever, if 5 trucks are used and 1 truck
becom es unavailable, the production rate w ould only decrease from 53 cy/hr to 45.6
cy/hr, a difference of only 7.4 cy/hr. Thus, there would be a lower decrease in pro
duction rate for the construction operation.
HANDLING AND TRANSPORTING BRICKS

Bricks are generally loaded at the brick supplier by forklifts or small cranes that
are mounted on the beds of flatbed trucks and hauled to a jobsite. The capacity
of the trucks is normally 2,000 to 3,000 bricks per load. Popular sizes of build
ing bricks weigh about 4 lb each.
Upon arrival at the jobsite, the bricks are unloaded by a small crane that is
mounted on the truck, or by a forklift, onto small four-wheel tractors that trans
port the bricks around the perimeter of the structure where the bricks are to be
installed.
Laborers, using brick tongs, can carry 6 to 10 bricks per load to the brick
mason for laying the brick. A worker should be able to pick up a load, walk to the
location of the brick mason and deposit the load, and return for another load in \
to 1 min per trip. If it is assumed that the average time for a trip is § min, and the
laborer carries 8 bricks per trip, in 1 hr he or she will handle 640 bricks. The
actual number of bricks that a laborer can handle will depend on the job-site con
ditions at a particular project. Table 6.2 provides rates for various job conditions.
Table 6.2 I Rates of handling bricks.
Bricks carried Trip time, Bricks hauled Hours per

per trip min per hour 1,000 bricks
6 0.50 720 1.39
8 0.50 960 1.04
10 0.50 1,200 0.83
6 0.75 480 2.08
8 0.75 640 1.56
10 0.75 800 1.25
6 1.00 360 2.78
8 1.00 480 2.08
10 1.00 600 1.67
E X A M P LE 6.8
The cost for 60,000 bricks from a supplier includes delivering, unloading, and stack
ing the bricks at a central location at the jobsite. Estimate the cost of transporting the
bricks from the central location where they are stacked by the supplier to the struc
ture where they will be installed by a brick mason. The bricks will be hauled by a
small four-wheel tractor at a rate of 1,800 bricks per hour.
Laborers will be located around the perimeter of the structure to carry the bricks
to the brick masons. Assume each laborer will carry 8 bricks per load and will aver
age | min per trip each way.
Quantity of work:
Material to be transported = 60,000 bricks
Production rate:
Laborer production rate: 8 b ric k s /trip /f min per trip = 10.7 bricks/m in
Labor hourly production rate: 10.7 bricks/m in x (60 min/hr) = 640 bricks/hr
Tractor production rate = 1,800 bricks/hr
Time:
Tractor-hours: 60,000 bricks/1,800 bricks/hr = 33.3 hr
Labor-hours: 60,000 bricks/640 bricks/hr = 93.8 hr
Cost:
Tractor: 33.3 hr @ $31.25/hr = $1,040.63
Operator: 33.3 hr @ $21.67/hr = 721.61
Laborers: 93.8 hr @ $15.56/hr = 1,459.53
Cost per 1,000 bricks = $3,221.77/60 = $53.70/1,000 bricks
The costs determ ined in this exam ple are minimum amounts, based on the
assumption that the durations can be limited to 33.3 hr for the equipm ent and 93.8 hr
for the laborers. For this project, it is desirable to use 2 laborers who com bined will
have a production rate of 1,280 bricks/hr, which is close to the equipm ent produc
tion rate of 1,800 bricks/hr. If such is the case, the time the equipm ent and laborers
will be on the job will be governed by the lower production rate of the laborers. For
this scenario the cost w ould be calculated as
Production rate:
Equipm ent production rate = 1,800 bricks/hr
Laborer production rate = 2 laborers x 640 bricks/hr = 1,280 bricks/hr
Time:
Time the crew will be on the job: 60,000 bricks/1,280 bricks/hr = 46.9 hr
Rounding to a full 8-hr day, the expected time = 48 hr
Cost:
Tractor: 48 hr @ $31.25/hr = $1,500.00
Operator: 48 hr @ $21.67/hr = 1,040.16
Laborers: 48 x 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 1,493.76
Cost per 1,000 bricks = $4,033.92/60 = $67.23/1,000 bricks
The cost under this scenario is substantially higher because the equipm ent will
be idle on the job due to its higher production rate. Another scenario w ould be to
use the equipm ent to distribute the bricks around the perimeter of the building and
then move the equipm ent to another project. Then at a later date any number of
laborers could be used to transport the bricks to the masons for installation. For
example, if 4 laborers are used, they would be on the job for about 23.4 hr, or 3 full
8-hr working days. Thus, the cost would be as calculated in the first part of this
example.
EX A M P LE 6.9
Estimate the time and cost of hauling 60,000 bricks from the brickyard of a supplier
to a job 15 mi away. Each truck will haul 3,000 bricks per load and can travel at an
average speed of 40 mph loaded and at 50 mph empty, allowing for lost time.
Three laborers will be stationed at the yard to load the trucks, and another 3 labor
ers will be at the jobsite to unload the trucks. The truck drivers will not be involved
in loading or unloading the trucks. Each laborer will carry 8 bricks at the yard and
at the jobsite. Assum e that a laborer will average f min per trip atthe yard and at
the job.
Quantity of work:
Material to be transported = 60,000 bricks
Production rate of laborers:

Laborers: 3 workers x 8 b ric k s /trip /f min per trip = 32 bricks/m in
Rate of loading a truck: 32 bricks/m in x (60 min/hr) = 1,920 bricks/hr
Cycle time:
Loading truck: 3,000 bricks/1,920 bricks/hr = 1.56 hr
Hauling to jobsite: 15 mi/40 mph = 0.38 hr
Unloading truck: 3,000 bricks/1,920 bricks/hr = 1.56 hr
Returning to yard: 15 mi/50 mph = 0.30 hr
Production rate of construction operation:

Number of trips per hour: 1,0/(3.80 hr/trip) = 0.26 trips/hr
Quantity hauled per trip: 3,000 bricks/trip x 0.26 trip/hr = 780 bricks/hr
Required number of trucks:

Number of trucks to haul 1,920 bricks/hr: 1,920/780 = 2.5
It will be necessary to use either 2 or 3 trucks. If 2 trucks are used, the cost
will be determ ined as

If 2 trucks are used, there will be fewer trucks than needed. The production
rate will be governed by truck production rates:
Production rate:
For 1 truck = 780 bricks/hr
For 2 trucks = 2 x 780 bricks/hr = 1,560 bricks/hr
Time = 60,000 bricks/1,560 bricks/hr = 38.5 hr

Rounding to a full 8-hr day, the time will be 40 hr
Cost:
Trucks: 40 hr X 2 trucks @ $34.30 = $2,744.00
Drivers: 40 hr X 2 drivers @ $ 18.17/hr = 1,453.60
Laborers: 40 hr x 6 workers @ $15.56/hr = 3,734.40
Cost per 1,000 bricks: $7,932.00/60 = $132.20/1,000 bricks

If 3 trucks are used, there will be more trucks than needed. The production
rate will be governed by rate of loading the trucks, which was previously
calculated as 1,920 bricks/hr.
Time = 60,000 bricks/1920 bricks/hr = 31.3 hr

Cost:
Trucks: 32 hr x 3 trucks @ $34.30 = $3,292.80
Drivers: 32 hr X 3 drivers @ $ 18.17/hr = 1,744.32
Laborers: 32 hr x 6 workers @ $15.56/hr = 2,987.52
Cost per 1,000 bricks, $8,024.64/60 = $133.74/1,000 bricks
Thus, it will be more econom ical to use 2 trucks.
UNLOADING AND HAULING CAST-IRON PIPE

This project involves loading cast-iron pipe onto trucks and hauling it to a proj
ect, where it will be laid on the ground along city streets. The average hauled
distance will be 5 mi from the supplier to the jobsite.
The pipe will be 12 in. diameter and 18 ft long and weigh 1,140 lb/joint of
18 ft. A 4-T truck-mounted crane will be used to load the pipe onto 8 -T trucks,
which will haul 14 joints per load. The pipe will be unloaded from the trucks by
a crawler tractor with a side boom, which will move along with the trucks. The
trucks can average 25 mph loaded and 30 mph empty. The total labor crew will
consist of the following persons:
At the loading site:
1 crane operator
2 laborers with the crane
2 laborers on the truck
At the unloading site:

1 tractor operator
2 laborers helping to unload pipe

Determine the number of trucks and the direct cost per foot for transporting
the pipe.
Cycle time fo r 1 truck:
Loading a truck: 14 joints X 3 min/joint
= 42 min/60 min/hr = 0.70 hr
Hauling to the job: 5 mi/25 mph = 0.20 hr
Unloading a truck: 14 joints X 3 min/joint
= 42 min/60 min/hr = 0.70 hr
Returning to the supplier: 5 mi/30 mph = 0.17 hr
Production rates:
Number of trips per hour: 1.0/(1.77 hr/trip) = 0.56 trips/hr
Number of joints hauled per hour per truck: 0.56 hr/trip X 14 joints/trip =
7.9 joints/hr
Number of joints unloaded per hour: 14 joints/0.7 hr = 20 joints/hr
Number o f trucks required:
Required number of trucks = (20 joints/hr/7.9 joints/hr) = 2.5
An alternative solution is (total cycle time)/(load time) = 1.77/0.70 = 2.5
Hourly cost o f labor and equipment:
Using 3 trucks the hourly cost for labor and equipment for this job will be
Crane: 1 hr @ $73.40/hr = $73.40
Operator: 1 hr @ $21.67/hr = 21.67
Trucks: 1 hr X 3 trucks @ $34.30/hr = 102.90
Truck drivers: 1 hr X 3 drivers @ $18.17/hr = 54.51
Laborers: 1 hr X 6 laborers@$ 15.56/hr = 93.36
Foreman: 1 hr @ $25.00/hr = 25.00
Total crew cost = $370.84/hr
Cost per lineal foot: ($370.84/hr)/(20 joints/hr X 18 ft/joint) = 1.03/ft

Any cost of moving the equipment to the job and back to the storage yard should
be prorated to the total length of pipe handled, and added to the unit cost just
determined, to obtain the total cost per unit length.
PROBLEMS
6.1 Estimate the total direct cost and the cost per 1,000 bf of lumber for transporting
75,000 bf of lumber from the lumberyard to a job, which is 8 mi from the yard.
Each truck can haul 3,000 bf per load and can average 25 mi/hr loaded and 35
mi/hr empty. Assume $28.50/hr for each truck and $18.50/hr for each driver.
One laborer plus a driver will load lumber onto the truck at the lumberyard,
and another laborer plus the truck driver will unload the truck and stack the lum
ber at the job. Each worker will handle 1,200 bf/hr when working. Assume
laborers cost $15.56/hr. Assume that the laborers and the tracks operate 50
min/hr. Determine the most economical number of trucks to use.
Will placing an additional laborer at the yard and at the job reduce the cost
of handling and hauling the lumber?
6.2 Using the information given in Prob. 6.1, is it less expensive to keep two labor
ers at the yard and two other laborers at the jobsite, or to use only two laborers
who will ride with the truck driver to load and unload a truck?
6.3 The owner of a sand and gravel quarry is considering the purchase of trucks to
deliver aggregate to customers. Two sizes are being considered, namely, 10- and
15-cy diesel engine dump trucks. The haul distances will vary from 6 to 20 mi,
with an average distance of about 12 mi.
It is estimated that the 10-cy trucks can travel at an average speed of 40
mi/hr loaded and at 50 mi/hr empty, while the 15-cy trucks can travel at average
speeds of 35 mi/hr loaded and at 45 mi/hr empty. The trucks will be loaded from
stockpiles of aggregate, using a loader that has a production rate of 115 cy/hr.
The average truck time at the dump will be 4 min for 10-cy trucks and 5 min for
15-cy trucks. Assume that the trucks and the loader will operate 45 min/hr.
The cost of the 10-cy truck is $27.50/hr and the 15-cy truck is $34.75/hr.
A truck driver will be paid $18.50/hr. Determine which size truck is more eco
nomical.
6.4 Two sizes of loaders are being considered, a 1-cy loader with a 65 cy/hr produc
tion rate and a 2-cy loader with a 140 cy/hr production rate. Diesel dump trucks
with 12-cy capacity will be used to haul the material. In addition to the time
required by the loader to load a truck, there will be an average delay of 2 min
waiting for another truck to move into position for loading. Assume a 50-min
hour for both the loader and the trucks.
This cost information applies:
1-cy loader = $64.50/hr
2-cy loader = $105.00/hr
Truck = $32.45/hr
Driver = $21.95/hr
Loader operator = $24.50/hr
Determine which size loader is more economical based on the cost of loading
the material into the trucks.
6.5 A total of 180,000 bricks is to be hauled from a brickyard with 5-T trucks to a
project 9 mi from the yard. A truck, which can haul 3,000 bricks per load, will
average 30 mi/hr loaded and 40 mi/hr empty. Assume 45 min/hr efficiency for
the loading and hauling operation.
Assume trucks at $32.50/hr, drivers at $ 19.50/hr, and laborers at $ 14.20/hr.
Determine the total cost and the cost per 1,000 bricks for each of the following
conditions:
a. Three laborers plus a truck driver will each load 450 bricks/hr onto a truck,
and 3 other laborers plus a truck driver will unload the bricks from a truck
at the job at the same rate.
b. Three laborers plus a truck driver will each load 450 bricks/hr onto a truck,
then the truck driver and the 3 laborers will ride on the truck to the job
where they and the truck driver will unload the bricks at the same rate as at
the yard.
6.6 The operator of a rock quarry is invited to bid on furnishing 3,500 cy of aggre
gate for a job. The gravel is to be delivered to a job, which is 12 mi from the
quarry. The aggregate will be loaded into trucks by a loader that can load at a
rate of 80 cy/hr. The trucks will haul 12 cy/load and average 35 mi/hr loaded and
45 min/hr empty. The estimated time to dump a load is 5 min. Assume 45 min/hr
efficiency for the loading and hauling operation.
This cost information applies:
Royalty paid for aggregate: $0.85/cy
Overhead: $0.30/cy
Profit: $0.35/cy
Loader: $75.00/hr
Trucks, each: $24.50/hr
Operator: $21.67/hr
Truck drivers: $17.30/hr
Foreman: $26.70/hr
What price per cubic yard should be bid?

C H A P#T E R
Earthwork and Excavation

Most projects involve excavation to some extent. The extent of excavation
varies from a few cubic yards for footings and trenches for pipes to millions of
cubic yards for large earth-filled dams. It is usually a relatively simple operation
to determine the quantity of material to be excavated. It is much more difficult
to estimate the rate at which earthwork will be handled by excavating equip
ment. The many factors that can affect the production rate of excavating equip
ment can be divided into two groups: job and management.
JOB FACTORS
Job factors involve the type or classification of soil, extent of water present,
weather conditions, freedom of workers and equipment to operate on the job,
size of the job, length of haul for disposal, etc. It is difficult for the contractor to
change job conditions. The contractor must analyze each job to determine the
conditions that can affect construction operations that will impact the time and
cost of performing the work. The analysis of job factors requires a thorough
review of the plans and specifications of the bid documents, an evaluation of the
soil investigation report, and a visit to the jobsite where the project is to be con
structed. For earthwork projects, the bid documents usually contain a soil report
that provides geotechnical information about the soil and subsurface conditions.
The estimator can also use other sources, such as topographic maps, geologic
maps, agriculture maps, or aerial photographs. Information related to job factors
must be collected and considered before preparing a cost estimate.
MANAGEMENT FACTORS
Management factors involve organizing for the job, maintaining good morale
among workers, selecting and using suitable equipment and construction meth
ods, exercising care in servicing equipment, establishing good field supervisory
personnel, and others. These factors are under the control of the contractor. The
contractor has control of his or her operations and can often overcome adverse
119
job conditions by good management practices. For example, the haul road can
be properly maintained to increase the efficiency and productivity of scrapers or
trucks that must operate over the haul roads.
METHODS OF EXCAVATING AND

HAULING EARTH
Methods of excavating vary from hand digging and shoveling for small jobs to
that done by backhoes, front shovels, draglines, clamshells, scrapers, bulldozers,
loaders, trenching machines, boring machines, and dredges. Some material, such
as rock, is so hard that it is necessary to place explosives in drilled holes to
loosen it prior to excavating.
The selection of excavating equipment depends on the type of soil and job
site conditions. For example, a dragline may be used for excavating waterway
channels where extensive water is present, whereas a front shovel may be
selected to excavate rock material that has been loosened in an excavation pit.
Scrapers are often used for excavating and hauling earth for highway projects.
Scrapers are capable of loading, hauling, and distributing the soil in the com
pacted fill area. Thus, they can operate as individual units for both the loading
and hauling operations.
When earth or rock is excavated by equipment and loaded into trucks to haul
to the disposal area, the size of the hauling unit should be balanced with the out
put of the excavating equipment. As illustrated in Chapter 6 , the number of
trucks required to balance the production rates of the loader and trucks is calcu
lated by dividing the total cycle time of the earthwork operation by the cycle
time of the loader.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF EARTH

To estimate the cost of excavating and hauling earth, it is necessary to know the
physical properties of earth because the volume changes during construction
operations. For an earthwork operation, the soil is excavated from its natural
state, placed in a hauling unit, and transported to the disposal area, where it is
distributed and compacted. The earth material can be measured as excavated,
hauled, or compacted. For example, 1.0 cy of soil that is excavated from the
ground may occupy 1.25 cy after it is loosened and placed in the hauling unit.
After the soil is compacted in place it may occupy 0.9 cy.
Earth or soil that is to be excavated is called cut or bank measure. In its
undisturbed condition, prior to excavating, earth normally weighs from 95 to
105 lb/cf, with 100 lb/cf as a median value. The variation in unit weight depends
on the type of soil and moisture content. The soil report for a project provides
the classification, unit weight, and moisture content of samples from borings that
are taken during the soil investigation. Before loosening, solid rock weighs from
130 to 160 lb/cf. For example, shale weighs about 130 lb/cf, whereas limestone
weighs about 160 lb/cf.
Earth that is placed in a hauling unit for transportation to the fill area is called
loose measure. After being loosened during excavation and placed in a hauling
Chapter 7 Earthwork and Excavation 121
unit, earth and rock will occupy a larger volume, with a corresponding reduction
in weight per unit of volume. This increase in volume is described as swell and is
expressed as a percentage gain compared with the original volume. In the haul
condition, earth generally will weigh from 80 to 95 lb/cf. The amount of swell
depends on the type of soil and the amount of loosening during excavation.
Earth that is to be compacted is called fill or compacted measure. When the
earth is placed in a fill area and compacted with compaction equipment, it occu
pies a smaller volume than in its natural state in the cut or bank measure. This
decrease in volume is described as shrinkage and is expressed as a percentage of
the original volume, or bank measure. In the compacted fill area, the unit weight
of soil can vary from 110 to 120 lb/cf. The amount of shrinkage depends on the
type and moisture content of the soil and on the type and number of passes of
the compaction equipment. Shrinkage can vary from 5 to 15 percent, depending
on these factors.
The correlation between unit weights, volumes, swell, and shrinkage can be
obtained from Eqs. [7.1] to [7.4], Eqs. [7.1] and [7.2] apply to volume measures
and Eqs. [7.3] and [7.4] apply to weight measures.
By volume:
[7.1]
[7.2]
where Sw = percentage of swell

Sh — percentage of shrinkage
B = volume of undisturbed soil
L = volume of loose soil
C - volume of compacted soil
By weight:
where Sw = percentage of swell

Sh = percentage of shrinkage
B = unit weight of undisturbed soil
L = unit weight of loose soil
C= unit weight of compacted soil
Distinguishing between the bank, loose, and compacted measure is extremely
important to the estimator and the bidding process because the contractor may be
paid by any one of the three units of measure. The contract documents define the
measure of payment to the contractor for earthwork. For example, the bid form in
the contract documents may stipulate that the contractor will be paid based on the
amount of soil excavated (bank measure), the amount of soil hauled (loose mea
sure), or the amount of soil compacted (compacted measure).
The estimator can prepare the estimate in any unit of measure, but the final
bid amount must correspond to the unit of measure specified in the contract bid
documents. Equations [7.1] through [7.4] can be used to convert between these
three units of measure. Table 7.1 provides the range of percentage of swell for
various soils. Table 7.2 provides representative unit weights for various types of
earth and rock.
T A B L E 7.1 I Range of swell T A B L E 7 .2 I Approximate unit weights of

factors of earth and rock. earth and rock.
Material Swell, % Material Bank weight, Ib/cf

Sand or gravel 10-15 Loam 80
Loam 15-20 Sand, dry 95
Common earth 20-30 Sand, wet 100
Hard clay 25-40 Clay, dry 100
Solid rock 50-80 Clay, wet 110
Earth, dry 105
Earth, wet 115
Earth and gravel 120
Gravel, dry 105
Gravel, wet 125
Limestone 160
Rock, well blasted 155
Shale 130
EXAMPLE 7 .1
Clay soil whose bank unit w eight is 105 Ib/cf is excavated and hauled by 22-cy
(loose measure) trucks that have an em pty w eight of 67,500 lb. An evaluation of the
physical properties of the soil indicates a swell factor of 30 percent. Based on four
passes of the com paction equipm ent it is anticipated the shrinkage factor will be 15
percent. For each 22-cy truckload of soil that is hauled, calculate the equivalent
bank measure and loose measure volume. Also, what is the total vertical w eight of
the hauling unit and payload of soil that is hauled on each truck-trip?
Equivalent loose and compacted measure volumes, using Eqs. [7.1] and [7.2]:
22cy-(1+^)B
B= -----— —
1 + 0.30
= 16.9 cy bank volume
c- ( ' - 4 ) s
= (1 - 0.15) 16.9 cy
= 14.4 cy com pacted volume
Total vertical weight of a truck and its soil payload, using Eq. [7.3]:
B
L=
1 + S J100
105 lb /c f
1 + 30/100
= 80.8 Ib /c y loose w eight of soil
Soil payload = 80.8 lb/cf (27 cf/cy) X (22 cy)

= 47,995 lb of soil
Total w eight = em pty truck + payload
= 67,500 lb + 47,995 lb
= 115,495 lb
Thus, for each truck-trip the amount of soil that is handled is equivalent to 16.9 cy
bank, 22 cy loose, or 14.4 cy com pacted. Each truckload w eighs 115,495 lb.
EXCAVATING BY HAND
Numerous types and sizes of excavating equipment are available. The selection
of excavating equipment for a particular project depends on many factors: the
type and quantity of material to be excavated, the depth of excavation, the
amount of groundwater in the construction area, the required haul distance, and
the space available for operation of the equipment. For some jobs, space and
working room are not available for excavating equipment to operate, which
requires excavation by laborers.
Generally, it is desirable to use excavating equipment instead of excavation
by laborers; however, at some jobsites the space is not sufficient for equipment
to operate. For example, excavation for a motor-pump foundation for a unit in a
refinery may be located in a confined space that prevents access by an excava
tor. An excavator may be able to access an excavation area, but may not be able
to operate because of an overhead pipe rack that blocks the clearance necessary
for the equipment to operate. Excavation may be required in an area where there
are numerous underground electric or telephone cables. For each of these situa
tions, excavating by hand methods may be necessary.
The rate at which a laborer can excavate varies with the type of material,
extent of digging required, height to which the material must be lifted, and cli
matic conditions. If loosening is necessary, a pick is most commonly used.
Lifting is generally done with a round-pointed, long-handled shovel; 150 to 200
shovels of earth are required to excavate 1 cy in its natural state. Representative
rates of excavating and hauling earth are given in Table 7.3.
T A B L E 7 .3 I Rates of handling earth by hand.
Operation cy/hr hr/cy

Excavating sandy loam 1-2 0.5-1.0
Shoveling loose earth into a truck 5~1 1.0-2.0
1 1
Loosening earth with a pick 4 2 2.0-4.0
Shoveling from trenches or pits 5-1 1.0-2.0
Backfilling earth into trenches 1 |- 2 | 0.4-0.7
Spreading loose earth 4-7 0.15-0.25
If the excavated earth is to be hauled distances up to 100 ft, wheelbarrows

are frequently used. A wheelbarrow will hold about 3 cf, loose volume. A
worker should be able to haul the earth 1 0 0 ft and return in about 2 \ min if the
haul path is reasonably firm and smooth. Filling the wheelbarrow with loose
earth will require about 2 \ min. Thus, it will require about 5 min to load and haul
3 cf of earth up to 100 ft. This corresponds to about 1 hr/cy, bank measure.
E X A M P L E 7 .2
Excavation for a trench in a confined area of a refinery requires excavation by labor

ers. Estimate the cost of excavating and backfilling the trench, w hich is 3 ft wide, 4 ft
deep, and 15 ft long in sandy loam.
Quantity of work:
Volume of earth: (3 ft x 4 ft x 15 ft)/(27 cf/cy) = 6.7 cy
Production rate:
Loosening earth: 6.7 cy x 2 hr/cy = 13.4 hr
Shoveling earth from trench: 6.7 cy x 1 hr/cy = 6.7 hr
Shoveling earth back from trench: 6.7 cy x 0.5 hr/cy = 3.4 hr
Backfilling trench: 6.7 cy x 0.5 hr/cy = 3.4 hr
Total labor-hours = 26.9 hr
Cost:
Total cost = 26.9 hr @ $15.56/hr = $418.56
Cost per cubic yard: $418.56/6.7 cy = $62.47/cy
Cost per linear foot: $418.56/15 ft = $27.90/ft
EXCAVATING WITH TRENCHING MACHINES

Even though it may be economical to excavate short sections of shallow trenches
with hand labor, a trenching machine is more economical for larger jobs. Once
the machine is transported to the job and put into operation, the cost of excavat
ing is considerably less than the cost by hand. For a given job, the savings in
excavating costs resulting from the use of the machine as compared with hand
excavating must be sufficient to offset the cost of transporting the machine to the
job and back to storage after the job is completed. Otherwise, hand labor is more
economical.
Trenching machines can be purchased or rented. Several types are available.
For shallow trenches such as those required for grade beams, underground elec
tric cable, telephone lines, or television cables, a trenching machine with a dozer
blade attached to the front, as illustrated in Fig. 7.1, is frequently used. This type
of equipment is highly maneuverable because of its rubber tires and small size.
Equipment of this type can be used to dig narrow trenches 8 to 12 in. wide
to depths of 8 ft, as shown in Table 7.4. The digging speed will depend on the
type of soil, width and depth of trench, and horsepower of the trencher. Equation
[7.5] can be used to approximate the digging speed for this type of equipment.
The soil factor C in Eq. [7.5] can be approximated as shown in Table 7.5.
FIG U R E 7.1 I Self-transporting trenching machine.

Source: The Charles Machine Works.
T A B L E 7 .4 I Representative sizes of T A B L E 7 .5 I Values of

trenches for small trenching machine. soil factor C fo r small
trenching machine.
Depth of Maximum width
trench, fn. of trench, in. Type of soil C
48 24 Sandstone 20
60 20 Hard clay 40
72 16 Firm clay 60
84 14 Soft clay 90
96 12 for soft soil
96 10 for firm soil
96 8 for hard soil
where S = digging speed, ft/min

C = soil factor
D = depth of trench, in.
W = width of trench, in.
hp = flywheel horsepower of engine
EXAMPLE 7 . 3
Estimate the total cost and cost per linear foot for excavating 16,850 ft of trench in
hard clay for an underground cable. The trench will be 9 in. w ide and the average
depth will be 66 in. A rubber-tire-trenching m achine (similar to the one shown in
Fig. 7.1) with 65 hp will be used. The cable will be installed in open terrain so there
will be no major obstructions to retard the progress of the machine. Assume a 45-min
hour to account for normally expected delays.
Probable digging speed:
From Table 7.5, C= 40 for hard clay, and using Eq. [7.5] for speed,
Cx hp
S= Dx W
_ 40 X 65
66 X 9
= 4.4 ft/m in
Time required for trenching:

Productive time = (16,850 ft/4.4 ft/min)/(60 min/hr) = 63.8 hr
For a 45-min effective hour, the time will be (60/45) x 63.8 hr = 85 hr.
Rounding to a full 8-hr day, the time on the job will be 88 hr.
C hapter 7 Earthwork and Excavation 127
Cost:
Trenching machine: 88 hr @ $32.50/hr = $2,860.00
Machine operator: 88 hr @ $21.67/hr = 1,906.96
Utility truck: 88 hr @ $7.50/hr = 660.00
Laborer: 88 hr @ $15.56/hr = 1,369.28
Foreman: 88 hr @ $25.00/hr = 2,200.00
Moving equipm ent to and from job = 500.00
Total cost crew = $9,496,24
Cost per linear foot: $9,496.24/16,850 ft = $0.56/ft
WHEEL-TYPE TRENCHING MACHINES

For trenches such as those required for water mains, gas and oil pipelines, a
wheel-type machine (Fig. 7.2) is frequently used. The wheel rotates at the rear
of the machine, which is mounted on crawler tracks. A combination of teeth and
buckets attached to the wheel loosens and removes the earth from the trench as
the machine advances. The earth is cast into a windrow along the trench. This
machine can be used to excavate trenches from 16 to 30 in. wide and depths up
to 6 ft. Table 7.6 provides data on wheel trenching machines.
LADDER-TYPE TRENCHING MACHINES

For deep trenches, such as those required for sewer pipes and other utilities, the
ladder-type machine is used. Inclined or vertical booms are mounted at the rear
FIGURE 7 .2 I Wheel-type trenching machine.

Source: Caterpillar, Inc.
TABLE 7 .6 i Data on wheel-type trenching

machines.
Depth of Width of Digging speed,

trench, ft trench, in. ft/hr
2-4 16, 18, 20 150-400
22, 24, 26 90-300
28, 30 60-180
4-6 16, 18, 20 40-120
22, 24, 26 25-90
28, 30 15-40
of the machine. Cutter teeth and buckets are attached to endless chains that travel
along the boom. As the machine advances, the earth is excavated and cast along
the trench. The depth of cut is adjusted by raising or lowering the boom. By
adding side cutters, the width of the trench can be increased. This type of machine
can excavate trenches from 16 to 36 in. wide and depths up 12 ft. Table 7.7 pro
vides data on ladder-type trenching machines.
TABLE 7 .7 I Data on ladder-type trenching

machines.
Depth of Width of Digging speed,

trench, ft trench, in. ft/hr
4-6 16, 20, 22 100-300
24, 26, 28 75-200
30, 32, 36 40-125
6-8 16, 20, 22 40-125
24, 26, 28 30-60
30, 32, 36 25-50
8-12 18, 24, 30 30-75
32, 24, 36 14-40
EXAMPLE 7 . 4
Estimate the total cost and cost per linear foot for excavating a trench 30 in. w ide
with an average depth of 7 ft. The trench is 2,940 ft long in common earth. A ladder-
type trenching machine will be used, There will be no obstructions to retard the
progress of the machine. Assume an efficiency of 45 min per hour. Table 7.7 indi
cates a d igging speed between 30 and 60 ft/hr. Assume an average speed of
40 ft/hr.
Time to complete the job:
Time for d igging trench: 2,940 ft/40 ft/hr = 73.5 hr
For a 45-min hr, the time = 73.5 X (60/45) = 98 hr
Rounding to a full 8 -hr day, time = 104 hr
Cost:
Trenching machine: 104 hr @ $87.50/hr = $9,100.00
Machine operator: 104 hr @ $21.67/hr = 2,253.68
Laborer: 104 hr @ $15.56/hr = 1,618.24
Foreman: 104 hr @ $25.00/hr = 2,600.00
Pickup truck: 104 hr @ $ 1 2 .00/hr = 1,248.00
Transporting machine to and from job = 1,500.00
Total cost = $18,319.92
Cost per linear foot, $18,319.93/2,940 ft = $6.23/ft
EXCAVATING WITH DRAGLINES

The dragline (Fig. 7.3) is used for excavating earth for drainage channels and
building levees where water is present. It can operate on wet ground and can dig
earth out of pits containing water because it does not have to go into the pit or
hole to excavate. The dragline is designed to operate below the level of the
machine. It operates adjacent to the pit, while excavating material from the pit
by casting its bucket, which is very advantageous when earth is removed from a
ditch, canal, or pit containing water. The dragline cannot excavate rock as well
as a hydraulic excavator.
Frequently, it is possible to use a dragline with a long boom to dispose of
the material in one operation if the material can be deposited along the canal or
near the pit. This eliminates the need for hauling units, thus reducing the cost of
F IG U R E 7 .3 I Dragline on a typical job.

handling the material. Draglines are excellent for excavating trenches when the
sides are permitted to establish their angles of repose without shoring.
The size of the dragline is indicated by the size of the bucket, expressed in
cubic yards. Most draglines can handle more than one size bucket, depending on
the length of boom and class and weight of material excavated. If the material is
difficult to excavate, the use of a smaller bucket will reduce the digging resis
tance, which may permit an increase in production rate.
The dragline will produce its greatest output if the job is planned to permit
excavation at the optimum depth of cut where possible. Table 7.8 gives ideal
outputs, in bank cubic yards, for short-boom draglines when excavating at opti
mum depth of cut with an angle of swing of 90°, based on a 60-min hour. The
upper figure is the optimum depth in feet and the lower number is the ideal out
put in cubic yards, with no delays. Table 7.9 gives adjustment factors that can
be used to determine outputs for other depths and angles of swing. The produc
tion rates determined from Tables 7.8 and 7.9 must be corrected for an efficiency
less than 60 min/hr.
TABLE 7 .8 I Ideal output of short-boom draglines, cy/hr, bank measure.
Size of bucket, cy
Class of material 3
8
1
2
3
4 1 1| 12
n 4 2 2|
Moist loam or light 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.6 7.0 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.5
sandy clay* 70 95 130 160 195 220 245 265 305
Sand and gravel* 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.6 7.0 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.5
65 90 125 155 185 210 235 255 295
Good common earth* 6.0 6.7 7.4 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 9.9 10.5
55 75 105 135 165 190 210 230 265
Hard, tough clay* 7.3 8.0 8.7 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3 11.8 12.3
35 55 90 110 135 160 180 195 230
Wet, sticky clay* 7.3 8.0 8.7 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3 11.8 12.3
20 30 55 75 95 110 130 145 175
Source: Power Crane and Shovel Association.

*The upper number indicates the optimum depth in feet. The lower number indicates the ideal output.
TABLE 7 .9 I Effect of depth of cut and angle of swing on output of draglines.
Angie of swing
Percentage of
optimum depth 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 120° 150° 180°
20 1.06 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.81 0.75 0.70
40 1.17 1.08 1.02 0.97 0.93 0.85 0.78 0.72
60 1.24 1.13 1.06 1.01 0.97 0.88 0.80 0.74
80 1.29 1.17 1.09 1.04 0.99 0.90 0.82 0.76
100 1.32 1.19 1.11 1.05 1.00 0.91 0.83 0.77
120 1.29 1.17 1.09 1.03 0.98 0.90 0.82 0.76
140 1.25 1.14 1.06 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.81 0.75
160 1.20 1.10 1.02 0.97 0.93 0.85 0.79 0.73
180 1.15 1.05 0.98 0.94 0.90 0.82 0.76 0.71
200 1.10 1.00 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.79 0.73 0.69

Chapter 7 Earthwork and Excavation 1 31
EXAMPLE 7 . 5
Estimate the total cost and cost per cubic yard for excavating a drainage ditch 10 ft
w ide at the bottom, 36 ft w ide at the top, 12 ft deep, and 15,100 ftlong in good com
mon earth. The excavated earth can be cast on one or both sides of the ditch. Use
a 1g cy dragline and an average angle of swing of 120°. It will require 2 days to set
up and remove the dragline. Two laborers will assist the excavating operation, which
will be supervised by a foreman. Assume the dragline will operate an average of
45 min/hr.
Quantity of material:
Volume of earth = \ (10 ft + 36 ft) X 12 feet x 15,110 ft = 4,170,360 cf
Converting to cubic yards, 4,170,360 cf/(27cf/cy) = 154,458 cy, bank measure
Production rate:
From Table 7.8, the ideal output = 190 cy/hr bank measure
From Table 7.8, the optimum depth of cut is 9.0 feet
Percent of optimum = 12.0 ft/9 ft = 1.33, or 133%
From Table 7.9, for 133% optimum and 120° angle of swing, the depth-swing
adjustm ent factor will be 0.89
60-min hour production rate = 0.89 (190 cy/hr) = 169.1 cy/hr
45-min hour production rate = 169.1 cy/hr (45/60) = 126.8 cy/hr bank measure
Time:
Time required to excavate the earth = 154,458 cy/126.8 cy/hr = 1,218 hr
Cost:
Costs during dragline operation:
Dragline: 1,218 hr @ $87.69/hr = $106,806.42
M achine operator: 1,218 hr @ $21.67 = 26,394.06
Laborers: 1,218 hr x 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 37,904.16
Foreman: 1,218 hr @ $25.00/hr = 30,450.00
Cost to set up and remove dragline:
Operator: 16 hr @ $21.67/hr = 346.72
Laborers: 16 hr x 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 497.92
Foreman: 16 hr @ $25.00/hr = 400.00
Cost to move dragline to and from the job = 2,500.00
Total direct cost = $204,999.28
Cost per cubic yard, $204,999.28/154,458 = $1,33/cy
HANDLING MATERIAL WITH A CLAMSHELL

Clamshells are used primarily for handling loose materials such as loam, sand,
gravel, and crushed stone. They are also used for removing material from pier
foundations, sewer manholes, or sheet-lined trenches. Clamshells are especially
suited for lifting materials vertically from one location to another, such as
depositing material in hoppers and overhead bins. The vertical movement capa
bility can be relatively large when clamshells are used with long crane booms.
A clamshell is not effective in loosening solid earth, such as compacted earth,
clay, and other solid materials.
The bucket is lowered into the material to be handled with the jaws open. Its
weight will cause the bucket to sink into the material as the jaws are closed.
Then it is lifted vertically, swung to the emptying position, over a truck or to
spoil, and the jaws are opened to permit the load to flow out. The clamshell oper
ator controls all these operations.
The size of the clamshell is indicated by the size of the bucket, expressed in
cubic yards. Manufacturers supply buckets either with removable teeth or with
out teeth. Teeth are used in digging the harder types of materials, but are not
required when a bucket is used for handling purposes.
The output of the clamshell is affected by the looseness of the materials
being handled, type of material, height of lift, angle of swing, method of dis
posing of the materials, and skill of the operator. Because of the variable factors
that affect the operations of a clamshell, it is difficult to give dependable pro
duction rates. For example, if the material must be discharged into a hopper, the
time required to spot the bucket over the hopper and to discharge the load will
be much greater than when the material is discharged freely onto a large stock
pile. The values given in Table 7.10 are approximate outputs of clamshells of
different sizes for various angles of swing. To accurately estimate the produc
tion rate of a clamshell, a cycle time should be determined based on job condi
tions and operating specifications for the equipment. Manufacturers provide
operating specifications, such as speed of the hoist line and swing speed.
T A B L E 7 .1 0 I Approximate output of clamshells, cy/hr.
Type of material
Size of Angle of
bucket, swing, Light Sand Crushed
cy deg. loam gravel stone
3
4 45 63 56 49
90 53 48 42
180 41 37 32
1 45 81 73 63
90 68 61 53
180 54 48 42
2 45 134 120 104
90 113 102 88
180 87 78 68
EXCAVATING WITH
HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS
There are two basic types of hydraulic excavators, depending on their type of
digging action. Hydraulic excavators that have their digging action in an upward
direction are called front shovels, or simply shovels. Hydraulic excavators that
have their digging action in a downward direction are called by several names,
such as hoe, backhoe, or trackhoe.
FRONT SHOVELS
Front shovels maneuver on tracks, similar to bulldozers, because they are used
mostly in pit excavations of rock quarries (Fig. 7.4). When operating on rock, a
track has a longer life than rubber tires. Shovels are used mostly for pit excava
tion where the bucket load is obtained from the vertical face of the excavation
pit above and in front of the excavator. The excavated material is loaded into
trucks and hauled to another location.
Shovels are excavating machines that can handle all classes of earth without
prior loosening; but in excavating solid rock it is necessary to loosen the rock
first, usually by drilling holes and discharging explosives in them. The exca
vated material is loaded into trucks or tractor-pulled wagons, which haul it to its
final destination. For the shovel to maintain its maximum output, sufficient haul
ing units must be provided.
In estimating the output of a shovel, it is necessary to know the class of earth
to be excavated, the height of cut, the ease with which hauling equipment can
approach the shovel, the angle of swing from digging to emptying the bucket,
and the size of the bucket.
FIG U R E 7 .4 I Hydraulic excavator with front shovel.

The size of a shovel is designated by the size of the bucket, expressed in

cubic yards, loose measure. A bucket can be rated as struck capacity or heaped
capacity. The struck capacity is the volume in the bucket when it is filled even
with, but not above, the sides. The heaped capacity is the volume that a bucket
will hold when the earth is piled above the sides. The heaped capacity will
depend on the depth of earth above the sides and the base area of the bucket.
Depending on the type of material, the heaped slope will vary 1:1 or 2:1 above
the sides of the bucket. Equipment manufacturers publish fill factors, which are
percentages that can be multiplied by the heaped capacity to obtain the average
payload of the bucket. Table 7.11 provides fill factors for shovels. The actual
capacity of a bucket should be determined by measuring the volume of earth in
several representative loads, then using the average of these values.
T A B L E 7.11 I Fill factors for front shovel buckets.
Fill factor of bucket,

Material % of heaped capacity
Bank clay; earth 100-110
Rock-earth mixture 105-115
Rock— poorly blasted 85-100
Rook—well blasted 100-110
Shale: sandstone 85-100
There are four elements in the production cycle of a shovel: load bucket,
swing with load, dump load, and return swing. Adding the time of these ele
ments provides the cycle time of the shovel. The production rate can then be
determined by dividing the bucket capacity by the cycle time. The best method
for determining cycle times is to develop historical data for a particular type of
machine and job conditions. Table 7.12 provides the range of element times for
shovels with bucket sizes ranging from 3 to 5 cy. A 30- to 45-min productive
hour should be applied to these values.
T A B L E 7 .1 2 I Time for elements in a shovel

production cycle.
Element of cycle Range of time, sec

1. Load bucket 7-9
2. Swing loaded 4-6
3. Dump load 2-4
4. Swing empty 4-5
Note: These values are for shovels with 3- to 5-cy buckets.
The production of a shovel should be expressed in cubic yards per hour,

based on a bank measure volume. The capacity of a bucket is based on its heaped
volume, loose measure. To obtain the bank measure volume of a bucket, the
average loose volume should be divided by (1 + S^/lOO), reference Eq. [7.1].

For example, if a 3-cy bucket (loose measure) is used to excavate material whose
swell is 25 percent, then the average loose volume can be calculated as (2.0
cy)/(l + 0.25) = 1.8 cy, bank measure. If the shovel can make 2.5 cycles/min,
the output will be 2.5 cycles/min X 1.8 cy/cycle = 4.5 cy/min, bank measure,
which is equivalent to 270 cy/hr.
When hard earth is dug, the output will be less than for soft earth. If the face
against which the shovel is digging is too shallow, it will not be possible for the
shovel to fill the bucket in a single cut, which will reduce the output. If the face
is too deep, the bucket will be filled before it reaches the top of the face, which
will necessitate emptying the bucket and returning to a partial face cut operation.
As the angle of swing for the dipper from the digging to dumping is increased,
the time required for a cycle will be increased, which will reduce the output of
the shovel.
The optimum height of cut for a shovel is that depth at which the bucket
comes to the surface of the ground with a full load without overcrowding or
undercrowding the bucket. The optimum depth varies with the class of soil and
the size of the bucket. The optimum height of cut ranges from 30 to 50 percent
of the maximum digging height. The lower percentage applies to material that
can be loaded easily, such as loam, sand, or gravel. A 40 percent would be more
applicable to common earth, whereas a 50 percent would likely apply to sticky
clay or blasted rock. Table 7.13 gives factors that correct outputs for percentage
optimum heights of cut and angles of swing.
T A B L E 7 .1 3 I Conversion factors for depth of cut and angle of swing for a power
shovel.
Angle of swing
Percentage of
optimum depth 45° 60° 75° 90° 120° 150° 180°
40 0.93 0,89 0.85 0.80 0.72 0.65 0.59
60 1.10 1.03 0.96 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.66
80 1.22 1.12 1.04 0.98 0.86 0.77 0.69
100 1.26 1.16 1.07 1.00 0.88 0.79 0.71
120 1.20 1.11 1.03 0.97 0.86 0.77 0.70
140 1.12 1.04 0.97 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.66
160 1.03 0.96 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.67 0.62
EXAMPLE 7 . 6
Estimate the probable output of a 4-cy shovel for excavating common earth. For this
shovel, the maximum digging height is 34 ft. The average face of cut is 15 ft.
Assume a 120° angle of swing for the shovel to load the haul units. Assume an effec
tive 35-min hour for the excavation operation.
Cycle time:
From Table 7.12, using median values
Load bucket = 8 sec
Swing with load = 5 sec
Dump bucket = 3 sec
Return swing = 4 sec
Total time = 20 sec/cycle
Cycles per min = (cycle /20 sec) x (60 sec/m in) = 3 cycles/m in
Production rate:
Bucket fill factor for common earth from Table 7.11 = 105%
Average bucket payload, 4.0 cy x 105% = 4.2 cy
Ideal production rate = (4.2 cy/cycle) x (3 cycles/m in) = 12.6 cy/min
Optimum height of cut = 40% x 34 ft = 13.6 ft

Average height of cut = 15 ft
Percent optimum height of cut = 15.0/13.6 = 1 . 1 0 , or 1 1 0 %
Adjustm ent for 110% optimum depth of cut and 120% angle of swing
From Table 7.13, adjustm ent factor = 0.87
Probable output = 12.6 cy/min x 0.87 x 35 min/hr = 384 cy/hr, loose

measure
Assume a 25% swell factor for comm on earth
Probable production rate = (384 cy/hr)/( 1 + 0.25) = 307 cy/hr bank measure
This production rate can be achieved only if a sufficient number of trucks is

available to haul the excavated earth away from the shovel. If no truck is available
to be loaded, the shovel will remain idle, which will reduce the production rate of the
shovel.
To estimate the total cost of excavating a given job, it is necessary to deter

mine the cost of transporting the shovel to and from the job, and the labor cost
of setting up the shovel for operation and the cost of removing the shovel at the
end of the job. These costs are in addition to the equipment and labor costs of
excavating the material during construction. A foreman usually supervises the
excavating and hauling. A portion of his or her salary should be charged to exca
vation.
HAULING EXCAVATED MATERIALS

Trucks are used to haul the material excavated by shovels. The capacity of the
hauling unit can be expressed in tons or cubic yards. The latter capacity can be
expressed as struck or heaped. The struck capacity is the volume that a unit will
hold when it is filled even with, but not above, the sides. This volume depends
on the length, width, and depth of the unit. The heaped capacity is the volume
that a unit will hold when the earth is piled above the sides. Although the struck
capacity of a given unit is fixed, the heaped capacity will depend on the depth
of the earth above the sides and on the area of the bed. The Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) specifies the heaped capacity based on a 1:1
slope of the earth above the sides. The actual capacity of a unit should be deter
mined by measuring the volume of earth in several representative loads, then
using the average of these values. Units are available with capacities varying
from 12 to 30 cy.
Since shovel production rates are normally calculated in bank measure, it is
desirable to express the loose volume of hauling trucks in bank measure.
Equation [7.1] can be used for converting the loose measure to bank measure.
For example, if a 15-cy truck is hauling ordinary earth that has a swell of 25 per
cent, the bank measure will be 15 cy/(l + 0.25) = 12 cy.
The size of the hauling units should be balanced against the bucket capacity
of the shovel. For best results, considering output and economy, the capacity of
a hauling unit should be four to six times the bucket capacity.
The volume that a truck can haul in a given time depends on the volume per
load and the number of trips it can make in that time. The number of trips
depends on the distance, speed, time at loading, time at the dump, and time
required for servicing. Higher travel speeds are possible on good open highways
than on streets with heavy traffic. For example, top speeds in excess of 65 mph
may be possible on some paved highways, whereas speeds on crowded city
streets may be not more than 10 to 15 mph. Delays can occur at loading, dump
ing, and servicing trucks. Therefore, the actual operating time may be only 45 or
50 min/hr. An appropriate multiplier should be applied in determining the num
ber of trips per unit of time.
EXAMPLE 7 . 7
Assume the shovel and job conditions given in Example 7.6 apply to a project that
requires excavation and hauling of 58,640 cy, bank measure, of comm on earth. The
production rate of the shovel was calculated as 307 cy/hr, bank measure. The earth
will be hauled 4 mi by 20-cy, loose measure, trucks at an average speed of 30 mph.
The expected time at the dum p is 4 min. The truck time waiting at the shovel to move
into loading position will average 3 min. Assume a 45-min hour and calculate the
total cost and cost per cubic yard based on using sufficient trucks to balance the
production rate of the shovel.
Quantity of work:
Volume of earth = 58,640 cy, bank measure
Volume of truck = 20 cy (1 + 0.25) = 16 cy, bank measure
Cycle time of trucks:

Loading truck: 16 cy/307 cy/hr = 0.05 hr
Traveling: 8 mi/30 mph = 0.26 hr
Dump time: 4 min/60 min/hr = 0.07 hr
Waiting to load: 3 min/60 min/hr = 0.05 hr
Production rate of trucks:
Number of trips per hour: 1 trip/0.43 hr = 2.3
Number of trips per 45-min hour: 2.3 hr x (45/60) = 1.7 trips/hr
Volume hauled per trip: 1.7 trips/hr x 16 cy/trip = 27.2 cy/hr
Time:
Number of trucks required: 307 cy/hr/27,2 cy/hr = 11.3 trucks required
Use 12 trucks, therefore there will be more trucks than required.
The shovel at 307 cy/hr will govern the excavation production rate.
Time = 58,640 cy/307cy/hr = 191 hr

Cost:
Equipm ent excavating and hauling:
Shovel: 191 hr @ $135.00/hr $25,785.00
Trucks: 191 hr x 12 trucks @ $55.00/hr 126,060.00
Labor excavating and hauling earth:
Shovel operator: 191 hr @ $21.67/hr = 4,138.97
Truck drivers: 191 hr X 12 drivers @ $ 18.17/hr = 41,645.64
Laborers: 191 hr x 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 5,943.92
Foreman: 191 hr @ $25.00/hr 4,775.00
Labor setting up and dism antling shovel:
Shovel operator: 16 hr @ $21.67/hr = 346.72
Foreman: 16 hr @ $25.00/hr = 400.00
Transporting shovel to and from job = $2,850.00
Total cost = $212,443.17
Cost per cu b ic yard = $212,443.17/58,640 cy = $3.62/cy bank measure
BACKHOES
Backhoes are used to excavate below the natural surface, such as trenches, base
ments, and general excavation that requires precise control of depths (Fig. 7.5).
A backhoe may be a wheel type or track type. Track-type backhoes are com
monly called trackhoes.
Backhoes have become one of the most widely used types of excavating
equipment. Because of their rigidity, they are superior to draglines for loading
FIGURE 7 .5 I Hydraulic excavator with back shovel.

into dump trucks. Due to their direct pull of the bucket, they can exert greater
tooth pressure than shovels. For some job conditions, they are superior to trench
ing machines, especially for digging utility trenches whose banks are permitted
to establish natural slopes and for which trench shoring will not be used.
Backhoes can remove the earth as it caves in to establish natural slopes, whereas
trenching machines cannot do this easily.
The production rate depends on the bucket payload, average cycle time, and
job efficiency. If an estimator can predict the excavator cycle time and the
bucket payload, the probable production rate for excavation can be determined.
The cycle time will depend on the particular job conditions, such as the diffi
culty in loosening the soil, the angle of swing, the size of the truck that the back
hoe must load, and the skill of the operator. The estimator must use judgment
and knowledge of actual job conditions to predict the cycle time for a particular
job. Table 7.14 provides representative cycle time for backhoes under average
conditions.
TABLE 7 .1 4 I Representative cycle times for backhoes.
Bucket Load Swing Dump Swing Total

size, bucket, loaded, bucket, empty, cycle,
cy sec sec se c se c sec
<1 5 4 2 3 14
1-15 6 4 2 3 15
2 -2 j 6 4 3 4 17
3 7 5 4 4 20
3i 7 6 4 5 22
4 7 6 4 5 22
5 7 7 4 6 24

The average bucket payload is equal to the heaped bucket capacity payload
multiplied by the bucket fill factor. The bucket fill factor will depend on the type
of soil to be excavated. Table 7.15 provides representative values of the bucket
fill factor for backhoes.
TABLE 7 .1 5 I Fill factors for backhoe buckets.
Fill factor of bucket,

Material % of heaped capacity
Moist loam or sandy clay 100-110
Sand and gravel 95-100
Hard, tough clay 80-90
Rock, well blasted 60-75
Rock, poorly blasted 4 0 -5 0
EXAMPLE 7 . 8
Estimate the probable output of a 2-cy backhoe for excavation of hard, tough clay.
Assume a swell of 30 percent and a 45-min. hour for the backhoe.
Cycle time:
From Table 7.14,
Load bucket = 6 sec
Swing loaded = 3 sec
Dump bucket = 3 sec
Return swing = 4 sec
Total time = 16 sec/cycle
Cycles per min = (cycle/16 sec) x (60 sec/min) = 3.75 cycles/min

Production rate:
Bucket fill factor for hard, tough clay from Table 7.15 = 85%
Average bucket payload, 2.0 cy X 85% = 1.7 cy
Ideal production rate = (3.75 cy/cycle) x (1.7 cycles/m in) = 6.4 cy/min
For 45-min hour = 6.4 cy/min x 45 min/hr = 288 cy/hr loose measure
For bank measure, (288 cy/hr)/(1 + 0.30) = 222 cy/hr bank measure
Table 7.16 provides representative ranges of production rates for excavating

with backhoes. The information contained in this table is based on loose measure
and a 60-min hour, or 100 percent efficiency. The estimator should apply a job
efficiency factor to the factors shown in the table based on personal judgment or
knowledge of actual job conditions. The upper limit corresponds to the fastest
practical cycle time: easy digging earth, low angles of swing, and no obstructions.
The lower limit corresponds to the toughest digging, deep depths, large angles of
swing, loading into small trucks, and obstructions in the work area.
T A B L E 7 .1 6 I Probable output of backhoes.
Bucket payload, Output of backhoe,

cy loose measure cy/hr loose measure
1
2 7 5 -1 3 5
1
4 9 0 -2 0 2
1 1 2 0 -2 7 0
1? 1 5 0 -3 0 0
1| 1 5 4 -3 6 0
1? 1 8 0 -4 2 0
2 2 0 5 -4 2 0
ol 2 3 1 -4 7 2
^4
Source: Caterpillar, Inc,
EXCAVATING AND HAULING EARTH

WITH SCRAPERS
Scrapers are used to excavate and haul earth for highways, airports, dams,
canals, and levees. Since these units perform both excavating and hauling oper
ations, they are independent of the operations of other equipment. If one of sev
eral units breaks down, the rest of the units can continue to operate, whereas if
a shovel or backhoe breaks down, the entire project must stop until the shovel is
repaired.
Scrapers are versatile because they load, haul, and dump loose material.
They cannot load as productively as a shovel or backhoe and they cannot haul
as productively as trucks. However, for off-highway projects with haul distances
of less than a mile, the ability of scrapers to both load and haul gives them an
advantage. Also, the ability of these machines to deposit their loads in layers of
uniform thickness facilitates compaction operations.
Scrapers are classified by their method of loading: push-loaded, push-pull,
and self-loading. The push-loaded scraper uses a crawler-tractor to push the
scraper to assist the loading (Fig. 7.6). A push-pull scraper allows two scrapers
to assist one another during loading by hooking them together. The trailing
scraper pushes the lead scraper as it loads. Then, the lead scraper pulls the trail
ing scraper to assist it in loading. This feature allows two scrapers to work with
out assistance from a push tractor. A self-loading scraper is sometimes an ele
vating scraper, which is completely self-contained loading. A chain elevator
serves as the loading mechanism. Most scrapers are powered by a diesel engine
on a single drive axle. Models are available with tandem powered axles with
twin engines, one at the front and one at the back of the scraper (Fig. 7.7).
The volume of a scraper may be specified as either the struck or heaped
capacity of the bowl, expressed in cubic yards. The struck capacity is the volume
that a scraper would hold if the top of the material were struck off level at the top
of the bowl. For the heaped capacity, a 1:1 slope is commonly used for the side
slope above the sides of the bowl. For example, a scraper might be designated as
FIGURE 7 .6 i T w o-w h e e le d tra cto r s c ra p e r lo a d in g w ith the a ssista n ce of a b u lld o ze r.

S o u rc e : C a te rp illa r, Inc
FIGURE 7 .7 I T w o -w h e e le d tra c to r s c ra p e r h a u lin g its load.

S o u rc e : C a te rp illa r, Inc.
14 cy struck, 20 cy heaped. A wide range of size and capacities of scrapers is

available, from 14 cy (struck) to 44 cy (heaped).
Production Rate for Scrapers

The production rate for a scraper will equal the number of trips per hour multi
plied by the net volume per trip. The number of trips per hour can be obtained
from the cycle time; the time required to load, haul, dump, and return. An appro
priate efficiency factor, such as a 45- or 50-min hour, should be used in deter
mining the number of trips per hour, to allow for nonproductive time. Frequently
it is desirable to express the speed of a scraper in feet per minute as well as miles
per hour. A speed of 1 mph is equal to 5,280 ft in 60 min, which equals 8 8 ft/min.
Manufacturers provide data on the typical fixed time of scrapers. The fixed
time is the amount of time to load, maneuver, and spread or dump a load. The
time to load a scraper ranges from 0.4 to 1.1 min, depending on the type of soil
and skill of the operator. A load time of about 0.8 min is reasonable for most
scraper operations. The time to maneuver and spread or dump a load is about
0.7 min. Thus, a reasonable total fixed time to load and dump a scraper is about
1.5 min. The estimator should also evaluate the job conditions at each project
and include a reasonable amount of time for acceleration, deceleration, and turns
that are necessary for a scraper to operate.
Equipment manufacturers also publish production rate charts that show the
production rate with respect to haul distance for a particular size of scraper.
These charts are valuable to the estimator when multiple haul distances are
involved in a scraper operation, such as multiple cut and fill balance points in
mass diagrams of highway projects.
EXAMPLE 7 . 9
Estimate the probable production rate for a scraper whose struck ca pacity is 14 cy,
loose measure. The material will be common earth with a swell of 25 percent. An
evaluation of the haul road shows an average haul distance of 860 ft and return haul
of 940 ft. Based on the condition of the haul road it is anticipated that haul speed is
9 mph loaded and 11 mph empty. From the m anufacturer’s information the load time
is 0.8 min and the dum p time is 0.7 min. Assume 0.5 min for turning, acceleration,
etc. Assume a 45-min productive hour.
Cycle time:
Haul speed: 9 mph x (5280 ft/ mi) x (1.0 hr/60 min) = 792 ft/min
Return speed: 11 mph x (5280 ft/mi) x (1.0 hr/60 min) = 968 ft/min
Load time = 0.80 min
Haul: (860 ft)/(792 ft/min) = 1.08 min
Dump time = 0.70 min
Return: 940 ft/968 ft/min. = 0.97 min
Turns, acceleration, etc. = 0.50 min
Total cycle time = 4.05 min/trip
Production rate:
Number of trips per hour: (1 trip/4.05 min) x (45 min/hr) = 1 1 . 1 trip/hr
Volume per hour: 11.1 trips/hr x 14 cy/trip = 155.4 cy/hr loose measure
For a 25% swell, (155.4 cy/hr)/(1 + 0.25) = 124.3 cy/hr bank measure
Cost of Excavating and Hauling Earth with Scrapers

The cost of handling earth with scrapers can be determined by assuming that the
equipment will be operated 1 hr for quantity and cost purposes. The cost per
cubic yard can be calculated by dividing the hourly cost by the hourly produc
tion rate of the scraper.
If a bulldozer is used to assist several scraper units while they are being
loaded, the cost of the bulldozer should be distributed equally among the scraper
units that are assisted. The number of scrapers that a bulldozer can assist will be
equal to the total cycle time divided by the time required by the bulldozer to
assist in loading. For example, consider the scraper unit in Example 7.9.
Total cycle time = 4.05 min

Load time = 0.8 min
Number of scrapers served by a bulldozer = 4.05/0.8 = 5.06 scrapers
Thus, it appears that a bulldozer can assist 5 scrapers. Assuming that a bulldozer
can assist 5 scrapers, then one-fifth (0.20) of the cost of a bulldozer should be
charged to each scraper. The hourly cost will be
Scraper: 1 hr @ $95.50/hr = $95.50/hr

Scraper operator: 1 hr @ $21.67/hr = $21.67/hr
Bulldozer: 0.20 hr @ $65.20/hr = $13.04/hr
Bulldozer operator: 0.20 hr @ $21.67/hr = $4.33/hr
Total cost = $134.54/hr
From Example 7.9, production rate = 124.3 cy/hr, bank measure
Cost per cubic yard: ($134.54/hr)/(124.3 cy/hr) = $1.08/cy, bank measure
If job records are available from previously completed projects, the produc
tion rate of scrapers can be estimated by load counts. A load count is simply the
number of loads a scraper can haul in a day of operation. Using this method, his
torical data are obtained from actual jobs that provide the number of loads per
day for a particular size scraper and haul distance. For example, job records may
show that an 18-cy scraper can haul 42 loads per day for a haul distance between
1,200 and 1,500 ft. Thus, the production rate can be calculated as
Output: 42 loads/day X 18 cy per load = 756 cy/day

Assume the daily cost of a scraper and operator = $935/day
Cost per cubic yard = ($935/day)/(756 cy/day) = $1.24/cy
The same procedure can be used on an hourly basis. For example, the number of
loads per hour can be multiplied by the capacity of the scraper. Then, the cost per
cubic yard can be estimated by dividing the hourly cost of a scraper by the hourly
production rate to obtain the cost per cubic yard for the scraper operation.
Haul Distances for Scrapers

For short haul distances, the production rate of a scraper depends primarily on
the fixed time of the scraper—the time to load, accelerate, decelerate, turn, and
dump. As the length of the haul distance increases, the production rate of a
scraper will depend primarily on the travel time of the scraper, or the time to
haul and return. Therefore, the haul distance must be known to estimate the pro
duction rate and the cost of excavation by a scraper for a particular job.
The earthwork required for a highway project is defined by the mass dia
gram on the plan and profile sheets. Figure 7.8 is a portion of a profile and mass
diagram. The amount of material that must be excavated, and the distance it
must be hauled, can be determined from the mass diagram. This information
enables one to estimate the production rate and cost of excavation.
Existing grade
EXAMPLE 7 .1
Determine the total cost and the cost per cubic yard for the earthwork of the first bal
ance point of the mass diagram in Fig. 7.8. A self-loading scraper with a struck
capacity of 15 cy will be used to excavate and haul the soil. The scraper has a load
time of 0.8 min and dump time of 0.7 min. Assume an 18 mph haul speed and a 22
mph return speed. The material is common earth, with a swell of 25 percent.
The mass diagram can be arbitrarily divided into three 200-cy sections. For
each section the average haul distance can be determined from the diagram. The
haul distance, cycle time, number of trips per 45-min hour, quantity hauled per trip,
production rate, and time required for each section will be:
Quantity hauled per trip:
Capacity of scraper = 15 cy loose measure
However, from Eq (7.1),
15cy-(' *§j)B
B - 12 cy bank measure
Cycle time for a scraper:
Quantity Pro
Quan Dis hauled duction Total
Sec tity, Cycle time, min per trip, rate, time,
tance,
tion cy ft Load Haul Dump Return Total cy cy/hr hr
1 200 2,000 0.8 1.26 0.7 1.03 3.79 12 142.8 1.4
II 200 3,400 0.8 2.14 0.7 1.76 5.40 12 99.6 2.0
III 200 4,300 0.8 2.71 0.7 2.22 6.43 12 84.0 2.4
600 cy Total time = 5.8 hr
Cost of hauling earth:

Scraper: 5.8 hr @ $95.50/hr = $553.90
Operator: 5.8 hr @ $21.67/hr = 125.69
Cost per cubic yard: $679.59/600 cy = $1.13/cy
SHAPING AND COMPACTING

EARTHWORK
When earth is placed in a fill, it is necessary to spread it in uniformly thick
layers and compact it to the density specified in the contract documents.
Unless sufficient moisture is present, water should be added to produce the
optimum moisture content, which will permit more effective compaction.
Spreading can be accomplished with graders (Fig. 7.9) or bulldozers, or both,
while compaction can be accomplished with self-propelled rollers, tractor-
pulled sheep’s-foot rollers (Fig. 7.10), smooth-wheel rollers, pneumatic
FIGURE 7 .9 I Motor grader shaping a fill area.

FIGURE 7 .1 0 I Three-drum sheep’s-foot roller.
rollers, vibrating rollers, or other types of equipment. For some projects, the best
results are obtained by using more than one type of equipment. Regardless of the
type of equipment selected, there should be enough units to shape, wet, and
compact the earth at the rate at which it will be delivered.
EXAMPLE 7 .1 1
Estimate the total cost per cubic yard for shaping, sprinkling, and compacting earth
in a fill such as a dam or highway. Scrapers at a rate of 465 cy/hr, bank measure,
will place the earth. Assume a 15 percent shrinkage factor. The earth will be placed
in layers not to exceed 6 in. thick when compacted. The moisture content will aver
age 8 percent when the earth is placed in the fill, but it must be increased to 12 per
cent during the compaction operation. The water will be transported to the fill area
by trucks with water sprinklers.
Rate of delivering soil to the compaction area:

Rate of delivering soil to the fill area by the scrapers = 465 cy/hr bank measure.
From Eq. (7.2), C = (1 - ^ ) B
For a 15% shrinkage, C = (1 - 0.15) x 465 cy/hr = 395 cy/hr loose measure
Surface area placed per hour, for 6-in. depth = 0.5 ft
Production rate of scrapers: (395 cy/hr/0.5 ft) x (27 cf/cy) = 21,330 sf/hr
Spreading and shaping earth:
If three passes of a grader are required to smooth each layer of earth satisfactorily,
the area that the grader must cover in 1 hour will be:
3 passes x 21,330 sf/hr = 63,990 sf/hr
A motor grader with a 12-ft blade should cover a strip or lane whose effective width
will be about 8 ft for each pass of the grader. The grader should be able to travel at
an average speed of at least 2 mph, allowing for stops and lost time turning around.
The area covered by 1 hr by a grader should be
Production rate of grader: 2 mph X 5,280 ft/mi X 8 ft = 84,500 sf/hr
Since the production rate of 84,500 sf/hr for the grader to spread the load is greater
than the 21,330 sf/hr that the scrapers will be delivering the soil to the compaction
area, one grader is sufficient to do the job.
Compaction:
The earth will be compacted by sheep’s-foot rollers pulled by a tractor. It is esti
mated that 10 passes will be required to attain the specified compaction. The equiv
alent area that the rollers must cover in 1 hr will be
Required area for the compactor: 10 passes x 21,330 sy/hr = 213,300 sf/hr
If roller drums are 4 ft long and are operated at an average speed of 2 | mph, allow
ing for lost time, the area covered by one drum in 1 hr will be
Production rate of compactor: 2 f mph x 4 ft x 5,280 ft/mi = 58,080 sf/hr
The number of drums required will be 213,300/58,080 = 3.7. Therefore, it will be

necessary to use 4 drums, which will be pulled by one tractor.
Adding water with sprinkler trucks:
The compacted earth will weigh 3,150 Ib/cy. The water content must be increased
from 8 to 12 percent, or 4 percent. The weight of water required per hour will be
4 percent of the weight of earth placed. Therefore, the required production rate of
sprinkler trucks will be
Sprinkler truck production rate: 4% x 395 cy/hr x 3,150 Ib/cy = 49,770 lb/hr
Since water weighs 62.4 lb/cf and there are 7.48 gal/cf, (62.4 gal/cf)/(7.48 gal/cf) =
8.34 lb/gal
Converting lb/hr to gal/hr, (49,770 lb/hr)/(8,34 lb/gal) = 5,968 gal/hr
Thus, there must be a sufficient number of sprinkler trucks to deliver 5,968

gal/hr.
If a 2,000-gal sprinkler truck can make one trip in 40 min, the production rate of
a single sprinkler truck will be
Output of sprinkler truck, (2,000 gal/trip/40 min/trip) x (60 min/hr) = 3,000 gal/hr
Number of required sprinkler trucks: 5,968/3,000 = 1.9

Therefore 2 sprinkler trucks will be used.
Crew costs:
Motor grader = $37.50/hr
Grader operator = $21.67/hr
Tractor and sheep’s-foot roller = $65.00/hr
Tractor operator = $21.67/hr
Sprinkler trucks: 2 @ $25.00/hr = $50.00/hr
Truck drivers: 2 @ $18.17/hr = $36.34/hr
Foreman = $25.00/hr
Total cost per hour = $257.18/hr
Cost per cubic yard, $257.18/hr/395 cy/hr = $0.65/cy compacted measure
DRILLING AND BLASTING ROCK

Before rock can be excavated, it must be loosened and broken into pieces small
enough to be handled by the excavating equipment. The most common method
of loosening is to drill holes into which explosives are placed and detonated.
Holes can be drilled by one or more of several types of drills (see Figs. 7.11
and 7.12), such as jackhammers, wagon drills, drifters, chum drills, rotary drills,
etc. The selection of equipment is based on the size of the job, type of rock, depth
and size of holes required, production rate required, and topography at the site.
Jackhammers can be used for holes up to about 2 \ in. in diameter and 15 to
, 18 ft deep. For deeper holes, the production rates are low and the costs are high.
Wagon drills may be used for holes 2 to 4 \ in. in diameter, with depths some
times as great as 40 ft, although shallower depths are more desirable. Drifters are
used to drill approximately horizontal holes, up to about 4 in. in diameter, in
mining and tunneling operations. Jackhammers, wagon drills, and drifters are
operated by compressed air, which actuates the hammer that produces the per
cussion that disintegrates the rock and blows it out of the holes. Replaceable bits,
which are attached to the bottoms of the hollow drill steels, are commonly used.
A chum drill disintegrates the rock by repeated blows from a heavy steel bit
(see Fig. 7.13), which is suspended from a wire rope. Holes in excess of 12 in.
in diameter can be drilled several hundred feet deep with this equipment. Water,
which is placed in a hole during the drilling operation, will produce a slurry with
the disintegrating rock. A bailer is used to remove the slurry.
Rotary drills can be used to drill holes 3 to 8 in. or more in diameter to
depths in excess of 100 ft. Drilling is accomplished by a bit, which is attached
Estimating’Construction Costs
FIGURE 7 .12 I Truck-mounted drill

equipped with a dust collector.
FIGURE 7 .1 1 I Gasoline-engine-
operated hand drill.
FIGURE 7 .1 3 I Blast hole drill.

to the lower end of a drill stem (see Fig. 7 .14). Either water or compressed air
can be used to remove the rock cuttings.
ANFO is frequently used as the explosive, although several other types of
explosives are available. Dynamite is available in sticks of varying sizes, which
are placed in the holes. The strength, which is specified as 40, 60, etc., percent,
indicates the concentration of the explosive agent, which is nitroglycerin. The
dynamite is usually exploded by a blasting cap, which is detonated by an elec
tric current. At least one blasting cap is required for each hole. The charges in
several holes can be shot at one time.
The amount of ANFO required to loosen rock will vary from about 0.25 to
more than 1 Ib/cy, depending on the type of rock, the spacing of holes, and the
degree of breakage desired.
COST OF OPERATING A DRILL

The items of cost in operating a jackhammer or a wagon drill will include equip
ment and labor. The equipment cost will include the drill, drill steel, bits, air
FIGURE 7.14 I Multiuse rock bits.

compressor, and hose. Since each of these items may have a different life, it
should be priced separately.
Drill steel is purchased by size, length, and quality of steel used, with the
cost of steel based on its weight. While the life of a drill steel will vary with the
class of rock drilled and the conditions under which the steel is used, records
from drilling projects show consumptions varying from ^ to ^ lb/cy of rock to
be representative, with the higher consumption applicable to the harder rocks.
Thus, if a drill steel for a wagon drill, 12 ft long, weighing 4.6 lb/ft, whose total
weight is about 55 lb, is consumed at the rate of ^ lb/cy of rock, this steel should
drill enough hole to produce about 660 cy of rock.
Detachable bits are commonly used with jackhammers, drifters, and wagon
drills. The depth of hole that can be drilled with a bit before it must be resharp
ened or discarded will vary considerably with the class of rock and the type of
bit, with values ranging from less than a foot to as much as 1 0 0 ft or more for
steel bits. Bits with carbide inserts will give much greater depths.
Rates of Drilling Holes

The rate of drilling rock will vary with several factors, including the type and
hardness of the rock, type and size of drill used, depth of holes, spacing of holes,
topography at the site, condition of the drilling equipment, etc. Although the
rates given in Table 7.17 are based on observation, they should be used as a
guide only. The rates include an allowance for lost time at the job.
TAB LE 7 .17 I Representative rates of drilling rock with various types of drills.
Rate of drilling, ft/hr

Size of Class
hole, of Jack- Wagon Churn Rotary Diamond
in rock hammer drill drill drill drill
'4 Soft 15-20 30-45 — — 5-8
Medium 10-15 25-35 — — 3-5
Hard 5-10 15-30 — - - 2-4
p 3
*-8 Soft 10-15 30-50 — — 5-8
Medium 7-10 20-35 — — 3-5
Hard 4-8 15-30 — — 2-4
3 Soft — 30-50 — — 4-7
Medium — 15-30 — — 3-5
Hard — 8-20 — — 2-4
4 Soft — 10-25 — — 3-6
Medium — 5-15 — — 2-4
Hard — 2-8 — — 1-3
6 Soft — — 4-7 25-50 3-5
Medium — 2-5 10-25 2-4
Hard — 1-2 6-10 1-3
Holes should be drilled 1 ft, or more, deeper than the desired effective depth
of rock loosened. This is necessary because the rock usually will not break to the
full depth of the holes over the entire area blasted.
EXAMPLE 7 . 1 2
Estimate the cost of drilling and blasting limestone rock. An analysis of the job indi
cates that 3-in.-diameter holes will be drilled 14 ft deep at a spacing of 8 ft by 8 ft.
Two medium-size wagon drills will be used for the drilling at a rate of 24 ft/hr each.
It is anticipated that 1.0 lb of ANFO will be required to loosen each cubic yard of
rock. Base all quantities and costs on operating 1 hour.
Job requirements:
Diameter of holes: 3 in.
Depth of holes: 14 ft
Effective depth of holes: 13 ft
Spacing of holes: 8 ft X 8 ft
Equipment and production rates:
Two medium-size wagon drills will be used, each with 50 ft of 1^-in. hose and
connections
Estimated rate of drilling: 24 ft/hr
Total production rate: 2 drills x 24 ft/hr = 48 ft/hr
Effective depth of hole drilled: 48 ft/hr x 13/14 = 44.6 ft/hr
Volume of rock produced: (44.6 ft X 8 ft x 8 ft)/(27cf/cy) = 106 cy/hr
Number of holes drilled per hour: (48 ft/hr)/(14 ft/hole) = 3.44 holes/hr
Materials for drilling and blasting:
ANFO required: 1.0 Ib/cy of rock
Unit cost of explosive: $1.75/lb
Cost of bits: $24.10 each
Number of times sharpened: 3
Cost of sharpening bit: $3.15 each time
Depth of hole before sharpening bit: 36 ft
Drill steel consumed: ^ Ib/cy of rock
The estimated hourly cost for drilling and blasting are calculated as
Drill bit consumption and cost:
Original cost of bit: each = $24.10
Sharpening: 3 x $3.15 = 9.45
Total cost per bit = $33.55
Number of uses per bit: original bit + 3 sharpenings = 4 uses/bit
Total depth of hole drilled by 1 bit: 4 uses x 36 ft = 144 ft/bit

Cost of bit per foot of hole: $33.55/bit x 144 ft/bit = $0.23/ft
Hourly cost of materials:
Cost of bits per hour: 48 hr/ft x $0.23/ft = $11.04
Drill steel: 106 cy/hr x 1/15 Ib/cy = 7.1 lb @ $1.82 = 12.92
ANFO: 106 cy/hr x 1 Ib/cy = 106 cy @ $1.75/lb = 185.50
Electric caps and wire: 3.44 holes/hr @ $1.45/hole = 4.99
Cost per hour for materials = $214.45/hr
Hourly cost of equipment:
Wagon drills: 1 hr x 2 drills @ $42.30/hr = $84.60 jj ■
Air compressor: 1 hr @ $34.50/hr = 34.50
Hose and connections: l \ in. diameter = 1.12
Utility truck: 1 hr @ $8.50/hr = 8.50
Cost per hour for equipment = $128.72/hr
Hourly cost of labor:
Drill operators: 1 hr x 2 operators @ $21.67/hr = $43.34
Laborers: 1 hr x 2 helpers @ $15.56/hr = 31.12
Detonator person: 1 hr @ $18.00/hr = 18.00
Helper: 1 hr x 1 helper @ $15.56/hr = 15.56
Foreman: 1 hr @ $25.00/hr 28.00
Cost per hr for labor = $136.02/hr
Summary of costs:
Material = $214,45/hr
Equipment = 128.72/hr
Labor = 136.02/hr
Total = $479.19/hr
Cost per cubic yard of rock, $479.19/hr/106 cy/hr = $4.52/cy
PROBLEMS
7.1 A truck will haul an average load of 12-cy, heaped capacity, loose measure per
load. Determine the volume in band measure when the material is sand, ordinary
earth, dense clay, and well-blasted rock.
7.2 Earth whose bank measure is 100 lb/cf has a swell factor of 25 percent. The
earth is loaded in a 45,000-lb empty weight truck that has a struck capacity of
15 cy loose measure.
a. What is the total vertical weight, truck plus payload?
b. If the shrinkage factor is 10 percent, what is the volume of earth in the
compacted fill?
7.3 Estimate the total direct cost and the cost per foot for excavating a sewer trench
20 in. wide, 48 in. deep, and 3,480 ft long in firm clay by using an 85 hp trench
ing machine. Use the data shown in Tables 7.4 and 7.5 to determine the produc
tion rate of the trencher. It will cost $1,800.00 to transport the machine to the
job, get it ready to operate, then return it to the storage yard.
There will be no obstructions to delay the machine. Assume a 50-min hour
efficiency for the trenching operation. This crew and the specified hourly wage
rates will apply:
Trenching machine $38.50/hr
Trencher operator $21.72/hr
Utility truck $7.85/hr
Laborer $15.56/hr
Foreman $26.00/hr
7.4 What is the maximum length of trench that can be excavated by hand economi
cally rather than by a trenching machine? It will cost $900.00 to transport a
trenching machine to the job and back to the storage yard. The trenching
machine can excavate 265 lin ft/hr.
Use hand excavation data from Table 7.3 to obtain the production rates to
loosen earth with a pick, shovel earth from the trench, and shovel earth back
from the edge of the trench. Assume that 4 laborers plus a foreman will be used.
Assume a 40-min hour for the hand labor operation and a 45-min hour for the
trenching machine. The following cost information applies:
Trenching machine $42.82/hr
Trencher operator $20.45/hr
Laborers, each $ 16.65/hr
Foreman $28.30/hr
7.5 In excavating a basement of a building, a contractor will use a H-cy backhoe to

load earth into 12-cy trucks, which will haul the earth to a dump. The dimen
sions of the pit are 140 ft wide, 320 ft long, and 10 ft deep. The earth is hard,
tough clay.
The earth will be hauled to a dump 8 mi from the pit at an average hauling
speed of 30 mi/hr and a return speed of 40 mi/hr. In addition to the time required
to load a truck, haul the load to the dump, and return to the pit, a truck will con
sume an average of 8 min each trip at the dump and waiting at the pit to be loaded.
Estimate the total cost and the cost per cubic yard, bank measure, for exca
vating and hauling the earth. Assume a 4 5 -min/hr efficiency for the loading and
hauling operations. Determine the economical number of trucks to balance the
production rate of the backhoe with the hauling rate of the trucks. This cost
information applies:
Backhoe $84.50/hr
Trucks, each $27.25/hr
Backhoe operator $ 2 1.97/hr
Truck drivers, each $18.50/hr
Foreman $27.40/hr
7.6 A project requires 692,500-cy, bank measure, of rock-earth mixture, which will
be excavated by a 2-cy front shovel. The material will be loaded into 15-cy,
loose measure truck, and hauled 4 mi to the project. The trucks will average
25 mi/hr loaded and 30 mi/hr empty.
The front shovel can excavate the rock-earth mixture at the optimum depth
of cut and at a 120° average angle of swing. It will cost $2,400 to transport the
shovel to the job, set it up to operate, and return it to the storage yard.
Estimate the total cost and the cost per cubic yard, bank measure, for exca
vating and hauling the earth. Assume that the shovel and trucks will operate at a
45-min/hr efficiency. Determine the economical number of trucks to balance the
production rate of the backhoe with the hauling rate of the trucks. This cost
Front shovel $105.00/hr
Trucks, each $34.85/hr
Shovel operator $23.50/hr
Truck drivers, each $19.75/hr
Foreman $29.80/hr
7.7 A Ij-cy dragline will be used to excavate a ditch in dense clay. The ditch will be
trapezoidal in cross section, 16 ft wide at the bottom, 36 ft wide at the top, 8 ft
deep, and 6,480 ft long.
There will be no obstructions to affect the rate of excavating the earth. The
excavated earth will be cast along the edge or edges of the ditch. The average
angle of swing will be 145°. Assume a 50-min hour efficiency. It will cost
$3,200 to transport the dragline to the job, set it up for operation, and return it to
the storage yard. Estimate the total cost and the cost per cubic yard, bank mea
sure, for excavating the ditch. This cost information applies:
Dragline $74.50/hr
Operator $21.97/hr
Foreman $27.35/hr
7.8 Ordinary earth will be excavated and hauled by scrapers, whose capacities are
14 cy struck and 18 cy heaped, loose measure. The distance from the borrow pit
to the dumpsite will average 2,680 ft over a level earth haul road. The scrapers
can average 15 mi/hr loaded and 20 mi/hr empty.
The fixed time for the scraper, including loading, dumping, turning, waiting
to load or dump, etc., should average about2\ min per trip.Assume an average
capacity of scrapers of 16 cy loose measure.Use a swell factor of 25 percent for
the ordinary earth.
One dozer will be used to assist the scrapers in loading. For this project,
determine the number of scrapers that one dozer can serve. It is expected that it
will require from 50 to 70 sec to load a scraper with the assistance of the dozer.
Thus, a dozer should be able to serve a scraper about every 2\ to 3 min.
Assume a 50-min hour efficiency and estimate the cost per cubic yard using
this cost information:
Scrapers $68.25/hr
Dozer $59.20/hr
Operators $21.25/hr
7.9 To construct a fill, it is necessary to excavate ordinary earth and haul it 1,800 ft
along an approximately level haul road. The earth will be excavated and hauled
by 15-cy, loose measure, self-loading scrapers. The scrapers will average
12 mi/hr loaded and 18 mi/hr empty. The fixed time, including loading, dump
ing, and waiting in the pit, will average 2\ min per trip. Assume a 50-min hour
efficiency.
Assume a swell factor of 25 percent and estimate the probable direct cost
per cubic yard, bank measure, for excavating and hauling the earth. This cost
Scrapers, each $94.50/hr

Operators, each $22.75/hr
Foreman $28.40/hr
7.10 Estimate the total time and cost and the cost per cubic yard for the second bal
ance point, sections IV and V, of the mass diagram in Fig. 7.8. A self-loading
scraper with 12-cy loose measure capacity will be used for the excavating and
hauling.
Assume an average haul speed of 15 mi/hr and an average return speed of
20 mi/hr. Use a 2^-min load time and a 2-min dump time. Assume a 50-min
hour efficiency and a swell of 8 percent. The hourly cost of equipment and labor
will be
Scraper $65.40/hr
Operator $21.85/hr
Foreman $27.20/hr
7.11 A compacted fill is being built with two sheep’s-foot drum rollers, 5 ft wide,
operating at 1.5 mi/hr. Four passes are required to obtain the 5-in. depth of com
pacted fill to meet the specifications density. Your company has a spread of
15-cy, loose measure, trucks to haul the fill dirt to the compacted area. Analysis
of the soil conditions indicates a 15-cy loose measure truck is equivalent to
10.8-cy compacted measure.
a. If the cycle time of a single truck is 15 min, how many trucks are required?
b. If 140,000 cy of compacted fill are required using the type of compaction
drums described, how many drums are required if the project is to be
completed in 25 working days?
Highways and Pavements
OPERATIONS INCLUDED
The chapter is organized into three parts: clearing land, concrete pavem ents, and
asphalt pavem ents. E ven though the coverage is lim ited to only a few o f the
m ethods used, the discussion and exam ples presented illustrate how estim ates
can be prepared for projects constructed by other methods.
CLEARING AND GRUBBING LAND

LAND-CLEARING OPERATIONS
C learing land can be divided into several operations, depending on the type of
vegetation to be rem oved, the type and condition o f the soil and topography, the
am ount o f clearing required, and the purpose for w hich the clearing is done as
listed:
1. C om plete rem oval o f all trees and stum ps, including tree roots
2. Rem oval o f all vegetation above the surface o f the ground only, leaving
the stum ps and roots in the ground
3. D isposal o f the vegetation by stacking and burning it
Light Clearing
L ight clearing includes rem oval o f vegetation up to 2 in. in diam eter. If the clear
ing involves only cutting at or above ground level, axes, m achetes, brush hooks,
and w heel-m ounted circular saws can be used. H eavy-duty sickle m ow ers are
available for rem oval o f vegetation up to 1 \ in. in diam eter. T ractor-m ounted
circular saws are also used.
158
Chapter 8 Highways and Pavements 159
W hen the vegetation m ust be knocked dow n to the ground, a bulldozer blade
is com m only used. A small- to interm ediate-size bulldozer is generally adequate.
Also, an anchor chain draw n betw een tw o craw ler tractors can be used to clear
the land. O ften light clearing includes incorporating the cleared vegetation into
the soil. D isc plow s and disc harrow s are used for this purpose. The ground is
w orked w ith the plow s and harrow s to blend the cleared m aterial with the soil.
Intermediate Clearing
F or vegetation from 2 to 8 in. in diam eter, a bulldozer blade, shearing blade, or
angling blade can be used. F or clearing the vegetation at the ground level, the
equipm ent m ay include pow er chain saws, tractor-m ounted circular saws, and
single scissor-type tree shears. H ydraulic cylinders that cut the trees at ground
level operate the scissor shear.
A bulldozer w ith a V blade is effective for shearing trees, stumps, and brush
at ground level. T he special V blade has a protruding stinger at its lead point, as
illustrated in Fig. 8.1. The dozer m oves at a steady speed as the blade slides
along the surface o f the ground, cutting vegetation flush w ith the surface and
casting the rem oved m aterial to the sides.
Large Clearing
F or vegetation o f 8 in. in diam eter and larger, bulldozers w ith special blades are
generally used. B efore felling large trees, the bulldozers m ust excavate the earth
from around the trees to cut the m ain roots. W hen stacking the felled trees and
other vegetation, bulldozers transport earth into the piles o f trees, w hich m akes
burning m ore difficult.
A variety o f rakes are available that attach to the front o f bulldozers for land
clearing. They can penetrate the soil to rem ove sm all stum ps, rocks, and roots.
Figure 8.2 illustrates a tractor-m ounted rake that can be used to group and pile
F IG U R E 8.1 I Tractor-mounted V blade FIG U R E 8 .2 I Tractor-mounted clearing

for clearing land. rake.
trees, boulders, and other materials without transporting an excessive amount of

earth. This can be a very effective machine for stacking materials in piles for
burning.
RATES OF CLEARING LAND

The rates of clearing land will depend on the type, number, and size of trees.
Other factors that can affect the rate of clearing include density of vegetation,
type of soil, topography, rainfall, types of equipment used, skill of equipment
operators, and requirements of the specifications governing the project. Prior to
preparing a clearing estimate, the estimator should visit the project site and
obtain information to evaluate these factors.
Clearing of Light Vegetation

Where only light vegetation is present, it is possible to clear the land at a con
stant speed of the equipment that is used for clearing. The production rate can
be calculated by multiplying the speed of the tractor by the width of cut of the
blade on the tractor. The base formula is
Production rate (acres/hr)
width of cut (ft) X 5280 (ft/m in) X speed (m i/hr) ro 11
~ 43,560 (sf) [8'1]

The American Society of Agricultural Engineers’ formula for estimating
hourly production of land clearing at constant speed is based on an 82.5 percent
efficiency, which is equivalent to a 49.5-min hour. With 82.5 percent efficiency,
then Eq. [ 8 .1] becomes:
width of cut (ft) X speed (mph)
Production rate (acres/hr) = ------------------- — -------- — [ 8 .2 ]
Width of cut is the effective working width of the equipment, measured per
pendicular to the direction of tractor travel. The width of cut for clearing may
not be the same as the rated width of the blade. An angle blade is not equivalent
to the width of the blade. Even when working with a straight blade, it may not
be the same as the blade width. Although the width of cut is sometimes esti
mated as a percentage of the rated width, it is better to measure the width of cut
on the job.
EXAMPLE 8 .1
A 165-hp crawler tractor will be used to clear small trees and brush from a 25-acre
site. By operating in first gear, the tractor should be able to maintain a continuous
forward speed of 0.9 mph. An angle-clearing blade will be used. From past experi
ence the average effective width of cut will be 8 ft. Assume normal efficiency, and
estimate the time required to clear the vegetation.
Quantity of work:
Clearing light vegetation = 25 acres
Production rate:
width of cut (ft) x speed (m ph)
Production rate (a cre /h r) = ---------------------- —---------------------- [ 8 .2]
= (8 ft) x (0.9 m ph )/1 0
= 0.72 acres/hr
Time for clearing:

Time = 25 acres/0.72 acres/hr = 34.7 hr, or about 35 hr
Estimating Time to Fell Trees

Most land clearing operations such as bulldozing, cutting, grubbing, raking, and
piling are not performed at constant speed. Rome Industries developed Eq. [8.3]
and Table 8.1 as a guide in estimating the required time for felling trees only, by
using the tractor sizes in Table 8.1 with a K/G blade. The Rome Industry for
mula and tables of constants provide guidance for variable speed operations, but
use of the results should be combined with field experience.
Time (min/acre) = H [A (B) + M XN X + M 2N 2 + M 3N 3 + M 4N 4 + DF]
[8.3]
where
H = hardwood factor affecting total time
Hardwoods affect overall time as
75-100% hardwoods; add 30% to total time (H = 1.3)
25-75% hardwoods; no change (H = 1.0)
0-25% hardwoods; reduce total time 30% (H = 0.7)
TABLE 8.1 I Production factors for felling trees with Rome K/G blades.
Diameter range
Base minutes
Tractor, per acre, 1-2 ft, 2-3 ft 3-4 ft, 4-6 ft, >6 ft,
hp B* M, m2 m3 m4 F
165 34.41 0.7 3.4 6.8 — —
215 23.48 0.5 1.7 3.6 10.2 3.3

335 18.22 0.2 1.3 2.2 6.0 1.8
460 15.79 0.1 0.4 1.3 3.0 1.0
*0 is based on power-shift tractors working on reasonable level terrain, (10%) maximum grade, with good footing
and not stones and an average mix of soft and hardwoods.
A = tree density and presence of vines’ effect on base time

Base time is affected by the density of material less than 1 ft in
diameter and the presence of vines:
Dense: greater than 600 trees/acre; add 100% to base time (A = 2.0)
Medium: 4 00 -600 trees/acre; no change (A = 1.0)
Light: less than 400 trees/acre; reduce base time 30% (A = 0.7)
Presence of heavy vines; add 10% to base time (A = 2.0)
B = base time for each tractor size per acre
M = minutes per tree in each diameter range
N = number of trees per acre in each diameter range, from field survey
D = sum of diameter in foot increments of all trees per acre above 6 ft in
diameter at ground level, from field survey
F = minutes per foot of diameter for trees above 6 ft in diameter
When the job specification requires the removal of trees and grubbing of the
roots and stumps greater than 1 ft in diameter in one operation, the total time per
acre should be increased by 25 percent. When the specification requires the
removal of stumps in a separate operation, the time per acre should be increased
by 50 percent.
To develop the necessary input data for Eq. [8.3], the estimator must make
a field survey of the area to be cleared and collect information on these items:
1. Density of vegetation less than 12 in. in diameter:
Dense—600 trees/acre
Medium—400 to 600 trees/acre
Light—less than 400 trees/acre
2. Presence of hardwoods expressed in percent
3. Presence of heavy vines
4. Average number of trees per acre in each of these ground-level diameter
size ranges:
< 1 ft
1 - 2 ft
2-3 ft
3 -4 ft
4 -6 ft
5. Sum of diameter of all trees per acre above 6 ft in diameter at the
ground level
E X A M P LE 8.2
Trees must be cleared for a highway project. The site is reasonably level terrain with
firm ground and less than 25 percent hardwood. A 215-hp tractor equipped with a
K/G blade will be used to fell trees. The highway specifications require the grubbing
of tree stum ps greater than 12 in. in diameter. Estimate the production rate to fell the
trees. A field survey has been conducted and these data have been collected:
Average num ber of trees per acre = 700
Number of 1- 2 ft dia. = 150 trees
Number of 2 -3 ft dia. = 18 trees
Sum of diameter increments above 6 feet = none
Input data based on the field survey:
H = 0.7 based on percentage of hardwoods,< 25% hardwoods
A = 2.0 based on dense num ber of trees, > 600 trees/acre
Production factors from Table 8.1:
B= 23.48 for 215-hp tractor
= 0.5 for 1- to 2-ft-dia. trees
M2 = 1.7 for 2 - to 3-ft-dia. trees
M3 = 3.6 for 3- to 4-ft-dia. trees
M4 = 10.2 for 4- to 6-ft-dia. trees
F = 3.3 for diam eter of increments above 6 ft
Production rate to fell trees:
Time (m in/acre ) = H[A(B) + + M2NZ + M3N3 + M4N4 + DF] [8.3]
= 0.7[2,0(23.48) + 0.5(150)
+ 1.7(18) + 3.6(7) + 10.2(3) + 0(3 .3 )]
= 208.4 m in/acre
Because the operation will include grubbing, the time must be increased by
25 percent.
60-min hour production rate = 1.25 x 208.4 m in/acre = 260.5 min/acre
Converting to hours/acre = 260.5 m in/acre x hr/60 min. = 4.3 hr/acre
For a 45-min hour, production rate = 60/45 x 4.3 hr/acre = 5.8 hr/acre
Cost:
If the tractor with blade and operator cost $185/hr, the cost per acre of land cleared
can be calculated as
Cost per acre: ($185/hr) x 5.8 hr/acre = $1,073/acre to fell trees
Estimating Time to Pile Trees

Usually the cut trees are piled for burning or piled in stacks so they can be eas
ily picked up and hauled away. Rome Industries developed Eq. [8.4] and Table
8.2 as a guide to estimate the time for piling trees. The factors in Eq. [8.4] and
Table 8.2 have the same definitions as when used previously in Eq. [8.3] and
Table 8.1. Piling-up grubbed vegetation increases the total piling-up time by 25
percent.
Time (min/acre) = B + M lN ] + M2N2 + M3N3 + M4N4 + DF [8.4]
TABLE 8 .2 I Production factors for piling-up in windrows.*
Diameter range
Base minutes
Tractor, per acre, 1-2 ft, 2-3 ft 3-4 ft, 4-6 ft, >6 ft,
hp B M, m2 m 3 m4 F
165 63.56 0.5 1.0 4.2 — —

215 50.61 0.4 0.7 2.5 5.0 —
335 44.94 0.1 0.5 1.8 3.6 0.9
460 39.27 0.08 0.1 1.2 2.1 0.3
’ Can be used with most types of raking tools and angled shearing blades.
Windrows to be spaced approximately 200 ft apart.
EXAMPLE 8 . 3
The vegetation cut in Example 8.2 is to be piled into a stack for burning. Estimate
the cost for piling-up the cut vegetation.
Time (m in/acre) = B+ + M2N2 + M3N3 + M4N4 + DF [8.4]
= 50.61 + 0.4(150) + 0.7(18) + 2.5(7) + 3.6(3) + _ (0)
= 151.5 hr
Because the operation will include grubbing, the time must be increased by
25 percent,
60-min hour production rate = 1.25 x 151.5 m in/acre = 189.4 min/acre
Converting to hours/acre = 189.4 min/acre x hr/60 min, = 3.2 hr/acre
For a 45-min hour, production rate = 60/45 x 3.2 hr/acre = 4.2 hr/acre
Cost:
If the labor and equipm ent cost is $185/hr, the cost per acre for piling and stacking
trees can be calculated.
Cost per acre, $185/hr x 4.2 hr/acre = $777/acre
DISPOSAL OF BRUSH
When brush is to be disposed of by burning, it should be piled in stacks and
windrows, with a minimum amount of earth included. Felled trees and grubbed
brush often have earth around their roots, which impedes burning. Shaking the
F IG U R E 8 .3 I Burning brush with forced

draft and fuel oil.
rake while transporting the material to piles or into windrows will help remove
the earth.
Because burning is usually necessary while the brush contains considerable
moisture, it may be desirable to provide a continuous external source of fuel and
heat to assist in burning the material. The burner illustrated in Fig. 8.3, which
consists of a gasoline-engine-driven pump and a propeller, is capable of dis
charging the liquid fuel onto the pile.
DEMOLITION
For remodels of buildings or replacement of infrastructures, it is necessary to
remove a portion or all of an existing structure. The time and cost to perform this
work is difficult to estimate because there are many factors that can affect the
work. For example, removal of an existing concrete pavement depends on the
thickness of the slab, amount of reinforcement, state of deterioration of the pave
ment, job conditions, type and size of demolition equipment, and skill of the
operator.
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
GENERAL INFORMATION
The cost of concrete pavement in place includes the cost of fine-grading the sub
grade; side forms, if required; steel reinforcing, if required; aggregate; cement;
mixing, placing, spreading, finishing, and curing concrete; expansion-joint
material; saw cutting; and shaping the shoulders adjacent to the slab. For most
paving operations, a slip-form paver is used to place the concrete, which elimi-
nates the need for setting side forms. Some concrete pavements are designed for
construction without reinforcing steel. If the subgrade is dry, it may be neces
sary to wet it before placing the concrete.
If the pavement is not uniformly thick, the average thickness can be deter
mined to find the area of the cross section. This multiplied by the length will
give the volume of concrete required, usually expressed in cubic yards. Payment
for concrete pavement usually is at the agreed price per yard of surface area.
PREPARING THE SUBGRADE FOR

CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
If the subgrade has been previously constructed, compacted, and shaped to the
approximate final elevation, the preparation for the placing of concrete will usu
ally include fine-grading the subgrade to exact shape and elevation, and possi
bly wetting and compacting after the fine-grading is complete.
Fine-grading is usually accomplished with a self-propelled mechanical sub
grader, which is guided by a stringline that is placed along the side of the sub
grader, as illustrated in Fig. 8.4. The machine loosens the earth to the required
depth and removes it with conveyor belts that deposit it outside the pavement
section. Self-propelled rollers or vibratory compaction equipment can be used to
F IG U R E 8 .4 I Autograde trimmer trimming subgrade for pavement.

Source: CM I Corporation.
compact the subgrade after the fine-grading is completed, with water added if
necessary.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS USED

At least two methods are used to place concrete pavements: side forms or slip
forms. The side-form method is used for small projects, such as city streets or
parking lots of businesses. The slip-form method is commonly used for larger
projects, such as long highway pavements or airport runways.
Using the side-form method, the subbase soil is brought to the specified
density, grade, and shape and then side forms are set to control the thickness of
the slab and to confine the concrete until it sets. After the concrete has cured suf
ficiently, the side forms are removed. The forms most commonly used are made
of steel whose height is equal to the thickness of the concrete adjacent to the
forms. Forms are manufactured in sections 10 ft long, with three holes per sec
tion for pins, which are driven into the ground to maintain alignment and stabil
ity. The top of the forms must be set to the exact elevation required. Forms usu
ally are left in place 8 to 1 2 hr after the concrete is placed, after which they are
removed, cleaned, oiled, and reused.
The slip-form method uses a slip-form paving machine to shape the slab.
Two side forms, which confine the outer edges of the freshly placed concrete,
are mounted on a self-propelled paver, which spreads, vibrates, and screeds the
concrete to the specified thickness and surface shape as it moves along the job.
BATCHING AND HAULING CONCRETE

There are two types of concrete mixing operations: central-batch concrete and
job-batch concrete. A central mix plant generally is used for projects that require
large volumes of concrete, whereas the job-batch concrete is typically used for
low-volume projects, such as city streets or parking lots. At remote locations or
jobs requiring large quantities of concrete, generally concrete batch plants are
set up at the jobsite. The concrete may be mixed completely in a stationary mixer
at the concrete plant, or it may be batched at the plant and mixed in the concrete
truck while en route to the job.
The term ready-mix concrete refers to concrete that is proportioned in a cen
tral location by a supplier and transported to the purchaser in a fresh state.
Ready-mix concrete must be available within a reasonable distance from the
project. The concrete is transported to the job in mixer trucks that range in
capacity from 9 to 14 cy. The cost of ready-mix concrete depends on the strength
of concrete and any additives that may be required in the mix design. Some
ready-mix suppliers charge a mileage fee for concrete delivered in excess of a
specified distance, such as over 12 mi. The concrete supplier sets the cost for
ready-mix concrete.
For most highway projects, a batch plant is set up at the jobsite. Generally
the plant is set up as close to the center of the project as possible. For a long
paving project, more than one setup of the concrete plant may be justified to
reduce the length of haul for the batched materials. A cost study should be made
prior to locating the plant to determine if more than one location is desirable.
Bulk quantities of cement, sand, and aggregate are stored at the jobsite for
the batching operation. The equipment for operating a batch plant will include
bulk cement bins; overhead bins for aggregate storage, equipped with weight
batchers; and a front-end loader or portable conveyors to handle aggregate. The
cement is supplied to the jobsite in bulk quantities from cement transport trucks,
each holding 20 T or more. Small quantities of cement can be purchased in paper
bags, each containing 1 cf loose measure and weighing 94 lb net.
Most concrete batch plants have the capacity to mix about 8 to 12 cy per
batch and can produce from 100 to 400 cy of concrete per hour. A small batch
plant can mix about 20 cy/hr and is used for small jobs, less than 500 cy total. If
the batch is fully mixed at the batch plant, it usually is transported to the job in
dump trucks, or end-dump trailers for slip-form paving. For smaller projects or
for fixed-side-form paving, many contractors load the batched concrete into
mixer trucks, or trucks with open-top agitators, which transport the fresh con
crete to the jobsite. Concrete that is not fully mixed at the batch plant is trans
ported to the job in transit-mixer trucks.
PLACING CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

After the fresh concrete arrives at the jobsite, it must be moved to its final posi
tion without segregation of the mix and before it has achieved an initial set. For
efficiency and economy, the production rate should be balanced between the
batch plant, hauling units, and the paving equipment. For small paving projects,
the concrete may be placed from the chute of the concrete truck into the hopper
of the paving machine that spreads and places the concrete. Laborers hand fin
ish the concrete and saw cut joints in the pavement.
For large paving projects, a paving train of equipment is used to place con
crete pavements. A paving train consists of three types of equipment: concrete
placer spreader, slip-form paver, and a tine and cure machine (see Fig. 8.5).
The concrete placer spreader is designed specifically for end-dump concrete
delivery. The concrete is dumped from the delivery truck onto a conveyor that
discharges the concrete on grade in front of an auger that spreads the concrete
evenly across the front of the paving machine. The unit can be set up for either
left-side or right-side operation to allow trucks to pass by without interfering
with the paving operation. Essentially, the concrete placer spreader machine
feeds the concrete paver.
The slip-form paver follows the concrete placer spreader. The paver shapes
the slab by two side forms that confine the outer edges of the freshly placed con
crete. The paver vibrates and screeds the concrete to the specified thickness and
surface shape as it moves along the job. After placement of the concrete by the
paver, laborers provide an edge finish to both sides of the pavement and a
F IG U R E 8 .5 I Concrete paving train: placer/spreader, paver, tine and cure machine.

Courtesy: Wittwer Paving, Inc.
FIG U R E 8.6 I Slip-form paving machine in operation.

straight edge finish to the surface of the pavement. Figure 8 . 6 shows a slip-form
paving machine in operation.
The tine and cure machine follows the paver and performs two functions. It
produces the desired texture on the surface of the pavement and it applies a cur
ing compound. It provides a microtexture with a burlap drag, a macrotexture
with transverse tines, and applies curing compound to the pavement. Figure 8.7
shows the tine and cure machine in operation.
For a high-production paving operation, a paving train consisting of two
concrete placer spreader machines, one slip-form paver, and two tine and cure
machines can produce up to 500 cy/hr.
CONCRETE PAVEMENT JOINTS

To reduce the danger of irregular and unsightly cracks across and along con
crete pavements, it is common practice to install joints at regular intervals.
Joints control the location of cracks, allow expansion and contraction of the
concrete, and provide a method of separating concrete placements in the con
struction operation.
Three types of joints are installed in concrete pavements: construction,
transverse, and longitudinal. Construction joints are installed where the concrete
FIG U R E 8 .7 I Tine and cure machine.

placement operation is stopped at the end of a working day. Transverse joints are
at a right angle to the road centerline to allow for expansion and contraction of
the concrete pavement. Longitudinal joints are installed to tie together adjacent
lanes of the pavement. Transverse and longitudinal joints are sawed in the
pavement after the concrete is placed. Figure 8 . 8 shows sections through several
types of joints.
Prior to placing concrete, smooth steel bars called dowels are set at \ the
concrete thickness at the location of transverse joints. The dowels are generally
1 in. in diameter and 24 in. long, spaced at 12 in. on centers along the transverse
joint. For longitudinal joints, §- to f-in.-diameter deformed reinforcing bars are
commonly used, placed at 24 in. on centers.
Transverse joints are sawed across the pavement at spacings that vary from
15 to 20 ft. Longitudinal center joints are installed along the length of the pave
ment usually when the width exceeds 1 2 ft and the thickness is less than 1 2 in.
The width of joints specified may vary from f to \ in., and the depth is normally
\ to 5 of the concrete thickness. It is common practice to perform two saw-
cutting operations. For example, for a 12-in.-thick pavement the first saw cut
might be 5 in. wide and 3 in. deep to control the location of the crack. After about
72 hr a second cut that is \ in. wide and 1 in. deep is made through the first cut.
A backer-rod made of styrofoam is placed in the l-in.-deep cut, then sealant
material is placed.
Dummy groove joint Deformed metal plate
2/8 to W
Ll w t |
Smooth dowel >

i r 'optional {
Sawed joint Construction joint with dowels
Premolded strip - ^ r i/s to 1/4
| T
Filler—* Smooth dowel )
optional \
Premolded strip joint Expansion joint
FIGURE 8.8 I Representative details of joints in concrete pavement.
Self-propelled or hand-pushed machines, using abrasive or diamond blades,

are used for saw-cutting joints in concrete pavements, as illustrated in Fig. 8.9.
Cutting speeds should vary from 2 to 10 ft/min., depending on the width and
depth of the joint, type of blade used, and kind of aggregate used in the concrete
mix. The cutting operation generally involves a crew of three workers, includ
ing the saw operator with a helper and a driver of the water truck that is used to
cool the saw blade during the cutting operation.
Diamond-tip concrete saw blades are expensive and must be replaced after
about every 1 0 , 0 0 0 to 2 0 , 0 0 0 lin ft of cut, depending on the depth and width of
cut. A reasonable allowance should be made for breakage during the sawing
operation.
The sawed joints are filled with a sealing compound, usually an asphaltic or
rubber-based material, applied either hot or cold. Sealant material for concrete
pavements is expensive and is available in 55-gal-capacity barrels. One gallon of
joint sealant will fill about 125 lin ft of saw cut. Dowels, consisting of steel tie bars
or rods, may be installed across all joints to transfer shear forces across the joint.
CURING CONCRETE PAVEMENT

Curing is normally accomplished with an impervious membrane-producing
compound that is sprayed on the surface and sides soon after the concrete is
placed. The membrane-producing compounds, frequently called curing com
pounds, will cover about 30 to 50 sy/gal.
FIG U R E 8 .9 1Saw-cutting joints in concrete pavements.

Curing can also be accomplished by covering the fresh slab with Visqueen
plastic film or waterproof paper to reduce the evaporation of initial water in the
concrete. Burlap or cotton mat can also be used, but they must be kept wet for the
specified time to reduce evaporation of water from the newly placed concrete.
EXAMPLE 8 . 4
Estimate the total cost and the cost per square yard, for bid purposes, for placing a
concrete pavement 26 ft wide, of 10-in. average thickness, and 5.78 mi long.
Smooth steel dowels will be placed at 12 in. along transverse joints and f-in .
deform ed steel bars will be placed at 24 in. along longitudinal joints. No reinforcing
steel will be placed in the pavement.
A single longitudinal saw cut is required in the center of the pavement, and
transverse saw cuts are required at 15 ft intervals for the full length of the pavement.
Two saw cuts will be made: one will be 25 percent of the depth and § in. wide and
another will be 1 in. deep and \ in. wide.
The mix design of each cubic yard of concrete is given as:

Cement: 5.6 sacks
Sand: 1,438 lb
Gravel: 1,699 lb
Water: 39 gal
A portable central-m ix plant will be set up near the m idpoint of the project. The
plant has a capacity of 8 cy/batch. Concrete trucks with a capacity of 8 cy each will
haul the material an average of 2.5 mi at an average speed of 30 mph. A front-end
loader and portable conveyor will be used to charge the aggregate into the bins.
W ater will be obtained from a private pond, requiring a 3-in. gasoline-engine-
operated pum p having a capacity of 20,000 gal/hr. A royalty of $0.42/1,000 gal will
be paid for the water. The water will be hauled an average distance of 3 mi by trucks
whose capacities are 2,500 gal each. The average haul speed is estimated to be 25
mph. It will require 10 min to fill a truck and 10 min. to em pty a truck. The truck driver
will operate the pum p at the pond.
Quantity of materials:
Volume of concrete:
(5.78 mi x 5,280 ft/mi x 26 ft. x 10/12 ft)/(27 cf/cy) = 24,490 cy
Add 5% waste = 1,225 cy
Total = 25,715 cy
Square yards of pavement:

(5.78 mi X 5,280 ft/mi X 26 ft)/9 sf/sy = 88,164 sy
Calculated unit w eight of the concrete:

Cement: 5.6 sacks/cy x 94 lb/sack = 526.4 lb
Sand = 1,438.0 1b
Gravel = 1,699.0 1b
Water: 39 gal/cy x (1.0 gal/7.48 cf) X 62.4 lb/cf = 325.3 lb
Total = 3,988.7 Ib/cy
Converting to lb/cf: 3,988.7 Ib/cy X (1.0 cy/27 cy) = 147.7 lb/cf

Bulk materials:
Cement: (25,715 cy X 526.4 lb/cy)/2,000 Ib/T = 6,768 T
Sand: (25,715 cy x 1,438 lb/cy)/2,000 Ib/T = 18,489 T
Gravel: (25,715 cy x 1,699 lb/cy)/2,000 Ib/T = 21,845 T
Water: (25,715 cy x 39 gal/cy) = 1,002,885 gal
Curing com pound: (88,164 sy/40 sy/gal) = 2,204 gal
Sealing com pound: (83,417 lin ft)/( 125 lin ft/gal) = 667 gal
Linear feet of saw cut joints:

Longitudinal along centerline: 5.78 mi X 5,280 ft/mi = 30,518 lin ft
Transverse: 5.78 mi x 5,280 ft/mi X joint/15 ft X 26 ft/joint = 52,899 lin ft
Total saw cuts = 83,417 lin ft
Num ber of saw blades for 25-in.-deep, g-in.-wide cut:

(83,417 lin ft)/(12,500 lin ft/blade) = 6,7 blades, need 7 blades
Number of saw blades for 1-in.-deep, |-in .-w id e cut:
(83,417 lin ft)/( 18,500 lin ft/blade) = 4.5 blades, need 5 blades
A dding 2 blades for waste, 12 + 2 = 14 blades required
Transverse dowels and longitudinal tie bars:

Transverse: (30,518 ft)/(1.0 ft/dowel) = 30,518 smooth steel dowels
Longitudinal: (52,899 ft)/(2.0 ft/bar) = 26,450 deformed reinforcing bars
Production rate of concrete plant:

An 8-cy batch plant will be used to batch and mix the concrete.
For each batch the quantity of material will be
Cement: 8 cy/batch x 5.6 sacks/cy x 94 lb/sack = 4,211 lb
Sand: 8 cy/batch x 1,438 lb/cy = 11,504 lb
Gravel: 8 cy/batch X 1,699 lb/cy = 13,592 lb
Water: 8 cy/batch x 39 gal/cy = 312 gal
If the mixer discharges the entire load into one truck, the time per cycle can
be calculated
Charging mixer = 0.75 min
Mixing concrete = 2.25 min
D ischarging mixer = 0.50 min
Lost time = 0.25 min (average time of mechanical problems)
Total cycle time = 3.75 m in/batch
Number of batches per hour: (60 min/hr)/(3.75 min/batch) = 16 batches/hr

For a 45-min hour: 16 batches/hr X 8 cy/batch X 45/60 = 96 cy/hr
Time to com plete the job: 25,715 cy/96 cy/hr = 267 hr
Production rate for transporting water:

C ycle time for water truck:
Filling tank: 10 min X (1.0 hr/60 min) = 0.167 hr
Hauling water: 3 mi/25 mph = 0.120 hr
Emptying tank: 10 min x (1.0 hr/60 min.) = 0.167 hr
Returning empty: 3 mi/25 mph = 0.120 hr
Total = 0.574 hr/trip
W ater hauled per trip: 2,500 gal/trip x (1.0 trip/0.574 hr) = 4,355 gal/hr
For a 45-min hour: water hauled per trip = 4,355 gal/hr X 45/60 = 3,266
gal/hr
Quantity of water needed for concrete: 96 cy/hr x 39 gal/cy = 3,744 gal/hr
Number of water trucks needed: 3,744/3,266 = 1.1 trucks required
Use 2 water trucks to ensure continuous operation of batch plant.
Production rate for hauling concrete:

C ycle time for a transit mix concrete truck:
Load: 1.0 min x (1.0 hr/60 min) = 0.017 hr
Haul: 2.5 mi/30 mph = 0.083 hr
Dump: 1.5 min x (1.0 hr/60 min) = 0.025 hr
Return: 2.5 mi/30 mph = 0.083 hr
Total = 0.208 hr/trip
C ubic yards hauled per trip: 8 cy x (1.0 trip/0.208 hr) = 38.5 cy/hr
For a 45-min hour, production rate = 38.5 cy/hr X 45/60 = 28.8 cy/hr
Number of trucks needed: 96/28.8 = 3.3 trucks required
Use 4 transit mix trucks to ensure a continuous paving operation.
Production rate for sawing joints:

Rate of sawing of 25-in.-deep joint §-in.-wide cut:
4 ft/min x 45 min/hr = 180 ft/hr
Time for sawing: (83,417 ft/180 ft/hr) = 463 hr
Rate of sawing of 1-in.-deep joint |-in .-w id e cut:
7 ft/min x 45 min/hr = 315 ft/hr
Time for sawing: (83,417 ft/315 ft/hr) = 265 hr
Total time for sawing = 728 hr
Number of saw crew required: 728 hr/272 hr = 2.7 needed, therefore use 3
crews
Cost to construct the pavement:
Materials costs:
Cement: 6,768 T @ $85/7 $575,280
Sand: 18,489 T @ $ 6 .59/T 121,843
Gravel: 21,845 T @ $ 1 0 .3 5 /T = 226,096

Water: 1,002,885 gal @ $0.42/1,000 gal = 421
Transverse dowels: 30,518 dowels @ $2.25/dowel = 68,666
Longitudinal tie bars: 26,450 bars @ $0.85/bar = 22,483
Sealing com pound: 667 gal @ $31/gal = 20,667
Curing com pound: 2,204 gal @ $7.50/gal = 16,530
Subtotal cost of materials = $1,051,986
Equipm ent costs:

Portable batch plant: 272 hr @ $285/hr = $77,520
Conveyor: 272 hr @ $29.75/hr = 8,092
Front-end loader: 272 hr @ $68.25/hr = 18,564
Water trucks: 272 hr x 2 trucks @ $37.45/hr = 20,373
Water pump: 272 hr @ $8.56/hr = 2,328
Water tank for plant: 272 hr @ $ 6 .94/hr = 1,888
Transit mix trucks: 272 hr x 4 trucks @ $68.50/hr = 74,528
Concrete placer spreader: 272 hr @ $225/hr = 61,200
Paving machine: 272 hr @ $215/hr = 58,480
Tine and cure machine: 272 hr @ $85/hr = 23,120
Truck for paving foreman: 272 hr @ $7.50/hr = 2,040
Fine-grader: 272 hr @ $87.81/hr = 23,884
Earth roller, smooth-wheel: 272 hr @ $33.38/hr = 9,079
Concrete saws: 272 hr x 3 saws @ $ 1 2 .75/hr = 10,404
Water trucks for saws: 272 hr x 3 trucks @ $37.45/hr = 30,559
Saw blades, diamond tips: 14 blades @ $750 ea = 10,500
Generator for power tools: 272 hr @ $9.50/hr = 2,584
Air compressor: 272 hr @ $8.56/hr = 2,328
Surveying equipm ent: 272 hr @ $18.75/hr = 5,100
Pickup truck: 272 hr x 4 trucks @ $5.50/hr = 5,984
Barricades, signs, small tools, etc. = 2,500
Moving to and from project, excluding labor = 12,000
Subtotal cost of equipm ent = $463,055
Labor costs:
Batch plant operator: 272 hr @ $24.30/hr = $6,610
Batch plant laborer: 272 hr @ $15.56/hr = 4,232
Front-end loader operator: 272 hr @ $21.67/hr = 5,894
Water truck drivers: 272 hr x 2 drivers @ $ 18.17/hr = 9,884
Mixer truck drivers: 272 hr x 4 drivers @ $ 18.17/hr = 19,769
Fine-grader operator: 272 hr @ $21.67/hr = 5,894
Roller operator: 272 hr @ $16.56/hr 4,504

Concrete placer spreader operator: 272 hr @ $21.67/hr 5.894
Paver operator: 272 hr @ $21.67/hr 5.894
Tine and cure machine operator: 272 hr @ $21.67/hr 5.894
Foreman for paving operation: 272 hr @ $25/hr 6,800
Dowel setters: 272 hr x 4 laborers @ $15.56/hr 16.929
Tie bar setters: 272 hr x 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr 8.465
Edge finishers: 272 hr x 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr 8.465
S traight-edge finisher: 272 hr @ $15.56/hr 4,232
Saw operators: 272 hr x 3 operators @ $18.50/hr 15,096
Water truck for saws: 272 hr x 3 drivers @ $ 18.17/hr 14,827
Joint sealant laborers: 272 hr x 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr 8.465
General laborers: 272 hr x 3 laborers @ $15.56/hr 12,697
Surveyors: 272 hr x 2 surveyors @ $ 22 .00/hr 11,968
Traffic control: 272 hr X 4 laborers @ $15.56/hr 16.929
Superintendent: 272 hr @ $32.00/hr 8,704
Subtotal of labor costs = $208,046
Taxes:
W orkm an’s com pensation: $19.80 per $100 x $208,046 $41,193
Social security tax: 7.65% X $208,046 15,916
Unemploym ent tax: 4% X $208,046 8,322
Material taxes: 6 % x $1,051,986 63,119
Subtotal of taxes $128,550
Summary of direct costs:

Materials = $ 1 ,0 5 1 ,9 8 6
Equipm ent = 463,055
Labor = 208,046
Taxes = 128,550
Subtotal of direct costs = $1,851,637
Office overhead: 2% x $1,851,637 = $37,033

Job overhead: 4% x 1,851,637 = 74,066
Contingency: 3% x $1,851,637 = 55,549
Subtotal = $166,648
Total direct costs: = $ 1 ,8 5 1 ,6 3 7

Overhead + contingency = 166,648
Plant setup and field office = 37,500
Subtotal = $2,055,785
Total estimated cost = $2,055,785

Profit: 7% X $2,055,785 = 143,905
Subtotal = $2,199,690
Performance bond:
$500,000 @ $12.00 per $1,000 = $6,000
($2,199,690 - $500,000) @ $7.50/$1,000 = 12,748
Subtotal = $18,748
Sum of subtotal cost = $2,199,690

Performance bond = 18,748
Bid price = $2,218,438 <-
Cost per cubic yard: $2,218,438/24,490 cy = $90.59/cy

Cost per square yard: $2,218,438/88,164 sy = $25.16/sy
Cost per mile: $2,218,438/5.78 mi = $383,813/mi.
ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
Asphalt pavements are constructed by placing mixtures of mineral aggregates and

asphaltic binders. The aggregate and asphalt binder are heated and mixed together
in an asphalt plant to make the asphalt paving material, called asphalt mix.
The cost of hot-mix asphaltic-concrete pavements will include the initial
expense of setting up a plant, the aggregates, liquid asphalt, burner fuel, elec
tricity (if no generator is used), quality control, and all the labor and equipment
costs associated with laying and compacting the mix. Additional costs can
include site rent and a railroad spur for delivery of aggregates and liquid asphalt.
The initial cost of setting up an asphalt plant can include clearing and grubbing
and grading. It may also be necessary to stabilize the soil to minimize the
expense of stock-pile loss. Because cost can range from $15,000 to $50,000 for
this item, it is desirable to use one plant site per project whenever possible.
Some asphalt mixing plants are operated primarily as producers of multiple-
type mixes that are available for sale at the plant to serve multiple small paving
operations. Contractors purchase the asphalt mix at the plant and transport it to
the paving machine at their jobsites. For larger projects, a portable asphalt plant
is set up by the contractor at the jobsite to produce asphalt mixes for the spe
cific job.
AGGREGATES
The load applied to an asphalt pavement is primarily carried by the aggregates
in the mix. The aggregate portion of a mix accounts for 90 to 95 percent of the
material by weight. Good aggregates and proper gradation of those aggregates

are critical to the mix’s performance.
The aggregates most commonly used include limestone, granite, sand, and
other crushed stone products. Each asphalt pavement has its own unique job mix
formula. The competitive bid environment for most asphalt paving contracts
mandates that local materials be used due to the high cost of freight. The job-
mix formula prescribes the types and amounts of aggregates to be used. To
achieve the desired mix characteristics, such as density and stability, the aggre
gates are carefully proportioned ranging from the largest to the smallest particle
sizes. The mix design specification designates the percentages passing and
retained on screens with graded size openings.
Ideally, an aggregate gradation should be provided that enables the mini
mum amount of expensive binder (asphalt) to be used. The binder fills most of
the voids between the aggregate particles as well as the voids in the particles.
The larger-size aggregate, greater than a no. 8 sieve, used in an asphalt mix can
be gravel or crushed stone. Crushed aggregate has angular rough surfaces, which
interlock together to produce higher strength asphalt mixes. Smooth surface
aggregate, sometimes called river run, improves the workability of the mix but
produces reduced strength compared to crushed aggregate. A mix using rough
surface aggregates will require more binder than using smooth aggregate. Both
sand and a small portion of some very fine material, less than a no. 2 0 0 sieve,
referred to as mineral filler, can also be incorporated into the mix.
The asphalt plant provides the mechanism to achieve a controlled blend of
the aggregates. The blending of different size aggregates to obtain a desired mix
gradation is vital for a good-quality pavement. The amount of foreign matter,
either soil or organic material, that may be present with the aggregate, will
greatly reduce the strength of the asphalt pavement. A visual inspection can
detect aggregate cleanness. Washing, wet screening, or other methods can be
used to clean the aggregate.
For job-site asphalt plants, aggregate is purchased from a rock quarry and
transported to the job-site asphalt plant, where it is stockpiled. Front-end load
ers and portable conveyors move the material from stockpiles to the asphalt mix
ing plant. The price for purchasing aggregate is established by the aggregate
supplier. The cost for hauling aggregate is discussed in Chapter 6 .
ASPHALTS
The asphalts used in asphalt pavements can be divided into three categories: cut
back asphalts, emulsified asphalts, and asphalt cements. Cutbacks and emulsions
are used mostly for prime coats and stockpiled patching material. Asphalt
cement is the type of asphalt most commonly used for main-line road construc
tion. Liquid asphalt is rated with a performance (PG) system. For example, a
PG64-22 designates the high and low temperature at which an asphalt binder
would be expected to perform satisfactorily.
Cutback asphalt is produced by adding volatile products to asphalt cement.
Emulsified asphalts are a mix of asphalt cement and water, using an emulsifying
agent to control separation. Asphalt cement used as the binder in paving mixes is
usually classified by the AASTHO standard penetration test, which consists of
measuring the depth of penetration into a 77°F asphalt cement sample by a stan
dard 100-gram weighted needle in a 5-sec time duration. The asphalt penetration
grades are 40-50, 60-70, 85-100, 120-150, and 200-300.
The quantity of asphalt binder varies from 4 to 9 percent of the weight of the
finished product. The cost of asphalt materials is highly dependent on the price
of crude oil, which is subject to fluctuating changes. Therefore, it is necessary to
obtain a firm quote from the supplier of asphalt material before preparing a cost.
ASPHALT PLANTS
Hot-mix asphalt is produced in plants that proportion the aggregates, dry them,
and combine them with asphalt cement that has been heated from 275°F to
375°F. There are two types of asphalt plants: batch-type plants and continuous
mixing drum-type plants. They differ only in the way the aggregates are pro
portioned and how the liquid asphalt is mixed with the aggregate.
Batch-type plants have been used for years in the asphalt paving industry.
They are economical for operations that require production of several different
mixes during a single production time frame. Batch-type plants are efficient
because they can rapidly change the production mix with little wasted material.
Continuous mixing drum-type plants can produce higher volumes of output at
faster rates than batch-type plants. Both types of plants require storage bins for
aggregate, a burner for heating the materials, a mixing unit, and dust collectors
to control pollution.
Batch-Type Asphalt Plants

The primary components of a batch-type asphalt plant, in the order of material
flow, are cold bins, dryer unit, hot elevator, screens, and pugmill mixer. Cold
feed systems usually consist of three or four open-top bins that are mounted
together as a single unit. The individual bins can be fed from aggregate stock
piles by a front-end loader, clamshell, or a conveyor. A gate at the bottom of
each bin controls the material flow and a feeder unit for metering the flow.
The dryer unit heats and dries the aggregate of the mix. The dryer has a
burner that provides the heat energy for evaporating the moisture in the aggre
gate and then heats the aggregate to a discharge temperature of about 300°F.
The heated aggregate from the dryer is discharged into the hot elevator,
which carries it to the screens at the top of the batch plant tower. The tower unit
consists of vibrating screens that provide gradation control of the aggregate
sizes. The heated aggregate sizes are fed into different hot bins.
Aggregate from the hot bins is dropped into a weight hopper that is located
below the bins and above the pugmill. The aggregates are weighted cumula
tively in the hopper, with the mineral filler added last. Once the correct propor
tions of aggregate are measured, the material is dropped into the pubmill. The
liquid asphalt for the batch is either weighed or metered volumetrically and then
FIG U R E 8 .1 0 I Batch-type asphalt plant.

Courtesy: Astec Industries, Inc.
is pumped through spray bars into the pubmill mixer. The mixer is sufficiently
high to allow tracks to pass directly below for loading. Figure 8.10 shows a track
receiving a mix at a batch-type asphalt plant.
Continuous Mixing Drum-Type Plants

A continuous mixing drum-type plant has almost the same components as a
batch-type plant. The primary unit in a drum-mix plant both dries the aggregate
and performs the mixing function. As with a batch-mix plant, the cold feed sys
tem is the critical aggregate proportioning unit. The aggregates are fed into an
inclined rotating dram mixer that provides continuous mixing. Usually the
burner and the aggregate feed are both located at the upper end of the drum,
which means the aggregates and hot gas flow are in the same direction.
However, some plants have a counter flow.
As the material moves through the dram, paddles inside the dram lift the
aggregates and then drop them through the flame and hot gases. Farther down
the length of the drum, beyond the flame, the liquid asphalt is introduced and the
dram paddles inside the drum provide the mixing mechanism. When liquid
asphalt is combined with the aggregate for mixing, the temperature of the
asphalt is about 300°F. The dram for a drum mix plant has a slope, approxi
mately of | to 1 in./ft of drum length. The dram rotates at a speed from 5 to 10
rpm. Figure 8.11 shows a drum-mix plant in operation.
FIG U R E 8.11 I Drum-mix asphalt plant.

TRANSPORTING AND LAYING

ASPHALT MIXES
After asphalt mix is completed at the asphalt plant, it is discharged into trucks and
hauled to the job, where it is spread in uniformly thick layers by a mechanical
paver. It may be necessary to cover the material with a canvas or tarpaulin during
transit to prevent excessive loss of heat between the mixing plant and the paver.
A specially designed distributor truck is used to apply an asphalt prime,
tack, or seal coat for asphalt paving projects. These trucks must be able to apply
the liquid asphalt to a surface at uniform rates. Prior to placement of an asphalt
mix on a new base, a prime coat is applied to the base. Normal rates of applica
tion for prime coats vary between 0.20 and 0.60 gal/sy. The prime coat promotes
adhesion between the base and the overlying asphalt mix course by coating the
absorbent base material, which is gravel, crushed stone, or an earthen grade.
Tack coats are designed to create a bond between old existing pavements
and new overlays. A tack coat acts as an adhesive to prevent the slippage of the
two mats. The tack coat is a very thin uniform blanket of asphalt, usually 0.05
to 0.15 gal/sy of diluted emulsion.
Seal coats consist of an application of asphalt followed by a light covering
of the fine aggregates, which is rolled in with pneumatic rollers. Application
rates are normally from 0 . 1 0 to 0 . 2 0 gal/sy.
F IG U R E 8 .1 2 I Rubber-tire asphalt paver receiving mix from a rear dump truck.

An asphalt paver consists of a tractor, either track- or rubber-tired, and a

screed. Pavers can receive the mix directly into their hoppers from rear dump
trucks (see Fig. 8.12). The paver pushes the truck forward during the unloading
process. The tractor power unit has a receiving hopper in the front and a system
of slat conveyors and augers to spread the asphalt evenly across the front of the
screed. The screed controls the asphalt placement width and depth, and the ini
tial finish and compaction of the material. Various sizes and models of asphalt
pavers are available, with paving speeds that range from 125 to 300 ft/min.
Hopper capacities are about 200 cf in size.
Continuous paving operations depend on balancing the production rates of
the asphalt plant, hauling units, and paver operation. An adequate number of
trucks must be available to haul the asphalt mix to the paver to ensure a contin
uous operation. There may be times when two trucks are at the paver at the same
time and both are not needed, or there may be times when no truck is available
at the paver. If a truck is not available, the paver must stop operations.
Several methods are used to prevent the problem of having too many trucks,
or no trucks, at the paver. One method involves depositing the truckloads of
asphalt mix in windrows parallel to and along the path of the paver. A windrow
elevator is attached to the front of the paver, which picks up the asphalt mix from
the windrow and deposits the material into the paver as it moves along the
paving lane. This enables continuous operation of the paver without dependency
on trucks. Another method involves placement of a silo at the asphalt plant.
Asphalt mix material from the asphalt plant is deposited into the silo. Then, the
F IG U R E 8 .1 3 I Asphalt paver receiving mix from a material transfer vehicle.

asphalt mix is deposited from the silo into a truck and transported to the job
when the paver needs the material.
Another method to help compensate for truck delays at the jobsite and to
ensure continuous operation of the paver is to use a material transfer vehicle (see
Fig. 8.13). Material transfer vehicles are available with capacities of 25 to 30 T
of asphalt mix. This machine operates ahead of the paver to feed the asphalt
material into the paver. As the paver approaches the material transfer vehicle, it
is refilled before the material transfer vehicle moves forward to receive the next
truck discharge. An insert can be installed in the paver, allowing storage of 15
to 20 T of mix in the paver and providing a combined paver and material trans
fer vehicle storage capacity of 45 to 50 T. With storage of this capacity, the
paver can operate continuously. When a material transfer vehicle is used, trucks
can be stopped 1 0 0 to 2 0 0 ft ahead of the paver and dump their loads safely with
out moving.
Figure 8.14a shows a paving operation with trucks depositing the mix
directly in the paver, and Fig. 8.14b shows a paving operation with a material
transfer vehicle providing the asphalt mix to the paver.
COMPACTING ASPHALT CONCRETE MIXES

After each layer is deposited, it is compacted by a roller to the desired density.
Three basic roller types are used to compact the asphalt-paving mixes: smooth-
drum steel-wheel, pneumatic-tired, and smooth-drum steel-wheel vibrator rollers.
R OL LE R 1 ROLLER 2 PAV ER
(a) Asphalt paving train with the mix deposited directly into the paver
ROLLERS PA VE R MTV
(b) Asphalt paving operation with a material transfer vehicle providing mix to the paver
F IG U R E 8 .1 4 I Methods of supplying asphalt mix material to the paver.
After a fresh layer of hot mix asphalt concrete is placed, a steel-wheel roller is
usually used for initial compaction. After the initial compaction, hairline cracks
or marks will be left by the steel drum rollers. A pneumatic-tired roller is used
to smooth the pavement surface to remove these marks or lines.
Steel-wheel rollers are typically 4 to 5 ft wide and weigh from 8 to 14 T with
penetration depths from to \ in. Pneumatic-tired rollers weigh between 2,000 and
10,000 lb and have from 4 to 7 tires on the front of the roller and 3 to 6 tires on
the rear of the rollers. The operating speed of compactors ranges from 1 to 4 mph.
EQUIPMENT FOR HOT-MIX

ASPHALTIC-CONCRETE PAVEMENT
Considerable equipment is required for mixing and placing hot-mix asphaltic-
concrete pavement. A front-end loader, clamshell, or conveyor is needed to han
dle the aggregate. Storage and feeder bins, elevators, aggregate drier, dust col
lector, aggregate screens, asphalt storage tanks, and a storage tank for fuel are
required for the mixing operation. Hauling trucks, a distributor truck, a paving
machine, and compaction equipment are required to distribute and compact the
asphalt mix. If the subgrade or subbase is not already prepared, additional equip
ment will be required to do this work.
COST OF HOT-MIX
ASPHALTIC-CONCRETE PAVEMENT
An asphalt plant is expensive to purchase and operate. Also, the cost of setting
up and operating an asphalt plant for producing hot-mix asphaltic-concrete
pavement is high. Consequently, a single setup is generally made for a given job.
The cost will include the cost of aggregate, asphalt, moving the plant to the loca
tion, setting it up, operating the plant, hauling the material to the job, spreading,
and rolling. The cost of operating the plant will include depreciation, interest,
insurance and taxes, maintenance and repairs, and fuel. Additional costs may
include the rental of land at the jobsite to stockpile material and operate the
asphalt mixing plant.
EXAMPLE 8 . 5
Estimate the total direct cost and cost per ton for mixing and placing hot-mix
asphaltic-concrete pavement 18 mi long, 24 ft wide, and 5 in. thick. The pavement
consists of a 3-in.-thick base course and a 2 -in.-thick wearing course.
A portable drum -mix plant with a 150 T/hr ca pacity will be used to provide con
tinuous mix of the asphalt material. Assuming a 50-min effective hour, the p ro d u c
tion rate of the asphalt plant will be 50/60 x 150 = 125 T/hr.
The asphalt plant will be located at the m iddle of the projects. Dump trucks with
20-T ca pacity will haul the asphalt mix to the paver. Assume trucks will haul an aver
age of 9 mi at 30 mph and return at 35 mph. Assume a 45-min effective hour for the
hauling operation.
The pavement will be placed on a previously prepared subbase. Prior to p la c
ing the 3-in.-thick base, an asphalt prime coat will be applied to the subbase at the
rate of 0.3 gal/sy. A 2-in.-thick wearing course will be placed on top of the base with
no tack coat required.
The specifications require 6 percent asphalt cem ent content by w eight m ea
surement. The asphalt plant will require 60 percent coarse aggregate, larger than a
no. 10 sieve, and 40 percent fine aggregate and filler. Assume that 5 percent of the
coarse aggregate, 10 percent of the fine aggregate, and 2 percent of the asphalt
will be lost through waste or other reasons.
The com bined material will weigh about 3,600 Ib/cy when com pacted. The
paving mixtures shall meet the requirements for grading and mix com position shown
in the table.
Combined aggregate including filler,

percent passing, by weight
Base course, Wearing course,
Sieve size 3 in. thickness 2 in. thickness
2 in. 100
in. 95-100
1 in. — 100
| in. 70-85 95-100
\ in. — 75-90
No. 4 35-50 45-60
No. 10 25-37 35-47
No. 40 15-25 23-33
No. 80 6-16 16-24
No. 200 2-6 6-12
Asphalt cement, percentage 6% 6%
of combined weight
Total surface area = [18.0 mi x 5280 ft/mi x 24 ft]/(9 sf/sy) = 253,440 sy
Material for 3-in. (-§-ft) base course:
[(253,440 sy x ^ ft x 3,600 lb/cy)/(3 ft/yd)]/[2,000 Ib/T] = 38,016 T
Material for 2-in. (^ -ft) wearing course:
[(253,440 sy x ^ ft x 3,600 lb/cy)/(3 ft/yd)]/[2,000 Ib/T] = 25,344 T
Total aggregate w eight = 63,360 T
Less 6 % asphalt, effective weight of aggregate, 0.94 x 63,360 T = 59,558 T
Material quantities for costs:

Coarse aggregate (60% with 5% waste): 0.60 x 59,558 T x 1.05 = 37,522 T
Fine aggregate (40% with 10% waste): 0.40 X 59,558 T x 1.10 = 26,205 T
Asphalt cem ent ( 6 % with 2% waste): 0.06 x 63,360 T x 1.02 = 3,878 T
Prime coat: 253,440 sy x 0.30 gal/sy = 76,032 gal
Production time for asphalt mix plant:

For a 50-min hour, the plant production rate: 50/60 x 150 T/hr = 125 T/hr
Time to com plete the work: 63,360 T/125 T/hr = 507 hr
Rounding to a full 8 -hour day: total time = 512 hr <—
Production time for transporting asphalt mix:

C ycle time for a truck:
Load: 20 T/125 T/hr = 0.16 hr
Haul: 9 mi/30 mph = 0.30 hr
Dump: 12 min x 1 hr/60 min = 0.20 hr
Return: 9 mi/ 35 mph = 0.26 hr
Quantity of asphalt mix per trip: 20 T/trip X 1.0 trip/0.92 hr = 21.7 T/hr
For a 45-min hour, asphalt mix hauled per trip = 21.7 T/hr x 45/60 = 16.3 T/hr
Required truck: plant production/truck production, 125/16.3 = 7.6 trucks
required
Therefore, need 8 trucks with 20-T capacity to serve the paver
Using 8 trucks, the haul rate will be greater than the plant production rate
Asphalt plant costs chargeable to the job:

The 150 T/hr ca pacity asphalt mix plant consists of the mixer drum, heater, four-
com partm ent bin and feeder, and dust collector. Assume the asphalt plant costs
$1,300,000 and has a useful life of 12 years with no salvage value at the end of its
life and it will be used an average of 1,400 hr/year, Assume that the cost of moving
the plant will be charged to this project and that the cost of moving it out will be
charged to the next project. If this is not possible, then the entire cost of moving to
and from this project should be charged to this project.
Asphalt plant ownership cost:

Risk addition = 3%
Total interest /' = 17%
Thus, the MARR is 17%. Since salvage value is not considered, only the capital
recovery equation is required for calculating the hourly ownership costs as follows:
/(1 + i)n
Annual ownership cost = P [5.1]
(1 + /)" - 1
0.17(1 + 0 .1 7 )12
= $1,300,000 (1 + Q 1/)12 _ .|
= $260,605/year
Hourly ownership cost = ($260,605/year)/(1,400 hr/year) = $186/hr
Asphalt plant operating costs:

Annual straight-line depreciation cost = $1,300,000/12 years = $108,333/yr
Maintenance and repairs cost: 10% ($108,333)/1,400 hr = $7.74/hr
Hot-oil heater fuel: 16 gal/hr @ $1.24/gal = 19.84
Drier fuel: 360 gal/hr @ $1.17/gal = 421.20
Diesel fuel for mixer engine: 4.6 gal/hr @ $ 1 .34/gal = 6.16
Diesel fuel for drier engine: 8.2 gal/hr @ $1.34/gal = 10.99
Lubricating oil: 0.5 quarts/hr @ $1.51/quart = 0.76
Other lubricants and grease = 0.31
Hourly operating cost = $467.00/hr
Asphalt plant total hourly ownership and operating cost:

Ownership cost = $ 186/hr
Operating cost = 467/hr
Total cost = $653/hr
The total cost for the paving operation will be:
Material costs:
Coarse aggregate: 37,522 T @ $8.32/T = $312,183
Fine aggregate: 26,205 T @ $7.92/T = 207,548
Asphalt cement: 3,878 T @ $ 1 5 7 /T = 608,846
Prime coat: 76,032 gal @ $0.61/gal = 46,380
Total cost = $1,174,957
Equipment at mixing plant:

Asphalt mix plant: 512 hr @ $653/hr = $334,336
Moving to job and setting up plant = 12,000
Front-end loader: 512 hr @ $68.25/hr = 34,944
Portable conveyor: 512 hr @ 29.75/hr = 15,232
Total cost = $396,512
Labor at mixing plant:

Loader operator: 512 hr @ $21.67/hr = $11,095
Batch plant operator: 512 hr @ $24.30/hr = 12,442
Mechanic: 512 hr @ $19.50/hr = 9,984
Foreman: 512 hr @ 27/hr = 13,824
Equipment hauling asphalt mix:

Haul trucks: 512 hr x 8 trucks @ $34.25/hr = $140,288
Labor hauling asphalt mix:

Truck drivers: 512 hr X 8 drivers @ $ 18.17/hr = $74,424
Equipment placing pavement:

Asphalt paver: 512 hr @ $135/hr = $69,120
Asphalt distributor truck: 512 hr @ $27.50/hr = 14,080
Smooth-wheel roller: 512 hr @ $16.56/hr = 8,479
Pneumatic roller: 512 hr @ $23.34/hr = 11,950
Labor placing pavement:

Distributor operator: 512 hr @ $ 18.17/hr = $9,303
Paving operator: 512 hr @ $21.67/hr = 11,095
Laborers: 512 hr x 3 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 23,900
Roller operators: 512 hr x 2 operators @ $21.67/hr = 22,190
Foreman: 512 hr @ $30.00/hr = 15,360
Other direct costs:

Land site rental = $4,500
Plant and road tools = 1,240
Service trucks: 512 hr x 2 trucks @ $7.50/hr = 7,680
Barricades, signs, signals = 1,480
Superintendent: 512 hr @ $35.00/hr = 17,920
Chapter 8 Highways and Pavements

Bulk materials = $ 1 ,1 7 4 ,9 5 7
Plant equipm ent = 396,512
Plant labor = 47,345
Equipm ent hauling = 140,288
Labor hauling = 74,424
Paving equipm ent = 103,629
Labor paving = 81,848
Other direct costs = 32,820
Total direct costs = $2,051,823
Cost per T, $2,051,823/63,360 T = $32.38/1"

Cost per sy, $2,051,823/253,440 sy = $ 8 . 10 /sy
Cost per mi, $2,051,823/18 mi = $ 1 13,990/mi
These costs do not include setup and takedown drum -mix plant or the indirect
costs, such as taxes on labor and material, bonds and insurance, job-site office, and
general overhead. Also, contingency and profit are excluded.
COMPUTER ESTIMATING OF
HIGHWAY PROJECTS
The previous sections of this chapter presented methods, materials, and exam
ples of estimating the cost of highway construction projects. To accurately esti
mate the cost the estimator must know the method of construction and the mix
of labor and equipment that will be used on a particular job.
Estimating software programs are commercially available for estimating the
cost of highway pavements. These programs store the contractor’s equipment
and labor rates, and indirect costs. They also store crew configurations and asso
ciated equipment spreads for specific operations such as shouldering, small con
crete structures, main-line paving, etc. Since highway contracts are unit-price
format with the estimated quantities provided, the estimator only has to select a
crew from a menu in the software and determine the applicable production rate.
Chapter 25 is devoted to computer estimating with emphasis on infrastructure
type projects, such as highways.
PROBLEMS
8.1 Estimate the total cost and the cost per acre for clearing and grubbing 64 acres of
light vegetation, small trees, and brush. A 285-hp dozer, operating with a 14-ft
effective cutting blade, will perform the clearing. The dozer will operate in first
gear at 2.2 mi/hr during clearing.
It will cost $1,500 to transport the dozer to and from the job. The hourly
cost for the dozer and operator is $125.00/hr. Assume a 45-min effective hour
and estimate the total time and cost, and the cost per acre for clearing.
8.2 A highway project must be cleared of trees before the grading operation can be
started. The site is reasonably level terrain with firm ground, and a site survey
reveals 25 to 75 percent hardwoods.
A 215-hp dozer will be used to fell trees. The cost of the dozer and operator
is $185.00/hr. The cost of moving to the job and back to storage will be $960.00.
Assume a 45-min effective hour and estimate the total cost and cost per acre to
fell the trees based on the following tree count:
Average number of trees per acre = 8 0 0
Number of 1 to 2 ft dia. =185
Number of 2 to 3 ft dia. = 78
Number of 3 to 4 ft dia. = 12
8.3 The trees in Prob. 8.2 are to be piled into a stack for burning. A 165-hp dozer
will be used to grub and stack the felled trees. Assume a 45-min/hr efficiency for
this operation. Estimate the cost of piling-up the trees if the cost of the dozer and
operator is $125.00/hr.
8.4 A paving operation is using a 150-cy/hr batch plant to pave a concrete highway,
15.43 mi long, 24 ft wide, and 9 in. thick. One longitudinal saw joint will be
installed along the centerline of the pavement and transverse saw joints are
required at 15 ft on centers. Water will be transported to the job for the concrete
batch plant by water trucks, each with a 3,000 gal capacity. Preliminary esti
mates of production rates have been determined as
Concrete batch plant = 1 5 0 cy/hr
Transporting water = 0.75 hr/trip
Saw cutting joints = 245 lin ft/hr
For this project, determine the number of water trucks and the number of saw
cutting crews to ensure a continuous paving operation. What production rate, in
square yards per day, is necessary of the slipform paver?
8.5 Estimate the total cost and cost per square yard of concrete, for bid purposes, for
furnishing materials, equipment, and labor for construction of a pavement 24 ft
wide, 9 in. thick, and 7.24 mi long.
Use the same job conditions, types of equipment, equipment costs, wage
rates, material costs, and overhead cost as those in Example 8.4.
8.6 Estimate the total direct cost and the cost per ton for furnishing materials and for
mixing and placing hot-mix asphalt pavement 16.5 mi long, 28 ft wide, and 4 in.
thick on a previously prepared base. The pavement will be placed in two layers,
each 2 in. thick after compaction.
Use the same methods, material costs, equipment, equipment costs, wage
rates, and production rates as those used in Example 8.5, except change the
asphalt cement to 7 percent of the combined weight of the concrete.
Foundations
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
Foundations that support structures include footings, piles, and drilled shaft
foundations. Footings are shallow foundations that are constructed by excavat
ing the soil from the ground and then installing reinforced concrete. Piles and
drilled shaft foundations are deep foundations. A pile foundation is constructed
by driving the pile directly into the ground, whereas a drilled shaft foundation is
constructed by drilling a hole in the ground and installing reinforced concrete.
Footings are foundations placed at shallow depths, usually less than 5 ft.
Footings may be placed at one location, called isolated or spot footings, to sup
port a column that is placed on the footing. Some footings are continuous, such
as a footing to support a wall of a building.
Pile foundations are driven into the ground by the hammer of pile-driving
equipment. The piles may be timber, steel, or concrete. The driving depth
depends on the magnitude of the load that will be placed on the pile from the
structure above and the strength of the soil. Load-bearing piles resist loads by
skin-friction or end bearing, or a combination of both. Piles are driven from 30
to 2 0 0 ft.
Drilled shaft foundations are installed by drilling holes to depths in the soils
that have sufficient strength to support the loads from the structure above the
foundation. For sandy soils, a steel casing may be required to stabilize the soil
during the drilling operation. After the hole is drilled, a belling tool can be used
to widen the bottom of the drilled hole, to increase the load-bearing capacity of
the foundation. Reinforced concrete is installed after the shaft has been drilled
and belled. Drilled shafts can be installed with diameters from 18 to 96 in. and
at depths from 5 to 60 ft. Anchor bolts are installed at the top of the foundation
Co c o n n e ct Che fo u n d a tio n Co Che stru ctu re a b o ve , su c h a s a s te e l c o lu m n .
193
FOOTINGS
Construction of a footing includes excavating the soil to the required depth,
erecting formwork, setting reinforcing steel, placing concrete, removing form
work, and backfilling soil above the footing to the surface of the ground.
A trench is excavated into the soil to construct a continuous footing. For
some shallow continuous footings, the sides of the excavated soil may be stable
enough to support itself without caving in. After the trench is excavated, rein
forcing steel is installed and concrete is placed directly into the open trench
without any formwork.
For some shallow continuous footings, the sides of the excavated soil are
unstable. Thus, the trench is excavated wider than the footing, formwork is
installed, and reinforced concrete is placed in the formwork. After the concrete
has sufficiently cured, the formwork is removed and the sides of the footing are
backfilled with soil. Chapter 10 presents the cost for formwork, reinforcing
steel, and placing concrete.
Some projects require excavation into soil that is so unstable that the walls
of the excavated earth must be supported to prevent them from caving into the
pit or trench. For these situations, it will be necessary to install a system of
shores, braces, and solid sheeting along the excavated walls to hold the earth in
position. If groundwater is present, it may be necessary to install semi-watertight
sheeting around the walls to exclude or reduce the flow of water into the pit.
Another alternative is to pump the water out of the trench area where the foot
ing is to be installed. Timber and steel are used for braces and sheeting.
SHEETING TRENCHES
If the earth is so unstable that it must be restrained for the full area of the wall
of a trench, it will be necessary to install a trench box, as illustrated in Fig. 9.1.
The sheeting of a trench box is typically constructed with 2-, 3-, or 4-in.-thick
lumber, placed side by side or overlapping along the entire length of the trench.
Wales, consisting of 4 X 6 -in.-thick lumber, can be placed in a horizontal direc
tion to provide additional support for the sheeting. The lumber may be rough
sawed or S4S. Depending on the stability of the earth, it may be necessary to
drive the sheeting and install some of the braces ahead of excavating. The sheet
ing may be driven with power equipment, such as a pneumatic hammer.
Estimate the cost of installing and removing solid sheeting and bracing for a trench
box, as shown in Fig. 9.1. The trench is 100 ft long and 7 ft deep. The sheeting will
be 2 x 12-in. S4S lumber, 8 ft long. Two horizontal rows of 4 x 6-in. wales will be
placed on each side of the trench for the full length of the trench. Trench braces will
be placed 4 ft apart along each row of wales. The sheeting will be driven one plank
at a time by using an air com pressor and a pneum atic hammer.
Chapter 9 Foundations 195
F IG U R E 9.1 I Trench braces, waies, and

solid bracing.
Sheeting, actual dimension of 2 x 12 lumber is 1.5 in. x 11.25 in.
Number of pieces for 2 sides: [(100 ft)/(11.25 in./12 ft)] x 2 sides = 214
pieces
Quantity of sheeting, 214 pieces x [(2 x 1 2)/( 1 x 12)] x 8 ft = 3,424 bf
Wales:
Number of pieces for 1 row, 100 ft /8 ft/wale = 12.5, therefore need 13
pieces
Quantity of lumber: 13 pieces x 2 rows x 2 sides x [(4 x 6)/(1 x 1 2 )] x
8 ft = 832 bf
Trench braces:
Num ber of braces: (100 ft/4 ft/brace) 2 rows = 50 braces
Time to perform the job:
Two laborers installing sheeting: 214 pieces/4 pieces/hr = 53.5 hr
Two laborers installing wales and braces: (50 + 13) = 63 pieces/3 pieces/hr
= 21.0 hr
Material cost:
Sheeting: 3,424 bf @ $0.73/bf = $2,499.52
Wales: 832 bf @ $0.92/bf = 765.44
Braces: 50 @ $3.50 each = 175.00
Total material cost = $3,439.96
Labor cost:
Laborers driving sheeting: 53.5 hr x 2 laborers @ $21.67/hr = $2,318.69
Installing wales and braces; 21.0 hr x 2 laborers @ $18.17/hr = 763.14
Total labor cost = $3,081.83
Equipment cost:
Air compressor: 53.5 hr @ $ 8 .75/hr = $468.13
Air hammer, hose, etc.: 53,5 hr @ $ 1 .75/hr = 93.63
Total equipm ent cost = $561.76
Summary of costs:
Material = $3,439.96
Labor = 3,081.83
Equipm ent = 561.76
Cost per linear foot of trench: $7,083.55/100 ft = $70.84/ft

Cost per square foot sheeting: $7,083.55/(100 ft x 7 ft x 2 sides) = $5.06/sf
PILE-DRIVING EQUIPMENT
Equipment used to drive piles usually consists of a truck-mounted or crawler-
mounted crane, leads, a hammer, and a source of compressed air or steam to
drive the hammer. When piles are driven into water, the driving rig is usually
mounted on a barge. The actual driving of piles is accomplished with hammers.
Several types are available, including the drop hammer, single-acting air or
steam hammer, double-acting air or steam hammer, self-contained diesel-
operated hammer, and vibratory hammer. Figure 9.2 illustrates a single-acting
steam hammer driving a steel shell for a cast-in-place concrete pile.
The size of a drop hammer is indicated by the weight of the hammer,
whereas the size of an air, steam, or diesel hammer is indicated by the theoreti
cal foot-pounds of energy delivered by each blow.
A drop hammer is a heavy metal weight that is lifted by a hoist line, then
released and allowed to fall onto the top of the pile. Due to high dynamic forces,
a pile cap is positioned between the hammer and the pile head. The pile cap pro
vides a uniform distribution of the blow to the pile head and acts as a shock
absorber. The cap contains a cushion block, which is commonly fabricated from
wood. Drop hammers are suitable for driving piles on remote projects that
F IG U R E 9 .2 I Single-acting hammer
driving a steel shell for a cast-in-place
concrete pile.
require only a few piles, or when the time of completion is not important. A drop
hammer normally can deliver from four to eight blows per minute.
A single-acting air hammer has a free-falling weight, called a ram, that is
lifted by steam or compressed air that flows to the underside of a piston, which
is connected to the ram through a piston rod. When the piston reaches the top
of the stroke, the steam or air pressure is released and the ram falls freely to
strike the top of a pile. Whereas a drop hammer may strike 4 to 8 blows/min, a
single-acting steam or air hammer will strike 40 to 60 blows/min when deliv
ering the same energy per blow. A pile cap is used with a single-acting steam
or air hammer. The cap is mated to the case of the hammer. This cap is com
monly called an anvil or a helmet.
In the double-acting steam or air hammer, steam or air pressure is applied to

the underside of the piston to raise the ram, then during the downward stroke,
steam is applied to the top side of the piston to increase the energy per blow.
Thus, with a given weight of ram, it is possible to attain a desired amount of
energy per blow with a shorter stroke than the longer stroke single-acting ham
mer. The number of blows per minute will be approximately twice as great as
for a single-acting hammer with the same energy rating. Double-acting hammers
commonly deliver 95 to 300 blows/min. These hammers do not require cushion
blocks. The ram strikes on an alloy steel anvil that fits on the pile head.
Table 9.1 gives recommended sizes of hammers for different types of sizes
of piles and driving conditions. Table 9.2 gives information for various sizes and
types of air or steam driven hammers.
T A B L E 9.1 I Recommended sizes of hammers for driving piles, in theoretical foot-pounds of energy per blow.
Weight of piles, Ib/lin ft

Steel sheet* Timber Concrete Steel
Length of Depth of
piles, ft penetration 20 30 40 30 60 1 50 400 40 80 120
Driving through ordinary earth, moist clay, and loose gravel; normal frictional resistance
25 1
2 2,000 2,000 3,600 3,600 7,000 7,500 15,000 3,600 7,000 7,500
Full 3,600 3,600 6,000 3,600 7,000 7,500 15,000 4,000 7,500 7,500
50 1
2 6,000 6,000 7,000 7,000 7,500 15,000 20,000 7,000 7,500 12,000
Full 7,000 7,000 7,500 7,500 12,000 15,000 20,000 7,500 12,000 15,000
1
75 2 — 7,000 7,500 — 15,000 — 30,000 7,500 15,000 15,000
Full — — 12,000 — 15,000 — 30,000 12,000 15,000 20,000
Driving through stiff clay, compacted sand, and gravel; high frictional resistance
25 1
2 3,600 3,600 3,600 7,500 7,500 7,500 15,000 5,000 9,000 12,000
Full 3,600 7,000 7,000 7,500 7,500 12,000 15,000 7,000 10,000 12,000
50 1 7,000 7,500 7,500 12,000 12,000 15,000 25,000 9,000 15,000 15,000
2
Full — 7,500 7,500 — 15,000 — 30,000 12,000 15,000 20,000
75 1 7,500 12,000 15,000 — 36,000 12,000 20,000 25,000
2 — —
Full — — 15,000 — 20,000 — 50,000 15,000 20,000 30,000
*The indicated energy is based on driving two steel-sheet piles, simultaneously. When single piles are driven, use approximately two-thirds of the
indicated energy.
A diesel pile-driving hammer is a self-contained driving unit that does not

require an external source of energy such as a steam boiler or an air compressor.
Thus, it is simpler and more easily moved from one location to another than a
steam hammer. A complete unit consists of a vertical cylinder, a piston or ram,
an anvil, fuel and lubrication oil tanks, a fuel pump, injectors, and a mechanical
lubricator. After a hammer is placed on top of a pile, the combined piston and
ram are lifted to the upper end of the stroke and released to start the unit opera
tion. As the ram nears the end of the down stroke, it activates a fuel pump that
TABLE 9 .2 I Data on air or steam pile-driving hammers.
Ram w eight,: Blows per Rated energy,

Hammer Model lb minute ft-lb
Vulcan single-action 2 3,000 70 7,260
1 5,000 60 15,000
0 7,500 50 24,325
10 10,000 57 32,000
14 14,000 59 42,000
16 16,250 58 48,750
20 20,000 59 60,000
30 30,000 54 90,000
340 40,000 60 120,000
360 60,000 62 180,000
McKiernan-Terry S5 5,000 60 16,250
single-action S8 8,000 55 26,000
S10 10,000 55 32,500
S14 14,000 60 37,500
S20 20,000 60 60,000
Vulcan differential action 30C 3,000 133 7,260
50C 5,000 120 15,100
80C 8,000 111 24,450
100C 10,000 103 32,885
140C 14,000 103 36,000
200C 20,000 98 50,200
McKiernan-Terry 9B3 1,600 145 8,750
double-action 10B3 3,000 105 13,100
11B3 5,000 95 19,150
injects the fuel into the combustion chamber between the ram and the anvil. The
continued down stroke of the ram compresses the air and the fuel to ignition
heat. The resulting explosion drives the pile downward and the ram upward to
repeat its stroke. The energy per blow, which is controlled by the operator, can
be varied over a wide range. Diesel hammers deliver about 40 to 50 blows/min.
Typically, the diesel hammer is set in leads on the crane. Table 9.3 gives infor
mation on diesel hammers of a manufacturer of pile driving equipment.
T A B L E 9 .3 I Data on diesel hammers.
Piston Blows Rated

weight, per energy,
■Hammer Model lb minute ft-lb
McKiernan-Terry single-action DE10 1,000 40-50 8,800
DE20 2,000 40-50 18,000
DE30 2,800 40-50 25,200
DE40 4,000 40-50 36,000
DE50 5,000 40-50 45,000
DE70 7,000 40-50 63,000
SHEET PILING
Sheet piles are used to form a continuous wall by installing sheets of steel that
interlock. The cost of sheet piling in place will include the cost of the piling
material, driving equipment, and labor. If the piling is to be salvaged, there will
be an additional cost for extracting it. It is common practice to drive two piles
simultaneously.
Sheet piling is manufactured in both flat and Z-section sheets that have inter
locking longitudinal edges. The flat sections are designed to interlocking strength,
which makes them suitable for construction of cellular structures. The Z-sections
are designed for bending, which makes them more suitable for construction of
retaining walls, bulkheads, cofferdams, and for supporting excavation.
Table 9.4 gives information for sheet piles manufactured by steel compa
nies in the United States. Table 9.5 gives representative rates for driving steel-
sheet piles when they are driven in pairs with the size hammer recommended in
Table 9.1.
T A B L E 9 .4 I Properties of steei-sheet piles.
Weight
Type and Ib/lin ft Ib/sf
section no. Width, in. Area, sq. in. of pile of wall
Straight type
PS31 19.69 14.96 50.9 31.0
PS27.5 19.69 13.27 45.1 27.5
Angle type
PSA23 16 8.99 30.7 23.0
Z-type
PZ22 22 11.86 40.3 22.0
PZ27 18 11.91 40.5 27.0
PZ35 22.64 19.41 66.0 35.0
PZ40 19.69 19,30 65.6 40.0
E X A M P L E 9 .2
Estimate the cost of furnishing and driving steel-sheet piling for a cofferdam to
enclose a rectangular area 60 by 100 ft. The piles will be 16 in. wide, 24 ft long, and
w eigh 30.7 lb/ft (see Table 9.4 section no. PSA23). The piles will be driven in pairs
to full penetration into soil having normal frictional resistance.
A hammer delivering approxim ately 6,000 ft-lb of energy per blow should be
used. A suitable steel cap should be placed on top of the piles to protect them from
dam age during driving. The hammer will be suspended from a crawler-mounted
crane. A portable air com pressor will supply air.
T A B L E 9 .5 I Representative number of steel-sheet piles

driven per hour.
W eight o f pile,
Ib/lin ft
L ength of D epth of
pile, ft pen etration 20 30 40
20
i 6 5f 5|
2
Full 5£ 51 53
1
25 2 5 4| 4s
Full ^4 4 4
1
30 2 45 4| 4
o3
Full 4 O4 3£
q3
35 1
2 4 o4 3i
Full 3j 3l 3
1
40 2 — 3? 3
o3
Full — 3 ‘- A
1 —
45 2 — 2f
Full — — 2|
1 pi
50 2
Full pi
4
Perimeter of wall: (60 ft + 100 ft + 60 ft + 100 ft) = 320 ft
Number of 16-in.-wide sheet piles: 320 ft/(16/12 ft) = 240 piles

Corner sheet piles will be the same section, bent at right angles
Linear feet of driven sheet piling: 240 piles x 24 ft/pile = 5,760 ft

Weight of sheet piling: 5,760 ft x 30.7 lb/ft = 76,832 lb
Square feet of sheet piling: 320 ft X 24 ft = 7,680 sf
Time to drive piles:
From Table 9.5, for a 30 lb/ft sheet pile, 24 ft long, driven to full penetration
Number of steel-sheet pile driven per hour = 4 ft/hr
Linear feet of piles, based on pairs: 240 piles/4 piles/hr = 60 hr
Cost:
Material cost:
Sheet piling: 76,832 lb @ $0.78/lb = $59,928.96
Equipm ent costs:
Crane: 60 hr @ $65.40/hr $3,924.00
Leads for hammer: 60 hr @ $14.30/hr = 858.00
Hammer: 60 hr @ $9.80/hr = 588.00
Other equipm ent and supplies: 60 hr @ $9.35/hr = 561.00
Total equipm ent costs = $6,810.00
Labor costs, allow 8 hr for crew to set up and take down equipm ent:
Foreman: (60 hr + 8 hr) = 68 hr @ $25.00/hr = $1,700.00
Crane operator: 68 hr @ $21.67/hr = 1,473.56
General laborers: 68 hr x 3 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 3,174.24
Summary of costs:
Material = $59,928.96
Equipm ent = 6,810.00
Labor = 6,347.80
Total cost = $73,086,76
Cost per pile: $73,086.76/240 = $304.53/pile

Cost per linear foot of piling: $73,086.76/5,760 ft = $ 1 2 .68/ft
Cost per square foot of sheet piling: $73,086,76/7,680 sf = $9.51/sf
These costs do not include taxes, insurance, overhead, contingency, or profit.
WOOD PILES
The cost of wood load-bearing piles in place will include the cost of the piles
delivered to the job; the cost of moving the pile-driving equipment to the job,
setting it up, taking it down, and moving out; the cost of equipment and labor
driving the piles. Since the cost of moving in, setting up, taking down, and mov
ing out is the same regardless of the number of piles driven, the cost per pile will
be lower for a greater number of piles.
The cost of wood piles is usually based on the length, size, quality, treat
ment, and location of the job. Wood piles are tapered from an endpoint diame
ter of 6 to 8 in. to a butt diameter of 12 to 14 in. Lengths vary from 30 to 50 ft.
For piles that are to be driven over 50 ft in depth, a splice of two sections of piles
is required.
A preservative treatment of creosote or pentachlorophenol is generally
applied to wood piles. Treatments reduce the tendency of decay but often
increase the brittleness of wood, which increases the possibility of breakage dur
ing the driving process. A steel boot can be placed on the pile point to reduce the
tendency of breakage during driving of the pile.
Because piles are sometimes broken during the driving process, a reasonable
allowance for extra piles should be included in the estimate. If the contractor is paid
for the total number of linear feet of piles driven, any piles that cannot be driven
to full penetration will result in some wastage. When it is necessary to cut off the
tops of piles to a fixed elevation, the estimate should include the cost of cutting.
The estimator should thoroughly evaluate each project to determine the
number and length of piles, number of splices, desired steel boots for pile points,
potential for breakage, and waste for cutting the tops of piles to match the ele
vation of the pile caps.
DRIVING WOOD PILES

A relatively fixed amount of energy is required to drive a pile of a given length
into a given soil, regardless of the frequency of the blows. Consequently, a ham
mer delivering a given amount of energy per blow will reduce the driving time
if it strikes more blows per minute. This is particularly true in driving piles into
materials where skin friction and not point resistance is to be overcome, for the
skin friction will not have as much time to develop between blows when the
blows are struck more frequently.
Table 9.6 gives the approximate number of wood piles that should be driven
per hour for various lengths in the driving conditions. The rates are based on
using a hammer of the proper size.
T A B L E 9 .6 I Representative number of wood piles driven per

hour, full penetration.
Pile driven per hour

L ength o f p iles, ft N ormal friction High friction
20 5 4
28 41 3
pi
32 3i
36 3 pi
40 2? 2
50 2j If
60 2 1J
EXAMPLE 9 . 3
Estimate the cost of furnishing and driving 160 wood piles 36 ft long into a soil hav
ing normal frictional resistance. The piles will be purchased in 40-ft lengths and the
tops will be cut to the required elevation after driving. The piles will be approxim ately
14 in. in diam eter at the butt and 7 in. at the tip. The piles will be treated with cre
osote preservative at a rate of 2.5 Ib/cf, therefore breakage should be considered.
The average w eight of a pile will be about 37 Ib/lin ft. Reference to Table 9.1
indicates that the hammer should deliver approxim ately 7,000 theoretical ft-lb of
energy per blow. Use a Vulcan size 2 single-acting hammer.
Number of piles to be driven = 1 6 0 piles
Add 5% for breakage, 5% x 160 = 8 piles
Total = 168 piles
Number of linear feet of pile to be purchased: 168 ft x 40 ft = 6,720 ft

Number of linear feet of piles to be driven: 168 piles x 36 ft = 6,048 ft
Num ber of required boots for pile points = 168
Num ber of piles that must be cut at top = 160

From Table 9.6, for 36-ft-long wood pile driven in normal friction to full
penetration, the rate of driving will be 3 piles/hr.
Time to drive piles: (168 piles)/(3 piles/hr) = 56 hr <-

Cost for driving piles:
Material costs:
Treated piles: 6,720 ft @ $ 10.85/ft = $72,912.00
Pile points: 168 pile point @ $64.78 = 10,883.04
Equipm ent costs:
Crane: 56 hr @ $82.40/hr $4,614.40
Leads for hammer: 56 hr @ $14.63/hr = 819.28
Hammer: 56 hr @ $10.80/hr = 604.80
Other equipm ent and supplies: 56 hr @ $9.35/hr = 523.60
Labor costs, allow 8 hr for the crew to set up and take down equipm ent:
Crane operator: 64 hr @ $21.67/hr = 1,386.88
Summary of costs:
Material = $83,795.04
Labor = 5,974.40
Total cost = $ 9 7 ,1 5 1 .9 2
Cost per driven pile: $97,151.92/160 piles = $607.20

Cost per linear foot of driven pile: $97,151.92/6,048 ft = $16.06/ft
This cost does not include taxes, insurance, overhead, contingency, or profit.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PILES

Prestressed concrete piles are manufactured by companies that specialize in
precast concrete. The piles may be round, square, or octagonal. The amount of
steel, strength of concrete, and amount of prestressing depends on the specifi
cations prepared by the designer. After the piles are cast, they are normally
steam cured until they have reached sufficient strength to allow them to be
removed from the forms.
The cost of concrete piles will depend on the length, diameter, and strength,
and the distance from the fabrication yard of the supplier to the jobsite. The
weight of concrete piles is high; therefore the cost of transporting the piles to the
job can be significant.
Because of the varied conditions that can affect the costs, it is not possible to
prepare a general estimate that will apply to a particular project without the infor
mation that must be obtained from a concrete supplier that is to furnish the piles.
To estimate the cost, the estimator must obtain price quotes from the supplier.
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES

Cast-in-place piles are especially suitable for use on projects where the soil con
ditions are such that the depth of penetration is not known in advance and the
depth varies among the piles driven.
Several methods of casting concrete piles in place are used. In general, they
involve driving tapered steel shells or steel pipes, which are later filled with con
crete. Although the shells are left in place, the pipes sometimes are withdrawn
as the concrete is deposited.
The monotube pile is installed by driving a fluted, tapered steel shell to the
desired penetration depth (see Fig. 9.3). The 8 -in. tip is closed for the driving
operation. If necessary, additional sections may be welded to the original tube as
driving progresses to the required length. Any length of pile, up to approxi
mately 125 ft, can be obtained by welding extensions to the shell. Table 9.7 pro
vides data on monotube piles.
After driving is completed in a given area, the condition of the tubes is
inspected for damage. If a tube is damaged, it can be removed and replaced.
After approval by inspection, concrete is then poured into the tubes. No addi
tional reinforcing steel is required. If steel anchor bolts are specified, they are
placed into the tops of the pile before the concrete hardens.
Cost of Cast-in-PIace Piles

In estimating the cost of cast-in-place concrete piles, it is necessary to determine
the cost of the shells delivered to the project, the cost of equipment and labor
required to drive the shells, and the cost of the concrete placed in the shells. All
these costs, except the cost of driving the shells, are easy to obtain.
F IG U R E 9 .3 I Monotube pile.
T A B L E 9 .7 I Data on monotube piles (type, size, weight, and concrete volumes).
Weight, lb per ft Volume of

Type, Size, point diameter x
taper per ft butt diameter x length 9 ga* 7 ga 5 ga 3 ga concrete, cy
F-type
0.14 in./ft 8 5 in. x 12 in. x 25 ft 17 20 24 28 0.43
0.14 in./ft 8 in. X 12 in. X 30 ft 16 20 23 27 0.55
0.14 in./ft 8 j in. x 14 in. x 40 ft 19 22 26 31 0.95
0.14 in./ft 8 in. x 16 in. x 60 ft 20 24 28 33 1.68
0.14 in./ft 8 in. x 18 in. x 75 ft — 26 31 35 2.59
J-type
0.24 in./ft 8 in, x 12 in. x 17 ft 17 20 23 27 0.32
0.24 in./ft 8 in, x 12 in. x 17 ft 18 22 26 30 0.58
0.24 in./ft 8 in. x 12 in. x 17 ft 18 24 28 32 0.95
0.24 in./ft 8 in. x 12 in. x 17 ft — 26 30 35 1.37
/-type
0.40 in./ft 8 in. x 12 in. x 17 ft 17 20 224 28 0.18
0.40 in./ft 8 in. x 14 in. x 15 ft 19 22 26 30 0.34
0.40 in./ft 8 in. x 16 in. x 2 0 ft 20 24 28 33 0.56
0.40 in./ft 8 in. x 18 in. x 25 ft — 26 31 35 0.86
Extensions (overall lengths 1 ft greater than indicated)

Type Diameter x length 9 ga 7 ga 5 ga 3 ga (cy/ft)
A/12 12 in. x 12 in x 20-40 ft 20 24 28 33 0.026
N 14 12 in. x 14 in. x 20-40 ft 24 29 34 41 0.035
N 16 12 in. x 16 in. x 20-40 ft 28 33 39 46 0.045
A/18 12 in. x 18 in. x 20-40 ft — 38 44 52 0.058
* The abbreviation ga stands for gauge.
The rate of driving varies with the length of the piles, class of soil into which
they are driven, type of driving equipment used, spacing of the piles, topogra
phy of the site, and weather conditions. If a project requires the driving of a sub
stantial number of piles, it may be desirable to make subsoil tests, to obtain reli
able information related to the difficulty of driving piles and the lengths of piles
required.
STEEL PILES
Steel piles are especially suited to projects where it is necessary to drive piles
through considerable depths of poor soil to reach solid rock or another forma
tion having high load-supporting properties. Standard rolled steel ///^-sections or
wide-flange beams are most frequently used, although fabricated sections are
sometimes used for special conditions. Standard sections are less expensive than
fabricated sections.
Driving operations are similar to those of other piles. Steel piles do not
require the care in handling that must be observed in handling precast-concrete
piles. A cap can be installed on the top of piles to reduce the potential for dam
age during the driving operation.
Table 9.8 gives data for various steel piles and Table 9.9 gives approximate
rates for driving steel piles when one is using an appropriate size hammer.
T A B L E 9 .8 I Data on selected steel-pile sections.
Cross-sectional
dimensions, in., Weight,
Designation depth x width Area, sq. in. ib/lin ft
HP14x117 14.21 X 14.89 34.4 117
14x102 14.04 X 14.79 30.0 102
14x89 13.83 X 14.70 26.1 89
14x73 13.01 X 14.59 21.4 73
HP 12x84 13.15 x 13.21 24.6 84
12x74 12.95 x 13.11 21.8 74
12x63 12.75 x 13.00 18.4 63
12x53 12.54 X 12.90 15.5 53
HP10X57 9.99 X 10.25 16.8 57
10x42 9.70 X 10.08 . 12.4 42
HP8x36 8.02 X 8.155 10.6 36
T A B L E 9 .9 I Approximate number of steel piles driven to

full penetration per hour.*
Weight of pile, Ib/lin ft

Length of pile, ft 1 00 75 55 35
30 3 q4
O! 31
Oi p3 3 3
35 ^2
p pi
40 2? ^4i 25
45 1? 1! 1? —
50 1? 15 1| —
55 H 15 — —
60 1 1 - —
3
70 4 — — —
1
80 2 — — —
‘ These rates are based on piles being delivered to the job in lengths up to 40
ft. For lengths greater than 40 ft, a field weld will be required for each pile.
EXAMPLE 9 . 4
Estimate the cost for bid purposes for furnishing and driving 180 steel piles, 40 ft
long. The piles are designated as HP14x73. The piles will be driven to full penetra
tion into soil having high frictional resistance. It will cost $9,000 to move the pile driv
ing equipm ent to and from the job.
A single-acting air-driven pile hammer will be used. Table 9.1 indicates that a
hammer with 12,000 ft-lb of energy is required. Table 9.2 shows several models of
pile driving equipm ent are available. For this project a 5,000-lb hammer that can
deliver at least 15,000 ft-lb of energy will be used. The pile-driving hammer will be
mounted on the leads of a craw ler crane, which will be used to lift the piles into posi
tion, support the leads, and lift the hammer. The cost can be determ ined as
Linear feet of piles: 180 piles x 40 ft = 7,200 ft
Total weight of piles: 7,200 ft x 73 lb/ft = 525,600 lb

From Table 9.9 for a 75 lb/ft pile, 40 ft long the driving rate = 2{ piles/hr
Time for driving piles: (180 piles)/(2g piles/hr) = 80 hr
Considering a 45-min hour, the total time will be 60/45 x 80 hr = 107 hr
Rounding to a full 8-hour day, the total time will be 112 hr ^
Cost to drive piles:

Materials:
Piles: 525,600 lb @ $0.32/lb = $168,192.00
Pile caps: 180 caps @ $87/cap = 15,660.00
Equipm ent costs:

Crane: 1 1 2 hr @ $82.40/hr = $9,928.80
Leads for hammer: 112 hr @ $14.63/hr = 1,638.56
Hammer: 112 hr @ $10.80/hr = 1,209.60
Air compressor: 112 hr @ $14.65/hr = 1,640.80
Other equipm ent and supplies: 112 hr @ $9.35/hr = 1,047.20
Labor costs, allow 8 hours for crew to set up and take down equipm ent:
Crane operator, 120 hr @ $21.67/hr = 2,600.40
Taxes:
W orkm an’s com pensation: $4.37 per $100 x $ 11,202 = $489.53
Social security tax: 7.65% x $11,202 = 856.95
Unemploym ent tax: 4% x $ 11,202 = 448.08
Material taxes: 5% x $183,852 = 9,192.60
Subtotal of taxes = $10,987.16

Materials = 183,852.00
Labor = 11,202.00
Taxes = 10,987.16
Subtotal of direct costs = $221,506.12
Office overhead: 2% x $221,506.12 = $4,430.12

Job overhead: 4% x $221,506.12 = 8,860.24
Contingency: 3% x $221,506.12 = 6,645.18
Subtotal = $19,935.54
Total direct costs = $221,506.12

Overhead + contingency = 19,935.54
Subtotal = $241,441.66
Total estimated cost = $241,441.66

Profit: 7% x $241,441.66 = 16,900.92
Subtotal = $258,342.58
Performance bond:
$258,342.58 @ $12.00 per $1,000 = $3,100.11
Sum of subtotal cost = $258,342.58

Performance bond = 3,100.11
Bid price = $261,442.69 <-
Cost per driven pile: $261,442.69/180 piles = $1,452/pile

Cost per linear foot of driven pile: $261,442.69/7,200 ft = $36.31/ft
JETTING PILES INTO POSITION

If the formation into which the piles are driven contains considerable sand, the
rate of driving can be increased by jetting with water. To accomplish this with
concrete piles, steel pipes, t \ to 2 in. diameter, can be placed in the piles when
they are cast. Water is injected into the pipe at a rate of 100 to 400 gal/min to jet
a concrete pile into position. Required pressures will be 100 to 200 psi. For suit
able soil conditions, this method will sink piles much more quickly than using
pile-driving hammers.
DRILLED SHAFT FOUNDATIONS

Drilled-shaft foundations are installed by placing reinforced concrete in holes
that have been drilled into the soil. Truck-mounted rotary drilling rigs can drill
holes with diameters from 12 to 96 in. Depths up to approximately 100 ft are
possible; however, most drilled shafts range from 6 to 50 ft deep. The bottom of
the drilled hole can be underreamed with a belling tool to provide an increased
bearing capacity of the foundation.
Two types of belling tools are available to underream drilled shafts; one
opens out from the top, as shown in Fig. 9.4a and one opens out from the bot
tom, as shown in Fig. 9.4b. Equation [9.1] can be used to determine the volume
of the shaft for the underream of the type of hole illustrated in Fig. 9.4b.
(Df ~ h ) + ~ - { d ] + dsdb + d2
b) [9.1]
where
Vc = total volume of concrete in the shaft, cf
Df = depth of foundation, ft
h = depth from the bottom of shaft to top of bell, ft
ds = diameter of shaft, ft
dh = diameter of bell, ft
Steel reinforcing
Ground
777777777777777771 [77777777777777777777777-
impress
ta p
m m
p & itew
w m . Round shaft,
variable diameter ® i§
if #
Tie bars
|a
Underream
•' LiJ-.•
<' •.' ’i t ~7fey o-' >
liggogi.. . Concrete blocks to

support reinforcing
(a) (b)
FIG U R E 9 .4 I Drilled hole for cast-in-place concrete piles; underream made by a

belling tool that opens out (a) from the bottom and (b) from the top.
Cohesive soils, such as dry clays, generally have sufficient strength to pro
vide natural stability of the sides of the drilled shaft. However, if water is pres
ent the sides of the shaft drilled into clay may become unstable. Cohensionless
soils such as sands are unstable in both the dry and wet condition. When drilling
into unstable soils or where water may be present, it is usually necessary to
install cylindrical steel casing to hold the sides of the shaft until the reinforcing
steel and concrete are placed. The casing is pulled from the hole during place
ment of the concrete.
Table 9.10 provides representative rates of drilling various diameters of
shafts into soils. Table 9.11 gives approximate rates for drilling into soft rock,
such as shales. These rates can vary, depending on the moisture and hardness of
the soil and the size of the rotary drilling rig. A thorough evaluation of the soil
test borings is necessary to determine the rate of drilling.
T A B L E 9 .1 0 I Representative rates of drilling shafts into soils.
Rate of drilling in soils, ft/hr

Diameter, in. Casing required No casing required
18 24-26 19 21
24 22-25 15-17
30 18-20 10-12
36 15-17 7-8
48 12-13 6-7
60 10-12 5-6
72 9-11 4-5
84 8-10 3-4
96 7-8 2-3
T A B L E 9 .11 I Representative rates of

drilling shafts into soft rock material.
Drilling in soft rock

Diameter, in. material, ft/hr
18 6.0-6.7
24 3.6-3.9
30 2.4-2.6
36 1.7-2.1
48 1.1-1.4
60 0.8-1.0
72 0.7-0.8
84 0.6-0.7
96 0.5-0.6
Vertical reinforcing steel is tied together by horizontal ties or spiral hoops,

and lowered into position in the drilled shaft. Lugs, attached to the reinforcing
cage, hold them into position at the center of the hole until concrete is placed.
The cost of drilled-shaft foundations will include mobilization of equip

ment, drilling of the shaft, casing (if required), fabrication and placement of the
reinforcing steel, and concrete material and placement.
EXAMPLE 9 . 5
A 15-mi-long electric transmission line requires 64 steel truss towers to support the
conductors and shield wires. There are four drilled shaft-foundations for each tower,
one for each leg of the earth tower, similar to the type shown in Fig. 9.4b. Each foun
dation is to be installed with a 24-in, diam eter at a depth of 9 ft in dry clay; therefore,
no casing will be required. A 42-in.-diam eter bell is required for each foundation.
Reinforcing steel consists of eight vertical bars 9 ft long with § in. diameters.
Horizontal ties will be placed at 12 in. on centers. Tie bars will have §-in. diameters
and will have a 3-in. overlap on their ends, A 3-in. clear cover is required on all rein
forcing steel. Ready-mix concrete will be obtained from a local concrete supplier.
The concrete will be delivered to the job and placed directly into the drilled holes.
Number of drilled shafts, 64 structures x 4 foundations/structure = 256 drilled
shafts
Total linear feet of drilling, 256 shafts x 9 ft/shaft = 2,304 lin ft
Concrete:
Volume of concrete per drilled shaft from Eq. [9.1]:
^ = IM t {Df_h)+Il^{d2+ d$db+d2
b) 9
[ ii]
3.14 x (2 ft )2
= ----------- ----- -- [9.0 ft - 1.3 ft
4
+ 3 1 4 * 1-3 ft [(2.0 ft )2 + (2.0 ft X 3.5 ft) + (3.5 ft)2]
= 32.1 c f for each drilled shaft
Total volume of concrete: 256 shafts X (32.1 cf/shaft)/(27 cf/cy) = 304.4 cy

Add 3% waste = 9.1 cy
Total volume = 313.5 cy
Reinforcing steel:
Vertical bars (§ in. diameter):
Total length: 256 shafts X 8 bars/shaft X 9 ft/bar = 18,432 lin ft
Total weight: 18,432 lin ft @ 1.502 lb/ft = 27,685 lb
Horizontal tie bars (§ in. diameter):
Centerline diameter: [24 in. dia. - ( 2 x 3 in. cover) - § in.] = 17.625 in.
C ircum ference: (3.14 x 17.625 in. + 3-in. lap )/(12 in./ft) = 4.86 ft
Total length: 256 shafts x 9 bars/shaft x 4.86 ft/bar = 11,197 lin ft

Total weight: 11,197 lin ft @ 0.376 lb/ft = 4,210 lb
Time to drill foundations:
Rate of drilling, from Table 9.10 for 24-in. diameter in firm clay: rate = 16 ft/hr
Time for drilling: 2,304 lin ft/16 ft/hr = 144 hr
Considering 45-min. hour, the total time will be 60/45 X 144 hr = 192 hr
Rounding to a full 8-hour day, the total time will be 192 hr <-
Cost of work:
Material costs:
Ready-mix concrete: 313.5 cy @ $75/cy = $23,512.50
Vertical bars in place: 27,685 lb @ $0.31/lb = 8,582.35
Horizontal tie bars in place: 4,210 lb @ $0.34/lb = 1,431.40
Equipm ent costs:

Drilling rig: 192 hr @ $168/hr = $32,256.00
Moving drill rig to and from job = 5,000.00
Total equipm ent cost = $37,256.00
Labor costs:
Drill operator: 192 hr @ $21.67/hr = $4,160.06
Laborers: 192 hr X 2 laborers @ $15.56/hr = 5,975.04
Foreman: 192 hr @ $25.00/hr = 4,800.00
Summary of costs:
Material = $33,526.25
Labor = 14,935.10
Total cost = $85,717.35
Cost per linear foot: $85,717.35/2,304 ft = 37.20/ft

Cost per cubic yard: $85,717.35/304.4 cy = $281.59/cy
These costs do not include taxes, insurance, overhead, contingency, or profit. .
PROBLEMS
9.1 Estimate the total cost and the cost per linear foot for furnishing and driving 96
creosote-treated wood piles to full penetration into soil having high frictional
resistance. The piles will be 40 ft long, with 14-in minimum diameters at the butt
and 6-in minimum diameters at the tip. The tip of each pile will be fitted with a
metal point to facilitate driving.
The cost of moving the pile driving equipment to the job and back to the
storage yard will be $1,950.00. The cost of piles is $9.72/lin ft and the cost of
pile points is $54.50 each. Use the information in Table 9.6 and estimate the
total cost and cost per linear foot of driven pile.
9.2 Estimate the total direct cost and cost per linear foot for furnishing and driving
the piles of Prob. 9.1 to full penetration into soil having normal frictional resis
tance. Use a metal point on the tip of each pile.
9.3 Estimate the total direct cost and the cost per linear foot for furnishing and driv
ing steel-sheet piling for construction of the basement of a building, 150 by
240 ft. The piles will be 22 in. wide, 18 ft. long, and weigh 40.3 Ib/lin ft (see
Table 9.4, section no. PZ22). The piles will be driven in pairs to full penetration
into soil having normal frictional resistance.
Assume the cost of moving the equipment to and from the job will be
$1,540.00. Use the same material costs, equipment, equipment costs, and wage
rates as in Example 9.2.
9.4 Estimate the total direct cost and cost per linear foot for furnishing steel piles,
HP 14 X 73, into soil having high frictional resistance. The piles will be driven
to full penetration. The piles will be 40 ft long. The material costs, equipment
costs, wage rates, and other conditions will be the same as in Example 9.4.
9.5 Estimate the total cost and cost per cubic yard for installing 95 drilled-shaft
foundations in hard clay soil. Each foundation is to be installed, similar to the
type shown in Fig. 9.4(b), with a 30-in.-diameter shaft and a 54-in.-diameter
underream at a depth of 14 ft.
Vertical reinforcing steel consists of twelve f-in.-diameter bars, 14 ft long.
Horizontal ties are to be placed at 15 in. on centers and a 6-in. lap. Ties are j-in.
in diameter. The material costs, equipment costs, and wage rates will be the
same as in Example 9.5.
Concrete Structures
COST OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The items that govern the total costs of concrete structures include
1. Forms
2. Reinforcing steel
3. Concrete
4. Finishing, if required
5. Curing
Formwork for concrete structures is usually measured in square feet of con-
tact of area (SFCA). The SFCA is the surface area that concrete will be in con-
tact with the forms. For example, an 8 -ft-high wall, 200 ft long, would have
3,200 SFCA, calculated as 8 ft X 200 ft X 2 sides = 3,200 SFCA. The unit of
measure for reinforcing steel is pounds of weight, whereas the unit of measure
for concrete is cubic yards of volume. The finishing and curing of concrete is
measured in square feet.
When preparing an estimate, the cost of each of these items should be deter
mined separately and a code number should be assigned to each item. The cost
of an item should include all materials, equipment, and labor required for that
item. Then, after all the costs are determined, the total cost can be divided by the
SFCA. Following this procedure will simplify the preparation of an estimate of
concrete structures.
FORMS FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Concrete structures can be constructed in any shape for which it is possible to
build forms. However, the cost of forms for complicated shapes is considerably
greater than for simple shapes because of the extra material and labor costs
required to build them, the reduced potential to reuse the forms, and the low sal
vage value after they are used.
Since the major cost of a concrete structure frequently results from the cost
of forms, the designer of a structure should consider the effect that the shape of
the structure will have on the cost of forms.
Forms for concrete are fabricated from lumber, plywood, steel, aluminum,
and various composite materials, either separately or in combination. If the form
material will be used only a few times, the lumber will usually be more eco
nomical than steel or aluminum. However, if the forms can be fabricated into
panel sections or other shapes, such as round column forms, that will be used
many times, then the greater number of uses obtainable with steel and aluminum
may produce a lower cost per use than with lumber.
The material should be selected for the form that will give the lowest total
cost of a structure, considering the cost of the forms plus the cost of finishing the
surface of the concrete, if required, after the forms are removed. The use of lum
ber will usually leave form marks that may have to be removed at considerable
cost, whereas the use of smooth-surface plywood or metal forms can reduce the
cost of removing form marks. It is a better practice to spend extra money on
good-quality form materials, than it is to spend money on labor to hand-finish
concrete.
The cost of forms will include the cost of materials, such as lumber, nails,
bolts, form ties, and the cost of labor making, erecting, removing, and cleaning
the forms. Frequently there will be a cost of power equipment, such as saws and
drills, and a small lifting crane for handling materials. If it is possible to reuse
the forms, an appropriate allowance should be made for salvage value. If the
forms are treated with oil prior to each use, the cost of the oil should be included.
MATERIALS FOR FORMS

Forms for concrete structures are generally fabricated from standard-dimension
lumber and plywood sheets. Because the lumber must be cut and fastened for the
particular shape of the concrete member, considerable waste often occurs. The
cost of materials for forms should include an allowance for waste.
Plywood is used for sheathing of walls, columns, and floor slabs to achieve
a smooth surface. Lumber is used to support the plywood. For wall and column
forms, 2 X 4 and 2 X 6 dimension lumber is commonly used, whereas 4 X 4
and 4 X 6 lumber is typically used for floor slabs and bridge decks.
For large projects or jobs that have extremely high concrete pressures, steel
forms are frequently used. The initial fabrication cost for steel is high, but the
ability to reuse the forms many times makes them economical. Steel forms also
have higher strength to resist the concrete pressure that is applied to the forms.
Plywood Used for Forms

Plywood sheets are made in various thicknesses with waterproof glue. Those
f,
commonly used are |, and 1 in. thick. It is available in sheets 4 ft wide and
8 , 10, and 12 ft long. Other dimensions can be obtained on special order. It is
Chapter 10 Concrete Structures 217
necessary to install the plywood with the outer layers perpendicular to the
studs or joists to obtain maximum strength. Plywood and Plyform are priced
by the sheet.
The plywood industry manufactures a special product, designated as
Plyform, for use in forming concrete. Plyform is an exterior-type plywood lim
ited to certain species of wood and grades of veneer to ensure high performance
as a form material. The panels are sanded on both sides and oiled by the manu
facturer. Plyform can be reused more times than plywood. A special high-
density overlay (HDO) can be applied to the surface of Plyform by the manu
facturer, which will allow the HDO Plyform to be used in excess of 100 uses.
Dimension Lumber Used for Forms

The net dimensions of lumber are given in Chapter 12. Because the net dimen
sions are less than nominal dimensions, it is necessary to use the net dimensions
to determine the quantity of lumber required for formwork. Standard lengths are
available in multiples of 2 ft. The common lengths of lumber are 8 , 10, 12, 14,
16, and 18 ft. If an odd length, such as 9 ft, is required, it can be obtained by cut
ting an 18-ft-long board into two equal lengths or by cutting 1 ft off a 1 0 -ft-long
board, with a resulting waste.
Lumber is measured and priced by board feet (bf). A board foot is a piece
of lumber whose nominal dimensions are 1 in. thick, 1 2 in. wide, and 1 ft long.
Thus, a 2 X 4 piece of lumber is equivalent to 0.67 bf per foot of length, whereas
a 2 X 8 piece of lumber is equivalent to 1.33 bf per foot of length.
There are many grades and species of lumber. The grade of lumber is clas
sified as no. 1, 2, or 3. Grades 1 and 2 are commonly used as form material.
Common species are Douglas Fir and Southern Pine. The price of lumber
depends on grade, species, and size.
Nails Required for Forms

The quantity of nails required for forms usually will vary from 10 to 20 lb/1,000
bf of lumber for the first use of lumber and from 5 to 10 lb/1,000 bf for addi
tional uses if the forms can be reused without completely refabricating them.
The price of nails is based on pounds of weight.
There are three types of nails used for forms: common wire nails, box nails,
and double-headed nails. The common wire nail is the most frequently used nail
for fastening form members together. A box nail has a thinner shank than a com
mon wire nail, which makes it more useful for built-in-place forms. Double
headed nails are frequently used in formwork when it is desirable to remove the
nail easily, such as for stripping forms.
Form Oil
Form oil is applied to surfaces of the forms that will come in contact with con
crete. It prevents the concrete from attaching to the form material and facilitates
removal of the forms. Sometimes form oil is called bond-breaker. Form oil can
be applied with mops, brushes, or pressure sprayers. Generally it is applied as a
rate of 300 to 500 sf/gal.
Form Ties
To resist the internal pressure resulting from the concrete, form ties are placed
between the forms, as shown in Fig. 10.1. Form ties serve two purposes: they
hold the forms apart prior to placing the concrete, and they resist the lateral pres
sure of the freshly placed concrete. A tie clamp is used to secure both ends of
the tie. Thus, two tie clamps are required for each tie. Sometimes cam-lock
brackets are used in place of wedge tie clamps.
Many varieties of ties are available. The snap tie and coil tie are most com
monly used. Both of these ties are designed to break off inside the concrete after
the forms are removed. The coil tie has a plastic cone at each end of the tie that
enables a cleaner break upon removal, which may be required for architectural
finished concrete surfaces. The holes on the surface can be filled with concrete
to obtain a smooth surface. Manufacturers specify the safe loads that can be
resisted by their ties, which generally range from 3,000 to 5,000 lb.
A taper tie is available that can be reused. It consists of a tapered rod that is
threaded at each end. Wing nuts or coil nuts with washers are attached at each
end to secure the tie. Taper ties have larger strength than snap or coil ties. In
ordering form ties it is necessary to specify the thickness of the wall, sheathing,
studs, and wales.
Form Liners
Architectural concrete form liners can be used to create a virtually unlimited
variety of textured or sculpted finishes on concrete surfaces. The surfaces can
simulate wood grains, rough brick, blocks, or an irregular texture. Form liners
may be rigid or flexible.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheets of rigid form liners are attached to the form
work prior to placing the concrete. Following placement and normal curing time,
the formwork and liner are stripped, leaving a textured concrete surface. The
sheets generally are 4 ft wide and 10 ft long with square edges to allow the place
ment of adjacent sheets for large areas of concrete. Sheets of rigid form liners are
lightweight and easily stripped. A releasing agent should be applied to the form
liner to ensure uniformity of the concrete surface and to protect the form liner for
possible reuse. Flexible form liners are also available that are made of urethanes,
which can be peeled away from the concrete surface, revealing the desired texture.
Form liners are expensive, often more than the cost of the plywood and lum
ber. The cost depends on the type of liner selected. The estimator must obtain a
price quote from the concrete supplier who will provide the form liner for a par
ticular job.
B-l 1 Flat washer Wales
Studs
(d) Taper tie
F IG U R E 10.1 I Ties for concrete formwork: (a) snap tie with washer spreader,
(b) snap tie with cone, (c) coil tie with cone, and (d) taper tie.
Courtesy: Dayton Superior Corporation. 219
LABOR REQUIRED TO BUILD FORMS

The factors that determine the amount of labor required to build forms for con
crete structures include
1. Size of the forms.
2. Kind of materials used. Large sheets of plywood require less labor than
lumber.
3. Shape of the structure. Complicated shapes require more labor than simple
shapes.
4. Location of the forms. Forms built above the ground require more labor
than forms built on the ground or on a floor.
5. The extent to which prefabricated form panels or sections can be used.
6 . Rigidity of dimension requirements.
7. The extent to which the forms can be prefabricated in the shop and
transported to the job.
If forms are prefabricated into panels or sections and then assembled, used,
removed, and reused, it is desirable to estimate separately the labor required to
make, assemble, remove, and clean them. Because making the forms is required
only once, for additional uses it is only necessary to assemble, remove, and clean
the forms.
The production rates given in this book are based on using power saws and
other equipment as much as possible. If the fabricating is done with hand tools,
the labor required should be increased.
The tables on production rates give the minimum and maximum number of
labor-hours required to do a specified amount of work, for both carpenters and
helpers. If union regulations specify the ratio of helpers to carpenters for certain
locations, it may be necessary to transfer some of the helper time to carpenter
time. The tables include an allowance for lost time by using a 45- to 50-min hour.
FORMS FOR SLABS ON GRADE

When concrete is placed directly on the ground, side forms of metal or con
structed of 2-in. lumber are commonly used. The forms are placed around the
perimeter of the slab and secured in position with wood stakes or metal pins.
Either welded wire mesh or reinforcing steel is set in the forms, then concrete is
placed, finished, and cured. Two carpenters and a laborer can place side forms
at a rate of 400 to 500 lin ft/day.
MATERIALS FOR FOOTINGS AND

FOUNDATION WALLS
Foundation walls include grade beam footings, basement walls for buildings,
retaining walls, vertical walls for water reservoirs, etc. The forms for such walls
typically consist of 4-in. -thick plywood or Plyform sheathing, 2 X 4 or 2 X 6

studs, double 2 X 4 or 2 X 6 wales, and 2 X 4 or 2 X 6 braces. The sheathing,
studs, and wales are erected on both sides of the wall, while the braces are
spaced about 6 to 8 ft apart on one side of the wall only. Form ties are placed
between wall forms to resist the lateral pressure against wall forms resulting
from concrete.
Wall forms are frequently built as shown in Fig. 10.2. The studs are uni
formly spaced to support the plywood sheathing. Studs should be spaced so that
there will be a stud at the end of each plywood sheet. Wales are placed perpen
dicular to the studs and wall ties are used to secure the wall form together. To
keep the damage to a minimum, a standard pattern for holes for wall ties should
be adopted. The adoption of such a practice will reduce the need for drilling
holes for subsequent uses. With proper care, plywood can be used at least 3 or 4
times. With proper care, HDO Plyform can be used 30 or 40 times.
3/4 " p l y w o o d s h e a th in g
2"x4"x3;0"
(a) & 0“
•Side elevation
Section through
the wall
FIGURE 10.2 1Forms for concrete wall.
E X A M P L E 10.1
Estimate the quantity of material to form a concrete wall 9 ft 6 in. high and 25 ft 4 in.
long. The sheathing will be f-in. plywood sheets, 4 ft w ide by 8 ft long. The plywood
sheathing will be placed with the 4 ft width in the vertical direction and the 8 ft length
in the horizontal direction. Vertical studs will be 2 x 4 lumber placed at 12 in. on cen
ters and the horizontal double 2 X 4 wales will be placed at 24 in. on centers. The
tie spacing will be 24 in., center to center.
Because the height of the wall is not evenly divisible by 4 or 8 ft, there will be
waste in the 4-ft by 8-ft plywood. Also, due to the height and length of the wall there
will be waste in the studs and wales.
Prepare a list of materials and calculate the quantity of lumber per 100 sf of wall.
Include all of the material to form the wall, including braces, scab splices, and
stakes.
Plywood sheathing:
Height of wall (9 ft 6 in.) = 9.5 ft
Num ber of sheets in vertical direction: (9,5 ft)/(4 ft/sheet) = 2.4
Number of sheets of plywood for each 8-ft length of wall: 2.4 x 2 sides =
4.8 sheets
Cutting one sheet down the center, then 5 sheets are sufficient for vertical
direction
Length of wall (25 ft 4 in.) = 25.33 ft

Number of sheets in horizontal direction: (25.33 ft )/(8 ft/sheet) = 3.2
There use 4 sheets in the horizontal direction
Number of sheets required for wall, 4 horizontal x 5 vertical = 20 sheets total
Studs required:
Length of wall (25-ft 4-in.) = 304 in.
S pacing of studs: 18 in.
Number of studs per side: [(304 in.)/(12 in/stud)] + 1 = 27 studs per side
Number of studs required for one side of wall: 27 studs x 2 sides = 54
studs total
Lumber required: 54 studs x [(2 x 4)/(1 X 12)] x 10 ft long = 360 bf
Wales required:
Height of wall (9 ft 6 in.) = 114 in.
S pacing of wales: 24 in.
Number of wales required per side: (114 in.)/(24 in./wale) = 4.8, use 5
Length of wall (25 ft 4 in.) = 25.33 ft

Use wales 14-ft-long lumber, end-to-end, to provide 28 ft in total length
Lum ber for one row: (2 wales x [(2 x 4)/(1 x 12)] x 14 ft} x 2 = 37.3 bf
Lum ber required for one side of wall: 5 rows x 37.3 bf = 186 bf
Lumber required for both sides of wall: 186 bf /side X 2 sides = 372 bf
Sills required:
Top sill: 2 pieces x [(2 x 4)/(1 x 12)] x 14 ft long = 19 bf
Bottom sill: 2 pieces x [(2 x 4)/( 1 x 12)] x 14 ft long = 19 bf
Scab splices required:

Number required per side: (2 splices/row) x (5 rows) = 10 splices
Number required for both sides: 2 sides x 10 splices = 20 splices total
Lumber: 20 splices x [(2 x 4)/(1 x 12)] x 2 ft long = 27 bf
Braces required:
Braces on one side only, spaced at 6 ft with one brace at each end
Number of braces required: (25,3 ft )/(6 ft/brace) + 1 = 5 required
Lum ber required: 5 braces x [(2 x 4)/(1 x 12)] x 10 ft long = 33 bf
Stakes required:
Lumber required: 5 stakes x [(2 x 4)/(1 x 12)] X 3 ft long = 10 bf
Total quantity of lum ber = 840 bf
Nails required:
Pounds of nails: (10 lb/1,000 bf) x (840 bf) = 8.4 lb
Form ties required:

Number of ties per row of wales: (304 in.)/(24 in./tie) + 1 = 13.7, use 14 ties
per row
Number of ties required: 5 rows x 14 ties/row = 70 ties total
A dd 5% for waste = 4
Total = 74 ties
Summary of materials:
Plywood = 20 sheets
Lumber = 840 bf
Nails = 8.4 lb
Ties = 74
Quantities of material per 100 SFCA:

Total square feet of contact area: 25.3 ft X 9.5 ft x 2 sides = 481 SFCA
Plywood: 20 sheets X 32 sf/sheet = 640 sf/4.81 SFCA = 133 sf/100 SFCA
Lumber: 840 bf/4.81 SFCA = 175 bf/100 SFCA
Ties: 74 ties /4.81 SFCA = 16 ties/100 SFCA
QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND

LABOR-HOURS FOR WALL FORMS
Table 10.1 gives the approximate quantities of plywood, lumber, and form ties
and the labor-hours required for 1 0 0 sf of concrete wall using plywood for var
ious heights. For wall heights other than multiples of 2 ft, there will be wastage.
Also door and window openings, wall columns, and irregular-shaped walls will
usually cause waste and require more time to erect and remove the forms. The
estimator should consider the extent of wastage and perform the calculations
illustrated in Example 10.1 to obtain more accurate quantities of materials.
For walls up to about 12 ft high, 2 X 4 studs and double 2 X 4 wales are
generally adequate. For greater heights, 2 X 6 studs and 2 X 6 wales may be
T A B L E 10.1 I Quantities of plywood, lumber, and form ties and the labor-hours required for 100 SFCA of
wall forms.*
Labor-hours, Labor-hours erecting

making forms and removing forms
height, Plywood, Lumber, Form
ft sf bf ties Carpenter Helper Carpenter Helper
4 100-110 120-135 12 2.0-2.5 1.5-2.0 2.5-3.0 2.0-2.5
6 100-110 135-155 14 2.0-2.5 1.5-2.0 3.0-3.5 2.5-3,0
8 100-110 155-175 14 2.0-2.5 1.5-2.0 3.5-4.0 3.0-3.5
10 100-110 175-205 16 2.0-2.5 1.5-2.0 4.0-4.5 3.5-4.0
12 100-110 205-245 18 2.0-2.5 1.5-2.0 4.5-5.0 4.0-4.5
14 100-110 245-305 18 2.0-2.5 1.5-2.0 5.0-5.5 4.5-5.0
16 100-110 305-325 20 2.0-2.5 1.5-2.0 5.5-6.0 5.0-5.5
•These quantities are based on a rate of fill of approximately 4 ft/hr and at a temperature of 70°F using normal weight concrete. If the concrete is
pumped, the quantities of material may be greater than shown.
necessary. Double rows of braces should be used for walls over 12 ft high, one
near the middle and the other near the top of the wall.
Fabrication of concrete forms by a carpenter will range from 60 to 80 bf/hr,
depending on the size of material that is fabricated. Generally a laborer will
assist two or more carpenters during the fabrication process.
E X A M P L E 10.2
Estimate the cost for building, erecting, and removing concrete forms for a 12-ft
high, 85-ft 6-in.-long wall for an industrial plant. The forms will be used three times.
Thus, it will be only necessary to build 28.5 ft of the wall forms, but 85.5 ft of forms
must be erected and removed.
Plyform sheets will be used for sheathing and dimension lumber will be used for
studs and wales. A material supplier quotes these prices: $0.55/bf for lumber,
$28/sheet for 4-ft by 8 -ft Plyform, $0.49/lb for nails, and $7.50/gal for form oil.
Carpenters cost $21.56/hr and laborers cost $15.56/hr.
Forms to be erected and removed: (12 ft x 85.5 ft) x 2 sides = 2,052 SFCA
Forms to be built: 2,052 SFCA/3 uses = 684 SFCA
Use Table 10.1 median value for quantities of material:
Plyform sheathing: (684 SFCA) x (105 sf/100 SFCA) = 718.2 sf
718.2 sf/(32 sf/sheet) = 22.4 sheets, use 23 sheets of Plyform
Lumber: (684 SFCA) X (225 bf/100 SFCA) = 1,539 bf
Form ties: 2,052 SFCA x (18 ties/100 SFCA) = 370 ties
Form oil: (2,052 SFCA)/(400 SFCA/gal) = 5.1 gal
Nails for first use: (1,539 bf) x (15 lb/1,000 bf) = 23.1 lb
Nails for 2 reuses: (1,539 bf) x 2 x (10 lb/1000 bf) = 30.8 lb
Total = 53.9 lb
Labor-hours required:
Reference Table 10.1 for labor-hours:
Making forms:
Carpenter: 684 SFCA x (2.25 hr/100 SFCA) = 15.4 hr
Helper: 684 SFCA X (1.75 hr/100 SFCA) = 12.0 hr
Erecting and removing forms:
Carpenter: 2,052 SFCA x (4.75 hr/100 SFCA) = 97.5 hr
Helper: 2,052 SFCA X (4.25 hr/100 SFCA) = 87.2 hr
Foreman, based on 4 carpenters: (15.4 + 97.5)14 = 28.2 hr
Cost of labor and material:
Labor costs:
C arpenter making forms: 15.4 hr @ $21.56/hr = $332.02
Helper making forms: 12.0 hr @ $15.56/hr = 186.72
C arpenter erecting and removing: 97.5 hr @ $21.56/hr = 2,102.10
Helper erecting and removing: 87.2 hr @ $15.56/hr = 1,356.83
Foreman based on 4 carpenters: 28.2 hr @ $28/hr = 789.60
Labor cost = $4,767.27
Material costs:
Plyform: 23 sheets @ $28/sheet = $644.00
Lumber: 1,539 bf @ $0.55/bf = 846.45
Form ties: 370 ties @ $0.47/tie = 173.90
Nails: 53.9 lb @ $0.49/lb = 26.41
Form oil: 5.1 gal @ $7.50/gal = 38.25
Material cost = $1,729.01
Summary of costs:
Total labor and material: $4,767.27 + $1,729.01 = $6,496.28
Cost/SFCA: $6,496.28/2,052 SFCA = $3.17/SFCA
These costs do not include reinforcing steel, concrete, taxes, overhead, or profit.
Considerable savings can be achieved by reusing forms, as illustrated in

Examples 10.3 and 10.4. Example 10.3 shows the cost of formwork for a wall
when the forms are used only one time and Example 10.4 shows the cost for the
same wall forms, except the forms will be used three times.
E X A M P L E 10.3
Estimate the cost of formwork for a concrete wall 12 ft high and 126 ft long, assum
ing the forms will not be reused. Plyform sheets will be used for sheathing and
dimension lumber will be used for studs and wales.
A material supplier quotes these prices: $0.55/bf for lumber, $28/sheet for 4-ft
by 8 -ft Plyform, $0.49/lb for nails, and $7.50/gal for form oil. C arpenters cost
$21.56/hr and laborers cost $15.56/hr.
Total surface area of wall forms: 12 ft x 126 ft x 2 sides = 3,024 SFCA
Quantity of forms to be built, erected, and removed = 3,024 SFCA
Materials from Table 10.1:
Plyform sheathing: 3,024 SFCA X (105 sf/100 SFCA) = 3,175 sf
3,175 sf/(32 sf/sheet) = 99.2, use 100 sheets
Lumber: 3,024 SFCA x (225 bf/100 SFCA) = 6,804 bf
Form ties: 3,024 SFCA x (18 ties/100 SFCA) = 545
Nails: 6,804 bf x (15 lb/1,000 bf) = 102 lb
Form oil: (3,024 sf)/(400 sf/gal) = 7.6 gal
Labor cost:
Making forms:
Carpenter: 3,024 SFCA x
(2.25 hr/100 bf) = 68.0 hr @ $21.56/hr = $1,466.08
Helper: 3,024 SFCA x
(1.75 hr/100 bf) = 52.9 hr @ $15.56/hr = 823.12
(4.75 hr/100 SFCA) =143.6 hr @ $21.56/hr = 3,096.02
(4.25 hr/100 SFCA) = 128.5 hr @ $15.56/hr = 1,999.46
Foreman based on 4 carpenters:
(68.0 + 143.6)/4 = 52.9 hr @ $28/hr = 1,481.20
Ties: 545 @ $0.62/tie 337.90

Nails: 102 lb @ $0.49/lb 49.98
Form oil: 7.6 gal @ $7.50/gal = 57.00
Summary of costs:
Total labor and material cost: $8,865.88 + $6,987.08 = $15,812.96
Cost/SFCA = $15,812.96/3,024 SFCA = $5.23/SFCA
These costs do not include reinforcing steel, concrete, taxes, overhead, or profit.
Estimate the cost of formwork for the 12-ft-high 126-ft-long concrete wall of Example
10.3, assuming the forms will be used three times. Calculate the cost savings that
can be achieved by reusing the forms.
Total surface area of wall forms: 12 ft x 126 ft x 2 sides = 3,024 SFCA
Quantity of forms to be built: 3,024 SFCA/3 uses = 1,008 SFCA
Quantity of forms to be erected and removed = 3,024 SFCA
Materials from Table 10.1:
Plyform sheathing: 1,008 SFCA x (105 s f / 100 SFCA) = 1,058 sf
1,058 sf/(32 sf/sheet) = 33.1, use 34 sheets
Lumber: 1,008 SFCA X (225 bf/100 SFCA) = 2,268 bf
Ties: 3,024 SFCA X (18 ties/100 SFCA) = 545 ties
Nails: 2,268 bf x (10 lb/1,000 bf) = 23 lb
Labor cost:
Making forms:
Carpenter: 1,008 SFCA X (2.25 hr/100 bf)
= 22.7 hr @ $21.56/hr = $489.41
Helper: 1,008 SFCA x (1.75 hr/100 bf)
= 17.6 hr @ $15.56/hr = 273.86
Carpenter: 3,024 SFCA x (4.75 hr/100 SFCA)
= 143.6 hr @ $21.56/hr = 3,096.02
Helper: 3,024 SFCA x (4.25 hr/100 SFCA)
= 128.5 hr @ $15.56/hr = 1,999.46
Foreman based on 4 carpenters: (22.7 + 143.6)/4
= 41.6 hr @ $28/hr = 1,164.80
Material cost:
Plywood: 34 sheets @ $28/sheet $952.00
Lumber: 2,268 bf @ $0.55/bf 1,247.40
Ties: 545 @ $0.62/tie 337.90
Nails: 23 lb @ $0.49/lb 11.27
Form oil: 7.6 gal @ $7.50/gal = 57.00
Summary of costs:
Total labor and material cost: $7,023.55 + $2,605.57 = $9,629.12
Cost/SFCA = $9,629.12/3,024 SFCA = $3.18/SFCA
These costs do not include reinforcing steel, concrete, taxes, overhead, or

profit.
The $9,629.12 in Example 10.4 is significantly lower than the $15,812.96 in

Example 10.3, which shows considerable cost savings can be achieved by
reusing the forms. The cost difference is $15,812.96 - $9,629.12 = $6,183.84,
which represents a savings of $6,183.84/$ 15,812.96 = 39.1%. Further cost sav
ings would also be achieved due to lower taxes on material and labor, and over
head expenses.
PREFABRICATED FORM PANELS

Contractors usually make prefabricated form panels using 2 X 4 lumber for
frames and f-in. plywood for sheathing. Because plywood sheathing is used it is
a good practice to make panels 2 ft wide and 2, 4, 6 , or 8 ft long. An assortment
of lengths will permit considerable flexibility in fitting the length to variable-
length walls. When the panels are erected, one on top of the other, the 2 ft width
will permit the use of form ties at the top and bottom of adjacent panels, thus
eliminating the need for holes through the plywood.
Figure 10.3 shows a method of constructing a typical panel, using f-in.-thick
plywood for sheathing and 2 X 4 lumber for the frame. The total weight of this
panel will be about 140 lb, which will require two people to handle it.
/ x!0 x 24 gouge , „
z : steel band________^ -2 x 4 x 8-0
J
- 8- 0 " -
Sid e view
End
view
FIG U R E 1 0 .3 I Prefabricated panel form.
Figure 10.4 shows a typical set of forms for a foundation wall using prefab
ricated panels. The bottoms of the forms are held together by steel tie bands,
which pass under the concrete wall and are nailed to the bottom members of the
panel frames. The tops of the forms may be held together by lumber, as shown
in Fig. 10.4, or with steel tie bands. The top and bottom edges of the panels may
be grooved slightly to receive the form ties.
f \ 4 " x 2'-0"plank § 3 -0
Plywood sheathing
Footing
F IG U R E 1 0 .4 I Form for concrete wall.
COMMERCIAL PREFABRICATED FORMS

Plyform sheathing attached to steel or aluminum frames in various sizes can be
purchased or rented from manufacturers who specialize in formwork materials.
Forms consisting of steel sheets attached to steel frames can also be purchased
or rented. All these forms can be used with straight or circular walls or for walls
that vary in thickness either uniformly or in steps.
Proprietary panels, which are available in several types, are used frequently
to construct forms, especially for concrete walls. Among the advantages of using
these panels are many reuses, a reduction in the labor required to erect and dis
mantle the forms, a good fit, and a reduction in the quantity of additional lum
ber required for studs and wales.
Most manufacturers furnish panels of several sizes to provide flexibility in

the dimensions of forms. However, where the exact dimensions of forms are not
attainable, with these panels, job-built filler panels can be used to obtain the
desired dimensions.
A wide variety of accessories is available from manufacturers in the con
crete industry. These accessories allow quick assembly and removal of forms
and enhance safety by providing secure attachment of the form materials by
patented clamping and locking devices. For example, cam-lock brackets are
available that can secure dimension lumber and plywood panels for wall forms.
A cam-lock on each side of plywood sheathing secures the loop end of the tie
and the horizontal wood walers to the plywood sheathing.
FORMS FOR CONCRETE COLUMNS

Concrete columns may be round, square, or rectangular. Forms for round
columns are made of fiber tube, fiberglass, or steel. They are generally patented
by manufacturers and can be purchased from building suppliers or can be rented
for use on a particular job. Square or rectangular column forms are generally
made with f-in. Plyform sheathing and eight wood yokes or steel column clamps
to hold the Plyform sheathing.
Numerous manufacturers fabricate round fiber-tube forms. They can be
used only once. After placement and proper curing of the concrete, the forms are
pulled, or tom, from the column. The cost for this type of form will vary,
depending on the diameter, length, and number of forms purchased. The esti
mator must obtain the price from a building supplier before estimating the cost
for a project.
Round fiberglass column forms can be reused as many as four times. If a
project has a sufficient number of columns that the column forms can be reused
three or four times, then it may be economical to purchase fiberglass forms; oth
erwise, they can be rented. The estimator must determine the number of reuses
before deciding whether it is more economical to purchase or rent round fiber
glass column forms.
Round steel column forms are generally rented by the contractor for use on
a particular project. Although they can be purchased and reused many times,
there may be a substantial length of time between reuse, creating extra time for
transporting, storing, and general handling of the forms.
Forms for square or rectangular concrete columns are generally made with
f-in. Plyform sheathing and vertical wood battens (see Fig. 10.5). The wood bat
tens are generally 2 X 4 or 2 X 6 lumber that is placed flat on the outside of the
sheathing. The wood battens of column forms perform the same function as
studs for wall forms. All steel square or rectangular forms are also available for
purchase or rent from manufacturers.
Clamps are installed around the forms prior to filling them with concrete.
The clamps are made of lumber or steel. The spacing of column clamps should
<— Studs per design

F^vl ESa
j 3/4"
!*
-U
1
W
IT
W + 3/4*
L + 3/4"
3/4" ^ B&d 3/4"

Note: Dimensions based on use of 3/4' Plyform
(a) Plan view of rectangular column form
(b) Isometric view of square column form
F IG U R E 1 0 .5 I Column sheathing of plywood with

vertical wood battens.
be such that the column forms will safely resist the maximum possible internal
pressure of the concrete against the column forms.
For small columns, lumber is placed horizontally around all four sides of the
column form. The 2 X 4 or 2 X 6 lumber overlaps the comers of the form and
is secured by nailing the overlaps together, or by using a patented comer lock.
For larger column forms, steel clamps are commonly used, as illustrated in
Figure 10.6. The steel clamps are adjustable for a wide range of sizes and can be
reused several hundred times. Steel wedges are used to attach and secure the col
umn clamps. The clamps automatically square the column as the wedge is tight
ened. Manufacturers provide recommendations for spacing of their column
clamps. If it is expected that column clamps will be needed for many uses, it will
be more economical to purchase or rent adjustable steel clamps.
(a) Plan view of square

column
FIGURE 1 0 .6 I Column form with steel clamps and steel wedges.
Courtesy: Dayton Superior Corporation
MATERIAL REQUIRED FOR CONCRETE

COLUMN FORMS
The sheathing or sides of column forms are typically f-in. Plyform, backed with
2 X 4 or 2 X 6 dimension lumber. The quantity of material will depend on the
shape, cross section, length, and number of columns. Because Plyform sheets are
available only in 4-ft widths, the estimator must determine the arrangement and
number of sheets, including waste, necessary to build the forms for a particular
job. Also, the number of board feet of lumber will depend on the size and spac
ing of the vertical wood battens.
The number of column clamps will depend on the height of the column and
the pressure applied to the forms by the freshly placed concrete. Figure 10.7 pro
vides the approximate number of column clamps for concrete columns. The
quantity of nails for building wood column forms will vary from 7 to 12 lb per
1 , 0 0 0 bf of lumber.
SNi
is
•c: </> 6 '- 0 " tVl

.C*O
I t
8'-0".
10-0" '
Ss
12‘-0"' “a ;’
“a2 s,,
10
14 -0 “ ■
"~aV ’‘
12
13 _,§ :
17-0" 14 ~s>
15
16 ~ v
19-0 “ ' 17 s.
18 -fea.
20-0" ■
Steel clomps
FIGURE 1 0 .7 I
Approximate spacing
of column clamps.
EXAMPLE 1 0 . 5
Estimate the quantity of material for a 22-in. by 22 -in. square column form. The col
umn is 11 ft 6 in. high. The form will be constructed with f-in . Plyform sheathing (4 ft
by 8 ft) and three 2 x 4 vertical w ood battens on each side of the column form. The
Plyform will be placed in the horizontal direction for maximum strength. Lumber will
be purchased in 12 -ft lengths.
Plyform sheathing:
Height of column: 11 ft 6 in. = 11.5 ft
Number of sheets in vertical direction:
(11.5 ft)/(4 ft/sheet) = 2.9, use 3 sheets
Perimeter of column: 22 in. x 4 sides = 88 in., or 7.3 ft
Number of sheets in horizontal direction:
(7.3 ft )/(8 ft/sheet) = 0.9, use 1 sheet
Total = 4 sheets
Total sf of sheathing: 4 sheets x (32 sf/sheet) = 128 sf

Lumber for vertical wood battens:

Quantity of lumber: 3 pieces x 4 sides x [(2 x 4)/(1 x 12)] x 12 ft = 96 bf
Summary of materials:
Total surface area: [(22 in.)/( 12 in./ft)] X 11.5 ft X 4 sides = 84.3 SFCA
Plyform: 128 sf/84.3 SFCA = 1.52 sf/SFCA

Plyform per 100 SFCA: 128 sf/0.843 SFCA = 152 sf/100 SFCA
Lumber: 96 bf/84.3 SFCA = 1 .1 4 bf/SFCA
Lumber per 100 SFCA: 96 bf/0.843 SFCA = 1 1 4 bf/100 SFCA
QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND

LABOR-HOURS FOR COLUMN FORMS
For column heights and widths other than multiples of 2 ft, there will be waste
because lumber is purchased in 2-ft increments of length. Likewise, for column
widths other than multiples of 4 ft there will be waste because plywood is pur
chased in a 4-ft by 8 -ft size. Table 10.2 gives the approximate quantities of ply
wood, lumber, and labor-hours required for 100 SFCA of concrete column forms
for various heights. The estimator should consider the extent of wastage and per
form the calculations illustrated in Example 10.5 to obtain more accurate quan
tities of materials.
T A B L E 1 0 .2 I Quantities of plywood, lumber, and labor-hours required for 100 SFCA of column forms.
Labor-hours, Labor-hours erecting

making forms and removing forms
Height, ft Plywood, sf Lumber, bf Carpenter Helper Carpenter Helper
0-8 100-130 110-150 2.5-3.5 0.5-1.5 5.5-6.5 4.0-5.0
8-16 100-150 150-180 3.0-4.0 1.0-2.0 6.0-7.0 4.5-5.5
Column forms are usually prefabricated at the job prior to erecting in place.
The lumber and sheathing are cut to the proper sizes. The four sides are assem
bled and fastened together with column clamps. After the forms are assembled,
they are set into templates that have been accurately and securely located. It may
be necessary to support the forms above the floor or column base until the col
umn reinforcement is tied in place. Some contractors prefer to place the column
reinforcing steel first and then assemble the forms around it.
If it is not necessary to rebuild the forms for each use, the estimator should
separate the labor into two operations, making the forms and then erecting and
removing them. For subsequent uses, if the sizes are not altered, only the labor
for removing, cleaning, and erecting the forms should be considered.
EXAMPLE 1 0 . 6
Use the information in Table 10.2 to estimate the quantities of material and labor-
hours to form 40 columns 30 in. by 30 in. by 14 ft 6 in. long. Assume the lumber will
be used four times. The 4-ft by 8-ft plywood sheathing will cost $28/sheet, lumber will
cost $0.55/bf, and nails cost $0.49/lb. Steel column clam ps will be rented at $3.50
each. The hourly rate for carpenters is $21.56/hr and helpers labor rate is $15.56/hr.
Total surface area: 40 colum ns x (30 in./12 in./ft) x 4 sides x 14.5 ft =
5,800 SFCA
Number of columns placed simultaneously: 40 colum ns/4 uses = 10 columns
Columns to be built: 5,800 SFCA/4 uses = 1450 SFCA
Columns to be erected and removed = 5,800 SFCA
Since the 30 in. is not evenly divisible by a 4-ft x 8-ft sheet and the 14-ft 6-in.
height is not com patible with a 2 -ft increment, there will be waste for the plywood
and lumber. Average values from Table 10.2 will be used for quantities.
From Table 10 . 2 , the quantity will be:

Plywood: (125 sf/100 SFCA) X 1450 SFCA = 1 ,8 1 3 sf
Number of sheets: (1,813 sf)/(32 sf/sheet) = 56.7, use 57 sheets
Lumber: (165 bf/100 SFCA) X 1450 SFCA = 2,393 bf
From Fig. 10.7, 10 columns x 10 clam ps/colum n = 100 clam ps
Form oil: (5,800 SFCA)/(400 gal/SFCA) = 14.5 gal
Material cost:
Plyform: 57 sheets @ $28 = $1,596.00
Lumber: 2,393 bf @ $0.55/bf = 1,316.15
Column clamps: 100 @ $3.50 = 350.00
Form oil: 14.5 gal @ $7.50/gal = 108.75
Total = $3,370.90
Labor cost:
Making forms:
(3.5 hr/100 SFCA) = 50.8 hr @ $21.56/hr = $1,095.25
(1.5 hr/100 SFCA) = 21.8 hr @ $15.56/hr = 339.21
Total cost making forms = $1,434.46
(6.5 hr/100 SFCA) = 377.0 hr @ $ 2 1 .56/hr = $8,128.12
Helper: 5,800 SFCA X
(5.0 hr/100 SFCA) =2 9 0 .0 hr @ $15.56/hr = 4,512.40
Total cost erecting and removing = $12,640.52
Foreman based on 4 carpenters: (50.8 hr + 377.0 hr)/4 = 106.9 hr @ $28/hr

= $2,993.20
Total labor cost = $1,434.46 + $12,640.52 + $2,993.20 = $17,068.18
Summary of costs:
Material = $3,370.90
Labor = 17,068.18
Total = $20,439.08

Cost per column: $20,439.08/40 columns = $511/column
ECONOMY OF REUSING COLUMN FORMS

Considerable savings can be achieved by reusing concrete forms. For example,
if the column forms in Example 10.6 are not used four times it would be neces
sary to build all of the 40 column forms at one time. Example 10.7 illustrates the
economy of reusing forms.
EXAMPLE 1 0 . 7
Estimate the cost of the 40 columns in Example 10.6 assuming the forms will not be
reused. Assume the column dimensions, material, and labor unit costs remain the
same as given in Example 10.6.
Total surface area: 40 colum ns x (30 in,/12 in./ft) x 4 sides x 14.5 ft =
5,800 SFCA
Number of columns placed simultaneously = 40 columns
A verage values from Table 10.2:
Plywood: (125 sf/100 SFCA) X 5,800 SFCA = 7,250 sf
Number of sheets: (7,250 sf)/(32 sf/sheet) = 226.6, use 227 sheets
Lumber: (165 bf/100 SFCA) X 5,800 SFCA = 9,570 bf
From Fig. 10.7, 40 columns x 10 clam ps/colum n = 400 clam ps
Form oil: (5,800 SFCA)/(400 gal/SFCA) = 14.5 gal
Material cost:
Plyform: 227 sheets @ $28 = $6,356.00
Lumber: 9,570 bf @ $0.55/bf = 5,263.50
Column clamps: 400 @ $3.50 = 1,400.00
Form oil: 14.5 gal @ $7.50/gal = 108.75
Total = $13,128.25
Labor cost:
Making forms:
Carpenter: 5,800 SFCA X
(3.5 hr/100 SFCA) = 203 hr @ $21.56/hr = $4,376.68
Helper: 5,800 SFCA X
(1.5 hr/100 SFCA) = 87 hr @ $15.56/hr = 1,353.72
Total cost making forms = $5,730.40
Carpenter: 5,800 SFCA X
(6.5 hr/100 SFCA) = 377 hr @ $21.56/hr = $8,128.12
(5.0 hr/100 SFCA) = 2 9 0 hr @ $15.56/hr = 4,512.40
Total cost erecting and removing = $12,640.52
Foreman based on 4 carpenters: (203 hr + 377 hr)/4 = 145 hr @ $28.00/hr =

$4,060.00
Total labor cost = $5,730.40 + $12,640.52 + $4,060.00 = $22,430.92
Summary of costs:
Material = $13,128.25
Labor = 22,430.92
Total = $35,559.17

Cost per column: $35,559.17/40 columns = $889/column
As shown in Example 10.7 the cost of $35,559.17 is significantly higher

than the $20,439.08 in Example 10.6, which shows considerable cost savings
can be achieved by reusing the forms. When the forms are not reused, the cost
increased from $3.52/SFCA to $6.13/SFCA.
The opportunity to reuse forms is reduced when multiple sizes of columns
are required in a project. For example, due to reduced applied loads it is com
mon practice to reduce the column size for the upper stories of multiple story
buildings to save concrete cost. However, this prevents reuse of forms. Reducing
the sizes of columns to save concrete cost may not be economical because dif
ferent forms must be made, or the forms from the larger lower story columns
must be remade, for use as forms of the upper story columns. Generally, the cost
to remake forms is higher than the savings in concrete costs. Also, if the larger
size column is used for the higher floors, in certain cases, it may be probable that
the quantity of reinforcing steel required in a column will be less than would be
required in a smaller column. When the design permits and coordinated with the
structural designer, this practice could result in additional savings.
F IG U R E 1 0 .8 I Steel column forms with

capitals.
Source: EFCO Corporation
COLUMN HEADS, CAPITALS, AND

DROP PANELS
Where the top of a column intersects underside of a concrete floor slab, it is
common practice to expand the width at the top of the column to provide more
distribution of the load between the column and floor slab. This widening at the
top of the column is called a column head.
A capital is a column head for round columns, as shown in Fig. 10.8. It is a
cylindrical shaped conical section that tapers from a wide diameter at the bottom
of the floor slab downward to the diameter of the concrete column. Column cap
itals are used when heavy floor loads must be distributed to the column below,
to reduce punching shear through the concrete floor.
A drop panel is installed at the top of square or rectangular columns to dis
tribute the transfer of load from the floor slab to the column. Forms for drop pan
els are built of lumber and plywood, consisting of flat surfaces, whereas column
capitals consist of cylindrical conical surfaces. A drop panel can also be installed
as a column head for round columns. However, installing rectangular drop pan
els above round columns requires complex forming to ensure good connections
between straight and round surfaces, which greatly increases the cost of the
formwork.
SHORES AND SCAFFOLDING

Vertical shores, or posts, and scaffolding are used to support concrete beams,
girders, floor slabs, roof slabs, bridge decks, and other members until the con
crete has gained sufficient strength to be self-supporting. Many types and sizes
of shoring and scaffolding are available. They may be made from wood or steel,
or a combination of the two materials. Aluminum shores and scaffolding are also
available.
In general, shores are installed as single-member units that may be tied

together at one or more intermediate points with horizontal and diagonal braces
to give them greater stiffness and to increase their load-supporting capacities.
They should be securely fastened at the bottom and top ends to prevent move
ment or displacement while they are in use.
Numerous patented shoring systems are available from companies that spe
cialize in concrete accessories. Figure 10.9 is a shoring system that consists of
either 4 X 4 or 4 X 6 wood posts, fastened by two special patented clamps. The
bottom of one post rests on the supporting floor, while the second post is moved
upward along the side of the lower one. The top post is raised to the desired
height, and the two clamps automatically grip the two posts and hold them in
position. Accessories are available to securely hold the shore to the horizontal
4x4 Purlins with 4 \4 joists 4x6 Purlins with 4x4 joists

Slab thickness A B C Slab thickness A B C
4 in. or under 48 in. 60 in. 24 in. 4 in. or under 60 in. 72 in. 24 in.
5 in. to 7 in. 48 in. 48 in. 24 in. 5 in. to 7 in. 60 in. 60 in. 24 in.
8 in. to 9-1/2 in 48 in. 36 in. 24 in. 8 in. to 9-1/2 in. 54 in. 60 in 24 in.
10 in. to 14 in. 42 in. 36 in. 20 in. 10 in. to 12 in. 48 in. 60 in. 20 in.
13 in. to 14 in. 48 in 54 in. 20 in.
Note: Douglas fir, construction grade joists and purlins, 3/4" plywood held strong way over joists with
face grain parallel to span, maximum deflection Z/360. Lace and brace as required. Shore height 12 ft.
and under.
F IG U R E 1 0 .9 I Ellis shoring system.

Source: Ellis Construction Specialties, Ltd.
F IG U R E 1 0 .1 0 I Formwork supported by tubular steel frames on a job.
purlins and screw jacks can be installed under the lower shore. The screw jacks
provide adjustments of the shore height to the correct position.
Single-post steel shores are manufactured and available for purchase or rent
by many manufacturers. Each post shore typically consists of two parts: a base
post with a threaded collar for adjusting the shore height and a staff member that
fits into the base post.
Tubular scaffolding is available to support high and heavy loads, such as
elevated concrete floor slabs. The contractor often rents scaffolding for a partic
ular job. However, if the scaffolding can be used often on many jobs it may be
justifiable to purchase the scaffolding. Figure 10.10 shows forms for a floor slab
supported by the tubular steel frames.
MATERIAL AND LABOR-HOURS FOR

CONCRETE BEAMS
A typical example of forms for concrete beams is shown in Fig. 10.11. As illus
trated in Fig. 10.11, several methods are used for constructing forms for concrete
beams. In Fig. 10.11a, the beam bottom, or soffit, may be made from one or
more 2-in.-thick lumber and having the required width. The lumber should be
cleated together on the underside at intervals of about 3 ft. The side forms are
made of plywood panels or lumber, held together with 2 X 4 cleats. The ledgers
attached to the vertical blocking carry the joist load to the shoring. The kickers
at the bottom of the side form resist the lateral pressure from the concrete.
(a) Dim ension lum ber beam bottom (b ) Plywood beam bottom backed
with lum ber cleated together with lum ber laid flat
(c ) Plywood beam bottom backed

with lum ber laid upright
FIG U R E 10.11 I Forms for a concrete beam and slab.
The beam bottom can also be plywood, backed by dimension lumber laid in
the flat position, as illustrated in Fig. 10.11b. Plywood panels are placed on the
top of the runners to provide a continuous smooth surface for the beam bottom.
As illustrated in Fig. 10.1 lc, the beam bottom can also be plywood, backed with
dimension lumber placed in the vertical direction to provide more resistance to
bending and deflection. The side forms are made of plywood panels, held
together by form ties. Side forms can also be made with lumber, held together
with 2 X 4 cleats. The ledgers attached to the vertical 2 X 4 cleats assist in sup
porting the ends of the joists.
The quantities of material and labor-hours to build 100 SFCA of forms for
concrete beams of various sizes are shown in Table 10.3. For concrete beam
24 2 Estimating Construction Costs
T A B L E 1 0 .3 I Approximate quantities of material and labor-hours required for 100 SFCA of concrete beams.
Beam width, Labor-hours

ftiiimber - Form
in. of u ses Plywood, sf Lumber, bf ties Carpenter Helper
12 1 100-110 260-290 12 13.5-14.5 3.0-4.0
2 45-55 135-150 12 11.5-12.5 2.5-3.5
3 35-45 105-115 12 9.5-10.5 2.0-3.0
4 25-35 90-100 12 8.5-9.5 1.5-2.5
18 1 100-110 210-235 15 12.5-13.5 2.5-3.5
2 50-60 120-135 15 10.5-11.5 2.0-3.0
3 35-45 100-110 15 9.5-10.5 1.5-2.5
4 25-35 75-85 15 9.0-10.0 1.5-2.5
24 1 100-110 190-210 20 11.5-12.5 2.5-3.5
2 55-65 100-110 20 10.5-11.5 2.5-3.0
3 35-45 75-85 20 . 9.5-10.5 2.0-2.5
4 25-35 65-70 20 9.0-10.0 2.0-2.5
forms the amount of time for carpenters is significantly greater than for helpers,
compared to walls and column because of the complexity of the formwork.
Table 10.3 provides data on multiple uses of the forms.
EXAMPLE 1 0 . 8
Estimate the cost of forms for 15 concrete beams for a building. The beams are 12
in. wide, 19 in. deep, and 20 ft 6 in. long. The forms will be used three times.Use
average values from Table 10.3 to determine the quantities of materials.
A material supplier quotes these prices: $0.55/bf for lumber, $0.49/lb for nails,
and $7.50/gal for form oil. Carpenters cost $21.56/hr and laborers cost $15.56/hr.
Surface area of forms: 15 beams x ^ ■■n ' + ^ In' + 19 'n ' x 20.5 ft = 1,281 SFCA
12 in ./ft
From Table 10.3 for 3 uses,
Quantity of lumber = 1,281 SFCA X (110 bf/100 SFCA) = 1,409 bf
Quantity of plywood: 1,281 SFCA x (40 sf/100 SFCA) = 512 sf
Number of sheets required: (512 sf)/(32 sf/sheet) = 16 sheets
Nails: (1,409 bf) x (12 lb/1,000 bf) = 16.9 lb

Form oil: (1,281 bf)/(400 sf/gal) = 3.2 gal
Form ties: 1,281 SFCA X 12 ties/100 SFCA = 154 ties
Reference Table 10.3 for 3 uses,
Carpenter: 1,281 SFCA x (10 hr/100 SFCA) = 128.1 hr
Helper: 1,281 SFCA x (2.5 hr/100 SFCA) = 32.0 hr
Foreman based on 4 carpenters: 128.1 hr/4 = 32.0 hr
Cost of labor and materials:

Labor costs:
Carpenter: 128.1 hr @ $21.56/hr = $2,761.84
Helper: 32.0 hr @ $15.56/hr = 497.92
Foreman: 32.0 hr @ $28.00/hr = 896.00
Labor cost = $4,155.76
Material costs:
Lumber: 1,409 bf @ $0.55/bf = $774.95
Plywood: 16 sheets @ $28/sheet = 448.00
Form ties: 154 ties @ $0.47/tie = 72.38
Nails: 16.9 lb @ $0.49/lb = 8.28
Form oil: 3.2 gal @ $7.50/gal = 24.00
Summary of costs:
Total labor and material: $4,155.76 + $1,327.61 = $5,483.37
FORMS FOR FLAT-SLAB CONCRETE FLOORS

The flat-slab-type concrete floor is sometimes used when the floor can be sup
ported by the column heads, without beams or girders. Since there are no beam
forms to assist in supporting the slab forms, it is necessary to classify all forms
as slab forms. The cost of forms will vary with the thickness of the slab and the
height of the slab above the lower floor. Figure 10.12 illustrates a method used
in building forms for flat slabs.
The form builder has considerable freedom in selecting the size and spacing
of joists and stringers. Joist sizes are usually 4 X 4 lumber, spaced at about 20 in.
on centers. Stringers are usually 4 X 6 lumber spaced about 4 ft apart. Southern
Pine and Douglas Fir, number 1 or 2 grades of lumber are common.
The decking is usually f-in.-, f-in.-, or l-in.-thick plywood decking. If a smooth
finish is required, high-density overlay (HDO) plywood is available. It also has
the advantage of multiple reuses, up to 50 uses under favorable conditions.
Scaffolding or multiple single shores are commonly used to support the
forming system, as shown in Figure 10.9. Commercial steel tower frames are
available to support high and heavy loads. Tower frames are erected in sections,
each consisting of four legs with heights of 8 or 1 0 ft.
Adjustable horizontal steel shores, consisting of two members per unit, are
sometimes used to support the forms for concrete slabs, beams, and bridge deck
ing. The members are designed to permit one member to telescope inside the
other, thereby providing adjustments in the lengths within the overall limits for
a given shore. Horizontal shores are available for spans varying from 5 to 20 ft.
The quantity of material depends on the thickness of the slab and the height
of the slab above the supporting floor. Table 10.4 gives the quantity of materi
als and number of labor-hours per 100 SFCA to build and remove forms for flat-
slab concrete floors.
TABLE 1 0 .4 I Approximate quantities of material and iabor-hours required to build,

erect, and remove 100 SFCA of flat-slab concrete floors.
Labor-hours
Ceiling height, Thickness
ft of slab, in. Plywood, sf Lumber, bf Carpenter Helper
10 6 100-105 150-155 6.0-6.5 2.0-2.5
8 100-105 165-170 6.0-6.5 2.0-2.5
10 100-105 180-190 6.0-6.5 2.0-2.5
12 6 100-105 150-155 6.5-7.0 2.5-3.0
8 100-105 165-170 6.5-7.0 2.5-3.0
10 100-105 180-190 6.5-7.0 2.5-3.0
14 6 100-105 150-155 7.0-7.5 3.0-3.5
8 100-105 165-170 7.0-7.5 3.0-3.5
10 100-105 180-190 7.0-7.5 3.0-3.5
EXAMPLE 1 0 . 9
Estimate the direct cost of furnishing, building, and removing forms for a flat-slab
concrete floor whose size is 56 ft 8 in. by 88 ft 6 in. The ceiling height will be 11 ft
8 in. and the slab will be 6 in. thick.
Lumber will be 4 x 4 joists and 4 x 6 stringers, no. 2 Southern Pine, and the
cost will be $0.97/bf. The g-in.--thick plywood will cost $35 for a 4 ft by 8 ft sheet. Nails
cost $0.49/lb and form oil costs $7.50/gal. Assume carpenters cost $ 2 1 .56/hr and
laborers cost $15.56/hr.
Scaffolding, similar to that shown in Fig. 10.9, will be rented from a local build
ing supplier at a rate of $0.30/sf of floor area. It will require 1 hr to set up and take
down 100 sf of scaffolding.
Total surface area: 56 ft 8 in. X 88 ft 6 in. = 56.67 ft x 88.5 ft = 5,015 SFCA
From Table 10.4:

Lumber: (5,015 SFCA) X (152 bf/100 SFCA) = 7,623 bf
Plywood: (5,015 SFCA) x (102 sf/100 SFCA) = 5,115 sf
Sheets required: 5,015 sf/(32 sf/sheet) = 156.7, need 157 sheets
Nails: (7,623 bf) X (5 lb/1000 bf) = 38.1 lb

Material costs:
Lumber: 7,623 bf @ $0.97/bf = $7,394.31
Plywood: 157 sheets @ $35/sheet = 5,495.00
Nails: 38.1 lb @ $0.49/lb = 18.67
Form oil: 12.5 gal @ $7.50/gal = 93.75
Labor costs:
(6.7 hr/100 SFCA) = 336.0 hr @ $21.56/hr = $7,244.27
Laborer: 5,015 SFCA x
(2.7 hr/100 SFCA) = 135.4 hr @ $15.56/hr = 2,106.82
336 hr/4 = 84 hr @ $28.00/hr = 2,352.00
Total labor = $11,703.09
Summary of form costs:
Total cost of material and labor: $13,001.73 + $11,703.09 = $24,704.82
Cost per SFCA: $24,704.82/5,015 SFCA = $4.93/SFCA
Cost of scaffolding:
Rental cost of scaffolding: 5,015 sf @ $0.30/sf = $1,504.50
Labor to set up and take down:
(5,015 sf) X (1 hr/100 sf) = 50.2 hr @ $15.56 = 781.11
S caffolding cost = $2,285.61
Total cost:
Form costs + scaffolding cost = $24,704.82 + $2,285.61 = $26,990.43
Total cost per SFCA: $26,990.43/5,015 SFCA = $5.38/SFCA
PATENTED FORMS FOR FLOOR SLABS

Metal or fiberglass patented forms are available from commercial suppliers for
concrete floor systems. Metal pans are placed end-to-end to provide one-way
slab action, as illustrated in Fig. 10.13. Three-foot-long pans are available in
depths of 6 in. to 24 in. and widths of 20 in. to 40 in. Metal pans are also avail
able that are designed to be self-supporting for spans up to 1 2 ft.
Cross section
Longitudinal section
Non holes perm it FLANGE TYPE
variation m depth o f
I jo is t from 6 "to !4"\
»*!■_ I. I J
-Steelform
^ —■>?
'Meyer a d ju sta b le Meyer gdjustobie^>\
- steel shores Cross section steel shores
Longitudinal section
ADJUSTABLE TYPE
F IG U R E 1 0 .1 3 I Supporting forms for metal pans.
Fiberglass domes are available for forming a two-way floor system, some
times called a waffle slab. Domes are available in depths of 12 in. to 24 in. and
widths of 4 ft. Manufacturers of metal pan forms or domes furnish dimensions
of their forms and other pertinent information.
When using commercial pans or domes, the total quantity of concrete is less
than flat-slab floors, which reduces the cost of materials and also permits the use
of smaller beams, columns, and footings. If the pans are used enough times, the
cost per square foot of use, including the labor cost of installing and removing,
can compare favorably with forms built entirely of lumber.
The structural designer specifies the particular system that is to be used. The
structure is designed for a specific size and type of pan. Since the pans are
designed for a specific job, contractors typically rent the pans at an agreed price
per square foot per use, with a minimum number of uses.
MATERIAL AND LABOR-HOURS REQUIRED

FOR METAL-PAN CONCRETE FLOORS
The lumber required for metal-pan construction consists of centering strips,
stringers, shores, and braces. The metal pans are placed on centering strips that
are spaced at a distance equal to the width of the pan plus the thickness of the
joist between the pans. Stringers are typically 4 X 6 lumber, spaced about 4 ft
on centers. Vertical shores or scaffolding are used to support the stringers. Table
10.5 provides the approximate quantities of material and labor-hours for metal-
pan construction.
T A B L E 1 0 .5 I Approximate quantities of material and labor-hours required to build,
erect, and remove 100 SFCA of metal-pan concrete floors.
Labor-hours
Ceiling height, ft Floor thickness, in. Lumber, bf Carpenter Helper
12 10 120 3.5 4.0 4.0-4.5
12 130 4.0-4.5 4.5-5.0
14 140 4.0-4.5 4.5-5.0
14 10 130 3.5-4.0 4.0-4.5
12 140 4.0-4.5 4.5-5.0
14 150 4.1-4.5 4.5-5.0
16 10 140 3.5-4.0 4.0-4.5
12 150 4.0-4.5 4.5-5.0
10 160 4.0-4.5 4.5-5.0
Note: The thickness of the floor equals the depth of the pan plus the slab thickness.
E X A M P L E 1 0 .1
Estimate the cost of form lumber and metal pans in place and removed from a total
floor area 39 ft 6 in. wide by 96 ft 6 in. long. The floor thickness will be 12 in. The joints
will run one way only. The ceiling height will be 14 ft.
Rental cost of the metal pans is $2.30/sf and scaffolding will be rented at
$0.30/sf. Assume 4 x 4 centering lumber and 4 x 6 stringers costs $0.97. W age rate
for carpenters is $21.56/hr and $15.56/hr for laborers.
Total floor area: 39.5 ft x 96.5 ft = 3,812 sf
From Table 10.5, lumber = 3,812 sf x (140 bf/100 sf) = 5,337 bf
Material costs:
Lumber: 5,337 bf @ $0.9.7/bf = $5,176.89
Nails: 26.7 lb @ $0.49/lb = 13.08
Form oil: 9.5 gal @ $7.50/gal = 71.25
Labor costs:
(4.2 hr/100 SFCA) = 160.1 hr @ $21.56/hr = $3,451.76
Laborer: 3,812 SFCA X
(4.7 hr/100 SFCA) = 179.2 hr @ $15.56/hr = 2,788.35
160.1 hr/4 = 40 hr @ $28.00/hr = 1,120.00
Total labor = $7,360.11
Rental costs:
Rental cost of metal-pan forms: 3,812 sf @ $2.30/sf = $8,767.60
Rental cost of scaffolding: 3,812 sf @ $0.30/sf = 1,143.60
Labor to set up and take down scaffolding = 500.00
Total cost = $10,411.20
Summary of costs:
Material costs = $5,261.22
Labor costs = $7,360.11
Rental costs = $10,411.20
Total costs = $23,032.53
Total cost per SFCA: $23,032.53/3,812 SFCA = $6.04/SFCA
CORRUGATED-STEEL FORMS
Corrugated-steel sheets are sometimes used as forms for concrete floor and roof
slabs supported by steel joists, steel beams, and precast concrete joists. The sheets
are available in several gauges, widths, and lengths to fit different requirements.
The sheets are laid directly on the supporting joists or beams with the cor
rugations perpendicular to the supports. Side laps should be one-half of a corru
gation and end laps should be at least 3 in., made over supporting joists or
beams. The sheets are fastened to the supports with special clips. The edges of
adjacent sheets are fastened together with steel clips.
CELLULAR-STEEL FLOOR SYSTEMS

Cellular-steel panels are sometimes used for the forms and structural units of
floor systems. This system is lightweight and acts as forms for concrete as well
as providing raceways for utility services. Thus, the forming system combines the
structural slab and electrical functions within the normal depth of the floor slab.
Each cellular unit has multiple cells that can be used for telephone, power,
and computer cables. Cellular units are available in 24 in. and 36 in. widths. The
panels are manufactured from roll-steel shapes and plates that are electrically
welded together in various types. Openings in the cells provide routing for wire
cable through the floor slab into the room area.
The panels are prefabricated by the manufacturer to fit any given floor con
dition and shipped to the project ready for installation without additional fabri
cation. If storage is necessary, the cellular units may be stacked on wood block
ing clear off the ground and tilted longitudinally to ensure against entrapment of
water. All deck bundles have labels or handwritten information clearly visible to
identify the material and erection location.
After alignment, the cellular units are attached to the decking before the
placement of concrete for the floor slab.
CONCRETE STAIRS
The construction of concrete stairways is complicated and presents a problem
for the estimator. The costs per unit of volume or area varies greatly, depending
on the length of the tread, the width of the tread, the height of the riser, the shape
of the supporting floor for the shores, whether the treads are square or rounded,
and whether the ends of the treads and risers are open or closed with curbs. Some
stairs are straight-run, while others have an intermediate landing. Some stairs are
completely in the open, while others have a wall on one or both sides. All of
these conditions affect the cost of stairs.
The width of treads varies from 8 to 12 in., and the height of the risers varies
from 6 to 8 in. for different stairs. Steel dowels should be set in the concrete floor
and the beam supporting the landing prior to placing the concrete in the floor and
landing. These dowels are tied to the reinforcing steel for the stairs as it is placed.
Lumber Required for Forms for Concrete Stairs

Figure 10.14 shows the details of one method of construction forms for concrete
stairs. The height from floor to floor is 10 ft 6 in. With a riser height of 7 in., 18
risers and 17 treads will be required. The treads will be 12 in. wide, which gives
a total horizontal length of 17 ft. The supporting floor is horizontal, which
requires shores of variable lengths to support the forms.
-2"x4"xl.L0" riser cleats- 3 6 required
,2"x 12" x 20-0" side stringer-2 required
,2 " x 4 “x 22L0 “ side stringer - 2 required
To support riser planks use

1 8 - 2"x4”xlÔ“ riser braces
and l-2"x4"x 20:0 ,' stringer
Supporting floor ^ 2"x8”xli6” sill
F IG U R E 1 0 .1 4 I Wood forms for concrete stairs.
EXAM PLE
Estimate the quantity of materials and cost for building the forms for the stairs illus
trated in Fig. 10.14, assuming the stairs are 6 ft wide. Plywood will be used for
sheathing under the stairs.
Diagonal side stringers:
2 pieces: 2 x 12 lumber x 20 ft long = 80 bf
2 pieces: 2 x 4 lumber x 22 ft long = 29 bf
Joists, 5 pieces: 2 X 8 lumber x 16 ft long = 107 bf
Risers, 18 pieces: 2 x 8 lumber x 6 ft long = 144 bf

Riser cleats, 36 pieces: 2 x 4 lumber x 1 ft long = 24 bf
Riser stringer, 1 piece: 2 X 4 lumber x 20 ft long = 13 bf
Riser braces, 18 pieces: 2 x 4 lumber x 1 ft long = 12 bf
Horizontal stringers: 2 pieces: 4 x 6 lumber X 6 ft long = 24 bf

Shores:
2 pieces: 4 X 4 lumber x 6 ft long = 16 bf
2 pieces: 4 X 4 lumber x 2 ft long = 6 bf
Sills, 4 pieces: 2 x 8 lum ber x 1 ft 6 in. long = 8 bf
W edges: 5 bf = 5 bf
Headers, 1 piece: 1 x 8 lum ber x 6 ft long = 4 bf
Braces, 3 pieces: 1 x 6 lum ber x 12 ft long = 18 bf
Total lumber = 490 bf
C hapter 10 Concrete Structures 251
Plywood sheathing: 20 ft x 6 ft = 120 sf

Sheets of plywood: 120 sf/(32 sf/sheet) = 3.75, use 4 sheets
Nails: 490 bf X (15 lb/1000 bf) = 7.4 lb
Costs of Materials:
Plywood: 4 sheets @ $28/sheet = $112.00
Lumber: 490 bf @ $0.55/bf = 269.50
Nails: 7.4 lb @ $0.49/lb = 3.63
Total = $385.13
The cost just given is for a single use. If the forms can be removed and reused
on stairs of the same design, the cost per use will be reduced by the number of
times the forms will be used. Frequently, forms for stairs are supported by shores
that rest on existing lower stairs. If this construction is used, the lengths of all shores
will be increased to 9 ft for Fig. 10.14.
Labor Required to Build Forms for Concrete Stairs

Because of the irregularities of the forms for concrete stairs, it is difficult to
estimate accurately the labor-hours of building forms. It is necessary to cut the
shores to length, attach the 4 X 6 stringers, set the shores and stringers in place,
and brace them securely. The 4 X 4 wedges are nailed to the tops of the stringers
and the joists before the plywood sheathing is installed. The sheathing is cut and
nailed to the joists.
The diagonal side stringers, 2 X 12 by 20 ft and 2 X 4 by 22 ft, are cleated
together, and the positions for the 2 X 8 riser lumber are marked on the stringers.
The stringers and the riser lumber are installed. Because of the length of the riser
lumber, 6 ft, a center support should be used to hold them against deflection. A
2 X 4 riser stringer is placed at the center of the riser planks, and each riser plank
is secured to it with a riser brace, 2 X 4 by 1 ft long.
Two carpenters should be used to build the forms for the stairs. Each car
penter should fabricate and install about 25 bf/hr of lumber.
REINFORCING STEEL
TYPES AND SOURCES OF
REINFORCING STEEL
Reinforcing for concrete may consist of steel deformed bars or welded-wire fab
ric, used separately or together. The cost of reinforcing steel bars is estimated by
the pound, hundredweight, or ton, while the cost of welded-wire fabric is esti
mated by the pound or square foot.
Usually reinforcing steel is cut to the required lengths and bent into the
required shapes by steel suppliers prior to delivery to a job. Such shops are
equipped with machines that will perform the fabricating operations more eco
nomically than when fabricating is performed on the job. Upon request, these
shops will furnish quotations covering the supplying and fabricating of all rein
forcing for a given project. Estimators frequently request such quotations before
preparing estimates.
PROPERTIES OF REINFORCING BARS

Table 10.6 gives the sizes, areas, and weights of reinforcing bars. Reinforcing
steel is available in strengths of 40 ksi, 50 ksi, and 75 ksi (ksi = kips per square
inch, where kips = 1,000 lb). The deformed bars have ribbed projections rolled
onto their surfaces to provide better bonding. The patterns differ with different
manufacturers. The size and grades of reinforcing bars can be easily identified
by bar identification marks that are placed on each bar. Three marks are on each
bar. The top mark is a letter that represents the producing company, the middle
mark is a number that gives the size of the bar in f in., and the lower mark is a
letter that identifies the type of steel.
T A B L E 1 0 .6 I Sizes, areas, and weights of reinforcing steel.
Bar no. Diameter, in. Area, sq. in. Weight, lb/ft

3
3 S 0.11 0.376
1
4 2 0.20 0.668
5
5 8 0.31 1.043
3
6 4 0.44 1.502
7
7 8 0.60 2.044
8 1.0 0.79 2.670
9 1.128 1.00 3.400
10 1.270 1.27 4.303
11 1.410 1.56 5.313
14 1.693 2.25 7.650
18 2.257 4.00 13.600
When reinforced concrete is exposed to de-icing salts or seawater, epoxy

coated reinforcing bars are used. Such bars are more expensive than regular rein
forcing steel. Also, the epoxy-coated bars must be carefully handled to prevent
breaking off any of the coating during placement on the job.
ESTIMATING THE QUANTITY OF

REINFORCING STEEL
When the reinforcing steel consists of bars of different sizes and lengths, each
size and length should be listed separately. Such a list is sometimes called a
rebar schedule. A form such as the one shown in Table 10.7 will simplify the
listing and reduce the potential of errors. Each size and length should be
T A B L E 1 0 .7 I Rebar schedule for quantity of reinforcing steel.
Bar No. Bar Weight, Total weight,

mark required size Length lb/ft lb
A 120 4 30 ft 0 in. 0.068 2,405
B 56 4 20 ft 0 in. 0.668 749
C 116 5 24 ft 0 in. 1.043 2,900
D 42 6 12 ft 4 in. 1.502 780
E 36 6 14 ft 8 in. 1.502 794
F 28 6 19 ft 8 in. 1.502 826
G 16 7 22 ft 3 in. 2.044 604
H 72 7 22 ft 3 in. 2.044 3,280
1 84 7 18 ft 8 in. 2.044 3,200
J 24 8 24 ft 0 in. 2.670 1,535
K 18 8 21 ft 6 in. 2.670 1,037
assigned a number or a letter of the alphabet. Such designations are called piece
marks or bar marks.
For a particular project there may be many rebar schedules. For example,
there may be a separate rebar schedule for drilled shaft foundations, grade
beams, columns, beams, and floor slabs.
COST OF REINFORCING STEEL

To determine the cost of reinforcing steel it is necessary to first determine the
weight of reinforcing steel based on the lengths and sizes of bars and the nomi
nal weights given in Table 10.6. Reinforcing bars are usually available in stock
lengths of 40 and 60 ft. If an estimator wishes to determine the approximate cost
of reinforcing steel for a project, she or he should list each size bar separately
and then determine the total weight by size, as illustrated in Table 10.7. The
items that determine the cost of reinforcing steel delivered to a project include
1. Base cost of the bars at the fabricating shop
2. Cost of preparing shop drawings
3. Cost of handling, cutting, bending, etc.
4. Cost of shop overhead and profit
5. Cost of transporting from the shop to the job
6 . Cost of specialties, such as spacers, saddles, chairs, ties, etc.
The base cost is the cost of the reinforcing steel in standard lengths, usually
stock lengths of 40 and 60 ft, without cutting to length or bending. In addition
to the base price cost of the reinforcing steel, an extra charge based on the sizes
of the bars will be made. These extras are subject to change and should be veri
fied before an estimate is prepared because the price of steel can vary substan
tially depending on current economic conditions. The base cost of reinforcing
steel varies with the total quantity of steel purchased. As the quantity of steel
increases, the cost per pound decreases.
Before fabricating reinforcing steel it is necessary for the fabricating shop

to prepare drawings that show how the bars are to be fabricated. Such drawings
are called shop drawings. The shop drawings show the cut-lengths, bending
details, and listing of each piece of reinforcing steel. A charge is made for this
service, based on the complexity of the drawings and the quantity of reinforcing
steel. After the shop drawings are prepared, they are submitted for approval
before starting the fabricating operation.
The cost for fabricating reinforcing steel varies with the sizes of the bars and
the complexity of the operations. Each bar must be cut and bent into the required
shape. Steel suppliers have considerable experience with their fabricating shops
and have the ability to accurately determine the cost for preparing the steel for a
particular job. Thus, the estimator must rely on the steel fabricator to obtain the
cost of fabricated reinforcing steel.
Typically, the estimator supplies the structural drawings to the steel supplier
from which the reinforcing steel will be purchased for a particular job. Then, the
supplier will develop shop drawings and submit them to the estimator for
approval. Upon approval, the supplier will provide a quote of the total cost for
the entire lot, fabricated, and delivered to the job.
LABOR PLACING REINFORCING

STEEL BARS
The rates at which workers will place reinforcing steel bars will vary with these
factors:
1. Sizes and lengths of bars
2. Shapes of the bars
3. Complexity of the structure
4. Distance and height the steel must be carried
5. Allowable tolerance in spacing bars
6 . Extent of tying required
7. Skill of the workers
Less time is required to place a ton of steel when the bars consist of large
sizes and long lengths than when they are small sizes and short lengths. For
example, a worker can set and tie a no. 5 bar about as fast as a no. 4 bar, but the
weight of the no. 5 bar will be greater than the weight of the no. 4 bar. Likewise,
a worker can place a 1 0 -ft-long bar in about the same time as an 8 -ft-long bar.
Straight bars can be placed more rapidly than bars with bends and end hooks.
For example, it is much easier to handle and align the straight compression and ten
sion steel than the stirrups in a concrete beam. If many straight bars are required, it
may be possible to tie sections of the steel in place on the ground and then lift the
rebar assembly in one section and place it in the forms with a small crane.
If the bars must be placed in complicated structures such as stairs, the rate
of placing will be less than for simple structures such as walls, floors, etc.
Placement of reinforcing steel where round members intersect with flat mem
bers, comers, and other complicated connections greatly increases the time to set
and tie the steel in place.
Reinforcing steel should be stored as near the structure as possible, prefer
ably not more than 50 to 100 ft away, to reduce the time required to carry them.
If steel must be carried to upper floors or parts of a structure, additional time will
be required. For some projects the lay-down area for materials is limited, which
requires storage of bulk material in a remote location on the job. When bulk
shipments of material, such as reinforcing steel, are delivered to the job a spe
cial effort should be made to store the material so it can be easily identified and
moved to the work area without having to restack the material.
Rigid tolerances on the spacing of reinforcing bars will reduce the rate of
placing steel. The estimator should review the contract documents and appro
priate standards that apply to a particular job to determine the dimensional tol
erances that must be used for setting the steel.
More time is required to tie bars at every intersection than when little or no
tying is required. The estimator must review the contract documents to deter
mine the requirements that apply.
Laborers or skilled steel setters may place reinforcing steel. The cost per
hour of skilled steel setters will be higher than that of laborers, but they should
be able to better read the drawings, place the steel at a faster rate, and require lit
tle or no supervision. The labor-hours to place reinforcing steel will vary
depending on these factors.
Table 10.8 gives representative rates of placing reinforcing steel bars. The
rates are based on carrying the steel by hand not more than 1 0 0 ft from the stor
age area to the structure. To estimate the cost of placing reinforcing steel, the
T A B L E 1 0 .8 I Rates of placing reinforcing steel

bars, hr/T.
Bar size
Type of work | and less | and over
Beams and girders 19-21 11-12
Columns 20-22 13-15
Elevated slabs 10-12 10-12
Footings 14-16 8-9
Slab on grade 13-15 13-15
Spirals and stirrups 12-14 12-14
Walls 10-11 8-9
Note 1: These rates are based on skilled steel setters. If common

laborers are used, the rates should be increased by 25 to 30 percent.
Note 2: These rates are based on handling the reinforcing steel less
than 100 ft from the area where it is to be installed.
Note 3: Based on the job conditions, it may be necessary to add 0.5
hr/T to unload and sort the reinforcing steel.
Note 4: If a crane is used to handle the reinforcing steel, the crane
should be charged to the job at a rate of 0.5 to 1.5 hr/T.
estimator must determine the quantity of steel (in pounds or tons) for each type
of work and then use the data in Table 10.8 to determine the labor-hours. The
total labor cost can then be determined by multiplying the labor-hour by the
labor rate.
WELDED-WIRE FABRIC
For certain types of concrete projects, such as sidewalks, pavements, floors,
canal linings, etc., it may be more economical to use welded-wire fabric for rein
forcing instead of steel bars. This fabric is made from cold-drawn steel wire,
electrically welded at the intersections of longitudinal and transverse wires, to
form rectangular or square patterns. It is available in flat sheets or rolls, the lat
ter frequently being 60 in. wide and 150 ft long. It is usually priced by the square
foot or roll, the price depending on the weight.
The quantity required will equal the total area to be reinforced, with 5 to 10
percent of the area added for side and end laps. The fabric to be used is desig
nated by specifying the style, such as 412-610. This style designates a rectangu
lar fabric with longitudinal wires spaced 4 in. apart and transverse wires spaced
1 2 in. apart, using no. 6 gauge longitudinal wires and no. 1 0 gauge transverse
wires. The gauge number represents the diameter of the wire.

Table 10.9 gives the properties of representative styles of welded-wire fab
ric. Many other styles are available. Based on a width of 60 in. and a length of
150 ft, the weight of a roll of fabric will vary from 75 to 1,000 lb or more.
Labor Placing Welded-Wire Fabric

Fabric is placed by unrolling it over the area to be reinforced, cutting it to the
required lengths, lapping the edges and ends, and tying it at frequent spacings.
On large regular areas, a laborer should place it at a rate of 0.25 hr/100 sf, while
for irregular areas that require cutting and fitting the rate of placing may be 0.5
hr/ 1 0 0 sf.
CONCRETE
COST OF CONCRETE
The cost of concrete includes the cost of sand, aggregate, cement, water, admix
tures, mixing, transporting, and placing the concrete. Concrete mixed at the job
site is rarely used, except in small quantities that do not require rigid quality.
Ready-mix concrete is used for most concrete structures, rather than mixing the
concrete at the jobsite. The cost of concrete delivered to the job will vary with
the size of the job, the location, and the quality of concrete. The cost to place the
concrete after it arrives at the job depends on the extent to which equipment is
T A B L E 1 0 .9 I Properties of representative styles of welded-wire fabric.
Sectional area of
Spacing of wire, in. Gauge number wires, in.2/ft
Weight,
lb per Longi- Trans Longi Trans Longi Trans
Style 100 sf tudinal verse tudinal verse tudinal verse
44-1010 31 4 4 10 10 0.043 0.043
44-88 44 4 4 8 8 0.062 0.062
44-66 62 4 4 6 6 0.087 0.087
44-44 85 4 4 4 4 0.120 0.120
66-1010 . 21 6 6 10 10 0.029 0.029
66-88 30 6 6 8 8 0.041 0.041
66-66 42 6 6 6 6 0.058 0.058
66-44 58 6 6 4 4 0.080 0.080
66-22 78 6 6 2 2 0.108 0.108
48-1012 20 4 8 10 12 0.043 0.013
48-912 23 4 8 9 12 0.052 0.013
48-812 27 4 8 8 12 0.062 0.013
412-1012 19 4 12 10 12 0.043 0.009
412-812 25 4 12 8 12 0.062 0.009
412-610 36 4 12 6 10 0.087 0.014
412-49 49 4 12 4 9 0.120 0.017
412-48 51 4 12 4 8 0.120 0.021
416-812 25 4 16 8 12 0.062 0.007
416-610 35 4 16 6 10 0.087 0.011
416-49 48 4 16 4 9 0.120 0.013
416-28 64 4 16 2 8 0.162 0.015
612-66 32 6 12 6 6 0.058 0.029
612-44 44 6 12 4 4 0.080 0.040
612-22 59 6 12 2 2 0.108 0.054
612-14 61 6 12, 1 4 0.126 0.040
612-03 72 6 12 0 3 0.148 0.047
used. For example, the concrete* may be placed directly into the forms using
laborers to distribute the concrete. The concrete may also be placed using a crane
with a bucket attached, or pumped by a concrete pump truck.
QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS
FOR CONCRETE
The estimator should determine the cubic yards of each class of concrete in the
job. A reasonable amount should be included for waste, such as 10 percent for a
small job or 5 percent for larger jobs.
Concrete structures are designed for concretes having specified strengths,
usually expressed in pounds per square inch in compression 28 days after it is
placed in the structure. To produce a concrete with a specified strength, it is
common practice to employ a commercial laboratory to design the mix. Such a
laboratory specifies the weight or volume of fine aggregate, coarse aggregate,

cement, and water to produce a batch or cubic yard of concrete having the
required strength.
Estimators seldom have the laboratory design information when estimating
the cost of a project. Tables giving the approximate quantities of aggregate,
cement, and water for different quantities of concrete are available. The infor
mation given in these tables is sufficiently accurate for estimating purposes.
Table 10.10 gives the approximate quantities of cement, water, and coarse and
fine aggregates required to produce 1 cy of concrete having the indicated 28-day
compressive strengths. Note that the aggregate is saturated surface-dry when
weighed. If the stockpiles of aggregates contain surface moisture, as they usu
ally do, the quantity of water added should be decreased by the amount of water
present on the surface of the aggregate. The weights of the aggregate should be
increased to produce net weights that correspond to those given in the table.
T A B L E 1 0 .1 0 I Quantities of cement, water, and aggregates required for 1 cy of

concrete having the indicated 28-day compressive strength.
Weights of saturated
surface-dry aggregate, lb
Sacks of 28-day compressive
cement Water, gai Fine Coarse strength, psi
1 -in. coarse aggregate
4.9 39.1 1,370 1,860 2,250
5.6 39.1 1,345 1,847 2,750
6.0 39.0 1,260 1,860 3,000
6.5 39.0 1,235 1,820 3,300
7.2 39.8 1,150 1,875 3,700
8.0 40.0 1,120 1,840 4,250
2-in. coarse aggregate

4.5 36.0 1,350 1,980 2,250
5.1 35.6 1,275 1,980 2,750
5.5 35.7 1,265 1,980 3,000
6.0 36.0 1,200 1,980 3,300
6.7 36.8 1,140 2,010 3,700
7.4 36.8 1,110 2,000 4,250
LABOR AND EQUIPMENT

PLACING CONCRETE
A typical concrete crew consists of a finisher and not more than five laborers to
place, spread, vibrate, and finish the concrete surface. The laborers place and
spread the concrete in the forms. While concrete is placed in the forms, vibrators
operated by gasoline engines are used to consolidate the concrete. For flat-work
concrete, laborers screed the top of the concrete to the required level. The finisher
applies the required surface texture. The surface of the concrete can be broom fin
ished, hand toweled, or machine toweled.
The labor-hours required to place concrete will vary with the rate of deliv
ery, type of structure, and location of the structure. Depending on the type of
work, the concrete may be placed below the ground, on the ground, or above the
ground.
Deep foundations require placement of the concrete into holes drilled into
the ground. The concrete is discharged from the truck into a trimie to prevent
separation of the concrete mix as it is dropped to depths from 5 to 50 ft below
the surface of the ground. The trimie is a flexible hose that extends from the
ground to the bottom of the drilled shaft. The trimie is pulled as the concrete
placement moves from the bottom to the top of the drilled shaft. Generally a
crew of not more than two to four workers is required.
For shallow foundations, such as spread footing, grade beams, and small
slabs on grades, it may be possible to discharge the concrete directly into the
forms from the chute on the back of the delivery truck. If the job conditions are
such that the delivery truck cannot place the concrete directly into the forms,
hand buggies and wheelbarrows may be used to transport from 4 to 9 cy of con
crete, provided there are smooth and rigid runways on which to operate. Hand
buggies are safer than wheelbarrows because they have two wheels rather than
one. Hand buggies and wheelbarrows are recommended only for distances less
than 2 0 0 ft.
For large slabs on grade, where the concrete delivery truck cannot be placed
sufficiently close to directly discharge the concrete in the forms, it can be desir
able to pump the concrete, otherwise the workers using concrete buggies must
transport the concrete.
For elevated concrete structures, such as columns, beams, girders, and floor
slabs, etc., two methods can be used: crane and bucket or pumping. If concrete
is placed using a crane with a bucket, it is desirable to have two buckets avail
able for the crane. Concrete can be discharged from the concrete truck into one
bucket on the ground while the crane transports the filled bucket for placement
of concrete in the elevated forms.
For large volumes of concrete placement, or concrete that must be placed at
high elevations, it may be more economical to use a pump to place the concrete
directly into the forms. Pumps require a steady supply of concrete to be effec
tive. Pumps can be mounted on trucks, trailers, or skids. The concrete is placed
into a hopper of the pump truck, which pumps the concrete through rigid pipes
or flexible tubes to the location of placement. Truck-mounted pump and boom
combination is particularly effective and cost-effective in saving labor.
Generally, the contractor hires the services of a company that specializes in
pumping concrete. Pumps are available in a variety of sizes, capable of deliver
ing concrete at sustained rates of 10 to 150 cy/hr. Effective pumping ranges from
300 to 1,000 ft horizontally and from 100 to 300 ft vertically.
Belt conveyors are available for rapid movement of fresh concrete. They
may be portable or self-contained conveyors. Some models are designed to work
in series, to carry the concrete from one conveyor to another until it is dis
charged. Units are available that have the capability to side-discharge and spread
the concrete, for example, to place fresh concrete on a bridge deck.
Table 10.11 gives approximate labor-hours for various types of work
required to place concrete.
T A B L E 10 .1 1 I Labor-hours required to place concrete, hr/cy.
Method of handling
Type of work Direct chute Crane bucket Pumped
Continuous footings 0.3-0.4 0.6-0.8 0.4-0.5
Spread footings 0.6-0.7 1.0-1.3 0.6-0.8
Grade beams 0.3-0.4 0.5-0.7 0.3-0.4
Slabs on grade 0.3-0.4 0.5-0.6 0.4-0.5
Walls 0.4-0.5 0.7-0.9 0.5-0.6
Beams and girders — 1.4-1.8 1.0-1.2
Columns — 1.1-1.3 0.6-0.8
Elevated slabs — 0.6-0.8 0.4-0.5
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
When the strength of concrete is not a primary factor, and when a reduction in the
weight is desirable, lightweight aggregate, such as cinders, burned clay, vermicu-
lite, pumice, or other materials, may be used instead of sand and gravel or crushed
stone. Concrete made with this aggregate and Portland cement may weigh 40 to
1 0 0 lb/cf, depending on the aggregate and the amount of cement used, which is
substantially lighter than 150 lb/cy for normal weight concrete. Also, lightweight
concrete has better insulating properties than conventional concrete.
PERLITE CONCRETE AGGREGATE

While several lightweight aggregates are used, only perlite will be discussed to
illustrate the properties and costs of lightweight concrete. This aggregate is a vol
canic lava rock that has been expanded by heat to produce a material weighing
approximately 8 lb/cf. Concrete made from this aggregate may be used for sub
floors, fireproofing steel columns and beams, roof decks, concrete blocks, etc.
The materials used in making concrete include Portland cement, aggregate,
water, and an air-entraining agent. Mixing can be accomplished in a drum-type
concrete mixer, or transit-mixed concrete can be purchased in some localities.
Perlite is generally available in bags containing 4 cf, which weigh about 32 lb.
When lightweight concrete is used for floors or roof decks, it is usually

placed in thinner layers than when conventional concrete is used. The reduction
in volume, without a corresponding reduction in the number of laborers, will
result in a higher labor cost per cubic yard of concrete. The cost of labor
required to mix and place this concrete for a floor fill or roof deck should be
increased at least 50 percent over that required for slabs constructed with con
ventional concrete.
TILT-UP CONCRETE WALLS

Tilt-up construction is frequently used for walls of warehouses and similar type
structures. First, the walls are cast in a horizontal position on the concrete floor
slab, usually at ground level. After they have cured sufficiently, the walls are
tilted into the vertical position.
The concrete floor on which the wall sections are to be cast should be
cleaned and coated with a bond-breaker before the forms are placed. Side forms,
equal in height to the thickness of the wall, are placed around the panels to be
poured. Frames for window and door openings should be installed before con
crete is placed in the forms. Conduits can be placed in the wall easily. Stiffeners
should be attached to the side forms to maintain true alignment. The reinforcing
steel is placed in position. Steel dowels projecting through holes drilled in the
side forms, or weld plates cast in the sides of the wall, permit the walls to be
secured in position after they are tilted up. Leveling bolts are usually installed in
the bottom of the wall panels to permit plumbing adjustments of the wall after it
is tilted up. After the concrete has cured properly, the forms are removed and the
wall panels are tilted to final position as units of a wall.
After the walls are tilted up, they are aligned and braced. The panels are tied
into a solid continuous structure by joining adjacent panels with weld plates. The
walls can be attached to reinforced concrete columns with the projecting steel
dowels. A nonshrinkage grout is placed under the wall panels and caulking is
installed to seal gaps between adjacent wall panels.
The size of wall panels is limited to the lifting capacity of the equipment
used to tilt the wall up. To reduce the danger of structural failure in the panels
while they are being tilted into position, it is advisable to use strongback, or steel
beams temporally bolted to the panels. For this purpose, bolts should be embed
ded in the concrete or mechanical inserts of adequate strength may be used. The
panels can be picked up with a face-lift or an edge-lift. Multiple pick-up points
can be used in a face-lift to reduce the danger of cracking a panel as it is tilted
into place.
The advantages of this method of construction include low cost of forms,
low cost of placing reinforcing steel, and low cost of placing concrete, since high
hoisting into vertical forms is not necessary.
PROBLEMS
10.1 A concrete basement wall for a building has dimensions of 85 ft wide and 140 ft
long. A single monolithic placement of the concrete into the walls is planned.
Thus, the entire formwork system is to be built and erected before placement of
the concrete, thereby preventing any reuse of the forms.
The forms will be constructed using plywood and dimension lumber. Use
average values from Table 10.1 and the unit cost of material and labor as shown
in Example 10.3 to estimate the total cost and cost per SFCA for the formwork.
10.2 Estimate the cost of the formwork of Prob. 10.1, assuming the forms will be
used three times. Calculate the cost savings that can be achieved by reusing the
forms.
10.3 Construction of a building requires 24 in. by 24 in. square concrete columns. The
columns will be 14 ft high. A total of 75 columns are required in the structure.
All of the concrete will be placed in the columns at one time, thereby preventing
any reuse of the forms.
The forms will be constructed using plywood and dimension lumber. Use
average values from Table 10.2 and the unit cost of material and labor as shown
in Example 10.6 to estimate the total cost and cost per SFCA for the formwork.
10.4 Estimate the cost of formwork of Prob. 10.2, assuming the forms will be used
four times. Calculate the cost savings that can be achieved by reusing the forms.
10.5 Estimate the cost of forms for 68 concrete beams for a building. The beams are
15 in. wide, 22 in. deep, and 34 ft long. The forms will be used four times. The
formwork will be constructed with plywood and dimension lumber. Use average
values from Table 10.3 and the unit cost of material and labor as shown in
Example 10.8 to estimate the total cost and cost per SFCA for the formwork.
10.6 Estimate the direct cost of furnishing, building, and removing forms for a flat-
slab concrete floor whose size is 240 ft by 385 ft. The ceiling height will be 12 ft
and the slab will be 8 in. thick.
The forming system will be as shown in Figure 10.12, using plywood and
lumber, with 4 X 4 joists and 4 X 6 stringers. Use average values from Table
10.4 and the unit cost of material and labor as shown in Example 10.9 to esti
mate the total cost and cost per SFCA.
10.7 Estimate the total cost and cost per pound of reinforcing steel for a concrete slab
on grade. The floor will be 66 ft 8 in. long, 52 ft 4 in. wide, and 6 in. thick. The
reinforcing steel will be no. 4 bars (j in. dia) spaced not more than 12 in. apart
each way in the slab. The bars laid next to and parallel to the edges of the slab
will be placed 3 in. from the edges of the slab. The ends of the bars will extend
to within 2 in. from the edges of the slab.
Skilled steel setters will be used at a cost of $19.50/hr. The cost of reinforc
ing steel delivered to the job will be $0.28/lb. Use average values from
Table 10.8.
10.8 If the concrete wall is 9 in. thick, estimate the labor cost for placement of the
concrete by direct chute from the concrete delivery truck. Use average values
from Table 10.11 and assume the unit cost of labor is $ 21 .50/hr.
Steel Structures
TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Steel is used to erect such structures as multistory buildings, auditoriums, gymna
siums, theaters, churches, industrial buildings, roof trusses, stadiums, bridges,
towers, etc. In addition to steel structures, steel members are frequently used for
columns, beams, roof purlins, decking, joists, studs, lintels, and for other purposes.
Due to its high strength, steel is ideal for long spans and tall structures. Steel
consisting of standard shapes or fabricated plate girders is used for many multiple-
span bridges. Trusses made of steel can span large arenas for entertainment or
educational facilities. Galvanized steel angles are fabricated into space-truss
towers to support conductors and shield wires for electrical transmission struc
tures. Transmission towers often are 120 to 200 ft tall. Steel is also used to sup
port water towers and other types of elevated storage units. Skyscrapers are typ
ically constructed of steel.
MATERIALS USED IN STEEL STRUCTURES

Insofar as it is possible, steel structures should be constructed with members fab
ricated from standard shapes, such as W section beams, C channels, structural
tees, angles, pipes, tubes, rods, and plates. Members made from standard rolled
shapes are usually more economical than fabricated members. However, if stan
dard shapes are not available in sufficient sizes to supply the required strength,
it is necessary to fabricate the members from several parts, such as adding plates
to beam flanges or stiffeners to beam webs. Large built-up plate girders can be
fabricated by welding together steel plates to form flanges and webs of any size.
The unit of measure of steel is pounds, hundredweight (cwt), or tons. The
grade of structural steel denotes its yield strength. For example, a drawing may
show a steel beam as a V718 X 55 Grade 50. The W represents a wide flange
section, the 18 denotes the approximate depth in inches, the 55 represents the
weight in pounds per ft of length, and the Grade 50 denotes that the yield
strength is 50,000 pounds (psi).
ESTIMATING THE WEIGHT OF

STRUCTURAL STEEL
In estimating the weight of structural steel for a job, the total number of linear
feet for each shape by size and weight must be determined from the drawings for
a project. Structural-steel handbooks give the nominal weights of all sections.
However, variations in weights amounting to 2 percent above or below the nom
inal weights are permissible and may occur. The purchaser is charged for the
actual weight furnished, provided that the weight does not fall outside the per
missible variation.
The weight of the details for connections should be estimated and priced
separately if a detailed estimate is desirable. In estimating the weight of a steel
plate or irregular shape, the weight of the rectangular plate from which the shape
is cut should be used. Steel weighs 490 lb/cf.
CONNECTIONS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

In fabricating standard shapes to form the required members or in connecting the
members into the structure, two types of connections are used: bolts and welds.
There are advantages and disadvantages in each type of connection, which will
be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.
ESTIMATING THE COST OF

STEEL STRUCTURES
In estimating the cost of structural steel for a job, a contractor will submit a set
of plans and specifications for the structure to a commercial steel supplier for
quotations. The steel supplier will make a quantity takeoff, including main mem
bers, detailed connections, and miscellaneous items. Then, the supplier will add
fabricating costs for cutting, punching, drilling, welding, overhead, and profit as
a basis for submitting a quotation to the general contractor. For some jobs, the
steel supplier will paint the fabricated steel before delivery to the job. When the
steel fabricator paints the steel, it is called shop paint. The cost of transporting
the steel to the project must be added to the cost of the finished products at the
fabrication shop.
General contractors who erect buildings and similar structures usually sub
contract the erection of the steel to subcontractors who specialize in this work.
This practice is justified because the erection of steel is a highly specialized
operation, which should be performed by a contractor with suitable equipment
and a well-trained erection crew. Because of these conditions, the general con
tractor can usually have the erection performed more economically by a sub
contractor than with the general contractor’s equipment and employees. The
charge for the erection is generally based on an agreed price per ton of steel in
place, including bolting and welding the connections.
When estimating the cost of structural steel in place, a contractor will
include in the estimate the cost of the steel delivered to the project, the cost of
Chapter 11 Steel Structures 265
erection, and the cost of field welding and painting as required. To these costs
the contractor will add the contractor’s cost for job overhead, general overhead,
and profit.
ITEMS OF COST IN A
STRUCTURAL-STEEL ESTIMATE
The items of cost that should be considered in preparing a comprehensive
detailed estimate for a steel structure include:
1. Cost of standard structural shapes delivered to the steel supplier

2. Cost of preparing drawings for use by the shop in fabricating the steel
3. Cost of fabricating the steel shapes into finished members
4. Cost of transporting the steel to the job
5. Cost of erecting the steel, including equipment, labor, bolts, or welding
6 . Cost of field painting the steel structure
7. Cost of job overhead, general overhead, insurance, taxes, and profit
The base cost of steel is subject to change due to economic conditions.

Therefore, the cost of any one or all of these items may vary considerably with
respect to time. Consequently, the cost of each item must be estimated for each
particular project.
COST OF STANDARD SHAPED

STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structural steel is hot rolled into standard shapes, sizes, and lengths at steel
mills. Steel suppliers purchase bulk quantities of structural steel from the mills
in standard shapes and lengths, usually 40 ft long. The cost of steel delivered by
the mill to the steel supplier’s fabrication shop depends on the shape, weight per
foot, grade, and total quantity ordered. Large quantities of purchased steel gen
erally are priced lower than small quantities of steel.
Typically, the construction contractor purchases the steel from a local steel
supplier, not the steel mill. The cost to purchase steel from the steel supplier
before it is fabricated is commonly called the base price of steel. Steel suppliers
have shops that specialize in fabricating standard shaped steel into members to
meet the specifications required for each particular job. Before starting the fab
rication process, the steel supplier prepares shop drawings that are submitted for
approval.
COST OF PREPARING SHOP DRAWINGS

In preparing plans for a steel structure, the engineer or architect does not furnish
drawings in sufficient detail to permit the shop to fabricate the members without
additional information. The steel supplier must prepare shop drawings before the
steel can be fabricated.
Steel suppliers maintain engineering and drafting departments, which pre
pare shop drawings in sufficient detail to enable their shops to fabricate the
members. These drawings show actual cut-lengths of each member, precise
location of drilled or punched holes, details of welded assemblies, and all other
dimensions necessary to fabricate the steel. Figure 11.1 is an example of the fab
rication details for a steel beam with bolted connections. The W16 X 40 wide
flange beam has a cut-length of 18 ft 4 5 in. with three f-in.-thick stiffener plates
and four drilled holes at each end. Each member in a structural steel project is
identified with its unique designation, called a piece mark, and detailed as illus
trated in this figure. After all the members are detailed in the shop drawings, a
bill of material is prepared for the entire project. The bill of material lists each
piece of steel, its size, type, length, and weight. The bill of material for the W16
X 40 beam is shown in Fig. 11.1.
it" 9'-2" 1 8 -2 4 __
vr
Vi
P L 3/8" X 3V4" X l'-3-a 18' - 2l

A1 One -Beam W 16 X 40 X 18 -42
( l/2 " camber @ *L)
Bill of Material:
Item Dwg. Piece
no. no. mark Quant Type and size Notes Length Weight
1 1 A 1 W 16 X 4 0 = A572 beam 18 ft 4 */2in. 735.00 lb

2 1 B 3 PL 3/8 in. X 3 3>/4 stiffener lft 3 in. 15.54 lb
Totals 4 piece marks 91.88 sf 750.54 lb
FIGURE 11. 1 I Example of details for a bolted connection beam on a shop drawing.
Courtesy: W&W Steel Company.
Shop drawings are usually prepared on 24- by 36-in. size sheets. The num
ber of shop drawings required depends on the size and complexity of a job. One
job may require as few as one or two sheets of structural details, while another
job may require more than 100 sheets. The cost of preparing the drawings is
based on the complexity of the detailing and the number of sheets required.
Since the total cost of the drawings is charged to the steel that will be furnished
for a job, the cost per unit weight of steel will vary with the total cost of the
drawings and the quantity of steel. If only one member is fabricated, the cost per
member is high, whereas if a great many members are fabricated, the cost per
member will be much lower.
After the shop drawings are prepared, they are provided to the contractor,
who submits them to the designer for approval. The cost of preparing shop draw
ings is approximately 5 to 10 percent of the base price of steel.
COST OF FABRICATING STRUCTURAL STEEL

The cost of fabricating structural steel will vary considerably with the operations
performed, sizes of members, and extent to which shop operations can be dupli
cated on similar members.
For bolted connections, the fabricating operations include cutting, punching,
milling, planing, and marking each member. For welded connections, the fabri
cating operations include cutting, some punching for temporary bolt connec
tions, milling, beveling, planing, and shop welding. It is usually more efficient
and economical to perform welding in the shop, rather than in the field. Also, it
is generally easier to control the quality of shop welds.
The cost per ton for lightweight roof trusses will be higher than the cost per
ton for large-size beams fabricated from rolled sections. The cost per pound is
significantly higher to fabricate angles and plates for space-truss towers, com
pared to beams and columns of buildings or plate girders for bridges. Thousands
of members are required in space trusses, each of which must be cut to a precise
length and holes must be punched in each end of each member so it can be bolted
to other members in the completed structure.
The cost per ton or per hundredweight is based on the weight of the finished
members, including details, cutting, punching, drilling, welding, etc. The time
required to set up fabricating equipment is fairly constant, regardless of the num
ber of operations performed. Therefore, when identical operation can be per
formed on many members, the cost per pound will be substantially lower com
pared to a shop operation on only a few members.
Specifications for structural steel frequently require the fabricator to apply
a coat of paint after the fabricating is completed. A gallon of paint should cover
about 400 sf of surface. Spray guns are generally used to apply the paint. A
painter, using a spray gun, should be able to paint from 1 to 2 T/hr, depending
on the size and shape of the steel members. The cost of shop painting structural
steel is about 8 to 1 2 percent of the base price of steel.
Depending on the complexity and amount of fabrication required, the total
cost of fabricating steel can range from 50 to 100 percent of the base price of steel.
COST OF TRANSPORTING STEEL TO THE JOB

Usually the steel supplier delivers the fabricated steel to the job. However, if the
contractor is providing the delivery of the steel, the estimator should determine
the freight or truck cost per ton or per hundredweight for the particular project
to include the correct amount in the estimate.
The cost of transporting structural steel from the fabrication shop to the job
will vary with the quantity of steel, method of transporting it, and the distance
from the shop to the job. A truck should haul about 20 T/load.
COST OF FABRICATED STRUCTURAL STEEL

DELIVERED TO A PROJECT
A complete list of material by size, shape, and length must be prepared to esti
mate the cost of fabricated steel. Example 11.1 illustrates the breakdown of costs
for fabricating and delivering steel to a project.
EXAMPLE 1 1 . 1
Structural steel, consisting of beams, colum ns, angles, and plates, is used for a
framed building. All members are to be fabricated at a shop for high-strength bolted
connections. W ide flange beams will be used for beams and columns.
A list of members and details is given in the accom panying table. The small-size
beams are used for short spans and larger-size beams will be used for the longer
spans. The larger column sizes will be used for the lower floors, whereas the smaller
column sizes are used for the upper floors. Angles are used as seats and clips for
beam-to-column connections for joining together the structural members. Steel
plates are used for column base plates and splicing of column members.
Based on current econom ic conditions, the base price of steel quoted from the
supplier is $24.96/cwt for beams and columns, $28.43/cwt for plates, and $22.17/cwt
for angles. The steel will be delivered by 20-T trucks from the steel supplier a dis
tance of 134 mi to the job at a rate of $2.75/mi.
An illustrative breakdown of the base, fabrication, and delivery cost of the steel
is shown in this example. The percentage values given in the preceding paragraphs
of this book are used for fabrication, shop drawings, and painting.
Number Length Weight, Total

of pieces Description each Ib/lin ft weight, lb
18 Columns, 14/10 x 89 24 ft 9 in. 89 39,649
12 Columns, 14/10 x 112 24 ft 9 in. 112 33,264
18 Columns, 14/10 x 54 21 ft 6 in. 54 20,898
12 Columns, M/10 x 72 21 ft 6 in. 72 18,576
Total weight of columns 112,387
30 16- x 16- x 1J -in. base plates 3,267

120 6- x 18- x f-in . splice plates 2,763
120 A 3 x 3 x | 0 ft 8 in. 7.2 575
420 £2j x 2 x | 0 ft 8 in. 2.75 577
Total weight of column details 7,182
68 Beams, M/14 x 48 17 ft 6 in. 48 57,120

54 Beams, 14/14 x 34 19 ft 9 in. 34 36,261
24 Beams, 1/1/12 x 32 16 ft 6 in. 32 12,672
18 Beams, 1/1/12 x 28 22 ft 6 in. 28 11,340
Total weight of beams 117,393
492 A 3 X 3 X | 1 ft 0 in. 7.2 3,542

164 i 3 X 3 X ] O ft 10 in. 4.9 670
Total weight of angles 4,212
Total weight of fabricated steel, lb 241,174
Total weight, tons 120.59
The total cost will be:

Base cost of steel:
Columns: 1,123.87 cw t @ $24.96/cwt = $28,051.80
Beams: 1,173.93 cw t @ $24.96/cwt = 29,301.29
Plates: 60.30 cw t @ $28.43/cwt = 1,714.33
Angles: 3 in., 47.87 cw t @ $22.17/cw t = 1,061.28
Angles: 2 f in., 5.77 cw t @ $22.17/cwt = 127.92
Total base cost of steel = $60,256.62
Fabricating costs:
Columns: 1,123.87 cw t @ 85% X $24.96/cwt = $23,884.03
Beams: 1,173.93 cwt @ 85% x $24.96/cwt = 24,906.10
Plates: 60.30 cw t @ 95% x $28.42/cwt = 1,628.04
Angles: 3 in., 47.87 cw t @ 85% X $22.17/cwt = 902.09
Angles: 2 \ in., 5.77 cwt @ 90% X $22.17/cwt = 115.13
Total fabricating costs = $51,435.39
Shop painting:
7.5% X $60,256.62 = $4,519.25
Shop drawings:
10.0% X $60,256.62 = $6,025.66
Shipping steel to job:

Number of trucks needed: 120.59 T/(20 T/truck) = 6 trucks required
Total cost: 6 trucks x 134 mi @ $2.75/mi = $2,211.00
Subtotal of direct costs:

Base price of steel = $60,256.62
Fabricating costs = 51,435.39
Shop painting = 4,519.25
Shop drawings = 6,025.66
Shipping costs = 2,211.00
Total direct costs = $ 1 2 4 ,4 4 7 .9 2
Overhead and profit:

12% X $124,447.92 = $14,933.75
Total cost of fabricated steel delivered to job:

$124,447.92 + $14,933.75 = $139,441.67
Summary of costs:
Cost per pound, $139,441.67/241,174 lb = $0.58/lb
Cost per hundredweight, $139,441.67/2,411.74 = $57.79/cwt
Cost per ton, $139,441.67/120.59 T = $ 1 ,156/T
ERECTING STRUCTURAL STEEL

Most general contractors subcontract the erection of structural steel for their
projects. The subcontract may be assigned to a company that specializes in steel
erection or it may be subcontracted to the steel supplier. Many steel suppliers
have the crew and equipment and are capable of erecting the steel that they fab
ricate and deliver to the project.
When a structural-steel building is erected, the columns are erected first on
the previously prepared concrete foundations, with anchor bolts already in place.
The ends of the anchor bolts are usually threaded to allow installation of the col
umn base plates, which have holes drilled to match the pattern of the anchor
bolts. Nuts are installed on each threaded anchor bolt, one above and one below
the column base plate, to adjust and plumb the column.
After the columns are erected, the beams are installed for the first tier of
floors, usually two floors. The connections between the columns and the beams
are temporarily bolted through holes, by using two or more bolts per connection.
Horizontal bracing is necessary to stabilize the structural members during the
erection process. After the tier of columns and beams is in place, it is necessary
to plumb the structure before installing the permanent bolts. This operation is
repeated for subsequent tiers until the erection of the structure is completed.
Equipment for Erecting Structural Steel

The equipment used for erecting steel structures depends on the type of struc
ture, the size and height of the structure, and the location. Roof trusses are usu
ally delivered to the job partly or completely assembled and hoisted directly
from the delivery trucks into place by truck-mounted cranes.
Several types of truck-mounted cranes are available. A hydraulic truck
crane has a self-contained boom, which enables the unit to travel on public high
ways between projects under its own power without setup delays. A hydraulic
truck crane is ideal for short-duration jobs, less than several days. For taller steel
structures, a lattice-boom track crane is sometimes used. The lattice-boom is
cable suspended, and therefore acts as a compression member, not a bending
member like the telescoping hydraulic boom. However, mobilization and demo
bilization of the lattice-boom crane require time. Sometimes a second crane is
required to assemble and disassemble the lattice boom. Figure 11.2 shows two
track-mounted cranes erecting steel roof trusses.
Multistory steel-frame buildings can be erected with truck-mounted cranes
if the height is not excessive, usually about four stories. If a building is so tall
that a truck-mounted crane cannot be used, the steel members may be placed
with a tower crane. These are cranes that provide a high-lifting height with a
good working radius and require limited space. Several types are available.
Some units have a fixed vertical tower with a rotating horizontal boom trass.
The climbing-frame-type crane is supported by the floors of the building that it
is being used to construct. Figure 11.3 shows two tower cranes erecting struc
tural steel for a building.
F IG U R E 1 1 .2 I Two power cranes erecting steel roof trusses.
Because cranes are used to hoist and move loads from one location to another,
it is necessary to know the lifting capacity and working range of a crane selected
to perform a given service. The lifting capacity of cranes for erecting steel struc
tures typically varies from 20 to 100 T. However, lifting capacities up to 500 T are
available. Individual manufacturers of equipment furnish specifications and infor
mation that describes the lifting capabilities and tipping loads of their equipment.
Steel erection contractors typically own the lifting equipment. However, for
special jobs that may require an unusually heavy or high lift, the crane may be
rented. The cranes can be rented per day, week, or month.
Bolting Structural Steel

When bolting structural steel, one worker will be required at each end of the
member to install at least enough bolts to secure the member to the supporting
structure. One or two other workers may be required on the ground level to assist
in attachment of slings and rigging the next structural member to be erected. As
structural members are erected, adequate lateral bracing is necessary to ensure
adequate rigidity and stability of the entire steel framing system.
After members are erected and plumbed, two ironworkers should be able to
complete the permanent bolting, including application of the proper tightening
torque. For safety, fall protection must be provided for ironworkers when they
are working at high elevations.
When a tower crane is used to hoist the members and place them into posi
tion, it is common practice to install enough bolts in the connections to permit
F IG U R E 1 1 .3 I Tower cranes erecting structural steel for a multistory steel building
the structure to be plumbed and braced as it is erected. If this procedure is fol

lowed, the rest of the permanent bolts will be installed later. Calibrated torque
wrenches, selected to produce the desired tension in the bolts, can be used in
tightening the nuts on the bolts. The crew size required for installing the bolts
will vary with the number of bolts needed and the ease or difficulty in getting at
the bolts.
Welding Structural Steel

In general, welded connections provide more rigidity than bolted connections.
For welded steel structures, gasoline-operated welding machines are used, other
wise the general procedure and erection equipment are essentially the same as
for a bolted structure. Welders, who are certified by laboratory tests, are used in
producing high-quality welding of steel structures. The cost of field welding can
be substantially reduced if the structure is designed for minimum overhead
welding. Various types of structural welds are shown in Fig. 11.4.
If a structure is designed for welded connections, it is possible to reduce the

total weight of steel by as much as 5 percent, as compared to bolted connections.
It is not necessary to punch bolt holes in members at points of critical stress for
connection purposes. Where a few holes are required for temporarily bolting
members in place, the holes can be punched at noncritical points, thus permit
ting the use of the full strength of a member at joints rather than a reduced net
section through the member. Since the welded joints can be made as strong as
the full sections of the members, it is possible to design beams as continuous
members over several supports, thus reducing the critical bending-moment
stresses. As a result of these conditions, lighter beams can be used in a structure,
which will reduce the total weight of steel required. Also, smaller and less
expensive foundation costs should result from reduction in deadweight of the
structures.
After a member of the structure is plumbed or brought to the correct posi
tion, welding of the connections is started. To eliminate undesirable distortion of
a structure, resulting from unequal heating at the connections, a definite pattern
for welding should be established and rigidly followed. If beams are to be
welded to opposite flanges of a column, the two welds should be performed
simultaneously to eliminate unequal expansion of the two sides of the column,
which would result from welding the beams separately.
If welding girders to columns or beams to columns and girders, the top flanges
should be welded first and allowed to cool to the atmospheric temperature prior to
welding the bottom flanges. As the welds for the bottom flanges cool, the bottom
flanges at the ends of the beams will be subjected to tension. Since this stress is
opposite the stress to which the beams will be subjected under loaded conditions,
the effect of welding is to reduce the ultimate bending stresses in the beams. The
correct procedure in welding beams to columns is illustrated in Fig. 11.5.
— -V — ------1------
-Plate
/
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- f ----------------/ --------------

A
j---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------
-*---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------♦ ------------- !
ii Plate
iij Plate * 1
S h e lf/*
L
r \ - /
1
ft Shelf
L
------ \ ------ — \ ------
-|
Section A-A
F IG U R E 1 1 .5 I Details of beam-to-column welds.
Chapter 11 Steel Structures
LABOR ERECTING STRUCTURAL STEEL

The cost of labor erecting structural steel will vary with the type of structure, the
type of equipment used, sizes of members, climatic conditions, and the prevail
ing wage rates of the workers.
Construction laborers who erect structural steel are called ironworkers or
structural steel workers. A common size of steel erection crew consists of four
ironworkers, a crane operator, and foreman. However, crews for erecting steel
may vary from two to eight ironworkers, depending on the size of structural
members that must be handled and the height of the structure. For example, a
high-rise multistory building may use a crew consisting of eight ironworkers,
several welders, crane operator, hoist operator, and two foremen.
Table 11.1 gives the approximate number of crew-hours per 1,000 lin ft of
member for erecting steel for various sizes and shapes of structural steel mem
bers that have been fabricated and delivered to the job. Wide-flange beams with
deeper depths can span longer distances than shallower-depth beams. However,
the time to set a 25-ft-long beam is about the same as the time to set a 22-ft-long
beam. Therefore, the crew-hours per foot are less for erecting large-size beams,
compared to smaller-size beams.
T A B L E 11.1 I Approximate crew-hours per 1,000 lin ft for erecting various

sizes and shapes of shop fabricated steel members.
Crew-hours
Type of work per 1,000 lin ft
Erecting steel beams, bolted connections
Crew: 4 ironworkers, 1 crane operator, 1 foreman
Equipment: 1 crane
W-sections, 8 in. deep 15.6-17.3
Erecting steel beams, welded connections
Crew: 5 ironworkers, 1 crane operator, 1 welder, 1 foreman
Equipment: 1 crane, 1 welding machine
Erecting steel columns
Crew: 4 ironworkers, 1 crane operator, 1 foreman
Equipment: 1 crane
CD
W-sections, 12 in. deep

o
I
Note: These crew-hours should be increased by 20 percent for erecting steel structures over six stories
high.
If fabrication is required at the jobsite, the cost of fabricating and erecting

the steel is substantially higher than when using shop fabricated steel. However,
sometimes small members, such as angles, channels, or junior beams, are field
fabricated. Table 11.2 gives the approximate crew-hours for field fabricating and
erecting small-size steel members. The crew for performing this type of work
consists of only one ironworker, one welder, and one foreman.
T A B L E 1 1 .2 I Approximate crew-hours per 1,000 lin ft for field fabricating

and erecting of small members.
Type of work Crew-hours per 1,000 lin ft

Field fabricating small members,
Crew: 1 ironworker, 1 welder, 1 foreman
Equipment: 1 welder
Angles, to 1-in. legs 54-66
Angles, 2- to 3-in. legs 104-127
Channels, 2 in. to 5 in. deep 97-119
Channels, 6 in. to 8 in. deep 170-208
Junior beams, 3 in. to 5 in. deep 99-121
Junior beams, 6 in. to 8 in. deep 126-154
E X A M P L E 1 1 .2
Estimate the cost of labor for erecting 7,931 lin ft of IV14 x 53 w ide flange beams
and 1,388 lin ft of I/V12 x 50 columns. The structure is two stories high and bolted
connections will be used. Use average values in Table 11.1 and assume these rates
for labor and equipm ent: $20.97/hr for ironworkers, $21.67/hr for the crane operator,
and $28.50/hr for the foreman. A 40-T crane will be used at a rate of $125.50/hr.
Beams: 7,931 lin ft x 53 lb/ft = 420,343 lb
Columns: 1,388 lin ft x 50 lb/ft = 69,400 lb
Total hundredweight: 489.743 lb/(100 Ib/cwt) = 4897.43 cwt

Total tons: 489,743 lb/(2,000 Ib/T) = 244.87 T
Crew-hours required:
From Table 10.1 for bolted connections:
Crew of 4 ironworkers, 1 crane operator, and 1 foreman
For 14-in.-deep ^/-section beams: 11.55 crew -hours/1,000 lin ft
For 12-in.-deep ^/-section columns: 9.55 crew -hours/1,000 lin f t ,
Crew-hours erecting structural steel:
Beams: 7,931 lin ft x (11.55 crew-hours)/(1,000/lin ft) = 91.6 crew-hours
Column: 1,388 lin ft x (9.55 crew-hours)/(1,000 lin ft) = 13.3 crew-hours
Total time = 104.9 crew-hours
Cost of erecting beams and columns:

Ironworkers: 104.9 crew-hours x 4 ironworkers @ $20.97/hr = $8,799.01
Crane operator: 104.9 crew-hours X 1 operator @ $21.97/hr = 2,304,65
Foreman: 104.9 crew-hours x 1 foreman @ $28.50/hr = 2,989.65
Crane: 104.9 crew-hours x 1 crane @ $125.50/hr = 13,164.95
Total cost = $27,258.26
Summary of costs:
Cost per pound: $27,258.26/489,743 = $0.056/lb
Cost per hundredweight: $27,258.26/4,897.43 =$5.57/cwt
Cost per ton: $27,258.26 /244.87 T = $111/T
If the fabricated steel for these beams and columns cost $1,156/T, then the total
installed cost will be: $1,156/T + $111/T = $1,267/T. This cost does not include the
cost for lateral bracing, steel joists, field painting, tools, overhead, taxes, insurance,
or profit.
FIELD PAINTING STRUCTURAL STEEL

Although structural steel is usually shop painted by the fabricator, it is some
times necessary to perform limited field painting. The cost of applying coats of
paint in the field to structural steel will vary with the type of structure, sizes of
members to be painted, and access to steel members. The cost of painting a ton
of steel for a roof truss will be considerably higher than for a steel frame build
ing because of the greater area of steel per ton for the trass and also because of
the difficulty of moving along the trass with the painting equipment.
Paint is usually applied with a spray gun, operated by an air compressor.
One gallon of paint should cover about 400 sf. Two field coats are usually
applied. Table 11.3 gives the approximate rates of applying a field coat of paint,
by using a spray gun, to structural steel for various types of members and struc
tures. The costs are based on painting 400 sf/gal. A painter should be able to
field paint § to 1j T/hr, depending on the structure.
TABLE 1 1 .3 I Rate of applying a field coat

of paint to steel structure, using a spray gun.
Member or structure Square ft/ton

Beams 200-250
Girders 125-200
Columns 200-250
Roof trusses 275-350
Bridge structures 200-250
PROBLEMS
11.1 The plan and elevation views of a five-story structural steel building are shown
in the accompanying drawing. A column schedule is also given for the building.
All beams will be W14 X 125 with 20-ft span lengths. Estimate the cost of erect
ing the beams and columns using average rates from Table 11.1 and the type of
crew and equipment, unit labor rates, and unit equipment rates as shown in
Example 11.2.
Column Schedule
Floor 1 W10 x 112
Floor 2 1/1/10 X 89
Floor 3 M/10 x 72
Floor 4 M/10 x 60
Floor 5 M/10 x 60
i ' 'C
\ Column 1
Five-story building
. f
WU X 125
Typical floor plan
60 ft
Front elevation Side elevation

C H m p T JE R
Carpentry
INTRODUCTION
Carpentry is classified as rough or finish. Rough carpentry involves the framing
of structural components, such as floors, walls, window and door openings, and
roof members. Finish carpentry involves installation of wood trim around doors
and windows, cabinetry, moldings, and related work. Sometimes frame carpen
ters are called rough carpenters and finish carpenters are called trim carpenters.
Carpenters are used in both heavy and building type projects. They fabricate
and install formwork for concrete structures, including foundations, box cul
verts, and bridge decks. They also frame and trim finished wood in residential
and commercial building construction. Thus, carpenters are used in all types of
construction.
CLASSIFICATION OF LUMBER
Lumber is classified by size, grade, and species. Lumber is measured and priced
by board feet (bf). A board foot is a piece of lumber whose nominal dimensions
are 1 in. thick, 12 in. wide, and 1 ft long. Thus, a 2 X 4 piece of lumber is equiv
alent to 0.67 bf per foot of length, whereas a 2 X 8 piece of lumber is equiva
lent to 1 . 2 2 bf per foot of length.
Lumber Sizes
The sizes of lumber, with the exception of certain specialties such as moldings,
are designated by the nominal dimensions of the cross sections, which are the
dimensions prior to finishing the lumber at the mill. After lumber is sawed
lengthwise at the mill, it may be passed through one or more finishing opera
tions, which will reduce its actual size to less than the identifying dimensions.
Thus, a 2-in. by 4-in. plank (nominal size) will actually be I 5 in. thick and 3 5 in.
wide (actual size) after it is surfaced on all four sides (S4S). This lumber is
called dimension lumber and it is designated by its nominal size as 2 X 4 S4S.
In addition to S4S dimension lumber, dressed and matched lumber is avail

able. Dressed and matched lumber may be S2S center match, tongue and
groove, or shiplap. For example, a 1-in. by 3-in. tongue and groove board will
be f-in. by 5 |-in . actual size.
Because the finishing and dressing operations will result in a reduction in
the actual widths of the lumber, a quantity estimate must include an allowance
for this side wastage or shrinkage. For a plank nominally 6 in. wide, the net
width will be 5 \ in. Thus, the side shrinkage will be \ in. The side shrinkage for
quantity purposes will be (0.5 X 100)/5.5 = 9.1 percent. To provide enough
lumber for a required area, the quantity must be increased 9.1 percent to replace
side shrinkage only.
Lumber is available in lengths that are multiples of 2 ft, with 20 ft as the
common maximum length of an individual board. If other than standard lengths
are needed, they must be cut from standard lengths. This operation may result in
end waste. For example, if a 1 X 6 board 10 ft 6 in. long is needed, it must
be cut from a board that is 1 2 ft 0 in. long with a 1 -ft 6 -in. end waste, unless
the piece cut off can be used elsewhere. This will represent an end waster of
(1.5 X 100)/10.4 = 14.3 percent.
The combined side and end wastes for the cited examples will be:
Side waste = 9.1%

End waste = 14.3%
Total waste = 23.4%
Note that the side and end wastes are determined on the basis of the dimensions
of lumber required instead of the nominal dimensions.
Table 12.1 lists the commonly used sizes of lumber, with the nominal and
actual cross-sectional dimensions. In the table, the first dimension is the thick
ness and the second dimension is the width. Thinner members, 1 in. and 2 in.,
are often called lumber, whereas thicker, 3-in. to 12-in. members are referred to
as timber.
Species and Grades of Lumber

Lumber is usually specified by species (such as pine, fir, oak, etc.), size, and
grade. There are many species of wood. Southern pine, Douglas fir, hemlock,
and western white spruce are common species for wood framing, such as studs,
joists, girders, sills, and plates. Oak is frequently used for hardwood flooring.
Cedar and redwood are used for exterior decking that will be exposed to the ele
ments of weather. Examples of finishing woods include ash, birch, maple,
mahogany, and walnut.
Lumber quality for structural framing wood is graded by a numbering sys
tem and the quality for appearance is graded by a lettering system:
Select grades: A, B, C, and D
Common grades: 1, 2, and 3
Chapter 12 Carpentry 281
TA B LE 12.1 I Dimensions and properties of lumber.
Nom inal Standard dressed Area of M om ent of Section

size, in. size, in. section, in.2 inertia, 1 m odulus, S
Dim ension lum ber (S4S)

1 X 4 J x 3j 2 .6 2 5 2 .6 8 0 1 .5 31
1 X 6 i x 5i 4 .1 2 5 1 0 .3 9 8 3 .7 8 1
1 X 8 3 v 71 5 .4 3 8 2 3 .8 1 7 6 .5 7 0
4 '4
1 X 10 | x 9± 6 .9 3 8 4 9 .4 4 6 1 0 .6 9 5
1 X 12 I x 11± 8 .4 3 8 8 8 .9 9 9 1 5 .8 2 0
2X 4 x 3| 5 .2 5 0 5 .3 5 9 3 .0 6 3
2X 6 x 8 .2 5 0 2 0 .7 9 7 7 .5 6 3
2X 8 1| X 7\ 1 0 .8 7 5 4 7 .6 3 5 1 3 .1 4 1
2X10 1| X 9| 1 3 .8 7 5 9 8 .9 3 2 2 1 .3 9 1
2 X 12 X 11± 1 6 .8 7 5 1 7 7 .9 7 9 3 1 .6 4 1
2X14 x 13! 1 9 .8 7 5 2 9 0 .7 7 5 4 3 .8 9 1
3X 4 21 x 3j 8 .7 5 0 8 .9 3 2 5 .1 0 4
3X 6 2\ X 5 j 1 3 .7 5 0 3 4 .6 6 1 1 2 .6 0 4
3X 8 2j X 7j 1 8 .1 2 5 7 9 .3 9 1 2 1 .9 0 1
3X10 x 9} 2 3 .1 2 5 1 6 4 .8 8 6 3 5 .6 5 1
3 X 12 2 ^ x 11} 2 8 .1 2 5 2 9 6 .6 3 1 5 2 .7 3 4
3X14 2^ X 13j 3 3 .1 2 5 4 8 4 .6 2 5 7 3 .1 5 1
3 X 16 2 ^ X 15} 3 8 .1 2 5 7 3 8 .8 7 0 9 6 .9 0 1
4X 4 3 | x 3^ 1 2 .2 5 0 1 2 .5 0 5 7 .1 4 6
4X 6 3^ X 5 | 1 9 .2 5 0 4 8 .5 2 6 1 7 .6 4 6
4X 8 3 ^ x 7} 2 5 .3 7 5 1 1 1 .1 4 8 3 0 .6 6 1
4 X 10 3 j x 9} 3 2 .3 7 5 2 3 0 .8 4 0 4 9 .9 1 1
4 X 12 3 j X 11} 3 9 .3 7 5 4 1 5 .2 8 3 7 3 .8 2 8
4 X 14 3 ^ x 13} 4 6 .3 7 5 6 7 8 .4 7 5 1 0 2 .4 1 1
4 X 16 3 j x 15} 5 3 .3 7 5 1 ,0 3 4 .4 1 8 1 3 5 .6 6 0
6X 6 5^ x 5^ 3 0 .2 5 0 7 6 .2 5 5 2 7 .7 2 9
6X 8 5 j x 7^ 4 1 .2 5 0 1 9 3 .3 5 9 5 1 .5 6 3
6 X 10 5 j X 9^ 5 2 .2 5 0 3 9 2 .9 6 3 8 2 .7 2 9
6 X 12 5 | x 11J 6 3 .2 5 0 6 9 7 .0 6 8 1 2 1 .2 2 9
6X14 5§ x 13j 7 4 .2 5 0 1 ,1 2 7 .6 7 2 1 6 7 .0 6 3
6 X 16 5 | x 1 5g 8 5 .2 5 0 1 ,7 0 6 .7 7 6 2 2 0 .2 2 9
8X 8 l\ X 5 7 .7 5 0 2 6 3 .6 7 2 7 0 .3 1 3
8X10 7 j x 9^ 7 1 .2 5 0 5 3 5 .8 5 9 1 1 2 .8 1 3
8 X 12 l\ X 1 1 J 8 6 .2 5 0 9 5 0 .5 4 7 1 6 5 .3 1 3
10 X 10 9^ X 9 0 .2 5 0 6 7 8 .7 5 5 1 4 2 .8 9 6
10 X 12 9 ^ x 11± 1 0 9 .2 5 0 1 ,2 0 4 .0 2 6 2 0 9 .3 9 6
12 X 12 11^ X 1 1 | 1 3 2 .2 5 0 1 ,4 5 7 .5 0 5 2 5 3 .4 7 9
Dressed and matched* Flooring Shiplap

S2S and CM 1 X 2 43 vA l !g
l 1 X 4 i x 3§
1 x 4 f X 3g 1x3 ~4 X 2 j 1 X 6 i X 5j
1 x 6 | X 5^ 1X 4 ? X 3i 1 X 8 ! X 6|
1 X 8 | X 61 1X 6 I X 5j 1 X 10 ! X 8|
1 x 10 I X 8| 1 X 12 I x 10|
1 x 12 i X 10J
*This lumber is also available in other thicknesses.

Select grades are used for trim, facings, moldings, etc., which may be fin
ished in natural color or painted. Grade A is the best quality, and grade D is the
poorest. Common grades are used for structural members such as sills, joists,
studs, rafters, planks, etc. Grade 1 is the best quality, and grade 3 is the poorest.
The lumber used for timber structures is generally designated as stress grade.
For example, timber marked with a “P” is designated for posts and timber
marked with a “B” is designated for beams.
PLYWOOD
Plywood is used for subfloors, siding, roof decks, and other similar purposes.
Panels of plywood are available in 4-ft widths and 8 -ft lengths with thicknesses
from \ in. through if in. Larger sizes are available, such as 5 ft wide and 12 ft long.
Plywood is manufactured with odd numbers of wood plies, each placed at
right angles to the adjacent ply, which accounts for the physical properties that
make it efficient in resisting bending, shear, and deflection. Therefore, the posi
tion in which a panel is attached to the supporting members will determine its
strength. For example, for a panel 4 ft wide and 8 ft long, the fibers of the sur
face plies are parallel to the 8 -ft length. Such a panel, installed with the outer
fibers perpendicular to the supporting members, such as studs, joists, or rafters,
is stronger than it would be if the panel were attached with the outer fibers par
allel to the supporting members.
Plywood is graded by the veneers of the plies. Veneer grade N or A is the
highest grade level. Grade N is intended for a smooth surface and a natural fin
ish, while grade A is intended for a smooth surface without a natural finish.
Plywood graded as N or A has no knots or restricted patches. Veneer grade B
has a solid surface, but may have small round knots, patches, and round plugs.
Grade C has small knots, knotholes, and patches. Grade D has larger and more
numerous knots, knotholes, and patches. Plywood can be purchased with differ
ent grades on opposite sides. For example, a plywood sheet may be j-in. AC,
which designates a j-in.-thick panel with grade A on one side and grade C on the
opposite.
The most commonly used thicknesses of plywood, in inches, are f, f, |, 1,
and if. Table 12.2 gives the thickness and approximate weight of 4-ft by 8 -ft
plywood panels.
TA B L E 12.2 I Weights of 4-ft x 8-ft plywood panels.
Thickness, Size, Approximate

in. width x length weight, lb
i
2 4 ft X 8 ft 48.0
5 4 ft X 8 ft
8 57.6
3
4 4 ft x 8 ft 70.4
7 4 ft x 8 ft
8 83.2
1 4 ft x 8 ft 96.0
14 4 ft x 8 ft 105.6
COST OF LUMBER
Lumber is usually priced by the board foot or 1,000 bf, with the exception of cer
tain types used for trim, moldings, etc., which may be priced by the linear foot.
The cost varies with many factors, including:
1. Species of lumber: pine, fir, oak, birch, mahogany, redwood, etc.

2. Grade of lumber: select (A, B, C, or D) or common (1, 2, or 3)
3. Size of pieces: thickness, width, and length
4. Extent of milling required: rough, surfaced, or dressed and matched
5. Whether dried or green
6 . Quantity purchased
7. Freight cost from mill to destination
The better grades of lumber cost more than the poorer grades. Select grades
are more expensive than common grades. In the select grades, the costs decrease
in the order A, B, C, and D, while the costs of common grades decrease in the
order 1, 2, and 3.
The cost of lumber is higher for thick and wide boards than for thin and nar
row ones. Lengths in excess of 20 to 24 ft may require special orders. Prices
quoted may be for lengths through 2 0 ft, with increasingly higher prices charged
for greater lengths.
Rough lumber is the product of the sawing operation, with no further sur
facing operation. After the lumber is sawed, it may be given a smooth surface
on one or more sides and edges, in which case it is designated surfaced one edge
(S IE), surfaced two sides (S2S), or surfaced on all edges and sides (S4S). It may
be surfaced on both sides with the edges matched with tongue and grooves, des
ignated as dressed and matched, D and M. These operations reduce the thickness
and width and increase the cost.
Freshly cut lumber contains considerable moisture that should be removed
before the lumber is used, to prevent excessive shrinkage after it is placed in the
structure. It usually is placed in a heated kiln to expel the excess moisture.
NAILS AND SPIKES

The sizes of common wire nails are designated by pennyweight, which specifies
the diameter and length of the nail. For example, a common nail designated as
8 d pennyweight is 0.131 in. in diameter and 2 j in. long, whereas a lOd penny
weight nail is 0.148 in. in diameter and 3 in. long.
Common nails are used for attaching wood members together. Spikes are
used to attach large-size members. Casing and finishing nails are used to attach
members that will be treated with a stain or other type of surface that will be
exposed. Shingle nails are used to attach shingles. The trade names, sizes, and
weights of the more popular nails and spikes are given in Table 12.3. The
approximate pounds of nails required for carpentry are given in Table 12.4.
T A B L E 1 2 .3 I Names, sizes, and numbers of nails and spikes per pound.
Trade name
Roofing
Length,
Size in. cjommon Spikes Casing Finishing Shingle Barbed No. 8 No. 9 No. 10
3 T
4 — — — — 714 205 252 290
7
8 — ■— — — — 469 179 219 253
2d 1 876 — 1,010 1,351 — 411 158 193 224
3d 1? 568 — 635 807 429 251 128 156 183
4d 316 — 473 584 274 176 108 131 154
5d , 1 | 271 — 406 500 235 151 93 113 133
6d ; 2 181 — 236 309 204 103
7d Pi 161 — 210 238
8d pi 106 — 145 189
9d * -4 96 — 132 172
10d 3 69 41 94 121
12d 3} 63 38 87 113
16d 3i 49 30 71 90
20d 4 31 23 52 62
30d 45 24 17 46
40d 5 18 13 35
50d 5i 14 10
60d 6 11 9
7 — 7
8 — 4
9 — 3j
10 — 3
12 — 2§
Two methods are used for driving nails into wood, hand driven or by pneu
matic nail guns. For rough carpentry framing, the use of nail guns can substan
tially reduce the time for driving nails, particularly for repetitive work such as
roofing shingles.
BOLTS AND SCREWS

Although nails are the most commonly used fasteners for joining wood mem
bers, bolts are frequently used for timber structures. To attach timber members,
bolts are available in sizes varying from \ in. to larger than 1 in. in diameter and
varying from 1 in. to any desired length. The length does not include the head.
Bolts with square heads and either square or hexagon nuts are used. Two wash
ers should be used with every bolt, one for the head and one for the nut. If the
head and the nut bear against steel plates, it is satisfactory to use stamped-steel
washers; but if there are no steel plates under the heads and nuts, washers should
be used to increase the bearing between the bolt and the timber member. Table
12.5 gives weights of bolts with square heads and hexagonal nuts in pounds per
hundred.
Lag screws are sometimes used to securely fasten wood members. These
screws are available in sizes from |-in . to 1 -in. shank diameters and various
T A B L E 1 2 .4 I Approximate pounds of nails required for carpentry (includes 10% waste).
Pounds per 1,000 bf of lumber

for nail spacing
Size and type Number of nails Size and
of lumber per support kind of nails 12 in. 16 in. 20 in, 24 in.
General framing
1x 4 2 8d common 63 47 38 31
1x 6 2 8d common 41 31 25 21
1x 8 2 8d common 32 24 19 16
1 x 10 3 8d common 37 28 22 19
1 x 12 3 8d common 31 23 18 15
2X4 2 20d common 110 83 66 55
2X6 2 20d common 72 54 42 36
2X8 2 20d common 56 42 34 28
2 X 10 3 20d common 65 49 40 33
2 X 12 3 20d common 56 42 34 28
3X4 2 60d common 204 153 122 102
3X6 2 60d common 136 102 82 68
3X8 2 60d common 101 76 61 51
3X10 3 60d common 124 93 74 62
3X12 3 60d common 104 78 62 52
Stud framing
2X4 — 16d common 15 11 9 7
2X6 — 16d common 11 8 6 5
2X8 — 16d common 11 8 7 6
Siding
Bevel, j x 4 1 6d finish 12 9
Bevel, \ x 6 1 6d finish 8 6
Bevel 1 x 8 1 6d finish 6 4
Drop, 1 x 4 2 8d casing 51 38
Joist framing
2X6 16d common 17
2X8 16d common 10
2X10 16d common 8
2X12 16d common 7
Bridging
1X 4 4 each 8d common 83
Rafters
2X4 16d common 18
2X6 16d common 18
2X8 16d common 15
2X10 16d common 12
Flooring
1 x 2\ 3d finish 6
Wood shingles
4 j in. exposed 2 3d shingle 4.5
5 in. exposed 2 3d shingle 4.1
5| in. exposed 2 3d shingle 3.8
Asphalt shingles 2 |-in. barbed 4.2
Note: If different sizes of common nails are used, make the following changes: increase the weight by 53 percent when substituting 10d for 8d
nails; increase the weight by 58 percent when substituting 20d for 16d nails.
286 E stim a ting C o n stru ctio n C osts
TABLE 12.5 I Weights of bolts with square heads and hexagonal nuts in pounds per 100.
D ia m e te r of b o lt, in
L e n g th u n d e r
1 5 3 7 1 5 3 7
h e a d , in. 16 2 s 4 6 1 1 ’s
4 16 8
1 2.7 5.0 7,2 112 14.9 28 43 — - — --
1? 3.1 5.5 8.0 12.2 16.3 30 46 68 — — —
3.4 6.1 8.8 13.3 17.7 32 49 73 103 144 190

1?
3.8 6.6 9.6 14.4 19.0 35 52 77 109 151 199
1|
2 4.1 7.2 10.4 15.4 2 0,4 37 55 81 115 158 2 08
pi 4.5 7.7 11.1 16.5 2 1.8 39 58 85 120 165 2 16
‘- A
4.8 8.2 11.9 17.5 2 3.2 41 61 90 126 172 225
2 ?
43 64 94 131 179 2 34
CO
CO
2 ? 5.2 12.7 18.6 2 4.6

3 5.5 9.3 13.5 19.7 2 6.0 45 68 98 137 187 2 42
5 .9 9.9 14.3 2 0.7 2 7.4 48 71 102 142 194 251
3 ?
6.2 10.4 15.1 2 1.8 2 8.8 50 74 107 148 201 2 60
3j
3$ 6.6 11.0 15.8 2 2.9 30 .2 52 77 111 153 208 2 68
4 6.9 11.5 16.6 2 3.9 3 1.6 54 80 115 159 215 2 77
7.3 12.0 17.4 2 5.0 3 3.0 56 83 119 165 222 2 86
4?
18.2 26.1 3 4.4 58 86 124 170 229 294
4s 7.6 12.6
8.0 13.1 19.0 27.1 3 5.7 61 89 128 176 236 3 03
4|
5 8.3 13.7 19.8 28.2 37.1 63 93 132 181 243 312
14.2 2 0.5 29.3 3 8.5 65 96 136 187 250 321
5 ? 8.6
5± 9.0 14.8 2 1.3 3 0.3 3 9.9 67 99 141 192 257 329
4 1.3 69 102 145 198 264 3 38
°54- 9.3 15.3 22.1 3 1 .4
6 9.7 15.9 2 2.9 3 2 .4 4 2.7 71 105 149 20 4 271 3 47
10.0 16.4 2 3.7 3 3.5 44.1 74 108 153 209 278 3 55
64
10.4 16.9 2 4.5 3 4 .6 4 5.5 76 111 158 215 285 364
65
10.7 17.5 2 5.2 3 5.6 4 6.9 78 114 162 22 0 292 373
6?
7 11.1 18.0 2 6.0 3 6.7 4 8.3 80 118 166 226 299 381
11.4 ' 18.6 2 6.8 3 7.8 4 9.7 82 121 170 231 30 6 390
11.8 19.1 2 7.6 3 8.8 51.1 84 124 175 237 313 399
7s
12.1 19.7 2 8.4 3 9.9 5 2 .4 87 127 179 242 32 0 4 07
7$
8 12.5 2 0.2 2 9.2 4 1.0 5 3.8 89 130 183 248 327 416
85
_ 2 1.3 3 0.7 43.1 5 6.6 93 136 192 259 341 434
9 _ 2 2 .4 3 2.3 4 5.2 5 9.4 98 143 2 00 2 70 356 451
95 — 2 3.5 3 3.9 4 7 .4 6 2.2 102 149 2 09 281 37 0 468

10 _ 2 4.6 3 5 .4 4 9.5 6 5.0 106 155 217 2 93 38 4 486
10j _ _ 3 7.0 5 1.6 6 7.8 111 161 2 26 30 4 39 8 503
11 _ _ 3 8.6 5 3.7 70.5 115 168 234 315 41 2 520
115 _ _ 40.1 5 5 .9 73.3 119 174 2 43 32 6 42 6 538

12 _ _ 4 1.7 5 8.0 76.1 124 180 251 33 7 440 555
12± _ _ _ 60.1 78.9 128 186 2 60 348 454 573
13 _ _ _ 6 2.3 8 1.7 132 193 2 68 359 46 8 590
13j _ _ _ 6 4.4 8 4.5 137 199 277 37 0 48 2 607
14 _ _ _ 6 6.5 8 7.2 141 2 05 285 38 2 496 625
14± _ _ _ _ 9 0.0 145 211 2 94 393 51 0 642
15 _ _ _ _ 9 2.8 150 218 302 40 4 52 5 660
15j _ _ _ _ 9 5.6 154 224 311 415 53 9 677
16 — — — — 9 8.4 158 230 320 42 6 55 3 694
Per inch
additional 1.4 2.2 3.1 4.3 5.6 8,7 12.5 17.0 2 2 .3 2 8 .2 3 4 .8
lengths. Lag screws require prebored holes of the proper sizes. The lead hole for
the shank should be of the same diameter as the shank. The diameter of the lead
hole for the threaded part of the screw should vary from 40 to 50 percent of the
shank diameter for lightweight species of wood, and 60 to 85 percent for dense
hardwoods. During installation, some type of lubricant should be used on the lag
screw or in the lead hole to facilitate insertion and to prevent damage to the lag
screw. Lag screws should be turned, not driven, into the wood.
TIMBER CONNECTORS
The strength of joints between wood members can be increased substantially by
using timber connectors. They are often used to securely connect wood members
in prefabricated wood trusses. Several types are available, including split rings,
shear plates, flat grids, flat clamping plates, and flanged clamping plates. Figure
12.1 illustrates various types of timber connectors. Table 12.6 gives weights and
dimensions of timber connectors.
Flat grid Single curved grid Flat clamping plate Flanged clamping plate
FIG U R E 12.1 I Timber connectors.
Split rings, in sizes with 2 \ in. and 4 in. diameters, are used with wood-to-
wood connections for heavy loads. It is necessary to drill a hole for the bolt and
a groove for the ring. A complete connector unit includes a split ring, bolt, and
two steel washers. Toothed rings in diameters of 2§ in. and 4 in. are used for
wood-to-wood connections in thin members with light loads. A complete unit
includes a toothed ring, bolt, and two steel washers.
Spike grids and flat clamping plates, made of malleable metal, are used to
joint two flat wood members, or connecting gusset plates for splicing the ends
of multiple members in roof trusses. Metal plate connectors are available as
hangers for connecting the end of joists to their supporting members. Toothed
ring, spiked grid, and flat clamping plate types of connectors are installed by
applying pressure against the assembly to force the connectors to penetrate the
wood members.
T A B L E 1 2 .6 I Weights and dimensions of timber connectors.
Dimensions of
Shipping
metal, in. weight per
Timber connector Size, in. Depth Thickness 100, pound
Split rings 2| 0.75 0.163 28
4 1.00 0.193 70 ■
Toothed rings 2 0.94 0.061 9
2- 0.94 0.061 12
q3 0.94 0.061 15
4 0.94 0.061 18
Shear plates
Pressed steel p5 0.375 0.169 35
Malleable iron 4 0.62 0.20 90
Spike grids
Flat 4 b x 4g 1.00 — 48
Single curve 4 j x 4g 1.38 — 70
Circular 3g diam. — — 26
Clamping plates
Plain 5 j x 5} — 0.077 59
Flanged 5 x 8j 2.00 0.122 190
FABRICATING LUMBER
Fabricating lumber includes such operations as measuring, sawing, ripping,
chamfering edges, boring holes, etc. The rates at which these operations can be
performed will vary greatly with several factors, including:
1 . Amount of fabrication required
2 . Length of finished pieces
3. Size of pieces to be fabricated
4. Number of similar pieces fabricated with one machine setting
5. Care in sorting and storing lumber at the job
6 . Clarity and amount of details on the drawing
7. Skill of the carpenter and quality of supervision
Cutting multiple pieces of lumber with table saws and radial arm saws
requires considerably less time than when cutting individual members with hand
saws. It requires considerably more time to fabricate rafters and stair stringers
than it does to fabricate studs and joists.
Since a certain amount of time is required to handle and measure lumber,
more time is required to fabricate a given quantity of lumber consisting of short
lengths and small sections than when it consists of long lengths and large sec
tions. Time is required to set a machine for a given operation. If only a few
pieces are fabricated, after which the machine must be reset, the total time per
piece will be higher than when many similar pieces are fabricated.
______________________ ROUGH CARPENTRY HOUSES
HOUSE FRAMING
Houses can be framed by several methods, as illustrated in Fig. 12.2. For the bal
loon frame, the studs for the outside walls of a two-story building extend from
Stud
p'T Partition wall—
I____ I U rn
13
Corner Partition Cross Double Joist
Stud details bridging under partition
Floor jo is t
FIG U R E 1 2 .2 I Typical wall section through a frame house.

the sill to the top plate on which the rafters rest. For the platform frame, the studs
for the external walls are limited to one story in length. The lengths of studs for
interior or partition walls for both types of frames are limited to one story.
SILLS
Sills are attached to grade beams, which are usually constructed of concrete or
masonry. The grade beams may rest directly on the ground, or they may be
placed on drilled concrete piers spaced at 4- to 6 -ft intervals. The sills may be
2 X 4, 2 X 6 , and 2 X 8 S4S lumber for light structures, or they can be 4 X 6
or larger members for heavy timber structures.
Anchor bolts are set in the grade beams at 6 - to 8 -ft intervals. The sills have
holes bored to permit the anchor bolts to pass through them. A nut and washer
secures the sill to the grade beam. Unless the top of a grade beam is smooth and
level, a layer of stiff mortar should be placed under each sill to ensure full bear
ing and uniform elevation. At the comers and at end joints, the sills should be
connected by half-lapped joints. It is common practice to place a strip of insula
tion material along the full length of sills to reduce air infiltration and provide
heat-loss protection to the interior of the structure.
Table 12.7 gives the labor-hours per 1,000 bf required to fabricate and
install sills, including boring the holes and tightening the nuts.
TABLE 1 2 .7 I Labor-hours required per 1,000 bf

of sills.
Labor-hours
Size sill, in. Carpenters Helper
2X 4 24-30 8-10
2 X6 18-22 6-8
2 X8 14-18 5-6
4X 6 15-20 5-7
4 X 10 14-19 5-7
FLOOR GIRDERS
Floor girders are installed under the first-floor joists to provide intermediate sup
port for the floor joists. The girders may consist of single pieces, or several
pieces of 2-in.-thick lumber that are nailed together. For heavy timber structures,
girders may be 4 X 6 or larger members. Piers, usually spaced from 8 to 10 ft,
support floor girders. End joints should be constructed with half-laps, located
above piers.
Table 12.8 gives the labor-hours required per 1,000 bf of floor girders.
TABLE 1 2 .8 I Labor-hours required per 1,000 bf of floor

girders.
Labor-hours
Number of girders
and size, in. Carpenters Helper
1—2 x 6 20-25 6-8
1—2 x 8 17-21 6-7
1— 2 X 10 14-18 5-6
1—2 X 12 13-16 4-5
2—2 x 6 12-14 4-5
2—2 X 8 9-11 3-4
2— 2 X 10 7-10 2-3
2—2 x 12 6-8 2-3
3— 2 X 6 9-11 3-4
3—2 X 8 7-8 5-6
3—2 x 10 6-7 4-5
3— 2 X 12 5-6 3-4
1— 4 X 6 15-20 5-7
1— 6 X 8 13-18 5-6
1—8 X 10 11-16 4-6
FLOOR AND CEILING JOISTS

Floor and ceiling joists are generally spaced 12, 16, 18, or 24 in. on centers,
using 2 X 6 , 2 X 8 , 2 X 10, or 2 X 12 S4S lumber. The size and spacing depends
on the span length of the joists. When the unsupported lengths exceed 8 ft, one
row of cross bridging should be installed at spacings not greater than 8 ft. The
bridging may be made of 1 X 4 lumber, with two 8 d nails at each end of each
strut. Joists may be 4 X 6 or larger members for heavy timber structures.
Table 12.9 gives labor-hours required per 1,000 bf of joists.
TABLE 1 2 .9 I Labor-hours required per 1,000 bf of joists.
Labor-hours
Size joist, in. Carpenters Helper
2X4 13-16 4-5
2X6 11-13 4-5
2X8 9-12 4-5
2x10 8-11 4-5
2x12 7-10 4-5
Cross bridging per 100 sets
1x 3 5-6 1-2
2x3 5-6 1-2
EXAMPLE 1 2 .1
Wood framing for a house requires 2 x 6 ceiling joists at 18 in. on centers. The struc
ture is 35 ft wide and 90 ft long. The joists will bear on the two exterior walls and an
interior wall that extends the full 90-ft length. A 1-ft overlap will be placed across the
interior wall. Two rows of 1 x 3 bridging will be installed the full 90-ft length of the
structure. Estimate the cost of material and labor for framing the joists, assuming
$0.55/bf for lumber, $21.56/hr for carpenters, and $15.56/hr for laborers.
Quantities of material:
Joists:
Joist spacing = 18 in./(12 in./ft) = 1.5 ft
Number of joists = [length of structure/spacing of joists] + 1
= [(90 ft)/( 1.5 ft/joist)] + 1 = 61 joists
Length of joists, assuming 18 ft/board: 61 joists x 2 boards x 18 ft = 2,196
lin ft
Board feet of joists: 2,196 lin ft x [(2 X 6)/(1 x 12)] = 2,196 bf
Bridging:
Number of sets of bridging: 61 rows x 2 sets/row = 122 sets
Length of 1 x 3 bridging: 1.5-ft boards x 2/set x 122 sets = 366 lin ft
Board feet of bridging: 366 lin ft x [(1 x 3)/(1 x 12)] = 91.5 bf
From Table 12.9 for framing joists and bridging:
Carpenters framing joists: 2,196 bf x 12 hr/1,000 bf = 26.4 hr
Carpenters framing sets: 122 sets x 5.5 hr/100 sets = 6.7 hr
Total carpenter hours = 33.1 hr
Laborers framing joists: 2,196 bf x 4.5 hr/1,000 bf= 9.9 hr
Laborers framing bridging: 122 sets X 1.5 hr/100 sets = 1.8 hr
Total laborer hours = 11.7 hr
Cost of material and labor:
Joists: 2,196 bf @ $0.55/bf = $1,207.80
Bridging: 91.5 bf @ $0.55/bf = 50.33
Carpenters: 33.1 hr @ $21.56/hr = 713.64
Laborers: 11.7 hr @ $15.56/hr 182.05
Cost per board foot of lumber: $2,153.82/2,196 bf = $0.98/bf
Cost per linear foot of joist: $2,153,82/2,135 lin ft = $1.01/lin ft
In this example, the crew may consist of 3 carpenters and 1 laborer. The cost of
nails, tools, job supervision, overhead, and profit are excluded.
STUDS FOR WALL FRAMING

Studs for one- and two-story houses usually are 2 X 4, spaced at 16 in. on cen
ters, or 2 X 6 lumber, spaced at 24 in. on centers for exterior walls. The 2 X 6
studs permit installation of more insulation for reduced heat-loss and provide
passages for plumbing pipes. Interior walls are generally 2 X 4 size studs.
At all comers and where partition walls frame into other walls, it is common
practice to install three studs, as illustrated in Fig. 12.3. At all openings for win
dows and doors, two studs should be used, with one stud on each side of the
opening cut to support the header over the opening.
Studs are generally purchased in standard 8 -ft lengths. If the wall is taller
than a standard 8 -ft height, then it is necessary to cut all the studs for a wall of
a room to the proper length. After the studs are cut to length, they are properly
spaced and nailed to a bottom and top plate on the subfloor, then tilted into posi
tion. A second top plate can then be installed to join the sections or to tie parti
tion walls to main walls. If 2 X 6 studs spaced at 24 in. on centers are used for
exterior walls and the roof trusses spaced at 24 in. on centers are set directly on
top of each stud, then the second top plate is sometimes omitted. Lateral rigid
ity for walls can be provided by plywood, diagonal steel tension straps, diago
nal sheathing, or cut-in braces installed at each comer of the building.
Table 12.10 gives labor-hours required per 1,000 bf for wall framing con
sisting of studs with one bottom and two top plates.
TABLE 1 2 . 1 0 I Labor-hours required per 1,000 bf of stud wail

framing with 1 bottom and 2 top plates.
Labor>hours
Size studs, Stud spacing,
in. in. C arpenters H elper
2X4 12 20-25 5-6
16 22-26 5-6
24 24-28 5-6
2X6 12 19-24 5-6
16 21-25 5-6
24 23-27 5-6
Note: These values apply to wall heights up to 10 ft. For walls over 10 ft high, increase
these values by 25 percent.
EXAM PLE 1 2 . 2
The total length of walls of a w ood-fram ed structure is 750 lin ft. The wall consists of
2 X 4 studs, 8 ft long, at 16 in. on centers with one bottom plate and two top plates.
An evaluation of the drawings shows there will be 42 corners. Estimate the cost of
material and labor, assuming lum ber is $0.55/bf and labor rates of $21.56/hr for ca r
penters and $15.56/hr for laborers.
Studs: [750 lin ft/(16/12)] = 562.5, or 563 studs X 8 ft = 4,504 lin ft
Bottom plates: 750 lin ft X 2 boards = 1,500 lin ft
Top plates: 750 lin ft x 1 board = 750 lin ft
Corners: 42 corners x 3 boards = 126boards x 8 ft = 1,008 lin ft
Total = 7,762 lin ft
Total board feet of lumber required: 7,762 lin ft x [(2 x 4)/(1 x 12)] = 5,175 bf
From Table 12.10:
Carpenters: 5,175 bf X 24 hr/1,000 bf = 124.2 hr
Helpers: 5,175 bf x 5.5 hr/1,000 bf = 28.5 hr
Lumber: 5,175 bf @ $0.55/bf = $2,846.25
Carpenter: 124.2 hr @ $21.56/hr = 2,677.52
Laborers: 28.5 hr @ $15.56/hr = 443.46
Total = $5,967.23
Cost per board foot in place: $5,967.23/5,175 = $1.15/bf

Cost per linear foot of wall: $5,967.23/750 lin ft = $7.96/lin ft
For this example, the crew may consist of 4 carpenters and 1 laborer. The cost of
FRAMING FOR WINDOW AND

DOOR OPENINGS
Many sizes of windows are available, ranging from 2 ft to 5 ft in width and from
3 ft to 6 ft in height. Larger widths and heights are sometimes specified for a par
ticular project. The size of a window is designated by its width and height. For
example, a window that is 2 ft 6 in. wide and 5 ft 0 in. high is designated as a 2-
6 5-0 window. Headers made of 2 X 6 , 2 X 8 , 2 X 10, or 2 X 12 lumber are
framed above window openings. Each side of the window opening is framed with
a trim stud that is the same size as the wall studs and a horizontal board, called a
sill, which is framed along the bottom opening of the window. For windows
greater than 6 ft wide, two trim studs are installed in each side of the window.
The standard height of doors is 6 ft 8 in. Common widths of door openings
include 2 ft, 2 ft 8 in., 3 ft, 3 ft 6 in., and 4 ft. Larger heights and widths are
sometimes specified for a particular project. The size of a door is designated by
its width and height. For example, a door that is 3 ft 0 in. wide and 6 ft 8 in. high
is designated as a 3-0 6 - 8 door. The headers above doors may be 2 X 6 lumber
or larger. The vertical sides of door openings are called doorjambs.
The quantity of lumber required to frame window and door openings
depends on the width and height of the opening, which can be calculated from
the drawings for a particular project. To calculate the quantity, some estimators
do not deduct the size of the opening when calculating the lumber required to
frame the stud walls, assuming the quantity of lumber required to frame the
opening is approximately equal to the lumber that is required to frame the wall.
Table 12.11 gives the approximate labor-hours per 1,000 bf of lumber to
frame openings for doors and windows.
T A B L E 12.1 1 I Labor-hours required to frame

openings for doors and windows in walls.
Labor-hours
Type and size
of opening Carpenters Helper
Windows:
Up to 5 ft wide 1.0-1.5 0.5-0.8
Over 5 ft wide 1.5-2.5 0.8-1.0
Doors
Up to 7 ft high 0.8-1.0 0.5-0.8
Over 7 ft high 1.0-1.2 0.8-1.0
RAFTERS
One method of roof construction is called joist and rafter framing, as illustrated
in Fig. 12.2. Rafters are the upper members of roofs. They are notched where
they rest on the wall plates and are held in place by nailing them to the wall
plates or by use of metal framing anchors. The ridge board is placed at the top
and perpendicular to rafters. A horizontal collar beam is often placed below the
collar ridge beam to assist in resisting wind load on the roof. For long span
lengths, a diagonal knee brace is sometimes installed from the center of each
rafter down to the interior wall.
The labor required to frame and erect rafters will vary considerably with
the type of roof. The rise (vertical) over run (horizontal) dimension measures
the steepness of a roof. Typical rise over run for roofs includes 3:12, 4:12, 5:12,
and 6 :1 2 .
There are many configurations of roofs. Simple gable roofs are easier to
frame than hip roofs. Double-pitch or gable roofs, with no dormers or gables,
will require the least amount of labor, while hip roofs, with dormer or gables
framing into the main roof, will require the greatest amount of labor.
Table 12.12 gives labor-hours required per 1,000 bf for rafters.
TABLE 1 2 .1 2 I L a b o r-h o u rs re q u ire d p e r 1,000 b f of

rafters.
Type of roof Labor-hours

and size of
rafter, in. Carpenters Helper
Gable roofs— no dormers
2X 4 27-31 7 -8
2X 6 2 5 -2 9 7 -8
2X 8 2 4 -2 8 6 -7
2 X 10 2 2 -2 6 6 -7
Hip roofs— no dormers
2X 4 3 0 -3 4 8-9
2X 6 29 -3 3 8-9
2X 8 2 8 -3 2 7-8
2 X 10 2 6 -3 0 7-8
EXAMPLE 1 2 . 3
Estimate the material and labor cost to frame rafters for a structure, 35 ft wide and
90 ft long. The slope (rise-over-run) of rafters is 5:12 and each rafter will extend 2 ft
outside of each exterior wall. The 2 x 6 rafter spacing will be spaced at 18 in. on
centers.
A 2 x 8 ridge board will extend the full 90 ft dimension of the roof. Horizontal
collar ties of 1 x 6 lumber will be placed across each rafter at a distance of 2 ft
below the peak of the rafters. Diagonal knee braces of 2 x 4 lumber will brace the
m idpoint of each rafter down to the center wall (see Fig. 12.4). Assume $0.55/bf for
lumber, $21.56/hr for carpenters, and $15.56/hr for laborers.
C hapter 12 Carpentry 297
Quantities of material:
Rafters:
Total width of structure: 35 ft + 2 overhangs @ 2 ft = 39 ft total width
Diagonal dimension for a 5:12 slope: V ( 5 ) i: + ( 1 2 )^ = 13 ft
Length of rafter: 39 ft x (13/12) = 42.3 ft, therefore need two 22-ft-long
boards
Number of rafters: [(length/spacing) + 1 ] = [90 ft/( 18/12) + 1] = 61 rafters
Linear feet of rafter: 61 rafters x 42.3 ft/rafter = 2,580 lin ft
Collar ties:
Horizontal length at 2 ft below peak of rafters with a 5:12 slope:
[2 ft x (12/5)] x 2 sides = 9.6 ft, therefore need 10-ft-long boards
Ridge board:
Total length = 90 ft
Number of boards required using 18-ft lengths: (90 ft)/( 18 ft/board) = 5
boards
Knee braces:
Total length: 17.5 ft x (13/12) = 18.96 ft, therefore, need two 10-ft-long
boards
Board feet of lumber:
Rafters: 61 rafters x 2 boards/rafter x 22 ft x [(2 x 6)/(1 x 1 2 )] = 2,684 bf
Collar ties: 61 ties x 10 ft/tie x [(1 x 6)/(1 x 12)] = 305 bf
Ridge board: 5 boards x 18 ft/board x [(2 x 8)/(1 x 12)] = 120 bf
Knee braces:
61 rafters x 2 braces/rafter x 10 ft x [(2 X 4)/(1 x 12)] = 813 bf
Total lumber = 3,922 bf
Using average values from Table 12.12:
Carpenters: 3,922 bf X (27 hr/1,000 bf) = 105.9 hr
Laborers: 3,922 bf X (7.5 hr/1,000 bf) = 29.4 hr
Lumber: 3,922 bf @ $0.55/bf = $ 2 ,1 5 7 .1 0
Carpenters: 105.9 hr @ $21.56/hr = 2,283.20
Laborers: 29.4 hr @ $15.56/hr = 457.46
Cost per board foot: $4,897.76/3,922 bf = $ 1 ,25/bf

Cost per linear foot of rafter: $4,897.76/2,580 lin ft = $ 1 ,90/lin ft
For this example, the crew may consist of 4 carpenters and 1 laborer. The cost of
PREFABRICATED ROOF TRUSSES

Prefabricated roof trusses are sometimes used in place of the joist and rafter
methods of framing that were discussed earlier. The trusses are prefabricated to
prescribed span lengths and slopes at the shop of a supplier of wood materials.
The supplier then delivers the roof trusses in bundles to the job where they are
erected in place.
Prefabricated wood roof trusses are available in long span lengths, from 25
to 50 ft, with the entire roof load supported by the exterior walls. Each truss con
sists of a top and bottom chord, with a series of web members laced throughout
the truss to stabilize the chord members. The top and bottom chords may be
2 X 4 or 2 X 6 S4S lumber and the web members are generally 2 X 4 sizes.
Members are connected with metal plate connectors. The trusses are generally
set at 24 in. on centers.
The joint connections of roof trusses are vulnerable to damage by excessive
bending in the lateral direction. When they are delivered to the job, they must be
stored in the horizontal direction with blocking placed at intervals of not more
than 1 0 ft on a level surface and covered to minimize weather damage.
Short trusses can be erected with laborers by manually lifting them with the
peak of the truss in the downward direction, then rotating the truss in the upright
position and securely fastening them in place. Installing a board ramp from the
ground to the top of the wall and pulling the truss up the ramp can reduce the
amount of lifting. Longer trusses require a small crane or forklift with appropri
ate slings or spreader bars.
Proper lateral bracing of wood trusses is required during erection to ensure
the safety of workers. The truss designer specifies permanent bracing, but the
builder must provide temporary bracing until the permanent bracing is installed.
Proper bracing of the first end truss is especially important to obtain the correct
alignment of the roof truss system.
The cost of prefabricated wood trusses is established by the supplier. Four
carpenters and a small lifting crane can erect trusses for about 2,000 to 3,000 sf
of floor area in one day.
ROOF DECKING
Roof deckings are usually constructed of §-, or f-in.-thick sheets of plywood
or wood fiber. The thickness of the sheets will vary, depending on the required
roof load and the spacing of the rafters. The decking is usually installed with a
pneumatic nail gun.
Roof decks can also be constructed with lumber. The lumber may be 1 X 6
or 1 X 8 S4S laid flat, fastened with at least two 8 d common nails per rafter. The
labor-hours will be slightly higher for a two-story building. Also, the labor-hours
will be higher for a steep roof than for a flat roof.
Table 12.13 gives the labor-hours required per 1,000 sf using plywood deck
ing. Table 12.14 gives the labor-hours required per 1,000 bf using 1 X 6 and
1 X 8 S4S lumber laid flat.
T A B L E 1 2 .1 3 I Labor-hours required per 1,000 sf of plywood

roof decking.
vLafc.bishoM.rSv'
Thickness of Rafter
plywood, in. spacing, in. Carpenters Helper
1
2 12 10-12 2-3
16 9-11 2-3
18 8-10 2-3
5
8 16 11-13 2-3
18 1 0 -1 2 2-3
20 9-11 2-3
3
4 16 12-14 2-3
18 11-13 2-3
24 10-12 2-3
T A B L E 1 2 .1 4 I Labor-hours required per 1,000 bf of S4S roof

decking.
Labor-hours
Decking size, Rafter spacing,
in. in. Carpenters Helper
1X 6 16 12-15 4-5
18 11-14 4-5
24 10-13 4-5
1X 8 16 11-14 4-5
18 10-13 4-5
24 9-12 4-5
WOOD SHINGLES
There are two types of wood shingles, red cedar and shakes. Red cedar shingles
are available in lengths of 16 and 18 in., and in random widths. The shingles are
about | in. thick. These shingles are cut to relatively smooth surfaces and may
be installed with an exposure of 5 or l \ in. on the roof. Prior to placing red cedar
shingles, a 1 X 4 strip of lumber is nailed across the rafters of the roof. The spac
ing of the 1 X 4 lumber should correspond to the length of shingles exposed to
the weather. Each shingle should be fastened to the 1 X 4 strips with if- to 2-
in.-long nails. Each shingle should be fastened with two nails.
Hand-split red cedar shakes have irregular surfaces and are available in 18-
and 24-in. lengths with an 8 5 - or 10-in. exposure on the roof. Two types of wood
shakes are available, junior shakes and jumbo shakes. Junior shakes have thick
ness up to about | in., whereas jumbo shakes have random thickness greater than
| in. These shingles are installed on a 30-lb organic felt underlayment.
Wood shingles are measured by the square, which is 100 sf. They are pack
aged in bundles, which will cover about 20 to 25 sf of roof, depending on the
exposure. About 5 percent waste should be added for red cedar shingles and 10
percent waste for wood shakes.
In addition to using wood shingles on roofs, they are sometimes used for
exterior wall siding. To estimate wood shingles on walls, the openings for doors
and windows should be deducted from the total surface area of the walls.
Table 12.15 gives the labor-hours required to lay 100 sf of surface area for
wood shingles.
TABLE 1 2 .1 5 I Labor-hours required to install 100 sf of wood shingles.
Length of exposure, in,

Classification
Kind of work of labor 5 n 81 10
Shingle roofs, 16-in. Carpenter 3.9 3.0 — —
Helper 0.5 0.4 — —
Shingle roofs, 18-in. Carpenter 2.9 2.2 — —
Helper 0.5 0.4 — —
Shake roofs, 18-in. Carpenter — — 4.4 4.0
Helper — — 0.6 0.5
Shake roofs, 24-in. Carpenter — — 3.5 3.2
Helper — — 0.5 0.4
Shingle walls Carpenter 4.3 3.2 3.0 2.9
Helper 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.3
Note: Multiply the above values by 0.75 when pneumatic nail guns are used.
SUBFLOORS
Subfloors are usually constructed with plywood sheets. The thickness of the ply
wood will vary, depending on the required floor load and the spacing of the floor
joists. A f- or f-in. thickness is common. An 8 d common nail is placed at 6 -in.

spacing along the floor joists. It is a good practice to both glue and nail the ply
wood sheets to the floor joist to increase the strength of the subfloor and to
reduce the tendency of a squeaking noise while someone is walking across the
floor. When plywood is used for subflooring, the unit of measure is square foot.
Subfloors can also be constructed with 1 X 6 or 1 X 8 S4S lumber, laid
straight or diagonally. Two 8 d common wire nails should be used at each joist.
More labor will be required for diagonal than straight flooring. Also the lumber
wastage will be greater for diagonal flooring. When dimension lumber is used
for subflooring, the unit of measure is board foot.
Table 12.16 gives labor-hours required per 1,000 sf using plywood sub
flooring. Table 12.17 gives the labor-hours required per 1,000 bf using 1 X 6
and 1 X 8 S4S dimension lumber.
TABLE 1 2 .1 6 1 Labor-hours required per 1,000 sf of plywood

subflooring.
Labor-hours
Thickness of Joist spacing,
plywood, in. in. Carpenters Helper
5 10-11 2-3
8 12
16 9-10 2-3
18 8-9 2-3
3 11-12 2-3
4 16
18 10-11 2-3
24 9-10 2-3
TABLE 1 2 .1 7 I Labor-hours required per 1,000 bf of S4S subflooring.

Labor-hours
Flooring size, Joist spacing,
in. in. Carpenters Helper
Straight flooring
1X 6 12 11-12 4-5
16 10-11 4-5
24 9-10 4-5
1x 8 12 10-11 4-5
16 9-10 4-5
24 8-9 4-5
Diagonal flooring
1 x 6 12 13-14 5-6
16 12-13 5-6
24 11-12 5-6
1x 8 12 12-13 5-6
16 11-12 5-6
24 10-11 5-6
EXTERIOR FINISH CARPENTRY

Finish carpentry involves placing final trim lumber to the rough carpentry. Trim
carpenters usually perform their work without the assistance of laborers. They
carefully measure, cut, and install the lumber with great accuracy because the
lumber will be exposed after it is installed. The cost of finish carpentry will vary
considerably with the species and grade of materials and the quality of the work
manship required.
After the walls and rafters are framed, trim boards are fabricated and
installed to finish the exterior structure. Fascia boards are installed across the
end of the rafters, and frieze boards are placed against the wall to provide sup
port for the soffit, which is the horizontal member below the rafters that extends
outward from the wall to the end of the roof, as illustrated in Fig. 12.5.
Interior finish carpentry is presented in Chapter 13. Examples of interior fin

ish carpentry include moldings around ceilings, floors, doors, and windows.
FASCIA, FRIEZE, AND CORNER BOARDS

The fascia, frieze, and comer boards are installed after the walls and rafters. The
boards are usually l-in.-thick S4S lumber. The quantity of lumber for these
boards should be estimated by the 1 , 0 0 0 bf of lumber, but the labor-hours to
place these boards are usually estimated by the 1 0 0 lin ft.
Table 12.18 gives the carpenter-hours to install 100 linear feet of fascia,
frieze, and comer boards.
T A B L E 1 2 .1 8 I Carpenter-hours
required per 100 lin ft of fascia, frieze,
and corner boards.
Item Carpenters
Fascia and frieze 4-5
Corner boards 3-4
SOFFITS
Soffits are measured by the square foot of area. Soffits may be or j-in. ply
wood, f-in. hardwood, or f-in.-thick wood fiber. The soffit is nailed to the ledger
and fascia header. Typically, the soffits are installed by carpenters, without the
help of laborers. It requires about 3.0 to 4.0 carpenter-hours to install 100 sf of
soffit.
WALL SHEATHING
Sheathing for exterior walls may consist of §-, or f-in.-thick sheets of ply
wood or insulating fiberboard. Plywood sheets are installed horizontally across
the vertical wood studs and fastened with 8 d common nails.
Table 12.19 gives the labor-hours required per 1,000 sf of exterior plywood
sheathing.
T A B L E 1 2 .1 9 I Labor-hours required per 1,000 sf of exterior wall

using plywood sheathing.
Labor-hours
Thickness of Stud spacing,
plywood, in. in. Carpenters Helper
1
2 12 13-15 2-3
16 11-13 2-3
18 10-11 2-3
5
8 16 14-16 2-3
18 12-14 2-3
20 11-13 2-3
3
4 16 15-17 2-3
18 13-14 2-3
24 12-14 2-3
AESTHETIC EXTERIOR SIDING

Several types of exterior wall treatment are used for aesthetic purposes, includ
ing board and batten siding, shiplap, and bevel siding. These types of exterior
sidings are not commonly used, but occasionally they are selected for external
siding of houses.
Board and batten siding usually consists o f l X l O o r l X 12 S4S boards

installed in the vertical direction with batts installed to cover the joints between
boards. Underlayment plywood sheathing is usually installed before the board
and batten siding is installed.
Rustic drop siding, which is available in shiplap patterns, and bevel siding
are also sometimes used for aesthetic exterior wall siding. These sidings are
placed in the horizontal direction across the studs.
Table 12.20 gives the approximate labor-hours per 1,000 bf for installing
board and batten, shiplap, and bevel siding.
T A B L E 1 2 .2 0 I Approximate labor-hours required per

1,000 bf of aesthetic exterior wall siding.
Pattern and Labor-hours

size, in. Carpenters Helper
Board and battens
1 x 1 0 S4S laid vertical 16-18 4-5
1 x 1 2 S4S laid vertical 15-17 4-5
Shiplap siding
4-in. with 3g-in. face 25-27 5-6
5-in. with 4 j-in . face 24-26 5-6
6-in. with 5ig-in. face 23-25 5-6
8-in. with 6g-in. face 21-23 4-5
10-in. with 8g-in. face 19-21 4-5
Bevel siding
4-in. with 2 |-in . face 31-33 5-6
5-in. with 3 f-in . face 27-29 5-6
6-in. with 4 |-in . face 24-26 4-5
8-in. with 6 |-in . face 21-23 4-5
HEAVY TIMBER STRUCTURES

Heavy timber members are used extensively for temporary construction. The
members are used for shoring, retainage walls, mats for outriggers of cranes, and
numerous other applications. Also, some permanent structures are made entirely
of heavy timber members.
Permanent structures made of heavy timber include churches, restaurants,
auditoriums, gymnasiums, and other types of commercial facilities. The mem
bers, either glue laminated or sawn, are usually installed exposed and unfinished
for a rustic appearance. Timber structures have much larger size wood than
wood-framed structures, such as houses. Since the general public generally
occupies these structures, architects and engineers design them, unlike residen
tial wood structures that are designed by the builder who abides by local build
ing codes and inspectors.
Columns for heavy timber structures are usually square in sizes from 8 to
12 in. The sides are chamfered or rounded and the bottoms rest on and are
attached to the footings through fabricated metal column bases and bolts.
Column caps may be all wood, all metal, or a combination of wood and metal
with bolts and timber connectors to provide the transfer of loads and stresses
from girders, floor beams, or trusses.
Floor beams are usually 4 or 6 in. thick and 8 to 10 in. high, with span
lengths from 12 to 16 ft long. Girders are usually 8 to 12 in. thick and 12 to 24 in.
high, with span lengths up to 20 ft. Beams and girders are attached with timber
connectors or metal plates with bolts. Flooring for timber structures is usually
constructed of S4S tongue and groove lumber.
To estimate the cost of timber structures, the estimator must perform a
detailed material quantity takeoff, listing the number, size, and length of each
member in the structure.
Fabricating timber members for heavy timber structures involves starting
with commercial sizes of lumber and sawing them to the correct lengths and
shapes, boring holes, chamfering edges, etc. Table 12.21 gives the approximate
labor-hours per 1,000 board feet to fabricate and erect timbers. Because the
members are larger and heavier than wood framed structures, such as houses, a
small lifting crane is required to lift the members to the position for connecting.
After the timber members are cut to the proper length they are attached by tim
ber connectors, bolts, and plates.
T A B L E 12.2 1 I Approximate labor-hours required per

1,000 bf to fabricate and erect heavy timber members.
Labor-hours per 1,000 bf

Member Carpenters Helper
Columns, 8 x 8 and larger 13-16 7-8
Girders, 8 x 1 2 and larger 6-8 6-7
Beams, 4 x 8 and larger 5-7 5-6
PROBLEMS
12.1 Estimate the total direct cost and cost per 1,000 bf for furnishing and installing
96 floor joists size 2 X 8 lumber. The 17-ft-long joists will rest on wood sills at
each end of the joist and at the midpoint of the joist. Use average values from
Table 12.9, $21.56/hr for carpenters, $15.56/hr for laborers, and $0.55/bf for
lumber costs.
12.2 Estimate the total direct cost and cost per 1,000 bf for furnishing and installing
plywood subflooring for a floor area of 2,240 sf. The 4-ft by 8 -ft plywood, |-in .
thick, will be placed on joists, spaced at 18 in. on centers. Use average values
from Table 12.13, $28.50/sheet for the 4-ft by 8 -ft plywood, $21.56/hr for car
penters, and $15.56/hr for helpers.
12.3 The total length of exterior walls of a residence is 464 lin ft. Studs, size 2 X 4 by
8 ft long, will be spaced not over 16 in. on centers. There will be 8 outside cor
ners and 12 inside comers, each requiring three studs. The studs will rest on
2 X 4 plates and will be capped at the tops with two 2 X 4 plates for the full
length of the walls.
Neglecting the door and window openings, prepare a list of materials for the
studs and the bottom and top plates, showing the number of pieces of each
length required. Estimate the total direct cost and cost per 1,000 bf for furnishing
and installing the studs and plates. Assume $0.55/bf for lumber, $21.56/hr for
carpenters, and $15.56/hr for laborers.
12.4 Estimate the total direct cost per 1,000 bf of lumber for furnishing and installing
2 X 8 rafters, spaced 24 in. on centers, for a rectangular building whose outside
dimensions are 42 ft wide and 135 ft long. The framing for rafters is the same as
shown in Example 12.3, using one set of knee braces, collar tie, and ridge board.
Use the same unit costs for material and labor as shown in Example 12.3.
12.5 The following is a list of windows and doors for a wood frame structure.
Estimate the cost of labor for framing the openings, assuming $21.56/hr for car
penters and $15.56/hr for laborers.
Size Number
Doors:
2 ft 8 in. x 6 ft 8 in. 5 each
Windows:
Interior Finish, Millwork,
and Wallboards
INTERIOR FINISH CARPENTRY
Examples of interior finish carpentry include moldings around ceilings, floors,
doors, and windows. Also included are hand railings, shelving, cabinets, vani
ties, fireplace mantels, louvers, shutters, etc. These items often are stained to
expose the natural grains in the wood, which requires skilled carpenters.
Moldings are estimated by the linear foot, whereas doors, windows, cabi
nets, etc., are usually estimated by the unit. The cost of these items will vary
considerably with the kind and grade of materials and the grade of workmanship
required. The most dependable method of estimating the cost of interior finish
and millwork is to list the quantity and cost of each item separately, together
with the quantity and cost of the labor required to install each item.
LABOR-HOURS REQUIRED TO SET AND

TRIM DOORS AND WINDOWS
Doors may be made of metal or wood. The time required to set doors will vary
depending on the size of the opening and the quality of workmanship. Exterior
doors are usually thicker and heavier than interior doors and require more time to
fit and hang than interior doors. Solid wood is used for exterior doors and hollow
wood core doors are often used for interior doors. Hollow wood doors are fabri
cated by placing external sheets of wood veneer over internal wood framing
members. Hollow metal doors are also available. Prehung doors are available
from suppliers that are ready for installation when they are delivered to the job.
The operations for setting solid wood doors include fitting the door to the
opening in the frame, routing the jamb and door for butts, mortising the door for
the lock, installing the butts and lock, and hanging the door.
Many types and sizes of windows are available. They may be fabricated of
metal, wood, or vinyl. Prefabricated window frames are shipped from the sup
plier and installed in window openings that have been previously framed in the
stud walls. Windows may be single-hung or double-hung. For single-hung win
dows, only the bottom half of the window can be raised and lowered, whereas
both the top and bottom can be raised and lowered for double-hung windows.
Table 13.1 gives the carpenter-hours required to install various types of
doors and windows. Trim wood is installed around the top and both sides of the
door opening. Threshold is lumber placed between the bottom of the door and
the floor. After the windows are installed, trim wood is placed around them.
Table 13.2 gives the carpenter-hours to install trim around doors and windows.
TABLE 13.1 I Carpenter-hours TABLE 1 3 .2 I Carpenter-hours

required per opening to set doors and required per opening to install trim for
windows. doors and windows.
Item Carpenters Item Carpenters

Doors Door trim
Wood, exterior 1.5-1.8 Trim lumber 1.3-1.8
Wood, interior 1.2-1.5 Threshold 0.3-0.5
Hollow core 0 . 8- 0.9 Window trim
Prehung, exterior 1.0 - 1. 2 Up to 4 ft wide 0.6-0.8
Prehung, interior 0 . 8- 0 . 9 Over 4 ft wide 0.8-1.3
Metal frame 1 . 0 - 1 .2
Metal door 0.9-1.1
Windows
Metal 1.5-2.0
Wood 1.5-2.5
Vinyl 0 . 8- 1.0
WOOD FURRING STRIPS

Wood furring strips are placed on masonry or concrete walls to permit installa
tion of gypsum, prefinished plywood, or other type of finished interior wall
materials. The labor-hours required to place wood furring strips and grounds
is usually estimated by 100 lin ft. Table 13.3 gives the labor-hours to place
1 0 0 lin ft of furring strips.
TABLE 1 3 .3 I Labor-hours required per 100 If of

wood furring strips.
Kind of work Carpenters Helper

Installed on masonry 1.5-3.5 0.4-0.6
Installed on concrete 2.5-4.5 0.5-0.8
Chapter 13 Interior Finish, Millwork, and Wallboards 309
GYPSUM WALLBOARDS
Gypsum wallboards, which are made by molding gypsum between two sheets of
paper, are used on walls and ceilings of buildings. Gypsum wallboard is some
times called sheetrock. They are manufactured in sheets, either \ or § in. thick,
4 ft wide, and lengths of 8 or 10 ft. Gypsum wallboards are fastened to furring
strips that are attached to concrete or masonry walls, or they may be installed
directly against wood studs and ceiling joists.
Where gypsum wallboards are installed on wood studs and ceiling joists, the
studs and joists should be placed at 12, 16, or 24 in. on centers because these
dimensions are divisible into the 4-ft width. For walls, the boards are usually
installed in vertical positions, with the length equal to the height of the wall. For
ceilings, they may be installed perpendicular to or parallel with the joists. Some
specifications require the use of nailing strips, such as 1 X 4 lumber, installed
perpendicular to the ceiling joists on 1 2 -in centers, to which the boards are fas
tened with nails.
Gypsum wallboards are fastened with sheetrock nails, size 5d or 6 d with f or
fg-in. heads, or by screws. Recommended spacing of fasteners are 8 in. for walls
and 7 in. for ceiling installation. For studs or joists spaced at 12 in. on centers, the
quantity of nails per 1,000 sf will be about 8 or 9 lb. For a 24-in. spacing, the
quantity will be about 4 or 5 lb per 1,000 sf.
The joints between adjacent gypsum boards are filled special cement, which
is spread with a putty knife to cover a strip about \ \ in. wide on each side of the
joint. After the cement is applied, the joint is covered with a perforated fiber tape
about 2 in. wide, and another layer of cement is applied and spread over the tape.
After the cement dries, it can be sanded to a uniformly smooth surface to elim
inate evidence of a joint for painting, or a textured surface can be spread over
the entire surface of the gypsum wallboard.
The labor-hours required to install gypsum wallboard will vary considerably
with the size and complexity of the area to be covered. For large wall or ceiling
areas, which require little or no cutting and fitting of the boards, two carpenters
should install a board 4 ft wide and 8 ft long in about 10 to 15 min. This is equiv
alent to 1 to 15 labor-hours per 100 sf. However, where an area contains numer
ous openings, it is necessary to mark the wallboards and cut them to fit the open
ings. For such areas, the labor-hours may be as high as 3 to 4 hr per 100 sf.
Cutting is done by scoring one side of the board with a curved knife, which is
drawn along a straightedge. A slight bending force will break the board along
the scored line. Table 13.4 gives representative labor-hours required to install
gypsum wallboard and perforated-tape joints.
WALL PANELING
Prefinished plywood panels are used as covering for walls, ceilings, and wain-
scotings in buildings. Panels \ to § in. thick, 4 ft wide, and 8 ft long are avail
able. Prefinished plywood panels are available in many species, including birch,
T A B L E 1 3 .4 I Labor-hours required to install gypsum wallboard and

perforated tape.
Labor-hours
Spacing of studs
or joists, in.
Unit of
Operation measure 12 16 24
Install wallboard
Large areas 100 sf 1.7 1.5 1.2
Medium-size rooms 100 sf 2.8 2.5 2.0
Small rooms 100 sf 4.0 3.5 3.0
Install perforated tape and
sand the surface 100 lin ft 4.0 4.0 4.0
cherry, chestnut, mahogany, oak, pine, pecan, rosewood, and teak. Since the ply
wood is prefinished, special finishing nails are used to fasten panels to the
framed walls.
The cost of prefinished plywood panels depends on the size and species and
can be obtained from building suppliers. The cost of labor installing plywood
panels will vary considerably with the size, shape, and complexity of the area to
be covered. Where areas are large and plain, the waste of materials will be low,
and labor can install them rapidly. However, where areas are small or irregular,
with many openings, which require considerable cutting and fitting, the waste
can be large and the cost of labor will be higher. The area to be covered should
be carefully examined prior to preparing an estimate. Depending on the com
plexity of the area, it requires from 3 to 5 carpenter-hours per 100 sf to install
prefinished plywood panels.
INTERIOR TRIM MOLDINGS

Base board moldings of pine or oak are installed around the perimeter of rooms
at the floor level. Base boards are usually ^ in. thick and 3 j or 4 \ in. wide. A f-
by 1 -in. base shoe is sometimes installed along the base boards.
Cornice molding or crown moldings of pine are sometimes installed around
the perimeter of walls at the ceiling level. The cornice molding is usually in.
thick and i f to 2 \ in. wide. Crown molding is usually in. thick and 3§ to
4§ in. wide. Many styles are available. Table 13.5 gives the approximate car
penter-hours per 1 0 0 lin ft to install interior trim moldings.
FINISHED WOOD FLOORS

The lumber used for finished wood floors includes pine, fir, maple, spruce, and
oak. The most common hardwood floor is ff-in.-thick oak in either 2 |- or 3 j-in.
widths. Table 13.6 lists some of the sizes of wood flooring produced. Not all of
the sizes listed may be available in all locations, especially hardwood flooring.
T A B L E 1 3 .5 I Carpenter-hours
required per 100 lin ft of interior trim
moldings.
Item Carpenters
Base boards 3.5-4.0
Base board shoes 3.0-3.5
Cornice molding 2.5-3.0
Crown molding 3.0-4.0
T A B L E 1 3 .6 I Dimensions of wood flooring.
Thickness,* in. Width, in. Addition for

Nominal Worked Nominal Face side waste, %
Softwood
1 7
2 16 3 2i 41.2
5 9 28.0
8 16 4 3s
1 3 21.2
4 5 4s
11 1 6 5g 17.1
ii 6 51 17.1
Hardwood
25 pi
1 32
25
1J 50.0
1 p3 2 37.5
32 *-4
25 33.3
1 32 3 2*
25
1 32 4 3i 23.0
"Generally all widths of softwood flooring are available in each listed thickness. In some locations
not all listed nominal widths of hardwood may be available. Also hardwood may be available in
other thicknesses.
The percentages of side waste listed in Table 13.6 are determined by divid
ing the reduction in width by the net width. For example, if the nominal width
is 4 in. and the face width is 3 \ in., then the loss in width is f or 0.75 in. For these
dimensions the table lists the percentage to be added for side waste. For exam
ple, (0.75 X 100)/3.25 = 23.1 percent. The reason for using this procedure is
that when the quantity of lumber required is determined, the area of the floor is
known. If the quantity of side waste listed in Table 13.6 is added to the area of
the floor for the particular nominal width of flooring selected, this allowance
will be sufficient for the side waster. An additional amount may be required for
end waste, resulting from sawing to shorter lengths.
Wood flooring is also available in prefinished strips, § in. thick and widths
of 2 \ and 2>\ in. These prefinished strips of tongue and groove wood are glued,
rather than nailed, to either concrete or wood floors.
Parquet patterns of wood are also used for finished wood floors. This type
of flooring is usually walnut, teak, or oak. Various patterns and sizes of blocks
are available, about ^ in. thick and in blocks of 9 or 12 in. square.
Table 13.7 gives the approximate labor-hours per 100 sf to install wood
floors.
T A B L E 1 3 .7 I Labor-hours required per 100 sf to

install wood -flooring.
Type of flooring Carpenters Helper

Softwood lumber 3.0-4.0 0.4-0.6
Hardwood lumber 4.0-5.0 0.5-0.7
Prefinished strips 4.0-5.0 0.5-0.7
Parquet blocks 5.0-6,0 0.6-0.8
PROBLEMS
13.1 The following is a door and window schedule for a building. Use average values
from Table 13.1 and estimate the labor cost to set the doors and windows,
assuming carpenters cost $21.56/hr.
Doors:
2 ft 8 in. x 6 ft 8 in. 5 each Hollow core Interior
2 ft 8 in. X 6 ft 8 in. 12 each Hollow core Interior
3 ft 0 in. X 6 ft 8 in. 14 each Wood Interior
3 ft 6 in. x 6 ft 8 in. 2 each Wood Exterior
Windows:
2 ft 0 in. x 4 ft 0 in. 4 each Metal
2 ft 6 in. x 5 ft 0 in. 17 each Wood
4 ft 0 in. X 6 ft 0 in. 1 each Vinyl
13.2 Estimate the labor cost to install trim for the doors and windows in the following
schedule, assuming carpenters cost $21.56/hr. Include threshold only for exterior
doors.
Doors:
2 ft 8 in. x 6 ft 8 in. 12 each Hollow core Interior
3 ft 0 in. x 6 ft 8 in. 14 each Wood Interior
3 ft 6 in. x 6 ft 8 in. 2 each Wood Exterior
Windows:
4 ft 0 in. X 5 ft 0 in. 8 each Wood
13.3 Estimate the total cost and cost per square foot to furnish and install gypsum
wallboard on the walls of a wood frame building. The structure has 250 lin ft of
exterior walls and 480 lin ft of interior walls. A review of the construction draw
ings reveals that the structure has medium-size rooms and the stud spacing is
16 in. on centers. The gypsum board must be installed on one side of the exterior
wall and both sides of the interior walls. Neglect the cost of installing perforated
tape and sanding the surface. Assume that a 4-ft by 8-ft sheet of gypsum board
costs $6.20 each and carpenters cost $21.56/hr.
13.4 Estimate the labor cost for installing gypsum wallboard for the ceilings of a
structure consisting of 5,435 sf. A review of the drawings for the project shows
that 10 percent of the rooms are large, 70 percent of the rooms are medium size,
and 20 percent of the rooms are small size. Neglect the cost to install perforated
tape and sanding the surface. Assume carpenters cost $21.56/hr.
Roofing and Flashing
ROOFING MATERIALS
Roofing refers to the furnishing of materials and labor to install coverings for
roofs of buildings. Several kinds of materials are used, including but not lim
ited to:
1. Shingles
a. Wood
b. Asphalt
2. Slate
3. Clay tile
4. Built-up
5. Metal
a. Copper
b. Aluminum
c. Galvanized steel
d. Tin
AREA OF A ROOF
The unit of measure for roofing is the square, which is 100 sf. Roofing materi
als used to cover ridges and valleys are measured by linear feet, with the width
specified.
The area to be roofed is the full length and width, measured along the slope
of the roof, including eaves, overhangs, etc. Some estimators do not deduct for
the areas of openings containing less than 100 sf. A minimum of 5 percent waste
should be added to calculated quantities.
Chapter 14 Roofing and Flashing 315
STEEPNESS OF ROOFS
Some estimators define the steepness of a roof by its pitch. Others define steep
ness by the vertical rise over the horizontal run, measured in inches. These terms
and their values are
Rise
Pitch in./ft
1
8 3
1 6
4
1 8
3
1 12
2
2 16
3
Rise over run, Diagonal slope

vertical inches divided dimension,
by horizontal inches inches
3 12 12.3693
4 12 12.6491
5 12 13.0000
6 12 13.4164
7 12 13.8924
8 12 14.4222
9 12 15.0000
10 12 16.6205
12 12 16.9706
ROOFING FELT
Most specifications require installation of an asphalt felt underlayment prior to
placing roofing shingles, such as asphalt, slate, shakes, and tile. Two weights of
asphalt felt are used, either 15 or 30 lb/square. This material is sold in rolls con
taining 108, 216, and 432 sf, which will cover 100, 200, and 400 sf, respectively,
with a 2-in. lap. Galvanized nails about § in. long, with ^-in. heads, spaced about
6 in. apart along the edges, are used to hold the felt in place.
The labor-hours required to lay asphalt felt underlayment should be about

0.5 labor-hours/square.
_______________________________ROOFING SHINGLES
WOOD SHINGLES
Wood shingles, both red cedar and shakes, are discussed in Chapter 12 under
Carpentry.
ASPHALT SHINGLES
Asphalt shingles are manufactured in several styles, colors, and sizes, including
organic asphalt, fiberglass asphalt, hexagon, etc. The shingles are fastened to
wood decking with galvanized roofing nails, 1 to l | in. long, starting at the
lower edge of the roof. Asphalt starting strips should be laid along the eaves of
a roof prior to laying the first row of shingles, or the first row can be doubled,
as illustrated in Fig. 14.1.
Tight wood deck
Shingles
overhang
roke ’A to
strip
Start 4th course or course o f shingles
with full strip_ , inverted
minus / tab
Start 3rd
course with
full strip"
minus B“— first course
/*■
Start 2nd course with with full strip
full strip minus 4
F IG U R E 14.1 I Three-tab strip asphalt shingles.
The calculated net area of a roof should be increased by at least 5 percent

for gable roofs and 10 percent for hip roofs. If the roof has numerous valleys or
dormers, additional waste should be added to the net area.
Table 14.1 gives the net quantities of asphalt shingles of various styles
required to cover one square. The cost of asphalt shingles will vary with the
style, materials, and weight per square for the shingles selected. The quoted
price per square is based on furnishing enough shingles to cover 1 0 0 sf of roof
in the manner indicated by the manufacturer, with no allowance for waste
included.
T A B L E 14.1 I Quantities of asphalt shingles and roofing nails per square.
Number Length Number of Nails per

Style of shingle Size, in. per square exposed, in. nails per shingle square, lb
Asphalt strip, 3 tab, 235 lb 12 x 36 80 5 4 1.0
Fiberglass asphalt, 340 lb 12 x 36 80 5 4 1.0
Hexagon strip, 170 lb 12 X 36 86 5 6 1.5
Labor Required to Lay Asphalt Shingles

Asphalt shingles may be laid by carpenters or experienced roofers. The latter
should lay shingles more rapidly. The rate of laying shingles will be lower for
simple areas than for irregular areas. Hips, gables, dormers, etc., require the cut
ting of shingles for correct fit, which will reduce the production rates. Also, the
rate of laying shingles on steep roofs will be lower than installing them on roofs
that have a low pitch.
Table 14.2 gives the labor-hours required to lay a square of asphalt shingles.
The lower rates should be used for gable roofs and the higher rates for roofs with
valleys, hips, dormers, etc. The rate of laying ridge shingles is about 0.5 labor-
hours per 100 lin ft. The use of pneumatic nail guns will greatly reduce the time
of installing asphalt shingles.
TABLE 1 4 .2 I Labor-hours required to lay a square

of asphalt shingles, using carpenters.
Style of shingle Carpenter Helper

Individual 1,7-2.5 0.7-0.9
Strip, 3 tab 1.1-1.8 0.6-0.8
Hexagonal strip 1.4-2.0 0.6-0.8
Double coverage 1.5-2.5 0.7-0.9
EXAMPLE 1 4 .1
Estimate the cost of material and labor for installing asphalt shingles for the struc
ture shown in the plan view in Fig. 14.2. As shown in the plan view there are three
gables with the same slope of 5:12, rise over run. The dimensions shown are for the
outside walls of the building. A 2-ft overhang is required, therefore the end of the roof
extends 2 ft on either side of the outside walls.
25 ft -15 ft - 50 ft
25 ft
5 ft
5 ft
_I_
FIGURE 1 4 .2 I Plan view of roof.

A 15-lb felt underlaym ent will be installed prior to installing three-tab, 235-lb
asphalt shingles. Assume material costs of $2.50/square for the felt, $27.75/square
for shingles, and $0.49/lb for nails. The cost of labor includes $21.56/hr for carpen
ters and $15.56/hr for laborers.
Quantities of materials:
Slope lengths (see Fig. 14.3):
Section /A; 29 ft x (13/12) = 31.42 ft
Section B: 34 ft x (13/12) = 36.83 ft
Section C: 39 ft X (13/12) = 42.25 ft
25 ft + 4 ft = 29 ftN ‘
-2 9 ft-
FIG U R E 1 4 .3 I Cross sections through roof.
Surface area of roofing:

Section A: 31.42 ft x 25 ft = 785.5 sf
Section B: 36.83 ft x 15 ft = 552.5 sf
Section C: 42.25 ft X 50 ft = 2,112.5 sf
Total = 3,450.5 sf, or 34.5 squares, net
Required materials, assuming 5% waste:

Felt underlayment: 1.05 x 34.5 squares = 36.2 squares required
Asphalt shingles: 1.05 x 34.5 squares = 36.2 squares required
Nails: 36.2 squares x 1 lb/square = 36.2 lb
Labor required:
Simple gable roof with no valleys, use lower values from Table 14.2:
Carpenters: 36.2 squares x 1.1 hr/square = 39.8 hr
Laborers: 36.2 squares x 0.6 hr/square = 21.7 hr
Labor-hours to install felt: 36.2 squares X 0.5 hr/square = 18.1 hr
Asphalt shingles: 36.2 squares @ $27.75/square = $1,004.55
Felt underlayment: 36.2 squares @ $2.50/square = 90.50
Nails: 36.2 lb @ $0.49/lb = 17.74
Carpenters for shingles: 39.8 hr @ $21.56/hr = 858.09
Laborers for shingles: 21.7 hr @ $15.56/hr = 337.65
Laborers for roofing felt: 18.1 hr @ $15.56/hr = 281.64
Cost per square, $2,590.17/34.5 squares = $75.08/square

SLATE ROOFING
Slate for roofing is made by splitting slate blocks into pieces having the desired
thicknesses, length, and width. The slate is usually ^ or \ in. thick and up to
16 in. in widths and lengths. Colors include black, green, gray, red, and purple.
Slate is heavy material, weighing from 170 to 180 lb/cf. For a 3-in. head lap,
]|-in.-thick slate will weigh 700 lb/square and |-in.-thick slate will weigh about
900 lb/square.
Slate is priced by the square, with sufficient pieces furnished to cover a
square with a 3-in. head lap over the second course under the given course. Thus,
for slates 16 in. long, the length exposed to weather will be (16 — 3)/2 = 6.5 in.
This same calculation will apply to any length for which the head lap is 3 in. If
the slates are 8 -in. wide, the area covered will be 8 X 6.5 = 52 sq. in. The num
ber of slates required to cover a square will be (100 X 144)/52 = 277. For other
sizes the number required to cover a square can be determined in the same man
ner. An area should be increased 10 to 25 percent to allow for waste.
Laying Slate Roofing

Roofing slate is laid on asphalt felt, weighing 30 lb/square. The first course of
slate should be doubled, with the lower end laid on a wood strip to give the slate
the proper cant for the succeeding courses. Joints should be staggered. Each slate
should be fastened with two nails driven through prepunched holes. Hips and
valleys will require edge mitering of adjacent slates.
The labor operations required for slate roofing will include laying the felt
and installing the slates. Production rates will vary considerably with the sizes
and thicknesses of slate, slope of the roof, kind of pattern specified, and com
plexities of the areas. Table 14.3 gives the labor-hours to apply a square of
asphalt felt and slate under various conditions. The lower rates should be used
for plain roofs, such as gable roofs, and the higher rates for steep roofs with val
leys, hips, and dormers.
TABLE 1 4 .3 I Labor-hours required to apply

a square of asphalt felt and roofing slate.
S la te s iz e , in . S la te r H e lp e r
12 x 8 5.0-7.0 2.5-3.5
16 x 8 4.0-6.0 2.0-3.0
16 x 12 3.5-5.2 1.8-2.7
16 X 16 3.2-5.0 1.6-2.5
CLAY TILE ROOFING

Clay tile roofing is installed similarly to slate roofing. A 30-lb asphalt felt under-
layment is placed over the roof area before the clay tile is installed. The tiles are
nailed to the roof decking with galvanized nails. The clay tiles are more uniform
in shape than slates and therefore are easier to install. However, the tiles are brit
tle and are subject to breakage, which can reduce the production rate.
The rate of placing the tiles will depend on the steepness and complexity of
the roof. The labor-hours required to lay clay tile roofing should be about 4.5 to
7.0 labor-hours per square for the roofer and 2.0 to 3.5 labor-hours per square
for the helpers.
BUILT-UP ROOFING
Building up roofing consists of applying alternate layers of roofing felt and hot
pitch or asphalt over the area to be covered, with gravel, crushed stone, or slag
applied uniformly over the top layer of pitch or asphalt. This type of roofing may
be applied to wood sheathing, concrete, poured gypsum, precast concrete tiles,
precast gypsum blocks, book tile, and approved insulation.
The quality of built-up roofing is designated by specifying the weight and
number of plies of felt, the weight and number of applications of pitch or
asphalt, and the weight of gravel or slag used. The unit of area is a square.
FELT FOR BUILT-UP ROOFING

Pitch-impregnated felt should be used with pitch cement and asphalt-impregnated
felt with asphalt. Felt weighing 15 or 30 lb/square may be used, with the 15-lb
felt being more commonly specified. Felt is available in rolls 36 in wide with
gross areas of 108, 216, and 432 sf.
Fiberglass felt is sometimes used in place of organic felt for built-up roof
ing. Fiberglass, type IV, is available in 540-lb rolls.
PITCH AND ASPHALT

Pitch should be applied at a temperature not exceeding 400°F and asphalt at a
temperature not exceeding 450°F. Applications are made with a mop to the spec
ified thickness or weight. Pitch and asphalt will weigh about 10 lb/gal. Pitch is
purchased in 2 0 0 -lb cartons, and asphalt is purchased in 1 0 0 -lb cartons.
GRAVEL AND SLAG

After the final layer of pitch or asphalt is applied, and while it is still hot, gravel
or slag is spread uniformly over the area. The aggregate should be \ to § in. in
size and thoroughly dry. Application rates are about 400 lb/square for gravel and
300 lb/square for slag.
LAYING BUILT-UP ROOFING ON

WOOD DECKING
While specifications covering the roofing laid on wood decking will vary, this
method is representative of common practice.
1. Over the entire surface lay two plies of 15-lb asphalt felt, lapping each
sheet 19 in. over the preceding one and turning these felts up not less than
4 in. along all vertical surfaces. Nail as often as necessary to secure, until
the remaining felt is laid.
2. Over the entire surface embed in asphalt two plies of asphalt felt, lapping
each sheet 19 in. over the preceding one, rolling each sheet immediately
behind the mop to ensure a uniform coating of hot asphalt, so that in no
place shall felt touch felt. Each sheet shall be nailed 6 in. from the back
edge at intervals of 24 in. These felts shall be cut off at the angles of the
roof deck and all walls or vertical surfaces.
3. Over the entire surface spread a uniform coating of asphalt into which,
while hot, embed not less than 400 lb of gravel or 300 lb of slag per 100 sf
of area. Gravel or slag must be approximately \ to § in. in size, dry and
free from dirt. If the roofing is applied during cold weather or the gravel
or slag is damp, it should be heated and dried immediately before
application.
Not less than these quantities of materials should be used for each 100 sf of
roof area:
Weight, lb
Material Gravel Slag
Four plies of 15-lb asphalt felt 60 60
Roofing asphalt 100 100
Gravel or slag 400 300
Total weight 560 460
The application previously specified is designated as four-ply roofing, with

two plies dry and two plies mopped.
Sometimes specifications require that the decking first be covered with a
single thickness of sheathing paper, weighing not less than 5 or 6 lb/square, with
the edges of the sheets lapped at least 1 in.
LAYING BUILT-UP ROOFING ON CONCRETE

A method of laying built-up roofing on concrete is shown in Fig. 14.4. Before
built-up roofing is applied on a concrete deck, the concrete should be cleaned
and dried, after which a coat of concrete primer should be applied cold at a rate
of about 1 gal/square. After the primer has dried, embed in hot asphalt two,
FIG U R E 1 4 .4 I Method of laying built-up roofing on concrete.
three, four, or five plies of asphalt felt, lapping each sheet enough to give the
required number of plies. Roll each sheet immediately behind the mop to ensure
a uniform coating of hot asphalt, so that in no place shall felt touch felt. Over the
entire area spread a uniform coating of hot asphalt into which, while hot, embed
not less than 400 lb of dry gravel or 300 lb of dry slag per square.
For a three-ply roofing the quantities of materials given in this table might
be used per square.
Weight, lb
Material Gravel Slag
Concrete primer 10 10
Three plies of 15-lb asphalt felt 45 45
Roofing asphalt 125 125
Gravel or slag 400 300
Total weight 580 480
LABOR LAYING BUILT-UP ROOFING

The operations required to lay built-up roofing will vary with the type of roof
ing specified. If the time required to perform each operation is estimated, the
sum of these times will give the total time for a roof or for completing a square.
If a building is more than two or three stories high, additional time should be
allowed for hoisting materials.
A typical crew for laying roofing on buildings up to three stories high would
include one person each tending the kettle, handling hot asphalt or pitch, laying
felt, rolling felt, and mopping, with a foreman supervising all operations. On some
jobs one person may be able to tend the kettle and handle the asphalt or pitch.
Table 14.4 gives the labor-hours per square required to perform each oper
ation and to complete all operations for various types of built-up roofing. Use
the lower values for large plain roofs and the higher values for roofs with irreg
ular areas.
T A B L E 1 4 .4 I Labor-hours required to perform

operations and iay a square of built-up roofing.
Operation Labor-hours*
Apply sheathing paper on wood deck 0.10-0.15
Apply primer on concrete 0.10-0.15
Lay 1 ply of roofing felt 0.10-0.15
Apply asphalt with mop 0.10-0.15
Apply asphalt and gravel 0.50-0.75
Apply 2-ply roofing on wood deck 1.3-2.0
Apply 3-ply roofing on concrete 1.6-2.3
*The labor-hours for the last eight applications include three workers on the
roof and two workers heating and supplying hot asphalt.
FLASHING
Flashing is installed to prevent water from passing into or through areas such as
valleys and hips on roofs, where roofs meet walls, or where openings are cut
through roofs such as the chimney shown in Fig. 14.5. Materials used for flash
ing include sheets of copper, tin, galvanized steel, aluminum, lead, and some
times mopped layers of roofing felt.
Flashing is usually measured by the linear foot for widths up to 12 in. and
by the square foot for widths greater than 1 2 in.
METAL FLASHING
When metal flashing requires nails or other metal devices to hold it in place, it
is essential that the fastener and the flashing be of the same metal; otherwise,
galvanic action will soon destroy one of the metals.
F IG U R E 1 4 .5 I Metal cap flashing laid over base flashing.
FLASHING ROOFS AT WALLS

Where a roof and a parapet wall join, it is common practice to extend the layers
of built-up roofing 4 to 8 in. up the wall, with mopping applied to the wall and
the felt, with no metal flashing underneath the felt. A metal counter flashing,
whose upper edge is bent and inserted in a raggle or slot in the mortar joint
between bricks about 1 2 in. above the roof, is installed to cover the portion of
the felt flashing attached to the wall (see Fig. 14.6). If metal is installed under
the felt and extended up the wall, it is called base flashing. Base and counter
flashing should be soldered at all end joints.
FLASHING VALLEYS AND HIPS

When roofs are covered with shingles, it is necessary to flash the valleys and
hips, usually with metal flashing 10 to 30 in. wide (see Fig. 14.7). The flashing
may be soldered at end joints, or it may be lapped enough to eliminate danger of
leakage. The quantity is measured by the linear foot.
F IG U R E 1 4 .6 I Method of flashing metal roof at parapet wall.
F IG U R E 1 4 .7 I Use of roll roofing for

valley flashing.
LABOR REQUIRED TO INSTALL FLASHING

Flashing is installed by tinners. The labor required will vary with the material
used, type of flashing required, and specifications covering the installation.
Table 14.5 gives the labor-hours required to install flashing.
TABLE 1 4 .5 I Labor-hours required to install flashing.
Class of work Unit Labor-hours

Metal base around parapet wall 100 lin ft 5.0-6.0
Metal counter flashing around walls 100 lin ft 5.0-6.0
Metal along roof and wood walls 100 lin ft 4.0-5.0
Metal valleys and hips 100 lin ft 5.0-6.0
Metal shingles along chimneys 100 each 8.0-10.0
PROBLEMS
14.1 Estimate the total cost and the cost per square for furnishing and laying three-tab
asphalt shingles on a wood roof decking whose area is 3,436 sf. The roof will
have numerous valleys, hips, and dormers. Use the unit cost of materials and
labor as shown in Example 14.1.
14.2 Estimate the labor cost for installing flashing for a building, assuming $19.04/hr
for roofers. Quantity takeoffs from the plans reveal
Metal base around parapet wall: 870 lin ft
Metal counter flashing around walls: 870 lin ft
Metal shingles along chimney: 2 each
Masonry
MASONRY UNITS
Masonry units that are commonly used for construction include brick, concrete
masonry units, and stone, either natural or artificial. They are bonded by suitable
mortar. Masonry units are available in several sizes, grades, and textures. Plans
and specifications for a particular job designate the type of masonry unit, includ
ing its size, grade, and texture. The specifications also define the kind of mortar
and thickness of joints.
Members of the construction craft that installs masonry units are called
masons or bricklayers. Sometimes bricklayers are called brick masons. A helper
usually assists masons or bricklayers. Masonry construction is labor intensive.
Although the masonry units may be placed beside the masons, they must pick up
each individual unit, properly spread the mortar, and fit the unit in place one at
a time.
ESTIMATING THE COST OF MASONRY

In estimating the cost of a structure to be constructed entirely or partly of
masonry units, the estimator should determine separately the quantity and cost
of each kind of unit required. For example, a project may require both brick
veneer and concrete masonry units. The concrete masonry units may be sepa
rated into bond beams, columns, lintels, etc. An appropriate allowance should be
made for waste, resulting primarily from breakage.
The quantities of masonry units and mortar should include an allowance for
waste. The labor-hours required to install masonry depend on the type of unit,
pattern of the masonry, and the height the masonry must be placed. The con
struction equipment required to install masonry units may include mortar mixer,
scaffolding, and a forklift for handling the masonry units.
327
MORTAR
Mortar for masonry units is made by mixing portland cement with lime or
masonry cement, and sand. The quantity of each ingredient may vary to produce
a mortar suitable for a particular job.
Mortar is designated as ASTM types M, S, N, O, PM, and PL. The M type
is high-strength, suitable for masonry subjected to high compressive loads,
severe frost action, high lateral loads from earth pressures, and structures below
grade. The S type is used for structures requiring high flexural bond strength, but
subject only to normal compressive loads. The N type mortar is used in medium-
strength mortar for general use above grade, specifically for exterior walls such
as masonry veneers applied to frame construction. Type O is used in low-strength
mortar for interior non-load-bearing partitions and for fireproofing.
The lime used for making masonry mortar is hydrated lime, which is cal
cium hydroxide. Lime, which sets only on contact with air, gives the mortar
workability, water retentivity, and elasticity. Hydrated lime can be purchased in
paper bags weighing 50 lb and containing 1 cf, or it can be purchased in bulk
quantities.
Sand acts as a filler and also contributes to the strength of the mix. If fine
sand is used, the workability of the mortar will be much better than if coarse
sand is used. The sand should be screened and washed at the rock quarry pit. The
price of sand may be quoted by cubic yard or ton.
Colored mortar is often required. The desired color is obtained by adding a
color pigment to the mortar mix. The cost of the color pigment is usually minimal,
but adding color to the mortar does require additional labor-hours to ensure con
sistency of the color during multiple mixing operations during a particular job.
Mortar properties may be specified by strength or by proportions. Table 15.1
gives the quantities of materials for 1 cy of various types of masonry mortar.
T A B L E 15.1 I Quantities of materials for 1 cy of concrete masonry mortar.
Cementitious materials
Sand, Portland Masonry Hydrated
Mortar dry, loose, cement, cement, lime,
type cy bag or cf bag or cf bag or cf
M 1.0 cy 4.5 4.5 None
1.0 cy 7.5 None 2.0
S 1.0 cy 3.0 6.0 None
1.0 cy 6.0 None 3.0
N 1.0 cy None 9.0 None
1.0 cy 4.5 None 4.5
0 1.0 cy None 9.0 None
1.0 cy 3.0 None 6.0
Note: Cementitious materials are usually 1 cf volume per bag.

Chapter 15 Masonry 329
BRICKS
SIZES AND QUANTITIES OF BRICKS

Clay bricks are manufactured in many shapes, sizes, colors, and textures. The
costs, which vary considerably, are usually based on 1 , 0 0 0 units, either at the
supplier or delivered to the job.
The estimator must determine the quantity of bricks for each type. The
quantity of bricks required for a job depends on the area of wall to be covered,
plus a reasonable amount of waste. The estimator should deduct the openings,
such as doors and windows, from the total gross area to be covered.
Brick may be designated as nonmodular or modular. Nonmodular bricks are
solid bricks and are generally used for load-bearing walls. The standard size of
a nonmodular brick is 2 \ in. high, 3§ in. deep, and 8 in. long. An oversize non
modular brick is available with the dimensions of 2 \ in. by 3 | in. by 8 in.
Modular bricks have three or more holes in them, equally spaced along their
centerlines. They are commonly used for brick veneer walls. Table 15.2 gives
the names and nominal size of modular bricks. The listed dimensions of modu
lar bricks are nominal, and are equal to the manufactured or specified dimension
plus the thickness of the mortar joint with which the unit is designed to be laid.
For example, the manufactured length of a unit whose nominal length is 12 in.
would be 1 1\ in. if the unit were designed to be laid with ^-in. joints, or 1 i f in.
for f-in. joints.
T A B L E 1 5 .2 I Types, nominal dimensions, and quantities of modular brick

per square foot of wall area.
Nominal dimensions, in. Quantity of brick,

Name Height Depth Length bricks/sf
p2
Standard ^3 4 8 6.75
Engineer O 1
J 5 4 8 5.63
Economy 4 4 8 4.50
Roman 2 4 12 6.00
p2
Norman 4 12 4.50
Norwegian q !
J 5 4 12 3.75
SCR p2 12 4.50
^3 6
PATTERN BONDS
Masonry units may be oriented in various positions for construction of walls.
Bricks laid with the long dimension placed in the horizontal direction are called
stretchers. When the bricks are laid with the long dimension placed in the verti
cal direction, they are called soldiers. Bricks laid with their ends (height and
depth dimensions) exposed to the exterior are called headers.
The arrangement of masonry units is call pattern bond. The common pattern
bonds are running bond, common bond, English bond, Flemish bond, basket pat
tern, and stack bond. Figure 15.1 illustrates these pattern bonds.
Stretcher Soldier
— n— ii ii ii
ir ii ii " ii hi n~~ii ii ii ii
ii ii ii ii ii ii
.. .... II ii ll ll ll
ii ii ii ii ii ll
ii ii ii ii ii
ii ii ll ll ll ll
ii ii ii II ' II II II II II «!|l
ir ii II II II II
Running bond Common bond
English Flemish
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1 I
1 1 1 1
Basket pattern Stack bond
FIG U R E 15.1 I Brick patterns for masonry units.
Running bond uses only stretcher courses with head joints centered over
stretches in the course below. Common bond is similar to the running bond,
except that a header course is repeated about every sixth course. English bond is
made up of alternated courses of headers and stretchers, with headers centered
on stretchers. Flemish bond alternates stretchers and headers in each course with
headers centered over stretchers in the course below. Stack bond provides no
interlocking between adjacent masonry units and is used for its architectural
effect. Horizontal reinforcement should be used with stack bond to provide lat
eral bonding.
TYPES OF JOINTS FOR BRICK MASONRY

Several types of mortar joints are specified for brick masonry that can affect the
rate of laying bricks. The more common types are shown in Fig. 15.2.
Concave Raked
Types of mortar joints

FIG U R E 1 5 .2 I Mortar joints for masonry.
Flush-cut joints are made by passing the trowel across the surface of the
bricks and removing any excess mortar. This operation requires very little time.
Struck and weathered joints are made with a trowel after the mortar has
gained some stiffness. This operation requires more time than flush-cut joints.
Concave joints are made by tooling the mortar with a wood or nonstaining
metal rod before the mortar gains final set.
Convex joints are made by compressing the mortar during the process of
laying the brick.
Raked joints are made by removing the mortar to a depth of \ to | in., by
using a special tool.
ESTIMATING MORTAR FOR BRICKS

The quantity of brick required per square foot of wall will depend on the size of
brick and the size of horizontal and vertical mortar joints. The nominal sizes of
modular bricks are given in Table 15.2. The actual manufactured sizes of these
bricks will be less than the nominal dimensions given in the table. For example,
the Norman brick may be manufactured with the dimensions of 2 \ by 3§ by 1 if
for use with f-in. mortar, or with the dimensions of 2 \ by 3 5 by 11\ for use with
j-in. mortar.
The quantity of mortar required for a single brick can be calculated with the
following equation.
Volume per brick = (L + H + t ) X t X D [15.1]
where t = thickness of mortar
L = length of brick
H = height of brick
D = depth of brick
EXAMPLE 1 5 . 1
Calculate the quantity of mortar per 1,000 bricks for Roman type modular brick for
construction of a brick veneer wall using running bond and |-in . thick mortar. Table
15.2 gives the nominal dimensions of this modular brick as 2 in. X 4 in. x 12 in. for
the height (H), depth (D), and length (/_), respectively. When this brick is purchased
from the manufacturer for |-in. mortar, the actual size will be 1 § in. x 3 | in. x 1 1 | in.
Quantity of mortar for a single brick, using Eq. [15.1]:

Volume = ( L + H + f ) x f x D
= ( 1 1 | in. + \\ in. + \ in.) x 5 in. x 3^ in.
= 23.625 cubic inches of mortar per brick
Converting to cubic feet:

Volume = 23.625 cubic inches/(1,728 cubic inches/cubic foot)
= 0.0136719 cf of mortar per brick
Volume, in cubic feet, of mortar per 1,000 bricks:

Volume = (0.0136719 cf/brick) x 1,000 bricks
= 13.671875 cf/1,000 bricks
Volume, in cubic yards, of mortar per 1,000 bricks:

Volume = (13.671875 cf/1,000 bricks)/(27 cf/cy)
= 0.5063657 cy/1,000 bricks
QUANTITY OF MORTAR FOR BRICK

VENEER WALLS
As illustrated in Example 15.1, the quantity of mortar required for brick masonry
will vary with the type of brick and the thickness of the mortar joints. It is difficult
to accurately estimate the quantity of mortar that will be wasted in laying bricks.
Most estimators add 20 to 25 percent for mortar waste.
Table 15.3 gives the approximate cubic yards of mortar per 1,000 bricks. No
waste factor is given for the amounts shown.
T A B L E 1 5 .3 I Approximate cubic
yards of mortar per 1,000 bricks.
Thickness of
mortar
Name 1 in. \ in.
Standard 0.300 0.382
Engineer 0.319 0.404
Economy 0.341 0.433
Roman 0.397 0.506
Norman 0.419 0.533
Norwegian 0.433 0.552
SCR 0.648 0.837
Note: No allowance for waste is included.
ACCESSORIES FOR BRICK VENEER WALLS

Metal ties are used to anchor the brick veneer to wood framed walls. Wall ties
made of 14- to 24-gauge hot-dipped galvanized steel in widths of l j in. and
lengths of 3 1 in. with 2-in. bends are used for this purpose. One end of the wall
tie is nailed to the wood stud wall and the other end is embedded in the mortar
joints. The wall ties are generally spaced above every 16 in. in the horizontal
direction and 24 in. in the vertical direction.
If the brick veneer is placed as face brick on the outside of a concrete
masonry unit wall, the wall ties are flat with one end embedded in the mortar of
the brick veneer and the other end embedded in the mortar of the concrete
masonry unit wall.
Column and beam flange straps are used to anchor brick veneer to structural
steel framing. One end of the strap hooks around the flanges of the beam or col
umn and the other end is embedded in the mortar of the brick veneer or concrete
masonry unit.
CLEANING BRICK MASONRY

Brick masonry can be cleaned by several methods, including bucket and brush
by hand, high-pressure water cleaning, or sandblasting. Hand cleaning is the
most popular method due to its simplicity and readily available cleaning mate
rial. The cleaning material may consist of detergent or soap solutions, a mixture
of 1 0 percent muriatic acid and water, or propriety compounds.
High-pressure water cleaning is sometimes used because it is faster and

thereby reduces the cost of labor. A portable spraying unit on wheels is used for
this purpose. Dry sandblasting has been used for many years to clean brick
masonry, particularly on restoration work. Sandblasting requires a qualified
operator to prevent scarring of the face of brick units and mortar joints.
SOLID BRICK WALLS

A brick veneer wall using a single thickness of modular bricks is generally con
structed for aesthetic purposes and is considered a non-load-bearing wall.
Structural load-bearing walls may be constructed with solid nonmodular bricks,
usually with standard size of solid bricks, size 2\ in. by 3§ in. by 8 in.
Solid brick walls may be designated as 4, 8, 12, and 16 in. thick. The actual
thickness will vary with the number of bricks of thickness and the thickness of
the vertical mortar joints between rows of bricks. Figure 15.3 illustrates a two-
brick-thick wall with common bond. A three-brick-thick wall is referred to as a
1 2 -in. wall; but if |-in. mortar joints are used, the actual thickness will be 12-} in.
In a similar manner, a four-brick-thick wall will actually be 16^ in. thick.
Table 15.4 gives the number of standard bricks ( 2 | in. by 3 | in. by 8 in.)
for various thickness of solid brick walls. Table 15.5 gives the cubic yards of
mortar required per 1,000 bricks of size 2 \ in. by 3 f in. by 8 in. for full joints,
using common bond, with no allowance included for waste.
Buildings constructed with solid brick walls are frequently erected with a
4-in.-thick veneer of face bricks, while the balance of the wall thickness is
obtained with common bricks. If a common bond is used, it is customary to lay
face bricks as headers every sixth course for bond purposes. Since a header
course will require twice as many face bricks as a stretcher course, the total
number of face bricks required must be increased over the number that would be
required for a uniform 4-in. thickness. This is equivalent to one extra stretcher
course in six courses, amount to an increase of 16§ percent in the number of face
FIG U R E 1 5 .3 I Solid brick wall laid with common bond.

TABLE 15.4 I Number of 2?-in. by 3f-in . by 8-in. solid nonmodular bricks

per 100 sf of wall area.
Nominal
Thickness of horizontal mortar joint, in.
thickness
of wall, in. 1 3 1 5 3
4 8 2 8 .4
End joints \ in. thick

4 698 665 635 608 582
8 1,396 1,330 1,270 1,216 1,164
12 2,095 1,995 1,905 1,824 1,746
16 2,792 2,660 2,540 2,432 2,328
End joints \ in. thick
4 677 645 615 588 564
8 1,354 1,290 1,230 1,176 1,128
12 2,031 1,935 1,845 1,764 1,692
16 2,708 2,580 2,460 2,352 2,256
TABLE 15.5 I Cubic yards of mortar required per 1,000 standard-size (2|-in. by
3|-in. by 8-in.) bricks for full joints, using common bond (no allowance included
for waste).
Nominal Thickness of horizontal mortar joint, in.

thickness _________________________________________
of wall, in. \ | I |
Vertical joints \ in. thick
4 0.211 0.291 0.376 0.458 0.542
8 0.301 0.384 0.474 0.562 0.649
12 0.346 0.432 0.523 0.614 0.703
16 0.429 0.519 0.616 0.709 0.805
/ertical joints \ in. thick
4 0.262 0.348 0.433 0.518 0.627
8 0.365 0.456 0.546 0.637 0.751
12 0.414 0.506 0.600 0.693 0.809
16 0.433 0.520 0.621 0.715 0.832
bricks required. The number of common bricks may be reduced in an amount

equal to the increase in the number of face bricks.
LABOR LAYING BRICKS

The labor-hours required to lay bricks vary with a number of factors, such as the
quality of work, type of bricks, kind of mortar used, shape of the walls, kind of
bond pattern used, and weather conditions.
If walls are irregular in shape with frequent openings, pilasters, or other
changes in shape, the labor requirements will be greater than for long, straight
walls. If the joints must be tooled, more labor will be required than if the joints
are simple cut flush with a trowel. For some jobs, more than one bond pattern is
used, which increases the labor required to lay bricks.
Table 15.6 gives the approximate labor-hours to lay 1,000 bricks for modu
lar brick veneer walls and for nonmodular solid brick walls. The indicated time
includes mixing the mortar and laying the bricks.
TABLE 15.6 I Approximate labor-hours to lay 1,000 bricks for modular brick
veneer walls and solid brick walls.
Hours per 1,000 bricks

Type of wall Bricklayers Helper
Brick veneer running bond using modular bricks 15-17 10-11
Solid brick walls common bond using
2 j-in . x 3f-in. x 8-in. bricks 10-11 9-10
Note: (1) For other than running bond pattern brick veneer increase by 7 percent; (2) for cavity walls,
the labor-hours should be increased by 15 percent; and (3) for curved walls, the labor-hours should
be increased by 30 percent.
EXAMPLE 1 5 .2
Estimate the total direct cost of material, labor, and equipm ent for constructing the
walls of a rectangular building 116 ft long, 68 ft wide, with brick veneer walls 10 ft
high. The total area of openings for doors and windows will be 468 sf.
The walls will be 4 in. thick, using Roman type bricks laid in common bond with
|-in . mortar joints on all sides. A header course will be placed every sixth course
between the stretcher courses. Wall ties will be placed every 16 in. in the horizontal
direction and every 24 in. in the vertical direction.
Material costs will be $615/1,000 bricks, $83/cy for mortar, and $4.25/100 wall
ties. Labor costs include $20.95/hr for bricklayers and $15.56/hr for helpers. The
mixer for mortar will cost $9.50/hr. Scaffolding rental will be $1,800 for the job.
Gross outside area:
[(116 ft x 10 ft) x 2 walls] + [(68 ft X10 ft) x 2 walls] = 3,680 sf
D educt for four corners: [(4 in.)/(12 in./ft)] x 10 ft x 4 corners = - 1 3 sf
D educt for doors and windows = - 4 6 8 sf
Net area = 3,199 sf
Bricks required:
From Table 15.2 for Roman type modular brick
Stretcher bricks: [(1 brick)/(2 in. x 12 in.)] x 144 sq. in./sf = 6.0 bricks/sf
H eader bricks: [(1 brick)/(2 in. x 4 in.)] x 144 sq. in./sf = 18 bricks/sf
For comm on bond, every sixth course of bricks will be headers and the other
courses of bricks will be stretchers. Therefore, the num ber of bricks can be ca lcu
lated as:
For stretchers: 3,199 sf x § x 6.0 bricks/sf = 15,995 stretcher bricks

For headers: 3,199 sf x J x 18.0 bricks/sf = 9,597 header bricks
Total = 25,592 bricks
Add 5% for waste = 1,280 bricks
Total bricks = 26,872 bricks
Mortar required:
From Table 15.3 for Roman brick with j-in . mortar joints = 0.506 cy /1 ,000
brick
Quantity of mortar required: 26,872 bricks x 0.506 cy/1,000 bricks = 13.6 cy
Total mortar = 17.0 cy
Wall ties required:

Spacing of metal wall ties: 16 in. x 24 in. = 384 sq. in./tie
Number of ties per square foot of wall:
144 sq. in./384 sq. in./tie = 0.375 ties/sf
Number of ties: 3,199 sf x 0.375 ties/sf = 1,200 ties
Add 5% waste = + 60 ties
Total wall ties = 1,260 ties
From Table 15.6 using average values for brick veneer walls with common bond:
Bricklayers: 26,872 bricks x 16 h r/ 1,000 bricks x 1.07 for comm on bond =
460 hr
Helpers: 26,872 bricks x 10.5 h r/ 1,000 bricks x 1.07 for comm on bond =
302 hr
Equipment required:
Time for mortar mixer assuming 3 bricklayers: 460 hr/3 = 153 hr
Rental cost of scaffolding = $1,800
Cost of material, labor, and equipment:
Materials:
Bricks: 26,872 bricks @ $615/1,000 bricks = $16,526.28
Mortar: 17.0 cy @ $83/cy = 1,411.00
Wall ties: 1,200 ties @ $4.25/100 ties = 51.00
Labor:
Bricklayers: 460 hr @ $ 20 .95/hr = 9,637.00
Helpers: 302 hr @ $15.56/hr = 4,699.12
Equipment:
Mortar mixer: 153 hr @ $9.50/hr = 1,453.60
Scaffolding rental = 1,800.00
Total cost = $35,578.00
Cost per brick = $35,578.00/26,872 bricks = $1.32/brick

Cost per 1,000 bricks: $35,578.00/26.872 = $1,324/1,000 bricks
Cost per square feet: $35,578.00/3,199 sf = $11.13/sf
This cost does not include indirect costs of taxes, insurance, contingency, or profit.
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS

Concrete masonry units (CMUs) are concrete blocks that are manufactured in
various sizes from Portland cement, sand, and gravel, or cement and lightweight
aggregates. The concrete blocks may be solid or hollow. Exterior walls of hollow
CMUs are usually filled with insulation material, such as granular vermiculite, to
provide protection for head loss or gain in the building. CMUs, either solid or hol
low, can be placed to form a load-bearing wall or a non-load-bearing wall.
Table 15.7 gives the actual sizes, approximate weights, and quantities of
mortar required for joints for the more popular sizes of CMUs. The most com
mon nominal size of a CMU is 8 in. X 8 in. X 16 in. The actual sizes of blocks
usually will be § in. less than the nominal sizes. When §-in.-thick mortar joints
are used, the dimensions occupied by blocks will equal the nominal sizes.
The quantities given in Table 15.7 are based on 100 sf of wall area, with no
allowance for waste or breakage of the blocks. The quantities of mortar given do
TABLE 15.7 I Sizes, weights, and quantities of mortar for concrete blocks, using f-in.
joints.*
Approximate weight Quantities per 100 sf
per block, lb of wall area
Actual size:
thickness, height, Light Number Mortar,
length, in. Standard weight of blocks cy
3 {j ^ 4g X 1 1 Q 1 1 -1 3 8 -1 0 240 0 .1 5
X 4 | X 11 § 1 7 -1 9 1 2 -1 4 240 0 .1 6
7 | x 4 | X 11§ 2 2 -2 4 1 4 -1 6 240 0 .1 7
*00°
IOIOD
X
1 7 -1 9 1 2 -1 4 150 0.11
5 | x 7 | x 11| 2 6 -2 8 1 7 -1 9 150 0 .1 2
7 | x 7§ x 1 1 | 3 3 -3 5 2 1 -2 3 150 0 .1 3
5 | X 3 | x 15| 1 7 -1 9 1 1 -1 3 225 0 .1 8
7 | X 3 | X 15| 2 2 -2 4 1 4 -1 6 225 0 .1 9
3 § x 7§ X 15§ 2 3 -2 5 1 6 -1 8 113 0 .1 0
5 | X 7 | x 15| 3 5 -3 7 2 4 -2 7 113 0.11
OBii
ow.
cn
4 5 —47 2 8 -3 2 0 .1 2
X
113
X
‘ These quantities do not include any allowance for waste. Add 2 to 5 percent for blocks and 20 to 50 percent for
mortar.
not include any allowance for waste, which frequently will amount from 2 0 to
50 percent of the net amount required.
LABOR LAYING CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS

Concrete masonry units are laid by masons. Joints are made by spreading mor
tar along the inside and outside horizontal and vertical edges. Joints may be cut
smooth with a steel trowel, or they may be tooled as for brick. The joints are
more resistant to the infiltration of moisture when they are tooled, because the
tooling increases the density of the mortar.
A bond beam is a continuously reinforced horizontal beam of masonry
designed to provide additional strength and to prevent cracks in masonry walls.
Bond beams are often placed about every sixth course of CMU walls. Special U-
shaped CMUs are placed with their open sides facing upward. Generally two
no. 5 reinforcing bars are placed horizontally in the U-shaped CMU and then
filled with concrete. A mason and a helper working together should be able to
install about 15 lin ft of bond beam per hour, including laying the U-shaped
CMUs, setting the reinforcing steel, and placing the concrete.
Additional reinforcement is obtained by placing latticed smooth wire rein
forcing steel in the horizontal mortar joints. Lintels are short beams of wood,
steel, stone, or reinforced masonry used to span openings in masonry walls.
Expansion or control joints are placed at intervals to permit differential
movement of wall sections caused by shrinkage of concrete due to fluctuations
in temperature. Expansion joints may be placed at door and window openings,
or at columns and pilasters. Expansion joints are also placed at offsets in walls.
Control joints are grooves placed in masonry to control shrinkage cracking.
Table 15.8 gives the labor-hours required to lay 1,000 concrete masonry units
of various sizes. The time given for masons includes laying the units and tooling
the joints, if required. The rates provide for different classes of work. The time
given for laborers includes supplying mortar and CMUs for the masons.
EXAMPLE 1 5 . 3
Estimate the total direct cost and cost per 1,000 CMUs for furnishing and laying
standard-weight concrete masonry units for a rectangular building 120 ft long, 80 ft
wide, and 14 ft high. The total area of the openings will be 516 sf.
The CMUs will be 8 in. by 8 in. by 16 in. and mortar joints will be §-in. thick. Three
rows of bond beams are required, reinforced with two no. 5 reinforcing steel bars.
The manufacturer's literature shows 0.22 cf of concrete is required to fill each linear
foot of the U -shaped CMUs that will be used for the bond beams.
Material costs will be $1.86/CMU and $83/cy for mortar. Material costs for the
bond beam will be $0.30/lb for reinforcing steel and $79/cy for the concrete. Labor
costs include $20.95/hr for masons, $15.56/hr for helpers, and $18.67/hr for the
mixer operator. Equipm ent for mixing the mortar will cost $9.50/hr. Scaffolding rental
will be $2,500 for the job.
TABLE 1 5 .8 I Labor-hours required to handle and

lay 1,000 concrete blocks.*
Labor-hours per
Nominal-size block:
1,000 blocks
thickness, height,
length, in. Mason Helper
Standard blocks
4 X 5 X 12 33-38 33-38
6 x 5 x 12 38-44 38-44
8 x 5 x 12 44-50 44-50
4x8x12 38-44 38-44
6x8x12 44-50 44-50
8x8x12 50-55 50-55
6x4x16 38-44 38-44
8 X4 X1 6 44-50 44-50
4 X8 X1 6 38-44 38-44
6x8x16 44-50 44-50
8 X8 X1 6 52-57 52-57
Lightweight blocks
4X5X12 30-35 30-35
6 x 5 x 12 35-40 35-40
8 x 5 x 12 40-45 40-45
4 X8 X1 2 35-40 35-40
6X8X12 40-45 40-45
8X8X1 2 45-50 45-50
6 x 4 X 16 35-40 35-40
8 X4 X1 6 40-45 40-45
4 x 8 x 16 35-40 35-40
6 X8X16 40-45 40-45
8x8x16 47-52 47-52
•Add the cost of a hoisting engineer if required.
Outside perimeter of wall: (120 ft + 80 ft) x 2 walls = 400 lin ft
Gross outside area:
[(120 ft x 14 ft) X 2 walls] + [(80 ft x 14 ft) x 2 walls] = 5,600 sf
D educt for four corners: [(8 in.)/(12 in./ft)] x 14 ft x 4 corners = - 3 7 sf
Deduct for doors and windows = - 5 1 6 sf
Net area = 5,047 sf
CMUs required:
From Table 15.7, num ber of concrete masonry units = 113 CMUs/100 sf
Num ber of CMUs required: 5,047 sf x (113 CMUs/100 sf) = 5,703 CMUs
Add 5% waste = + 2 8 5 CMUs
Total = 5,988 CMUs
Mortar required:
From Table 15.7 for 8-in. by 8-in. by 16-in. CMUs = 0.1? cy/100 sf
Quantity of mortar required: 5,047 sf x (0.12 cy /100 sf) = 6.1 cy
Total mortar = 7.9 cy
Material for bond beams:

Concrete: 3 rows x 400 lin ft X 0.22 cf/lin ft x (1.0 cy/27 cf) = 9.8 cy
A dd 15% waste = 1.5 cy
Total = 11.3 cy
W eight of no. 5 bars: 3 rows x 400 lin ft x 2 bars x 1.043 lb/ft = 2,503 lb
A dd for lap splicing:
3 rows X [(400 lin ft)/(20 lin ft/lap)] x 1 ft/lap x 1.043 lb/ft = 63 lb
Total = 2,566 lb
Labor installing CMUs in wall:
Table 15.8 using average values for 8-in. by 8-in, by 16-in. CMUs:
Masons installing CMUs: 5,988 CMUs x 54.5 hr/1,000 CMUs = 326 hr
Masons installing bond beams: (400 lin ft/15 lin ft/hr) x 3 rows = 80 hr
Total = 406 hr
Helpers: 5,988 CMUs x 54.5 hr/1,000 bricks = 326 hr

Helpers installing bond beams: (400 lin ft/15 lin ft/hr) x 2 rows = 53 hr
Total = 379 hr
Mixer operator assuming 3 masons: 406 hr/3 = 135 hr
Equipment required:
Time for mortar mixer assuming 3 masons: 406 hr/3 = 135 hr
Rental cost of scaffolding = $2,500
Cost of materials, labor, and equipment:

Materials:
Bricks: 5,988 CMUs @ $ 1 ,86/CMU = $11,137.68
Mortar: 7.9 cy @ $83/cy = 655.70
Reinforcing: 2,566 lb @ $0.30/lb 769.80
Concrete: 11.3 cy @ $79/cy = 892.70
Labor:
Bricklayers: 406 hr @ $20.95/hr 8,505.70
Helpers: 379 hr @ $15.56/hr 5,897.24
Mixer operator: 135 hr @ $18.67/hr = 2,520.40
Equipment:
Mortar mixer: 135 hr @ $9.50/hr = 1,282.50
Scaffolding rental = 2,500.00
Total cost = $34,161.72
Cost per CMU = $34,161.72/5,703 CMU = $5.99/CMU

Cost per square feet: $34,161.72/5,047 sf = $6.77/sf
This cost does not include lifting equipm ent if required or the indirect costs of taxes,
insurance, contingency, or profit.
STONE MASONRY
Several kinds of stone, both natural and artificial, are used in structures such as
buildings, walls, piers, etc. Natural stones used for construction include sand
stone, limestone, dolomite, slate, granite, marble, etc. Artificial limestone is
available in many areas.
Each kind of stone and work should be estimated separately. The cost of
stone in place can be estimated by the cubic yard, ton, cubic foot, square foot, or
linear foot. Because of the various methods of pricing stonework, an estimator
should be very careful to use the correct method in preparing the estimate.
BONDS FOR STONE MASONRY

Figure 15.4 illustrates the more common bonds for stone masonry. Rubble
masonry is formed of stones of irregular shapes that are laid in regular courses or
at random with mortar joints. Ashlar masonry is formed of stones cut with rec
tangular faces. The stones may be laid in courses or at random with mortar joints.
MORTAR FOR STONE MASONRY

The mortar used for setting stones may be similar to that used for brick masonry.
Sometimes special nonstaining white or stone-set cement may be specified
instead of gray Portland cement. Hydrated lime is usually added to improve the
working properties of the mortar.
The quantity of mortar required for joints will vary considerably with the
type of bond, the thickness of the joints, and the size of stones used. Table 15.9
gives representative quantities of mortar required per cubic yard of stone.
WEIGHTS OF STONE
Table 15.10 gives the ranges in weights of stones commonly used for masonry.
The given weights are expressed in pounds per net cubic foot of volume.
Coursed rubble Coursed ashlar
Random rubble Random ashlar
FIGURE 1 5 .4 I Bonds for stone masonry.
TABLE 1 5 .9 I Quantities of mortar required TABLE 1 5 .1 0 I Weights of

per cubic yard of stone masonry. building stones.
Quantity Stone Weight, Ib/cf

of mortar, Dolomite 155-175
Type of bond cf Granite 165-175
Coursed rubble 6 .5-8.5 Limestone 150-175
Random rubble 7.5-9.5 Marble 165-175
Cobblestone 6 .5-9.5 Sandstone 140-160
Coursed ashlar, |-in . joints 1 .5-2.0 Slate 160-180
Random ashlar, ^-in. joints 2.0-2.5
Coursed ashlar, g-in. joints 3.0-4.0
Random ashlar, 5 -in. joints 4.0-5.0
COST OF STONE
The cost of stone varies so much with the kind of stone, extent of cutting done
at the quarry, and location of use that no estimate that requires accurate pricing
should be made without obtaining current prices for the particular stone. The
cost of freight to the destination must be added to the cost at the source to deter
mine the cost at the job.
Stones suitable for rubble masonry may be priced by the ton for the speci
fied kind of stone and sizes of pieces.
Stones may be purchased at a quarry in large rough-cut blocks, hauled to the

job, and then cut to the desired sizes and shapes. The cost of such blocks may be
based on the volume, with the largest dimensions used in determining the vol
ume; or the cost may be based on the weight of the stone.
Stones used for ashlar masonry may be priced by the ton, cubic foot, or
square foot of wall area for a specified thickness.
LABOR SETTING STONE MASONRY

Table 15.11 gives representative values of the labor-hours required to handle
and set stone masonry. The lower rates should be used for large straight walls,
with plain surfaces, and the higher rates for walls with irregular surfaces,
pilasters, closely spaced openings, etc. The rates for hoisting will vary with the
size of stones, heights hoisted, and equipment used.
TABLE 1 5 .1 1 I Labor-hours required to handle and set stone masonry.
Labor-hours required
Per cy Per cf
Operation Skilled Helper Skilled Helper
Unloading stones from truck 0 .2 - 0 .4 0 .8 - 1.6 0 .0 1 - 0 .0 2 0.03-0.06
Rough squaring 4.0-10.0 — 0.15-0.37
Smoothing beds 6 .0 - 12.0 0.22-0.45
Setting stone by hand
Rubble 2.0-4.0 3.0-6.0 0.08-0.15 0 . 11 - 0 .2 2
Rough squared 3.0-6.0 4.0-9.0 0 . 11 - 0 .2 2 0.15-0.33
Ashlar, 4- to 6 -in. veneer 10.0-15.0 10.0-15.0 0.37-0.55 0.37-0.55
Setting stones by using a hand derrick
Heavy cut stone, ashlar, cornices,
copings, etc. 2.0-3.0 12.0-18.0 0.08-0.11 0.45-0.67
Light cut stone, ashlar, sills, lintels,
cornices, etc. 2.5-4.0 12.5-20.0 0.09-0.15 0.46-0.75
Setting stones by using a power crane
Heavy cut stone
Crane operator 1 .0 - 2 .0 — 0.04-0.08
Stone setter 1 .0 - 2 .0 — 0.04-0.08
Helpers — 7.0-14.0 — 0.26-0.52
Medium cut stone
Crane operator 1.5-3.0 — 0.06-0.11
Stone setter 1.5-3.0 — 0.06-0.11
Helpers — 9.0-18.0 — 0.33-0.67
Pointing cut stone
Heavy stone 0.5 -0 .8 0 .2 - 0 .4 0.02-0.03 0 .0 1 - 0 .0 2
Veneer, 4 to 6 in. thick 1.0-1.5 0 .2 - 0 .8 0.04-0.06 0.02-0.03
Cleaning stone
Stone setter, 1.5 hr/100 sf
Helper, 0.75 hr/100 sf
EXAMPLE 1 5 . 4
Estimate the cost per 100 sf for furnishing and setting stone in random ashlar bond
for a building. The stone will be sawed on the top and bottom beds and on the front
and back faces. It will be furnished in random lengths to be sawed to the desired
lengths at the job. The thickness will be 4 in. The stone will be set with 3-in. mortar
joints. The stone will be hoisted with a hand derrick.
The stone, w hich will w eigh 150 Ib/cf, will be delivered to the job at a cost of
$326.00/T. Allow 10 percent for waste.
The quantity of stone required for 100 sf will be
100 x 4 x 1.1_ _ 36 7 cf
12
The w eight of the stone will be 36.7 x 150/2,000 = 2.75 T
The cost will be:

Stone, f.o.b. job: 2.75 T @ $326.00/7 = $896.50
Cutting end joints: 36.7 c f @ $2.46 = 90.28
Mortar: 36.7/27 = 1.36 cy of stone,
1.36 cy x 4.5 cf/cy = 6 .1 cf @ $3.06 = 18.67
Metal wall ties: 100 sf 2 sf/tie = 50 @ $0.92 = 46.00
Stone setters, 36.7 cf:
36.7 cf X 0.12 hr/cf = 4.4 hr @ $23.50 = 103.40
Helpers, 36.7 cf:
36.7 c f x 0.6 hr/cf = 22 hr @ $15.56 = 342.32
Stone setter pointing stone, 36.7 cf:
36.7 cf X 0.05 hr/cf = 1 .8 hr @ $23.50 = 42.30
Helper pointing stone, 36.7 cf:
36.7 cf x 0.03 hr/cf = 1.1 hr @ $15.50 = 17.05
Stone setter cleaning stone, 100 sf:
100 sf X 1.5 hr/100 sf = 1.5 hr @ $23.50 = 35.25
Helper cleaning stone, 100 sf:
100 sf x 0.75 hr per 100 sf = 0.75 hr @ $15.56 = 11.67
Foreman, based on 2 stone setters: 3.9 hr @ $28.50 = 111.15
Equipment, saws, derrick, scaffolds, etc. 250.00
Cost per sf: $1,964.59/100 = $19.65
PROBLEMS
15.1 Estimate the total direct cost and cost per 1,000 bricks for construction of walls
of a rectangular building, 56 ft 6 in. wide and 108 ft 0 in. long, with brick veneer
walls 8 ft 9 in. high. The total area of openings for doors and windows will be
324 sf. The walls will be 4 in. thick, using Norman type bricks laid in running
bond with j-in. mortar joints on all sides. Wall ties will be placed every 16 in. in
the horizontal direction and every 24 in. in the vertical direction.
Material cost will be $586/1,000 bricks, $83/cy for mortar, and $4.25/100
wall ties. Labor costs include $20.95/hr for bricklayers and $15.56/hr for
helpers. The mixer for mortar will cost $9.50/hr. Scaffolding rental will be
$1,800 for the job.
15.2 Estimate the total direct cost and cost per 1,000 bricks for construction of walls
of a rectangular building, 75 ft 6 in. wide and 340 ft 0 in. long, with brick veneer
walls 10 ft high. The total area of openings for doors and windows will be 560
sf. The walls will be 4 in. thick, using Norwegian type bricks laid in common
bond with \ -in. mortar joints on all sides. A header course will be placed every
fifth course between the stretcher courses. Wall ties will be placed every 16 in.
in the horizontal direction and every 24 in. in the vertical direction.
Material cost will be $612/1,000 bricks, $83/cy for mortar, and $4.25/100
wall ties. Labor costs include $20.95/hr for bricklayers and $15.56/hr for
helpers. The mixer for mortar will cost $9.50/hr. Scaffolding rental will be
$1,800 for the job.
15.3 Estimate the total direct cost and cost per 1,000 CMUs for furnishing and laying
standard-weight concrete masonry units for a rectangular building 185 ft long,
95 ft wide, and 12 ft high. The total area of the openings will be 725 sf.
The CMUs will be 8 in. by 8 in. by 16 in. and mortar joints will be f in.
thick. Two rows of bond beams are required, reinforced with two no. 5 reinforc
ing steel bars. The manufacturer’s literature shows 0.33 cf of concrete is required
to fill each linear foot of the U-shaped CMUs that will be used for the bond
beams.
Use the unit costs for material, labor, and equipment shown in Example 15.3.
Floor Systems
This chapter describes several types of floor systems that can be used as substi
tutes for concrete-beam-and-slab, concrete slab only, or pan-and-joist concrete
floors. An examination of the cost developed for each of the floor systems and
a comparison with the cost of an all-concrete floor will reveal that reductions in
the cost frequently can be effected through the choice of the floor system.
Although these analyses are made for floor systems only, the results should
demonstrate that similar analyses for other parts of structures may also permit
the selection of methods and materials that will produce reductions in the costs.
STEEL-JOIST SYSTEM
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Open-web steel joists (Fig. 16.1) are fabricated in the shop into the form of a
Warren truss by an arc-welding process. The chord members consist of T sec
tions, angles, or bars. The web is made of a single round bar, or angle, that is
welded to the top and bottom chord members. A steel bearing seat is welded to
each end of a joist to provide proper bearing area. The bearing seats are designed
to permit the ends of the joist to rest on masonry walls or structural-steel beams.
FLOOR AND CEILING

A concrete slab 2 to 5 in. thick is usually installed on corrugated-metal decking,
which rests on the tops of the joists. Suspended ceilings are supported by wire
hangers that are attached to the bottom chords of the joists. If wood floors are to
be installed, wood nailer strips may be attached to the top chords.
347
bridging
C eiling
extension
F IG U R E 16.1 I Steel joist.
BRIDGING
Typical bridging for steel joists includes horizontal angle struts that are welded
between adjacent joists. If cross bridging is required, angle struts are fabricated
that are bolted or welded to the top chord of one joist and the bottom chord of
an adjacent joist. Two struts are installed for each line of bridging to give a
cross-bridging effect.
Cross bridging should be installed in accordance with the specifications of
the designer or the manufacturer of the joists, which will be approximately as
shown in Table 16.1. These are common bridging requirements for light joists.
Longer spans can be obtained with heavier chord sizes with the above lines of
bridging.
T A B L E 16.1 I Cross bridging for steel joists.
Span, ft
Lines of bridging K series joists LH series joists
Row near center Up to 16 Up to 22
Rows at 5 points 16-24 22-33
Rows at I points 24-28 33-44
Chapter 16 Floor Systems 349
METAL DECKING
To support the concrete floor or roof, a continuous layer of ribbed metal deck
ing is installed over the joists, with ribs perpendicular to the joists. The decking
is fastened to the top chords of the joists by welding or screw fasteners, spaced
not over 15 in. apart along the joists. Metal decking is fabricated under various
trade names by several manufacturers. It is designated by shape, size, and gauge.
Table 16.2 provides a representative example of metal decking.
T A B L E 1 6 .2 I Data for form decking.
Joist spacing, Size of rib, Weight,

in. in. Gauge Ib/sf
9
Up to 30 16 28 0.86
9
30-36 16 26 1.01
36-60 1 26 1.06
Floor decking should be lapped at least 2 in. beyond the center of support
ing joists at the end of sheets and should be securely fastened to the next sheet.
CEILING EXTENSIONS
Ceiling extensions are provided at the same elevation as the bottom chord when
a ceiling is to be attached. These extensions support the ceiling hanger wire
along the bearing wall or supporting beam.
JOIST END SUPPORTS

Each end of the joist is secured to either a load-bearing wall, or a structural beam
and column framing system. If the joist is supported by a load-bearing masonry
or concrete wall, the joist is welded to a steel bearing plate or clip angle that is
anchored in the wall. For structural beam and column framing systems, the ends
of the joist are welded directly to the beams and columns.
SIZE AND DIMENSIONS OF STEEL JOISTS

Steel joists are available in a great many sizes and lengths for varying loads and
spans. Standard open-web joists, which are designed in accordance with the
Steel Joist Institute standard specifications, are available for spans varying from
5 to 60 ft for K series joists. Spans up to 144 ft are available in the DLH series
joists. Joists can be installed with any desired spacing from 18 to 72 in. or more,
provided that the maximum safe load is not exceeded. Table 16.3 provides rep
resentative samples of steel joists.
T A B L E 1 6 .3 I Representative dimensions of joists.
A pproxim ate
Depth, Sp an length, w eig h t,
Type in. ft Ib/lin ft
K series
12K3 12 12-24 5.0
14K3 14 14-28 6.0
16K4 16 16-32 7.0
18K6 18 18-36 8.5
20K6 20 ' 20-40 9.0
22K7 22 22-44 10,0
24K8 24 24-48 11.5
26K8 26 26-52 12.0
28K9 28 28-56 13.0
30K10 30 30-60 15.0
LH series
18LH04 18 25-36 12.0
20LH06 20 25-40 15.0
24LH08 24 33-48 18.0
28LH09 28 41-56 21.0
32LH11 32 49-64 24.0
36LH12 36 57-72 25.0
44LH13 44 73-88 30.0
48LH15 48 81-96 36.0
DLH series
52DLH13 52 89-104 34.0
56DLH14 56 97-112 39.0
60DLH14 60 105-120 40.0
64DLH16 64 113-128 46.0
68DLH16 68 121-136 49.0
72DLH17 72 129-144 56.0
COST OF STEEL JOISTS

The cost of steel joists varies so much with the number and sizes of the joists,
accessories required, and location of the job that a table of costs is of little value
to an estimator. Before preparing an estimate for a particular job, the estimator
should submit the plans and specifications to a representative of a manufacturer
for a quotation. Care should be taken to include in the quotation all necessary
accessories such as bridging and extensions. The quotation should specify
whether the prices are f.o.b. the shop or the job. If the prices are f.o.b. the shop,
the estimator must add the cost of transporting the materials to the job.
LABOR ERECTING STEEL JOISTS

The labor cost of erecting steel joists and accessories is usually estimated by the
ton. To arrive at a reasonable unit price per ton, it is necessary to determine the
probable rate at which the joists will be erected. The rate will vary with the size
and length of the joists, method of supporting them, type of end connections,
type of bridging, height that they must be lifted, and complexity of the floor area.
In some locations, union regulations require that all labor erecting steel
joists must be performed by union mechanics, while in other locations helpers
are permitted to assist in the erection.
Table 16.4 gives the approximate labor-hours required to erect 1 T of steel
joists, including the installation of bridging and accessories. If helpers are not
permitted to assist the ironworkers, the time shown for helpers should be added
to that shown for the ironworkers.
T A B L E 1 6 .4 I Labor-hours required to erect 1 T of steel

joists.
hr/T
Length of span, ft Ironworker Helper*
Irregular construction, small areas
6-10 6.5 3.25
10-16 6.0 3.0
16-24 5.5 2.75
24-30 5.0 2.5
Regular construction, large areas
16-24 4.5 2.25
24-32 4.0 2.00
*For each floor above the first floor, add 1.5 helper-hours if the joists are
carried up by hand.
LABOR INSTALLING METAL DECKING

Sheets of metal decking are laid perpendicular to the joists and secured with
welds or screw fasteners. Two skilled ironworkers working together should
install 180 to 240 sf/hr of decking, depending on the complexity of the floor
area. This is equivalent to 7.5 to 11 labor-hours per 1,000 sf.
LABOR PLACING WELDED-WIRE FABRIC

Welded-wire fabric is frequently used to reinforce the concrete slab placed on
steel joists. Table 10.9 gives the properties of representative samples of welded-
wire fabric. Many sizes and weights are manufactured. An experienced worker
should place approximately 400 sf/hr of welded-wire fabric on straight-run jobs.
If cutting and fitting are necessary, the rate will be reduced. Since the fabric is
furnished in rolls containing approximately 750 sf, it may be necessary to use
mechanical equipment to hoist it to floors above the ground level.
CONCRETE FOR SLABS

The subject of mixing and placing concrete for the rough floor has been dis
cussed in Chapter 10. Since the information given in Chapter 10 was developed
primarily for floors having a greater thickness than is generally used with floors
supported by steel joists, the amounts of labor required to haul, spread, and
screed the concrete for joist-supported floors should be increased to provide for
the additional time needed. An increase of approximately 25 percent for the
operations affected should be adequate.
EXAMPLE 1 6 .1
Estimate the total direct cost of steel joists, metal decking, and a 2 J-in.-thick light
w eight concrete slab for a floor area 48 ft w ide and 72 ft long. The floor will be
divided into four bays, each 18 ft wide and 48 ft long as shown in Fig. 16.2. The floor
is one story above the ground level.
■Joists @ 2 ft on centers
Bridging
__ " 4 g - T — jL i - T i = j
:= = c zze ==;
iz z tz z tz z : iz z iz z iz z
: z z |z z ? z z :
iz z iz z z iiz z :
iz ^ fc z z c z z : ir z iz z iz z : 48 ft
i z z i — iz z :
:z z ± z z jz z :
:zz+ zz+ zz:
:— + — + — :
-----1----- j------ — +— +—
) ■"■■■■ r i 5---- i----- = — H S----T ~ ~ T i5— = — = — H
18ft- 18 ft- 18 ft- -*++ 18 ft-
72 ft
FIG U R E 1 6 .2 I Plan view of steel joist floor system.
The steel joist will be type 16K4, 18 ft long, spaced 2 ft on centers, with two rows
of bridging per joist. The joist will be w elded to the supporting steel mem bers by two
1 -in.-long w elds at each end of each joist.
The joists will be covered with ^ -in . 28-gauge corrugated-m etal decking w eigh
ing 0.86 psf. The decking will be fastened to the joist with g-in. welds spaced not
over 15 in. apart.
C hapter 16 Floor Systems 353
The concrete will be reinforced with a 6 x 6-10/10 welded-w ire fabric. The top
surface of the concrete will be screeded to the required thickness, but will not be fin
ished under this estimate.
Floor area: 48 ft X 72 ft = 3,456 sf
Concrete:
C ubic feetof concrete: 3,456 sf X [2.5 in./(12 in./ft)] = 720 cf
C ubic yards of concrete: 720 cf/(27 cf/cy) = 26.7 cy
A dd 10% waste, 10% x 26.7 cy = 2.7 cy
Total = 29.4 cy
Reinforcing steel:
Square feet of welded-w ire fabric = 3,456 sf
A dd 5% waste, 5% X 3,456 sf = 173 sf
Total area = 3,629 sf
Metal decking:
W eight of decking: 3,456 sf x 0.86 Ib/sf = 2,972 lb
A dd 2% waste, 2% X 2,972 lb = 59 lb
Joists:
Number of joists per bay: 48 ft/2 ft/joist - 2 = 22 joists/bay
Total num ber of joists: 22 joists/bay x 4 bays = 88 joists total
Total linear feet of joists: 88 joists x 18 ft/joist = 1,584 lin ft
W eight of 16K4 joists: 88 joists x 18 ft @ 7 lb/ft = 11,088 lb
Converting to tons: 11,088 lb/(2,000 Ib/T) = 5.5 T
Bridging:
Linear feet of struts: 48 ft/row x 2 rows/bay x 4 bays = 384 lin ft
Cost of labor and materials:

Joists and bridging:
Joists delivered to job, 18 ft long: 88 joists @ $64.26 each = $5,654.88
B ridging delivered to job, 2 ft long: 384 struts @ $0.72 = 276.48
Ironworkers: 5.5 T x 4.5 hr/T = 24.8 hr @ $20.97/hr = 520.06
Laborers: 5.5 T x 2.25 hr/T = 12.4 hr @ $15.56/hr = 192.94
Small truck-m ounted crane: 24.8 hr @ $48.50/hr = 1,202.80
Crane operator: 24.8 hr @ $21.67/hr = 537.42
Portable w elding machine: 24.8 hr @ $5.75/hr = 142.60
Electrodes: 5 lb @ $0.65 = 3.25
Welder: 24.8 hr @ $20.97/hr = 520.06

Foreman: 24.8 hr @ $28.00/hr = 694.40
Total for joists = $9,744.89
Joist cost per linear foot, $9,744.89/1,584 lin ft = $6.15/lin ft
Metal decking:
Metal decking: 3,031 lb @ $0.32/lb = $969.92
Ironworkers: 3,456 sf X (9 hr/1,000 sf) = 31.1 hr @ $20.97/hr = 652.17
Small truck-m ounted crane: 31.1 hr @ $48.50/hr = 1,510.35
Portable w elding machine: 31.1 hr @ $5.75/hr = 178.83
Electrodes: 12 lb @ $0.57 = 6.84
Welder: 31.1 hr @ $20.97/hr = 652.17
Total for decking = $4,644.22
Decking cost per square foot: $4,644.22/3,456 sf = $ 1 ,34/sf
Reinforcing Steel:
W elded-wire fabric: 3,629 sf @ $7.10/100 sf = $257.66
Tie wire: 4 lb @ $0.98/lb = 3.92
Ironworkers: 3,629 sf X 1.0 hr/400 sf = 9.1 hr @ $20.97/hr = 190.83
Small truck-m ounted crane: 9.1 hr @ $48.50/hr = 441.35
Total for w elded-w ire fabric = $1,093.69
Reinforcing steel per square foot: $490.15/3,456 sf = $0.32/sf
C oncrete slab:
Concrete: ready-mix delivered to job, 29.4 cy @ $75/cy = $2,205.00
Concrete pum p truck and operator: 1 day @ $975/day = 975.00
Total for concrete = $3,677.92
Concrete cost per cu b ic yard: $3,677.92/26.7 cy = $137.75/cy
Summary of costs:
Joists = $9,744.89
Metal decking = 4,644.20
Reinforcing steel = 1,093.69
Concrete = 3,677.75
Total cost = $19,160.53
Cost per square foot in place: $19,160.53/3,456 sf = $5.54/sf

COMBINED CORRUGATED-STEEL FORMS AND

REINFORCEMENT FOR FLOOR SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
A complete floor system that is suitable for floors supporting light to heavy
loads is constructed with a deep corrugated-steel combined form and reinforcing
unit and concrete. The steel sheets used in constructing this system are sold
under the various manufacturers’ trade names. The corrugated sheets are fabri
cated from high-strength steel, varying in thickness from 16 to 2 2 gauge with
lengths up to 40 ft. The deep corrugated-steel sheets serve as longitudinal rein
forcing for positive bending moments. Embossments on the vertical ribs transfer
positive shear from the concrete to the steel. Welded-wire fabric is installed in
the slab for temperature and shrinkage crack control. Conventional reinforced-
concrete design procedures are followed for simple and continuous spans.
Table 16.5 provides an illustrative example of data for corrugated sheets
used for this type of floor system. The quantities of concrete, in cubic yards per
square foot of floor area for various thicknesses of floor slab, will vary depend
ing on the manufacturer. The thickness of slab shown in Table 16.5 is measured
from the top of the slab to the bottom of the corrugation.
T A B L E 1 6 .5 I Data for corrugated sheets.
Cover, Form depth, Slab depth, Volume of concrete,

Gauge in. in. in. cf/sf
22 36 1.5 3.5 0.210
22 36 2.0 4.0 0.253
20 36 2.0 4.5 0.294
20 24 2.0 5.0 0.336
20 24 3.0 5.5 0.333
20 24 3.0 6.0 0.375
Source: Vulcraft Division of Nucor Corporation.
INSTALLING CORRUGATED SHEETS

The sheets are equally suited to concrete or steel-frame construction. They should
be fastened to the supports by welds, screws, bolts, or other means. Conventional
negative reinforcing steel is installed over the supports. Conduit for electric wires
is laid on the sheets with openings made through them. Provisions for large open
ings, such as for stairs, should be prefabricated by the manufacturer.
To avoid excessive form stresses and deflection while supporting the wet
concrete between permanent supporting members, one or two lines of tempo
rary supports should be installed until the concrete has gained strength. The
spacing of the temporary supports should conform to the recommendations of
the manufacturer.
LABOR INSTALLING CORRUGATED SHEETS

The labor required to install corrugated sheets will vary somewhat with the sizes
and weights of the sheets, types of supports, and complexity of the floor. Based
on a floor with 18-ft 0-in. by 24-ft 0-in. bays, with supporting steel beams spaced
8 ft 0 in. apart, requiring 22-gauge 1.25-in.-deep corrugations, the rates of plac
ing should be about as follows:
Labor-hours
Operation per 1,000 sf
Sorting and arranging sheets 2.5
Laying and fastening decking 5.0
Installing welded-wire fabric 3.0
Installing negative reinforcing bars 8.0
Installing and removing temporary supports 11.0
Estimate the total direct cost and cost per square foot for materials and labor for a
bay 18 ft w ide and 24 ft long using corrugated forms and reinforcement and a con
crete slab.
The corrugated sheets will be 22 gauge with 1.5-in.-deep corrugations, with 6
x 6-10/10 welded-w ire fabric for shrinkage steel. The perm anent supporting mem
bers will be steel beams, spaced at 8 ft on centers, parallel to the 18-ft side of the
bay, as shown in Fig. 16.3.
F IG U R E 1 6 .3 I Plan view of floor system.

The concrete will have a maximum depth of 3.5 in. Negative reinforcing,
installed over each perm anent beam, will consist of no. 4 bars, 4 ft long, spaced at
6 in. on centers.
Tem porary intermediate support for the corrugated sheets will consist of one 2
x 8 w ood stringer and adjustable shores, spaced 4 ft 6 in. apart. The stringers will
be installed parallel with the 18-ft sides of the bay.
Floor area: 18 ft x 24 ft = 432 sf
Corrugated sheets:
Square feet of surface area = 432.0 sf
A dd 1% waste, 432 sf x 1 % = 4.3 sf
Total = 436.3 sf
Reinforcing steel:
Negative steel: [18 ft/(0.5 ft/bar) + 1 ] x 2 rows = 74 pieces 4 ft long
W eight of negative rebar: 74 pieces x 4 ft x 0.668 lb/ft= 197.8 lb
Square feet of negative reinforcing: 18 ft x 4 ft x 2 rows = 144 sf
W elded-wire fabric: 432 sf + 5% waste = 454 sf
Concrete:
From Table 16.5, volume of concrete = 0.210 cf/sf x 432 sf = 90.7 cf
Converting to cu b ic yards of concrete: 90.7 cf/(27 cf/cy) = 3.4 cy
A dd 10% waste: 10% X 3.4 cy = 0.3 cy
Total = 3.7 cy
Labor installing materials:

Sorting and arranging sheets: 432 sf x 7.5 hr/1,000 sf = 3.2 hr
Steel setters installing welded-w ire fabric: 454 sf x 3.0 hr/1,000 sf = 1.4 hr
Ironworker placing no. 4 negative rebar: 144 sf x 8 hr/1,000 sf = 1.2 hr
C oncrete workers placing concrete: 3.7 cy/(10 cy/hr) = 0.4 hr
Installing and removing tem porary supports:
432 sf X 11 hr/1,000 sf 4.8 hr
Total = 11.0 hr
Cost of material, labor, and equipment:

Materials:
C orrugated sheets: 436.3 sf @ $0.94/sf = $410.12
W elded-wire fabric: 454 sf @ $0.07/sf = 31.78
No. 4 negative steel: 197.8 lb @ $0.32/lb = 63.30
Highchairs, tie wire: 432 sf @ $0.19/sf = 82.08
Concrete: 3.7 cy @ $75.00/cy = 277.50
Total material cost = $864.78
Labor:
Sorting and arranging sheets: 3.2 hr @ $15.56/hr = $49.79
Steel setters installing welded-w ire fabric: 1.4 hr @ $20.67/hr = 28.94
Ironworker placing no. 4 negative rebar: 1.2 hr @ $20.67/hr = 24.80
Laborers placing concrete: 6 laborers 0.4 hr @ $15.56/hr = 37.34
Laborers installing/removing supports: 4.8 hr @ $15.56/hr = 74.69
Foreman: 11.0 hr @ $28.00/hr = 308.00
Total labor cost = $761.93
Equipment:
Small hydraulic crane: 11.0 hr @ $48.50/hr = $533.50
Concrete pum p truck: 1/2 day @ $950/day = 475.00
Total equipm ent cost = $1,008.50
Summary of costs:
Materials = $864.78
Labor = 761.93
Cost per square foot in place, $2,635.21/432 sf = $ 6 .10/sf

Floor Finishes
Many types of finishes are applied to floors. Several of the more popular types
will be discussed in this chapter.
CONCRETE-FLOOR FINISHES
In Chapter 16 the methods of estimating the cost of materials, equipment, and

labor for concrete subfloors were discussed. The costs included all operations
through the screeding of the rough concrete floors but did not include finishing
the floors. These costs will be discussed in this chapter.
For most concrete floors, it is necessary to add other materials to the top of
the subfloors to produce finished floors of the desired types. The types of fin
ishes most commonly used are monolithic topping and separate topping, to
either of which may be added coloring pigments or hardening compounds.
MONOLITHIC TOPPING
One of the best and most economical finishes for concrete floors is monolithic
topping. After the concrete for the floor has been screeded to the desired level
and has set sufficiently, it is floated with a wood float or a power-floating
machine until all visible water disappears. Then the surface of the concrete is
dusted with dry cement or a mixture of cement and sand, in approximately equal
quantities. After the concrete or mixture is applied to the floor, it is lightly
floated with a wood float and then finished with a steel trowel.
Materials Required for a Monolithic Topping

The thickness of the monolithic topping may vary from ^ to f in. For finishes
less than ^ in. thick, only cement should be used, while for finishes thicker than
359
js in., fine sand may be added to the cement. Table 17.1 gives the quantities of
materials required for finishing 1 0 0 sf of concrete floor by using various pro
portions and thicknesses.
T A B L E 17.1 I Quantities of materials for 100 sf of monolithic

topping.
Proportion
Thickness, Cement, '.'Send,
in. Cement Sand sacks cf
1
64 1 0 0.125 0
1
32 1 0 0.25 0
1
16 1 1 0.25 0.25
1
8 1 1 0.50 0.50
Labor Finishing Concrete Floors Using Monolithic Topping

In estimating the amount of labor required to finish a concrete floor, the estima
tor must consider several factors that can affect the total time required. After the
concrete is placed and screeded, the finishers must wait until the concrete is
ready for finishing. The length of wait may vary from as little as 1 hr under
favorable conditions to as much as 6 hr under unfavorable conditions. The fac
tors that affect the time are the amount of excess water in the concrete, the tem
perature of the concrete, and the temperature of the atmosphere. If the concrete
is free of excess water and the weather is warm, finishing may be started soon
after the concrete is placed. If the concrete contains excess water and the weather
is cold and damp, finishing may be delayed several hours.
If concrete-placing operations are stopped at the normal end of a day, the
concrete finishers may have to work well into the night to finish the job. This
requires payment of overtime wages at prevailing rates.
Table 17.2 gives the labor-hours required to finish 100 sf of monolithic con
crete floor under various conditions.
T A B L E 1 7 .2 I Labor-hours required to finish 100 sf of monolithic

concrete floor.
Conditions
Classification Favorable Average Unfavorable
Cement finisher 0.75 1.25 1.75
Helper 0.75 1.25 1.75
SEPARATE CONCRETE TOPPING

A separate concrete topping may be applied immediately after the subfloor is
placed, or it may be applied several days or weeks later. The latter method is not
C hapter 17 Floor Finishes 361
considered as satisfactory as the first. The surface of the subfloor should be left
rough to ensure a bond with the topping. The topping may vary from \ to 1 in.
thick. Concrete for the topping is usually mixed in the proportions 1 part cement,
1 part fine aggregate, and I 5 to 2 parts coarse aggregate, up to f-in. maximum
size, with about 5 gal of water per sack of cement.

After the concrete topping has set sufficiently, it is floated with a wood float
and finished with a steel trowel. It may be desirable to dust the surface with
cement during the finishing operation.
Materials Required for a Separate Topping

The quantities of materials required for a separate topping will vary with the thick
ness of the topping and the proportions of the mix. Table 17.3 gives quantities of
materials required for 1 0 0 sf of floor with various thicknesses and proportions.
T A B L E 1 7 .3 I Quantities of materials for 100 sf of separate topping.
Proportions by volume Cement, Sand, Gravel,

Thickness,
in. Cement Sand Gravel sacks cy cy
1 0.07 0.10
2 1 1 11 1.75
1 1 2 1.62 0.06 0.12
1 ^ 3 1.18 0.07 0.13
3 0.10 0.15
4 1 1 12 2.62
1 1 2 2.42 0.09 0.18
1 ij 3 1.70 0.10 0.18
1 1 1 ii 3.50 0.13 0.20
1 1 2 3.24 0.12 0.23
1 ij 3 2.27 0.13 0.25
Labor Mixing, Placing, and Finishing Separate Topping

The concrete for a separate topping should be mixed with a small concrete
mixer. A finisher and a helper finishing 80 sf/hr will require 0.25 cy/hr of top
ping for a l-in.-thick layer. A crew of three finishers and three helpers should
finish 240 sf/hr under average conditions. This will require 0.75 cy/hr of l-in.-
thick topping. A concrete mixer with three laborers can mix and place the top
ping. If the topping is placed above the ground floor, a hoisting engineer will be
needed on a part-time basis.
Table 17.4 gives approximate labor-hours required to mix, place, and finish
1 0 0 sf of topping under average conditions.
LABOR FINISHING CONCRETE FLOORS

WITH A POWER MACHINE
Gasoline-engine- or electric-motor-driven power machines can be used to float
and finish concrete floors. One manufacturer, the Whiteman Manufacturing
T A B L E 1 7 .4 I Labor-hours required to mix, place, and finish 100 sf of separate

topping.
Labor-hours*
Thickness, Finishers
in. per crew Finisher Helper Laborer Foreman
1
2 1 1.25 1.25 1.25 0
2 1.25 1.25 1.25 0.63
3 1.25 1.25 0.80 0.42
3
4 1 1.25 1.25 1.25 0
2 1.25 1.25 1,25 0.63
3 1.25 1.25 0.80 0.42
1 1 1.25 1.25 1.25 0
2 1.25 1.25 1.25 0.63
3 1.25 1.25 1.25 0.42
4 1.25 1.25 1.00 0.31
*Add time for a hoisting engineer if one is required.
Company, makes two sizes, 46- and 35-in. ring diameter. Each machine is sup
plied with three trowels, one set for floating and one for finishing the surface.
The trowels are easily interchanged. The machines rotate at 75 to 100 rpm.
On an average job the 46-in.-diameter machine should cover 3,000 to 4,000
sf/hr one time over, including time for delays. The 35-in.-diameter machine
should cover 2,400 to 3,000 sf/hr. For most jobs it is necessary to go over the
surface three to four times during the floating and the same during the finishing
operation.
In operating a power machine, a crew of two to three will be required—one
operator and one or two finishers—to hand-finish inaccessible areas.
Table 17.5 gives approximate labor-hours required to finish 100 sf of sur
face area, based on going over the surface four times during each operation.
T A B L E 1 7 .5 I Approximate labor-hours required to

finish 100 sf of surface area with power finishers.
Operation M achine operator Finisher

46-in.-diam eter m ach in e, 7 5 0 sf/hr
Floating 0.133 0.266
Finishing 0.133 0.266
Total time 0.266 0.532
35-in.-diam eter m ach in e, 6 0 0 sf/hr

Floating 0.167 0.333
Finishing 0.167 0.333
Total time 0.334 0.'666
Chapter 17 Floor Finishes 363
Estimate the cost of materials and labor required to hand-finish 5,000 sf of floor area
with a 35-in.-thick monolithic topping. Assume that the weather will be clear, with an
average tem perature of 70°F, which is an average condition. The placing of the con
crete will start at 8:00 a.m. and will be com pleted at 4:00 p.m. One cem ent finisher
will report at 8:00 a.m. to direct the screeding of the slab, and the rest of the finish
ers will report at 9:00 a.m. and will remain on the job until the finishing is com pleted.
Assume that the finishing will be com pleted around 7:00 p.m. It will be necessary to
pay overtime wages to the finishers and helpers, at 1 | times the regular wage rates,
for all time in excess of 8 hr.
The number of finishers may be determ ined as
From Table 17.2 for average conditions = 1.25 labor-hours/100 sf
Total no. of labor-hours required: x 1.25 = 62.5
Time required t o finish jo b: 9:00 a.m . t o 7:00 p.m. = 10 hr

Num ber of finishers required: 62.5 hr/10 hr = 6.25
Use 6 finishers, which may cause a delay in time of com pletion until about
7:30 p.m.
The cost will be:

Cement:
5,000 sf X 0.25 sacks per 100 sf = 12.5 sacks @ $7.85 = $98.13
Cement finishers:
Regular time: 6 X 8 hr = 48 hr @ $20.07 = 963.36
Overtime: 62.5 - 48 = 14.5 hr @ ($20.07 x 1.5) = 436.52
Helpers:
Regular time: 6 x 8 hr = 48 hr @ $15.56 746.88
Overtime: 62.5 - 48 = 14.5 hr @ ($15.56 x 1.5) 338.43
Add cost of foreman after 4:00 p.m. only
Overtime rates = 3.5 hr @ ($28.00 X 1.5) = 147.00
Cost per sf: $2,730.32/5,000 sf $0.55/sf
TERRAZZO FLOORS
A terrazzo floor is obtained by applying a mixture of marble chips or granules,
Portland cement, and water laid on an existing concrete or wood floor. White
cement is frequently used. The thickness of the terrazzo topping usually varies
from 5 to | in. Several methods are used to install the topping on an existing floor.
TERRAZZO TOPPING BONDED TO A

CONCRETE FLOOR
If terrazzo is to be placed on and bonded to a concrete floor, the concrete sur
face should be cleaned and moistened. Then a layer of underbed not less than
lîn. thick—made by mixing one part Portland cement, four parts sand, by vol
ume, and enough water to produce a stiff mortar—is spread uniformly over the
concrete surface.
While the underbed is still plastic, brass or other metal strips are installed in
the mortar to produce squares having the specified dimensions.
The terrazzo topping is made by dry-mixing about 200 lb of granulated
marble and 100 lb of cement, or in other proportions as specified. Water is added
to produce a reasonably plastic mix. This mix is placed on the underbed inside
the metal strips, after which it is rolled to increase the density, then hand-troweled
to bring the top surface flush with the tops of the metal strips.
After the surface has hardened sufficiently, it is rubbed with a machine-
powered coarse carborundum stone. The surface is then covered with a thin layer
of grout made with white cement. At the time of final cleaning, this coating of
grout can be removed with a machine-powered fine-grain carborundum stone.
TERRAZZO PLACED ON A WOOD FLOOR

When terrazzo is placed on a wood floor, it is common practice to cover the floor
with roofing felt and galvanized wire netting, such as no. 14 gauge 2-in. mesh,
which is nailed to the floor. A concrete underbed not less than \ \ in. thick, as
described earlier, is installed to a uniform depth over the floor. Metal strips and
terrazzo topping are installed and finished, as described previously.
LABOR REQUIRED TO PLACE

TERRAZZO FLOORS
The labor rates required to place terrazzo floors will vary considerably with the
sizes of the areas placed. The rates for large areas will be less than those for
small areas. If terrazzo bases are required, additional labor should be allowed for
placing and finishing the bases.
Table 17.6 gives representative labor-hours for the several operations
required in placing terrazzo floors. Use the lower rates for large areas and the
higher rates for small areas.
TABLE 17.6 I Labor-hours required to place terrazzo floors.
Operation Labor-hours
Cleaning concrete floor, per 100 sf 0.75-1.25
Placing roofing felt on wood floors, per 100 sf 0.3-0.5
Placing netting on wood floor, per 100 sf 0.5-0.7
Mixing and placing 1^-in.-thick underbed, per 100 sf:
Mechanic 1.0-1.5
Helper 2.5-3.5
Mixing and placing f-in.-thick terrazzo topping and metal strips, per 100 sf:*
Mechanic 2.0-3.0
Helper 2.5-3.0
Finishing terrazzo topping, per 100 sf 7.0-8.0
Mixing and placing 100 lin ft of 6-in. terrazzo cove base:
Mechanic 14.0-18.0
Helper 14.0-18.0
Finishing 100 lin ft of 6-in. terrazzo cove base 8.0-10.0
'These rates are for metal strips placed to form 5-ft 0-in, squares. For other size squares, apply the following
factors: 4 ft 0 in., 1.10; 3 ft 0 in., 1.20; 2 ft 0 in., 1.30.
E X A M P L E 1 7 .2
Estimate the cost of 100 sf of terrazzo floor placed on a concrete slab, with a l]- in .-
concrete underbed, f-in .-th ic k terrazzo topping, and brass strips to form 4-ft 0-in.
squares. Use white cem ent for the topping.
The quantities will be:

Underbed: 100 X 1.25/12 = 10.4 cf
Topping: 100 X 0.75/12 = 6.25 cf
The cost will be:

Sand, including waste: 12 cf @ $0.57 = $6.84
Gray cement: 3 sacks @ $5.90 = 17.70
Marble: 625 lb @ $0.23 = 143.75
White cement, including grout: 3.5 sacks @ $16.20 = 56.70
Brass strips, including waste: 60 lin ft @ $1.75 = 105.00
Labor cleaning concrete floor: 1 hr @ $15.56 = 15.56
M echanic placing underbed: 1.25 hr @ $21.67 = 27.09
Helper placing underbed: 3.0 hr @ $15.56 = 46.68
M echanic placing topping and strips: 2.75 hr @ $21.67 = 59.59
Helper placing topping and strips: 3.0 hr @ $15.56 = 46.68
Helper finishing terrazzo topping: 7 hr @ $15.56 = 108.92
Finisher and sundry equipm ent: 7 hr @ $12.50 = 87.50
Total cost sf, $722.01/100 sf = $7.22/sf
VINYL TILE
Vinyl tiles are available in sizes 6 by 6 in., 9 by 9 in., and 12 by 12 in., and in
thicknesses of ^ and | in. The cost of tile will vary with the thickness, color, and
quality.
When the quantity of tile required for a given floor area is estimated, an
allowance should be included for waste due to cutting at the edges of the floor
and to irregularities in the locations of the walls around the floor. Wastage may
amount to 2 to 15 percent of the net area of a floor.
LAYING VINYL TILE ON A

CONCRETE FLOOR
Before tile is laid, the floor should be cleaned, after which a primer may be
applied at a rate of 200 to 300 sf/gal. An adhesive cement is then applied at a
rate of approximately 2 0 0 sf/gal; then the tiles are laid and rolled with a smooth-
wheel roller.
LAYING VINYL TILE ON A WOOD FLOOR

Prior to the laying of the tile, the floor should be finished with a sanding machine
or by some other approved method. A layer of felt is bonded to the floor with a
linoleum paste, applied at a rate of approximately 150 sf/gal, and rolled thor
oughly. Then an adhesive cement or emulsion is applied at a rate of approxi
mately 150 sf/gal. The tiles are then laid and rolled.
LABOR LAYING VINYL TILE

The labor required to lay vinyl tile will vary considerably with the size and shape
of the floor covered. If specified color patterns are required, the amount of labor
will be greater than that for single colors. Table 17.7 gives representative labor-
hours for the operations required in laying vinyl tile.
T A B L E 1 7 .7 i Labor-hours required to lay 100 sf of

vinyl tile.
Type of floor Size tile, in. Labor-hours

Concrete 12 x 12 1.5-2.0
9X9 2 .0 - 2.5
6X6 2.8-3.3
Wood 12 x 12 1. 8 - 2.2
9X9 2,3-2.8
6 X 6 2.0-3.5
EXAMPLE 1 7 . 3
Estimate the cost of materials and labor required to lay 100 sf of vinyl tile § in. thick,
using 1 2 - x 1 2 -in. squares, on a concrete floor.
The cost will be:
Prime coat: 0.5 gal @ $8.70 $4.35

Adhesive cement: 0.5 gal @ $14.10 = 7.05
Tile, including waste: 105 sf @ $3.75 = 393.75
Tile setter, 1.8 hr @ $21.07 37.93
Cost per sf, $443.08/100 sf = $4.43/sf
PROBLEMS
17.1 A concrete slab for the second-story floor of a building will be 58 ft 6 in. wide,
136 ft 0 in. long, and 6 in. thick. The concrete will be delivered at a rate of 15
cy/hr, starting at 7:00 a .m ., and continued until all concrete has been placed.
The slab will be finished with a monolithic topping ^ in. thick, using hand
finishers.
The finishers will report at 9:00 a .m . and will remain until the job is
finished, estimated to be 3 hr after the last concrete is placed. Overtime wages
must be paid at l j times the regular wage rates for all time in excess of 8 hr. The
cost of a foreman will be charged to finishing for only the time after the last
concrete is placed in the slab.
Assume average working conditions.
Estimate the total cost and the cost per square foot for the materials and the
labor for the topping. Assume that the unit costs for materials and labor will be
the same as those used in Example 17.1.
17.2 Estimate the cost of finishing the floor in Prob. 17.1 using one or more, as
needed, 35-in.-diameter gasoline-engine-powered floor trowels. Use the costs
from Prob. 17.1 in preparing your estimate.
17.3 Estimate the total direct cost and the cost per square foot for furnishing the
materials and labor required for a 4,480 sf terrazzo floor placed on a concrete
slab, with a 1j-in.-thick underbed, f-in.-thick terrazzo topping, and brass strips
to form 4-ft 0-in. squares. Use gray cement and marble chips for the topping.
The floor consists of large rooms and corridors at approximately
ground level.
Use the unit costs for materials and labor from Example 17.2.
17.4 Estimate the total direct cost and the cost per square foot for furnishing and
laying ^-in.-thick vinyl tile, size 12- by 12-in. squares, on a concrete floor whose
area is 2,360 sf.
Use the unit costs for materials and labor from Example 17.3.
Glass and Glazing
It is common practice to furnish wood sash with the glass already installed by
the manufacturer. Steel and aluminum sash may be furnished with the glass
installed for use in residences, but when such sash are furnished for industrial
and commercial buildings, it is common practice to install the glass after the
sash are set in the walls, usually just before completing a building, to reduce the
danger of breakage.
The installation of glass is called glazing, and the individuals who install it
are glaziers.
An estimate covering the cost of furnishing and installing glass should
include a detailed list of the quantity for each size, kind, and grade of glass
required and for each the cost of the glass, putty, and glaziers.
GLASS
There are many kinds and grades of glass, not all of which will be covered in
this book. Glass used for glazing purposes is called window glass, and it can be
divided into sheet glass and plate glass.
Sheet glass. The thicknesses of ordinary window glass are single
strength and double-strength.
Plate glass. Plate glass used for glazing purposes is available in two
grades: second silvering and glazing quality.
Figured sheet glass. Many kinds of figured sheet glass are available,
with various patterns or figures rolled or otherwise produced on them.
The thicknesses and weights of clear sheet glass are given in Table 18.1.
Window glass is designated by size and grade, such as 20- by 36-in. B
double-strength. The first number represents the width and the second number
the height of the sheet.
Glass is sold by the square foot in sheets whose dimensions vary in steps
of 2 in. Fractional dimensions are figured for the next standard dimensions.
C hapter 18 Glass and Glazing 369
T A B L E 18.1 I Thicknesses and weights of clear sheet glass.
Thickness, in. Average weight

Designation Min. Max. oz/sl ib/sf
Single-strength 0.085 0.100 18.5 1.16
Double-strength 0.115 0.133 24.5 1.53
4 1". 0.182 0.205 39.0 2.44
s in . 0.205 0.230 45.5 2.85
1 in. 0.240 0.255 52.0 3.25
1 in. 0.312 0.437 78.0 4.87
\ in. 0.438 0.556 104.0 6.50
Thus a sheet whose actual size is 17§ by 14§ in. is classified for cost purposes
as 18 by 16 in.
Costs and certain operations related to glass are frequently based on the united
inches of a sheet of glass, which is the sum of the width and height of a sheet.
GLASS FOR STEEL AND ALUMINUM SASH

Steel and aluminum sash are manufactured in standard units that require glass
having designated sizes. Each pane of glass in a sash is called a light. Thus a sash
that requires 3 lights for width and 4 lights for height is called a 12-light sash.
The net cost of glass is obtained by applying applicable discounts to a
schedule of semipermanent list prices. The list price may remain constant for
several years, but the discounts may change frequently and may vary with the
quality and quantity of glass purchased and the location of the purchase.
PUTTY REQUIRED TO GLAZE STEEL AND

ALUMINUM SASH
Putty and glazing compounds are used to glaze glass in steel and aluminum sash.
The compound must be used with aluminum sash and is frequently used with
steel sash.
Before a glass is installed in a metal sash, a quantity of putty or glazing com
pound should be spread uniformly against the metal of the rabbet to hold the
glass away from the metal. After the glass is installed, additional putty is applied
to complete the glazing. A pound of putty or compound will glaze about 5 lin ft
of rabbet for steel and aluminum sash and about 8 lin ft for wood sash.
LABOR REQUIRED TO INSTALL GLASS

Table 18.2 gives the labor-hours required to glaze windows during warm
weather when the glazing is done from inside the building.
If glazing is done during cold weather, the putty or glazing compound will
be more difficult to work, which will require about 25 percent more labor time
T A B L E 1 8 .2 I Labor-hours required to glaze 100 window lights.
Size of Labor- Size of Labor-

glass, in. Putty, lb hours glass, in. Putty, lb hours
Set window or plate glass using wood stops
12 x 14 — 18 3 0 X 36 — 46
14 x 20 — 24 36 x 42 — 54
2 0 X 28 — 36 4 0 x 48 — 62
Set glass in wood sash using putty

12 x 14 54 12 3 0 x 36 138 25
14 x 20 72 15 3 6 X 42 162 32
20 X 28 100 20 40 X 48 184 40
Set glass in steel or aluminum sash

2 4 x 10 114 18 18 x 14 107 17
3 0 X 10 136 24 2 4 X 14 127 20
3 8 x 10 160 29 3 0 x 14 147 24
3 8 x 14 173 30
9 X 12 70 16
16 X 12 94 18 18 x 16 114 18
18 X 12 100 19 2 0 X 16 120 19
2 4 x 12 120 20 2 2 X 16 127 20
3 0 X 12 140 23 3 2 x 16 160 29
3 8 x 12 167 28 3 8 x 16 180 32
4 2 X 12 1 80 32 4 6 X 16 204 42
than when glazing is done during warm weather. If glazing is done from the out
side of a building, it will require about 2 0 percent more time than when it is done
from inside a building.
E X A M P L E 1 8 .1
Estimate the direct cost of double-strength glass, glazing com pound, and labor
required to glaze 240 lights in aluminum sash. The actual sizes of the lights will be
15§ by 31 § in. This will require lights whose standard sizes are 16 by 32 in. which
will require two cuttings per light.
The costs will be
Number of boxes of glass, 240/14 = 17.1

A dd for possible breakage = 0.9
Total number of boxes = 18.0
Glass, 240 lights @ $6.25 = $1,500.00

Cutting glass to size, 18 boxes @ $12.74 229.32
Glazing com pound, 240 x 160/100 = 384 lb @ $2.50 960.00
Glazier, 240 x 29/100 = 69.6 hr @ $20.67 = 1,438.63
Chapter 18 Glass and Glazing 3 71
PROBLEMS
18.1 Estimate the direct cost for furnishing and installing double-strength glass in 160
aluminum sash. Each sash will require two sheets of glass size 15 j by 31§ in.
Use glazing compound to set the glass. The installation will be done from out
side the building in good weather.
18.2 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing the glass of Prob. 18.1 when the
glazing is done from the inside of the building during cold weather.
18.3 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing 56 plate-glass lights 36 by 42 in. in
wood frames using wood stops. The glass, which is | in. thick, will cost $4.75/sf.
18.4 Estimate the total cost of furnishing and installing 280 single-strength l l | - by
231-in. lights in aluminum sash, using glazing compound. The glazing will be
done from inside the building during the summer. Use the material prices given
in this book.
18.5 Estimate the total direct cost for furnishing and installing double-strength glass
in 96 aluminum sash. Each sash will require two sheets of glass 151 by 231 in.
Use glazing compound to set the glass. The installation will be done from out
side the building during the summer.
18.6 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing 76 plate-glass lights in 30- by 36-
in. aluminum sash. The glass, which is \ in. thick, will cost $4.35/sf.
18.7 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing 196 double-strength 1 5 |- by 171-
in. lights in steel sash, using glazing compound. The glazing will be done from
outside the building during the summer.
Painting
Painting is the covering of surfaces of wood, plaster, masonry, metal, and other
materials with a compound for protection or for the improvement of the appear
ance of the surface painted. Many kinds of paint are used, some of which will be
described briefly.
Since various practices are used in determining the area of the surfaces to be
painted, it is desirable to state what methods are used. Some estimators make no
deductions for the areas of openings except those that are quite large, whereas
other estimators deduct all areas that are not painted. The latter method seems to
be more accurate. Practices vary in estimating the areas for trim, windows,
doors, metal specialties, masonry, etc.
Paints may be acrylic latex or enamel. Acrylic latex paint is considered a
waterbase and is often preferred because the paintbrushes and rollers can be
cleaned with water. Enamel paint is an oil base and the paintbrushes and rollers
must be cleaned with a petroleum product, such as turpentine. Enamel paint is
considered more durable than acrylic latex.
Paints can be applied in one, two, three, or more coats, with sufficient time
allowed between successive coats to permit the prior coat to dry thoroughly.
Paint can be applied with a brush, roller, or spray gun. The first coat, which is
usually called the prime coat, should fill the pores of the surface, if such exist,
and bond securely to the surface to serve as a base for the other coats.
The cost of painting includes materials, labor, and sometimes equipment,
especially when the paint is applied with a spray gun. Because the cost of the
paint is relatively small compared with the other costs, it is not good economy
to purchase cheap paint.
MATERIALS
It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss all the materials used for paints,
but those most commonly used will be discussed briefly.
Chapter 19 Painting 373
Ready-mixed paints. These paints, which are mixed by the

manufacturers, can be purchased with all the ingredients combined into a
finished product.
Colored pigments. Colored pigments are added to paints by the
manufacturer or at the job to produce the desired color.
Turpentine. Turpentine, which is obtained by distilling the gum from
pine trees, can be used to thin oil paints, especially the priming coat, to
obtain better penetration into the wood.
Varnish. Varnish, which is a solution of gums or resins in linseed oil,
turpentine, alcohol, or other vehicles, is applied to produce hard
transparent surfaces. Spar is a special varnish that is used on surfaces that
may be exposed to water for long periods.
Shellac. Shellac is a liquid consisting of a resinous secretion from
several trees dissolved in alcohol. It can be applied to knots and other
resinous areas of lumber prior to painting to prevent bleeding of the
resinous substance through the paint.
Stains. Stains, which are liquids of different tints, are applied to the
surfaces of wood to produce desired color and texture effects. The vehicle
may be oil or water.
Putty. Putty, which is a mixture of powdered chalk or commercial
whiting and raw linseed oil, is used to fill cracks and joints and to cover
the heads of countersunk nails. It should be applied following the
application of the priming coat of paint. If it is applied directly on wood,
the wood will absorb most of the oil before the putty hardens, and the
putty will not adhere to the wood.
COVERING CAPACITY OF PAINTS

The covering capacity of paint, which is generally expressed as the number of
square feet of area covered per gallon for one coat, will vary with several fac
tors, including:
1. The kind of surface painted, wood, masonry, metal, etc.

2. The porosity of the surface.
3. The extent to which paint is spread as it is applied.
4. The extent to which a thinner is added to the paint.
5. The temperature of the air. Thinner coats are possible during warm
weather, resulting in greater coverage.
Table 19.1 gives representative values for the covering capacities of various
paints, varnishes, and stains when applied to different surfaces.
TABLE 1 9.1 I Surface area covered by 1 gal of paint, varnish,

stain, etc.
Surface area covered,

Material sf/gai
Applied on w o o d '
Prime-coat paint 450-550
Oil-base paint 450-550
Latex paint 450-550
Varnish, flat 500-600
Varnish, glossy 400-450
Shellac 600-700
Enamel paint 500-600
Aluminum paint 550-650
Oil stain on wood 500-700
Oil paint on floors 400-500
Stain on shingle roofs 125-225
Applied on plaster and stucco
Size or sealer 600-700
Flat-finish paint 500-550
Calcimine on smooth plaster 225-250
Casein paint on smooth plaster 400-450
Casein paint on sanded plaster 400-450
Oil paint on stucco, first coat 150-160
Oil paint on stucco, second coat 350-375
PREPARING A SURFACE FOR PAINTING

The operations required to apply a complete paint coverage will vary with the kind
of surface to be painted, number of coats to be applied, and kind of paint used.
When new wood surfaces are being painted, it may be necessary to cover all
resinous areas with shellac before applying the priming coat of paint. After this
coat is applied, all joints, cracks, and nail holes can be filled with putty, which
should be sanded smooth before the second coat of paint is applied.
It may be necessary to apply a filler to the surfaces of certain woods, such
as oak, before they are painted. The surfaces may be sanded before and after
applying the filler and sometimes following the application of each coat of paint
or varnish, except the last coat.
Before paint is applied to plaster surfaces, it may be necessary to apply a
sealer to close the pores and neutralize the alkali in the plaster.
The surfaces of new metal may be covered with a thin film of oil that must
be removed with warm water and soap prior to applying the priming coat of paint.
Sometimes it is necessary to place masking tape, such as a strip of kraft
paper with glue on one side, over areas adjacent to surfaces to be painted. This
is especially true when paint is applied with a spray gun.
LABOR APPLYING PAINT

The labor required to apply paint can be expressed in hours per 100 sf of surface
area; per 100 lin ft for trim, cornices, posts, rails, etc.; or sometimes per open
ing for windows and doors. If the surfaces to be painted are properly prepared,
and the paint is applied with first-grade workmanship, more time will be
required than when an inferior job is permitted. An estimator must consider the
kinds of surfaces to be painted and the requirements of the specifications before
she or he can prepare an accurate estimate for a job.
These factors should be considered in preparing an estimate for painting:
1. Treatment of the surface prior to painting, removing old paint, sanding,

filling, etc.
2. Kind of surface, wood, plaster, masonry, etc.
3. Size of area, large, flat, small, irregular.
4. Height of area above the floor or ground.
5. Kind of paint. Some flows more easily than others.
6 . Temperature of air. Warm air thins paint and permits it to flow more
easily.
7. Method of applying paint, with brushes or spray guns. Spraying may be
five times as fast as brushing.
Table 19.2 gives representative labor-hours required to apply paint. The

lower values should be used when the paint is applied under favorable condi
tions and the higher values when it is applied under unfavorable conditions or
when first-grade workmanship is required.
Since the heavy pigment will settle to the bottom of a paint container, it
may be necessary for a painter to spend 5 to 15 min/gal mixing paint before it
can be used.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR PAINTING

The equipment required for painting with brushes will include brushes, ladders,
sawhorses, scaffolds, and foot boards. Inside latex paints can be applied with
rollers. Where painting is done with spray guns, it will be necessary to provide
one or more small air compressors, paint tanks, hose, and spray guns, in addi
tion to the equipment listed for brush painting.
COST OF PAINTING
Example 19.1 illustrates a method of determining the cost of furnishing materi
als and labor in painting a surface.
T A B L E 1 9 .2 I Labor-hours required to apply a coat of paint and

perform other operations.
Hours
Operation Unit per unit
Exterior work
Oil paint on wall siding and trim 100 sf 0.60-1.00
Oil paint on wood-shingle siding 100 sf 0.65-0.90
Stain on wood-shingle roofs 100 sf 0.60-0.75
Oil paint on wood floors 100 sf 0.30-0.40
Painting doors, windows, and blinds Each 0.50-0.75
Oil paint on stucco 100 sf 0.60-1.00
Oil paint on steel roofing and siding 100 sf 0.50-0.60
Oil paint on brick walls 100 sf 0.60-0.90
Interior work
Size or seal plaster and wallboard 100 sf 0.40-0.50
Calcimine on plaster and wallboard 100 sf 0.30-0.40
Casein paint on plaster and wallboard 100 sf 0.20-0.30
Trim, mold, base, chair rail
Sanding 100 lin ft 0.80-1.00
Varnishing 100 lin ft 0.50-0.75
Enameling 100 lin ft 0.50-0.75
Flat painting 100 lin ft 0.50-0.75
Staining 100 lin ft 0.40-0.60
Painting doors and windows Each 0.50-0.75
Floors
Sanding with power sander 100 sf 0.75-1.00
Filling and wiping 100 sf 0.50-0.60
Shellacking 100 sf 0.25-0.30
Varnishing 100 sf 0.40-0.50
Waxing 100 sf 0.40-0.50
Polishing with power polisher 100 sf 0.30-0.40
Structural steel
Brush painting
Beams and girders, 150 to 250 sf/T T 0.80-1.00
Columns, 200 to 250 sf/T T 0.90-1.00
Roof trusses, 275 to 350 sf/T T 1.25-1.75
Bridge trusses, 200 to 250 sf/T T 1.00-1.25
Spray painting
Beams and girders T 0.20-0.25
Columns T 0.20-0.25
Roof trusses T 0.25-0.35
Bridge trusses T 0.20-0.30
EXAMPLE 1 9 .1
Estimate the cost of furnishing and applying paint for a three-coat application on
100 sf of exterior new wood wall for a residence, using ordinary workmanship. The
top of the wall will be 12 ft above the ground. The tem perature of the air will be about
70°F. Ready-mixed oil paint will be used.
The cost of the three coats will be:
Priming coat:
Paint: 100 sf/500 sf/gal = 0.2 gal @ $24.50 $4.90
Painter: 100 sf @ 0.9 hr/100 sf x $19.01 = 17.11
Second coat:
Paint: 100 sf/500 sf/gal = 0.2 gal @ $18.75 = 3.75
Painter: 100 sf @ 0.8 hr/100 sf x $19,01 = 15.21
Third coat:
Paint: 100 sf/550 sf/gal = 0.18 gal @ $18.75 = 3.38
Painter: 100 sf @ 0.8 hr/100 sf x $19,01 = 15.21
Painter mixing and stirring paint: 0.2 hr @ $19.01 = 3.80
Ladders, brushes, etc., 2.5 hr @ $1.50 = 3.75
Total cost = $67.11
Cost per sf, $67.11 - 100 sf $0.67/sf
PROBLEMS
For these problems use the national average wage rates given in this book.
19.1 Estimate the total cost of furnishing and applying a prime coat and two finish
coats of oil-base paint using brushes, on 3,380 sf of exterior wood surface, for a
one-story house. The cost of paint will be:
Prime coat: $18.75 per gal
Finish paint: $22.50 per gal
19.2 Estimate the total direct cost of furnishing and applying one sealing coat and two
coats of flat wall paint on 3,680 sf of smooth plaster walls and ceilings. The cost
of materials will be:
Sealer: $14.30 per gal
Paint: $24.50 per gal
19.3 Estimate the total direct cost of sanding, filling, wiping, applying four coats of
varnish, waxing, and polishing 3,640 sf of oak flooring, using first-grade work
manship.
Power sander: $4.20 per hr
Polisher: $1.20 per hr
Filler: $20.50 per hr
Varnish: $28.75 per gal
Wax: $14.50 per gal
Plumbing
Although general contractors usually subcontract the furnishing of materials and
the installation of plumbing in a building, they should have a reasonably good
knowledge of the costs of plumbing. The fact that general contractors do not pre
pare detailed estimates for plumbing does not eliminate the need for estimating;
it simply transfers the preparation to another party.
Plumbing involves the furnishing of materials, equipment, and labor to
bring gas and water to a building; the furnishing and installation of fixtures; and
the removal of the water and waste from the building. Water usually is obtained
from a water main, and the waste is discharged into a sanitary sewer line.
Materials include various types of pipe, fittings, valves, and fixtures, which will
be more fully described later. Consumable supplies, such as lead, oakum, gaso
line, etc., must be included in an estimate.
PLUMBING REQUIREMENTS
Some plans and specifications clearly define the types, grades, sizes, and quan
tities and furnish other information required for a complete plumbing installa
tion, while other plans and specifications furnish limited information and place
on the plumbing contractor the responsibility for determining what is needed to
satisfy the owner and the local plumbing ordinance.
All cities have ordinances that require that plumbing installations conform
with the plumbing code for the city in which the project will be constructed. A
contractor must obtain a plumbing permit prior to starting an installation, and
the work is checked by a plumbing inspector for compliance with the code.
Although plumbing codes in different localities are similar, there will be varia
tions that make it necessary for a plumbing contractor to be fully cognizant of
the requirements of the code that will apply to a given project.
378
Chapter 20 Plumbing 379
PLUMBING CODE
Some of but not all the requirements of the plumbing code for a major city are
given here. The information is intended to serve as a guide in demonstrating the
requirements of city codes for plumbing. When preparing an estimate of the cost
of furnishing and installing items for plumbing services, the estimator should
use the appropriate code for the area in which the project will be constructed.
Permit fee A fee, which is generally paid by the plumbing contractors
and included in their estimate, is charged by a city for issuing a plumbing
permit. This fee may vary with the type and size of the project and with
the location.
Plumbing-fixture facilities Table 20.1 lists the minimum requirements
for plumbing-fixture facilities for a representative city. The requirements
may differ in other cities.
T A B L E 20.1 I Minimum requirement for plumbing-fixture facilities (one fixture for each designated group).
Water Drinking .. i.. Kitchen

Type of building closet Urinal Lavatory fountain '.Shower Bathtub sink
Dwellings and
apartment houses Each family — Each family — Choice of 1 per family Each family
Places of 25 males 25 males 15 persons 75 persons
employment, such 20 females
as mercantile and
office buildings,
workshops, and
factories where 5 or
more persons work
Foundries, mines, 25 males 25 males 5 persons 75 persons 15 males
and places where 20 females 15 females
exposed to dirty or
skin-irritating
materials where 5 or
more persons work
Schools 20 males 25 males 20 persons 75 persons
15 females
Dormitories 10 males 25 males 6 persons 50 persons 8 males 40* males
8 females 10 females 35* females
* Half may be additional showers.
Minimum-size trap and outlet Table 20.2 gives the minimum-size trap and
outlet permitted for the indicated fixture.
Fixture-unit values Table 20.2 gives the value of each fixture unit for
determining the relative load factors of different kinds of plumbing fixtures
and estimating the total load carried by soil and waste pipe.
TABLE 2 0 .2 I Fixture-unit values and minimum-size traps and outlets required.
Fixture-unit Minimum-size trap

value as load and outlet
Fixture factor connection, in.
Bathroom group consisting of water closet,
lavatory, and bathtub or shower stall and
Tank with water closet 6 3
Flush-valve water closet 8 3
Bathtub with or without overhead shower 2 12
Bidet 3
Combination sink and tray 3 1?
Combination sink and tray with food
disposal unit 4 1\
1
Dental unit or cuspidor 2 1i
Dental lavatory 1 1?
1 1
Drinking fountain 2
Dishwasher, domestic 2 15
Floor drains 1 2
Kitchen sink, domestic 2 15
Kitchen sink, domestic, with food disposal unit 3
Lavatory 2 15
Lavatory, barber, beauty parlor 2 1i
Lavatory, surgeon’s 2 1\
Laundry tray, 1- or 2-compartment 2 15
Shower stall, domestic 2 2
Showers, group, per head 3 Varies
Sinks:
Surgeon’s 3 15
Flushing rim, with valve 8 3
Service, standard trap 3 3
Service, with P trap 2 2
Pot, scullery, etc. 4 15
Urinal, pedestal, syphon jet blowout 8 3
Urinal, wall lip 4
Urinal, stall, washout 4 2
Urinal trough, each 2-ft section 2 15
Wash sink, circular or multiple, each set
of faucets 2 15
Water closet:
Tank-operated 4 3
Valve-operated 8 3
SIZES OF SOIL AND WASTE PIPE

Table 20.3 gives the maximum number of fixture units that can be connected to
any given size of drain, soil, or waste pipe serving a building.
STEEL PIPE
Black and galvanized steel pipes are available in standard, extra-strong, and
double-extra-strong weights, with standard weights most commonly used for
T A B L E 2 0 .3 ! Maximum number of fixture units

permitted for soil and waste pipe.
Fall or slope, in„/ft

r 1 1 1
Pipe size, in. 16 8 4 2
2?
_ 2 24 31
3 -- 20* 27+ 36t
4 -- 180 216 250
5 -- 390 480 575
6 -- 700 840 1,000
8 1,400 1,600 1,920 2,300
10 2,500 2,900 3,500 4,200
12 3,900 4,800 5,600 6,700
•Water closet not permitted.

fN ot over two water closets permitted.
T A B L E 2 0 .4 I Dimensions and weights of black and galvanized standard steel pipe.
Diameter, in. Thickness, Internal Weight, Threads

Size,
in. External Internal in. area, sq. in. Ib/lin ft per in.
1
0.405 0.269 0.068 0.057 0.24 27
8
1 0.088 0.104 0.42 18
4 0.540 0.364
3 0.091 0.191 0.56 18
8 0.675 0.493
1 0.109 0.304 0.84 14
2 0.840 0.622
3 0.113 0.533 1.12 14
4 1.050 0.824
1 1.315 1.049 0.133 0.861 1.67 11?
1.660 1.380 0.140 1.496 2.25 1 1|
1J
1.900 1.610 0.145 2.036 2.68 111
2 2.375 2.067 0.154 3.356 3.61 11!
2.875 2.467 0.203 4.780 5.74 8
2l
3 3.500 3.066 0.217 7.383 7.54 8
3i 4.000 3.548 0.226 9.886 9.00 8
4 4.500 4.026 0.237 12.730 10.67 8
5 5.563 5.045 0.259 19.985 14.50 8
6 6.625 6.065 0.280 28.886 18.76 8
7 7.625 7.023 0.301 38.734 23.27 8
8 8.625 7.981 0.322 50.021 28.18 8
9 9.625 8.937 0.344 62.72 33.70 8
10 10.750 10.018 0.336 78.82 40.07 8
12 12.750 12.000 0.375 113.09 48.99 8
plumbing purposes. Table 20.4 gives the dimensions and weights of standard
steel pipe.
BRASS AND COPPER PIPE

Brass pipe and copper pipe are frequently used instead of steel pipe for water.
They are available in standard and extra-strong grades. The external diameters
T A B L E 2 0 .5 I Dimensions and weights of standard brass and copper pipe.
Diameter,, in. W eight, Ib/lin ft

S ize, in. External Internal T h ick n ess, in. B rass Copper
1 0.246 C.259
8 0.405 0.281 0 0620
1 0.0825 0.437 0.460
4 0.540 0.375
3 0.494 0.0905 0.612 0.644
8 0.675
1 0.959
2 0.840 0.625 0.1075 0.911
3 0.822 0.1140 1.235 1.299
4 1.050
1 1.315 1.062 0.1265 1.740 1.831
1? 1.660 1.368 0.1460 2.558 2.692
1.900 1.600 0.1500 3.038 3.196
2 2.375 2.062 0.1565 4.018 4.228
ol 2.875 2.500 0.1875 5.832 6.136
2
3 3.500 3.062 0.2190 8.316 8.75
3| 4.000 3.500 0.2500 10.85 11.42
4 4.500 4.000 0.2500 12.30 12.94
4j 5.000 4.500 0.2500 13.74 14.46
5 5.563 5.062 0.2500 15.40 16.20
6 6.625 6.125 0.2500 18.45 19.41
7 7.625 7.062 0.2815 23.92 25.17
8 8.625 8.000 0.3125 30.06 31.63
9 9.625 8.937 0.3440 36.95 38.88
10 10.750 10,019 0.3655 43.93 46.22
12 12.750 12.000 0.3750 53.71 56.51
and number of threads per inch are the same as for steel pipe. Table20.5 gives
the dimensions of brass and copper pipe.
COPPER TUBING
Copper tubing is frequently used instead of steel pipes for water. It is furnished
in both hard and soft tempers. Both tempers are available in straight 20-ft
lengths, and the soft temper is furnished in 30-, 45-, and 60-ft coils in sizes to 11-
in. diameter. The tubes are joined by sweating the ends into special fittings,
using a solder or brazing alloy, which is heated with a blowtorch. Because of the
flexibility, the tubing can be bent easily to change directions, thus reducing the
number of fittings and the amount of labor required. This tubing is frequently
used instead of lead pipe for connections from water mains into buildings.
Table 20.6 gives the dimensions and weights of soft- and hard-temper cop
per tubing.
PVC WATER-SUPPLY PIPE

This pipe, made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), is a rigid plastic pipe capable of
withstanding internal water pressures up to 160 or 200 lb/sq. in. It is lightweight
C h a p te r 2 0 Plumbing 383
T A B L E 2 0 .6 I Dimensions and weights of soft- and hard-temper copper tubing.
T y p e K soft T y p e M hard
N o m in a l O u ts id e W all W all
size , d ia m e te r, th ic k n e s s , W eig h t, th ick n e s s , W eigh t,
in. in. in. Ib/lin ft in. Ib/lin ft
1 3 0 .0 3 2 0 .1 3 3 0 .0 2 5 0 .1 0 6
4 8
3 1 0 .0 4 9 0 .2 6 9 0 .0 2 5 0 .1 4 4
8 2
1 5 0 .0 4 9 0 .3 4 4 0 .0 2 8 0 .2 0 3
2 8
5 3 0 .0 4 9 0 .4 1 8
8 4
3 7 0 .0 6 5 0 .6 4 1 0 .0 3 2 0 .3 2 8
4 8
0 .0 6 5 0 .8 3 9 0 .0 3 5 0 .4 6 4
1 1b
0 .0 6 5 1 .0 4 0 .0 4 2 0 .6 8 1
1? 1§
0 .0 7 2 1 .3 6 0 .0 4 9 0 .9 4 0
1s 18
2 pi 0.0 8 3 2 .0 6 0 .0 5 8 1 .4 6
‘-8
Ol p5 0.0 9 5 2 .9 2 0 .0 6 5 2 .0 3
^8
Ql 0.1 0 9 4 .0 0 0 .0 7 2 2 .6 8
3 J8
q! 0 .1 2 0 5 .1 2 0 .0 8 3 3 .5 8
°2 3§
4 0 .1 3 4 6 .5 1 0 .0 9 5 4 .6 6
0.1 6 0 9 .6 7 0 .1 0 9 6 .6 6
5 5i
6 0.1 9 2 1 3 .8 7 0 .1 2 2 8 .9 1
0.271 2 5 .9 0 0 .1 7 0 1 6 .4 6
8
0 .3 8 8 4 0 .2 6 0 .2 1 2 2 5 .5 7
10 10g
12 0 .4 0 5 5 7 .7 6 0 .2 5 4 3 6 .6 9
12i
and highly resistant to corrosion, has low resistance to the flow of water, and can
be installed rapidly and economically.
Joints between the pipe and fittings are made by applying a coating of sol
vent cement around the end of the pipe and then inserting it into the fitting.
This pipe is not suitable for use with hot water.
Table 20.7 lists representative sizes of PVC pipe and costs. Table 20.8 lists
representative PVC fittings for use with the pipe, with current costs.
T A B L E 2 0 .7 1
Representative costs
of PVC plastic water T A B L E 2 0 .8 I Representative costs of fittings for PVC plastic
water pipe.
Pipe Cost
P ric e e a c h b y size , in.
size, per
i 3 1
in. lin ft F ittin g 2 4 11 1i
1 SO 18 SO 19 $ 0 24 $0 46 $ 0 .6 5
$ 0 .1 5 9 0 ° e lb o w
3 0 .2 3 0 .3 7 0 .4 4 0 .6 3 0 .8 8
0 .1 6 4 5 ° e lb o w
0 .1 8 0 .2 4 0 .4 2 0 .5 8 0 .7 4
1 0 .1 7 Tee
0 .1 9 C o u p lin g 0 .1 0 0 .1 2 0 .2 2 0 .2 6 0 .4 3
1?
0 .2 3 M a le a d a p t e r 0 .1 3 0 .1 5 0 .2 5 0 .3 0 0 .4 3
1z
0 .2 7 F e m a le a d a p t e r 0 .1 5 0 .2 0 0 .2 4 0 .3 6 0 .4 1
2
INDOOR CPVC PLASTIC WATER PIPE

This pipe, made of chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), can be used inside a
building for hot or cold water, if local building codes permit. It will withstand
internal water pressures up to 100 lb/sq. in. or more, at temperatures up to 180°F.
Joints between pipes and fittings are made by applying coatings of solvent
cements to the ends of the pipes and then inserting them into the fittings.
LABOR INSTALLING PLASTIC WATER PIPE

Installing plastic water pipe involves cutting standard lengths of pipe to the
desired lengths, if necessary using a hacksaw, applying a solvent cement to the
ends, and then inserting the ends into plastic fittings. This forms a solid joint,
which should be free of any leakage.
Connections between plastic pipes and standard steel pipes can be made by
using plastic female or male adapters, which are threaded at one end to match
the threads of the steel pipe.
Table 20.9 gives representative times required to perform various operations
in installing plastic pipe.
T A B L E 2 0 .9 I Representative hours required to install plastic water pipe and fittings.
Size of pipe, in.

1 3
Operation 2 4 1 11 11
Cut pipe 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13
Apply cement and join pipe and fittings* 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Join plastic pipe to steel pipe with adapter 0.20 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.30
*This is the time required for making a joint. A coupling and an elbow require two joints, and a tee requires three
joints.
SOIL, WASTE, AND VENT PIPES

The pipes that convey the discharge liquids from plumbing fixtures to the house
drain are called soil and waste pipes. Pipes that receive the discharge from water
closets are called soil pipes, while the pipes that receive the discharge from other
fixtures are called waste pipes. Pipes that provide ventilation for a house
drainage system and prevent siphonage of water from traps are called vent pipes.
Cast-iron soil pipe is furnished in 5-ft lengths, with single or double hubs,
in standard and extra-heavy weights. The weights are given in Table 20.10.
The joints for cast-iron soil pipe are usually made with lead and oakum. The
oakum, which is wrapped around the spigot end of the pipe, should be well
caulked into the hub of the joint to center the spigot and to prevent molten lead
from flowing into the pipe. A runner is wrapped around the pipe adjacent to the
hub, with an opening at the top, into which molten lead is poured to fill the joint
Chapter 20 Plumbing
T A B L E 2 0 .1 0 I Approximate weights of soil

pipe, Ib/lin ft.
Extra heavy
Standard,
Size, single Single Double
in. hub hub hub
2 3.6 5,0 5.2
3 5.2 9.0 9.4
4 7.0 12.0 12.6
5 9.0 15.0 15.6
6 11.0 19.0 20.0
8 17.0 30.0 31.4
10 23.0 43.0 45.0
12 33.0 54.0 57.0
in one operation. After the lead solidifies, the runner is removed, and the lead is
heavily caulked.
Table 20.11 gives the approximate quantity of lead and oakum required for
a joint in cast-iron soil pipe.
T A B L E 2 0 .1 1 I Approximate
quantities of lead and oakum required
for cast-iron soil pipe.
Weight per joint, lb

Size pipe,
' in. : Lead Oakum
2 1.5 0.13
3 2.5 0.16
4 3.5 0.19
5 4.3 0.22
6 5.0 0.25
8 7.0 0.38
10 9.0 0.50
12 11.0 0.70
HOUSE DRAIN PIPE

The cast-iron soil pipe must extend a specified distance outside a building,
depending on the plumbing code. The balance of the drain pipe extending to the
sanitary sewer main may be vitrified clay, concrete sewer pipe, or sometimes a
composition pipe of fiber and bitumen. Joints for clay and concrete pipes may
be made with cement mortar or an asphaltic jointing compound.
FITTINGS
Fittings for black and galvanized-steel pipe should be malleable iron. Fittings for
copper and brass pipe and tubing should be copper and brass, respectively,
threaded or sweat type. Fittings for plastic pipe should be of the same material as
the pipe. If different types of plastic are used, the solvent cement will not be
effective on both types of materials. Fittings for cast-iron pipe should be cast iron.
Adapters are available that can be used in joining one type of pipe or fitting
to another type.
VALVES
Valves are installed to shut off the flow of water. Several types arc used, includ
ing globe, gate, check, sill cocks, drain, etc. They are usually made from bronze
and brass.
TRAPS
Traps are installed below the outlets from fixtures to retain water as a seal to pre
vent sewer gases from entering a building. Vent pipes installed into the drain
pipes below the traps prevent the water in the traps from being siphoned out.
ROUGHING IN PLUMBING
Roughing in includes the installation of all water pipes from the meter into and
through a building, soil pipe, waste pipe, drains, vents, traps, plugs, cleanouts,
etc., but does not include the installation of plumbing fixtures, which is called
finish plumbing.
ESTIMATING THE COST OF ROUGHING

IN PLUMBING
In preparing a detailed estimate covering the cost of furnishing materials,
equipment, and labor for roughing in the plumbing, a comprehensive list of
items required should be used as a check and for establishing all costs. Each item
should be listed separately by description, grade, size, quantity, and cost, both
unit and total. If there are other costs such as tapping fees, permits, or removing
and replacing pavement, then they must be included in an estimate. Table 20.12
may be used as a guide in preparing a list for estimating purposes.
COST OF MATERIALS FOR

ROUGH PLUMBING
While the costs of materials for rough plumbing will vary with grades, quanti
ties, locations, and time, the costs given in the tables in this book can be used as
C hapter 20 Plumbing 387
T A B L E 2 0 .1 2 I Checklist for estimating the cost of roughing in plumbing.
Description Quantify Unit cost Total cost

Permits
Tapping fees
Removing and replacing pavement
Water meter and box, if required
Steel pipe
Copper pipe and tubing
Pipe fittings
Valves
Soil pipe
Water pipe
Vent pipe and stacks
Traps, cleanouts
Cast-iron fillings
Floor drains
Roof flashings
Vitrified-clay sewer pipe and fittings
Concrete sewer pipe and fittings
Catch basins and covers
Manholes and covers
Lead, solder, oakum, gasoline, etc.
Cement and sand
Brackets, hangers, supports, etc.
Other items
a guide in preparing an approximate estimate. The actual costs that will apply
should be determined and used in preparing an estimate for bid purposes.
COST OF LEAD, OAKUM, AND SOLDER

Ingot or pig lead used for joints with cast-iron pipe will cost about $1.05 per
pound. Oakum will cost about $4.75 per pound. Wiring solder used to sweat
joints for copper pipe and tubing will cost about $4.20 per pound.
PLASTIC DRAINAGE PIPE AND FITTINGS

Many building codes permit the use of plastic drainage pipe and fittings, such as
ABS-DWV ASTM-2661-68, or later, for use in draining liquids from buildings.
These pipes are generally available in sizes l | in. in diameter and larger and in
lengths of 10 or 20 ft or more. Joints are made by applying a solvent cement to
the spigot end of a pipe before inserting it into a fitting. Adapters are available
to permit this pipe to be connected into cast-iron pipe.
Figure 20.1 illustrates an assembly of pipes and fittings representing a typ
ical drainage system for a home or other building. Table 20.13 lists the items
illustrated in Fig. 20.1, together with representative costs of the items.
F IG U R E 20.1 I Representative piping

and fittings for a drain system.
LABOR REQUIRED TO ROUGH IN PLUMBING

Plumbers frequently work in teams of two, a plumber and a helper. However,
since this arrangement is not always followed, the labor time given in the tables
is expressed in labor-hours, which includes the combined time for a plumber and
a helper.
The operations required to install water pipe will include cutting and thread
ing the pipe and screwing it together with the appropriate fittings. Cutting and
threading may be done with hand or power tools. The time required will vary with
the size of the pipe, tools used, and working conditions at the job. If power tools
can be moved along with the work, a minimum amount of time will be required;
but if the pipe must be carried some distance to the tools, a great deal of time will
be consumed in walking. If the pipe is suspended from hangers, additional time
will be required to install the hangers. Some specifications require that all pipe
cut on the job be reamed to remove burrs. This will consume additional time.
Chapter 20 Plumbing
T A B L E 2 0 .1 3 I Representative costs of PVC plastic drainage and waste pipe and

fittings.
Size, Unit
Number Item in. Unit cost
1 PVC pipe ii Lin ft $0.29
PVC pipe 2 Lin ft 0.37
2 PVC pipe 3 Lin ft 0.89
3 Roof flashing, neoprene H Each 3.75
2 Each 3.90
3 Each 3.90
4 Coupling 13 Each 0.17
2 Each 0.21
3 Each 0.55
5 Sanitary tee 1J Each 0.42
2 Each 0.65
3 Each 1.54
6 90° elbow 1j Each 0.27
2 Each 0.37
7 90° elbow 3 Each 1.16
8 Sanitary tee with two 1g-in. side outlets 3 Each 1.98
9 Slip plug 1J Each 0.35
10 Reducing closet flange 4X3 Each 3.00
11 45° elbow 1? Each 0.24
2 Each 0.34
3 Each 0.98
12 P trap with union ii Each 0.90
2 Each 1.75
13 Trap adapter, 1J-in. pipe to 1g-in. waste 1? Each 0.48
14 Trap adapter, 1J-in. pipe to l|- in . waste 1J Each 0.45
15 Wye branch ii Each 0.72
2 Each 0.92
3 Each 1.65
16 Cleanout adapter 1* Each 0.35
2 Each 0.59
3 Each 1.10
17 Threaded cleanout plug 1J Each 0.25
2 Each 0.27
3 Each 0.47
18 Combination Y and § bend 3 Each 2.82
19 Male iron pipe adapter 11 Each 0.26
2 Each 0.45
20 Adapter, plastic to iron hub 1J X 2 Each 0.90
2X2 Each 0.90
Adapter, plastic to plastic hub 3X4 Each 1.85
Copper tubing is furnished in coils up to 60 ft long in all sizes to l | in. Since

the tubing is longer than steel pipe and changes in direction are obtained by
bending the tubing, fewer fittings are required and the labor time will be less
than for steel pipe. Joints usually are made by sweating the tubing into fittings,
using solder and a blowtorch. Some cutting of the tubing with a hacksaw will be
necessary.
Cast-iron soil, waste, and vent pipes are joined with molten lead and oakum
joints. Many of these joints can be made with the pipe or fittings standing in an
upright position, which will reduce the time required. Line joints are made by
pouring the lead with the pipe in place, using a runner to hold the lead in the
joint. After the lead has solidified, it must be caulked. Time should be estimated
by the number of joints.
Vitrified-clay sewer pipe is manufactured in lengths varying from 2 \ to
4 ft. Joints are made with oakum and cement mortar or a heated asphaltic joint
compound.
Many plumbing contractors add a percentage of the cost of materials to
cover the cost of labor required to rough in plumbing. The rates used vary from
40 to 80 percent of the cost of materials. Although this is a simple operation, it
does not necessarily produce an accurate estimate.
Tables 20.14 through 20.22 provide representative costs of the various types
of pipes and fittings that are commonly used to rough in plumbing.
T A B L E 2 0 .1 4 I Representative cost of
standard-weight steel pipe.
Cost per linear foot

Pipe size, in. Black Galvanized
1
2 $1.10 $1.60
3
4 1.50 1.80
1 1.85 2.05
1? 2.20 2.40
-Is 2.55 2.70
2 3.30 3.60
pi 5.10 5.75
3 6.40 6.95
4 9.00 9.90
T A B L E 2 0 .1 5 I Representative cost of malleable fittings for steel pipe

per fitting.
Size, in.
3
Fitting 1
2 4 1 ij 1? 2
Black
Couplings $1.30 $1.45 $2.20 $2.75 $3.45 $4.95
Elbows 0.80 1.00 1.85 3.05 4.00 5.90
Reducers 1.35 1.45 2.20 3.15 3.65 4.95
Tees 1.10 1.60 2.90 4.75 5.85 13.50
Unions 3.60 3.70 5.40 7.50 9.10 11.50
Galvanized
Couplings $1.30 $1.50 $2.40 $3.10 $3.50 $5.30
Elbows 0.85 0.75 2.10 3.20 4.25 6.13
Reducers 1.25 1.50 2.40 3.10 3.70 5.35
Tees 1.10 1.85 3.10 4.90 6.00 8.75
Unions 3.80 3.90 5.75 7.85 7.55 11.90
TABLE 20.1 7 I Cost of copper solder fillings, per fitting. TABLE 2 0 . 1 6 1

Cost of copper pipe
Size , in.
and tubing per linear
Fittings \ 3
4 11 1| 2 foot.
Couplings $0.14 $0.23 $0.54 $0.88 $1 32 $1.89
Elbows 0.14 0.34 0.75 1.45 1.85 3.49
Pipe Type L,
Tees 0.25 3.05 4.30 6.75
size, hard
0.54 2.05
4.35 6.15 10.45
in. or soft
Unions 1.34 2.05 3.24
3
Gate valves 8.70 10.85 13.85 20.21 24.50 31.63 8 $1.05
1
2 1.15
3
4 1.50
1 2.05
TABLE 2 0 . 1 8 I Cost of 150-lb bronze threaded valves, each. 1? 2.50
15 2.95
Size, in. 2 4.20
Valves I 3
4 1
1 2
Globe and angle $30.00 S40.00 $65 00 $100 00 $125.00 $185.00
Gale and check 22.00 30.00 45.00 60.00 70.00 105.00
Ball 6.50 11.00 13.00 23.00 29.00 36.00
TABLE 2 0 . 1 9 I Cost of cast-iron soil pipe per joint.
Single hub, 10 lin ft Double hub, 5 lin ft

Pioe size.
in. Standard Extra heavy Standard Extra heavy
2 $49.50 $73.25 $40 84 $50.65
3 63.75 94.35 52.60 67.85
4 74.80 110.70 61.70 79.60
5 110.20 163.10 90.90 117.25
6 129.50 191.70 106.85 137.85
8 210.00 310.80 173.25 223.50
TABLE 2 0 . 2 0 I Cost of single-hub fittings for cast-iron soil pipe, per fitting.
Size, in.
Fitting 2 3 4 6 8
Quarter-bend, standard $6.25 $1160 $17 20 $29.75 $91.30
Extra heavy 7.10 14.65 21.90 36.60 90.30
Eight-bend, standard 4.90 11.60 17.20 24.70 65.85
Extra heavy 6.15 11.90 17.25 27.95 71.95
T and Y branch, standard 15.25 22.83 31.65 73.10 178.43
Extra heavy 19.10 31.85 41.50 80.25 180.45
Cross, standard 14.75 26.10 34.85 75.50 161.35
Extra heavy 24.10 35.45 41.90 81.75 193.20
Running trap, with hub vent 49,75 69.25 97.35 291.75
Extra heavy
Plain trap, S and P, standard 20.59 32.31 66.25 150.69
T A B L E 2 0 .2 1 I Cost of vitrified-clay sewer

pipe, per linear foot.
ASTM
Pipe size, ASTM C-425-71,
in.. C-700-71 rubber seal
4 $1.80 $1.70
6 2.90 2.35
8 4.50 4.15
10 6.80 6.65
12 9.20 9.10
15 16.50 14.95
18 24.50 24.05
T A B L E 2 0 .2 2 I Cost of vitrified-clay sewer pipe fittings with

rubber seals, per fitting.
Pipe
1 1 1
size, Wyes and 8 > 4 i 2 Cleanout
in. te e s bends wyes Stoppers
4 $6.75 $6.45 $1.75
6 15.45 11.10 17.75 2.35
8 19.80 17.70 26.35 3.40
10 29.42 44.23 4.50
12 47.50 44.10 6.25
Table 20.23 gives representative time in labor-hours required to rough in

plumbing. The values are based on an analysis of the rates reported by a sub
stantial number of plumbing contractors whose individual rates varied consider
ably. The rates given in the table include the combined time for plumbers and
helpers. Thus, if a plumber and a helper work together, one-half of the labor-
hours should be assigned to each person.
FINISH PLUMBING
Finish plumbing includes fixtures such as lavatories, bathtubs, shower stalls,
water closets, sinks, urinals, water heaters, etc., and the accessories that usually
are supplied with the fixtures. The prices of finish plumbing vary a great deal
with the type, size, and quality specified. No book of this kind can give a com
plete listing of fixtures and prices. An estimator should list each item required
for a building and then refer to a current catalog for prices.
Table 20.24 gives representative prices for plumbing fixtures in the medium
grade range; these should be used as a guide only.
Chapter 2 0 Plumbing 393
TABLE 20.23 I Labor-hours required for roughing in plumbing.
Class of work Labor-hours

Hand cut, thread, and install steel pipe, per joint:
and |-in . pipe 0 .6- 0 .7
1 - and 1 ^-in. pipe 0 .8- 0 .9
1 and 2 -in. pipe 1.3-1.5
2 \- and 3-in. pipe 1.8-2.4
4-in. pipe 2 .2- 2 .5
Machine cut, thread, and install steel pipe, per joint:
and f-in . pipe 0.4-0.7
1 - and 1 J -in. pipe 0 .5 -0 .6
1 | - and 2 -in. pipe 0 .7-0.8
2 \- and 3-in. pipe 0.9-1.0
4-in. pipe 1.2-1.4
Install copper tubing, per joint:
and f-in . tubing 0.3-0.4
1 - and 1 ^-in. tubing 0.4-0.5
1 - 5 - and 2-in. tubing 0 .5 -0 .6
2 \- and 3-in. tubing 0 .6- 0 .7
4-in. tubing 0 .7-0.8
Install cast-iron soil pipe and fittings, per joint:
2 -in. diameter 0.3-0.4
3-in. diameter 0.4-0.5
4-in. diameter 0 .5 -0 .6
Install vitrified-clay or concrete pipe, per joint:
4-in. diameter 0 .2- 0 .3
10 -in. diameter 0 .5 -0 .6
12 -in. diameter 0.7-0.9
Rough in for fixtures:
Bathtub 10-18
Bathtub with shower 16-24
Floor drain 4 -6
Grease trap 5-10
Kitchen sink, single 8-14
Kitchen sink, double 10-16
Laundry tub, two-compartment 8-12
Lavatory 10-15
Shower with stall 12-18
Slop sink 8-12
Urinal, pedestal type 8-12
Urinal, with stall 10-14
Urinal, wall type 7-10
Water closet 9-18
Water heater, 30- to 50-gal automatic 1 0- 12
Water heater, 50- to 100-gal automatic 12-15
T A B L E 2 0 .2 4 I Representative costs of plumbing fixtures

and accessories.
Fixture Cost per unit

Bathtub, porcelain on cast iron, flat bottom $675.00
Showers, one piece fiberglass 350.00
Kitchen sink, enamel on cast iron
Single 320,00
Double 450.00
Kitchen sink, stainless steel
Single 250.00
Double 290.00
Lavatory, porcelain on cast iron, 18 x 24 in. 200.00
Urinal stall, vitreous china 275.00
Water closet, vitreous china, close-coupled 430.00
Garbage disposal unit, with j- h p motor 150.00
LABOR REQUIRED TO INSTALL FIXTURES

The labor required to install plumbing fixtures will vary with the kind and qual
ity of fixture, the kind of accessories used, the type of building, and to some
extent the building code. The simplest fixtures will require the least time, and
the more elaborate fixtures will generally require the most time.
A lavatory to be attached to the wall will be delivered to a job packed in a
crate, complete with wall brackets, faucets, pop-up stopper, and other acces
sories, unassembled. It is necessary to remove it from the crate, attach the brack
ets, then attach and level the lavatory, connect the hot- and cold-water lines, and
connect the trap and drain into the waste pipe. Additional time will be required
to install legs and towel bars.
More time is required to install a combination bathtub with a shower than to
install a bathtub only. Also considerably more time is required to install a built-
in bathtub, especially in a bathroom with tile floors and walls, than to install a
tub supported on legs. All factors that affect the rates of installation must be con
sidered in preparing an estimate.
Table 20.25 gives representative labor-hours required to install plumbing
fixtures, based on reports furnished by a substantial number of plumbing con
tractors. Use the lower rates for simple fixtures installed under favorable condi
tions and the higher rates for more complicated fixtures installed under more dif
ficult conditions.
PROBLEMS
For these problems use the national average wage rates and the costs of materials given
in this book. Use a plumber and a helper as a team to perform the work.
C hapter 20 Plumbing 395
TABLE 2 0.2 5 I Labor-hours required to install

plumbing fixtures and accessories.
Fixtures Labor-hours
Bathtub, leg type 10-16
Bathtub, flat bottom, no shower 14-20
Bathtub, flat bottom, with shower 18-26
Kitchen sink, enamel, single 6-10
Kitchen sink, enamel, double 8-12
Laundry tub, double 10-14
Lavatory, wall type 5-8
Lavatory, pedestal type 6-9
Urinal, wall type 8-12
Urinal, pedestal type 9-13
Urinal with stall 16-20
Water closet 6-9
Garbage disposal unit 6-8
Drinking fountain 5-8
20.1 Estimate the direct cost of furnishing and installing 286 lin ft of 1-in. galvanized
steel pipe, whose average length per joint prior to cutting will be 20 ft 0 in. It
will be necessary to cut and thread the pipe for installing eight galvanized tees,
six galvanized elbows, four galvanized unions, and three brass gate valves. The
pipe will be cut and threaded by hand.
20.2 Estimate the direct cost of furnishing and installing the pipe, fittings, and valves
of Prob. 20.1 when the pipe is cut and threaded by machines.
20.3 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing 468 lin ft of f-in. type-K soft-
copper tube, including 14 couplings, 26 tees, 16 elbows, and 4 unions, using
sweated joints.
20.4 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing 426 lin ft of 1^-in. type-L copper
pipe, including 16 couplings, 12 tees, and 6 ells, using sweated joints.
20.5 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing 256 lin ft of 4-in. single-hub stan
dard cast-iron pipe, including six wyes, eight standard quarter bends, and three
P traps, all standard fittings, under average conditions. All joints will be made
with oakum and lead.
20.6 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing 280 lin ft of 1j-in.-diameter ABS
drain pipe supplied in 20-ft lengths. The following fittings will be required, with
each requiring that the pipe be cut: six sanitary tees and five 90° elbows. The
cost of a 1-pt can of solvent cement will be $4.20. This is enough cement to
make 50 joints with lj-in . pipe.
Electric Wiring
Electric w iring is generally installed by a subcontractor w ho specializes in this
type o f work, w ith all m aterials and labor furnished under the contract. This pro
cedure does not elim inate the need for estim ating a job; it sim ply transfers the
operation from the general to the electrical contractor.
A pproxim ate estim ates, and som etim es estim ates for bid purposes, are pre
pared by counting the num ber o f outlets required for a jo b and then applying a
unit price to each outlet to arrive at the total cost. W hile this m ethod w ill perm it
estim ates to be prepared quickly, it will not always give an accurate cost for a
jo b , because conditions m ay vary a great deal betw een tw o jobs. W hen this
m ethod is used, each sw itch, plug, and fixture served w ill count as an outlet.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE COST

OF WIRING
The cost o f wiring a building w ill be affected by the type, size, and arrangem ent
o f the building and the m aterials used in constructing the building. W iring for a
fram e building m ay be attached to the fram ing m em bers or run through holes
drilled in the m em bers. W iring for a building constructed o f m asonry m ay be
placed in conduit attached to or concealed w ithin the walls. W iring for concrete
structures is placed in conduit installed in the concrete, w hich w ill require the
installation o f the conduit prior to placing the concrete.
The cost per outlet will be affected by the lengths o f runs between outlets, kind
o f installation, and size o f wires required. Job specifications may require rigid or
flexible conduit, armored cable, or nonmetallic cable. The costs of these materials
and the labor required to install them may vary considerably. Unless an estimator
is able to apply a dependable cost factor, based on job conditions, to a particular job,
the outlet method m ay result in a substantial variation from the true cost.
T he best m ethod o f preparing a dependable estim ate is to prepare an accu
rate m aterial takeoff that lists the item s separately by type, size, quantity, qual-
Chapter 21 Electric Wiring 397
ity, and cost. When you are working from plans, it is good practice to indicate
on the plans, using a colored pencil, each item as it is transferred to the material
list. This procedure will reduce the danger of omitting items or counting them
more than once. The application of appropriate costs for materials and labor to
these items will give a dependable estimate.
ITEMS INCLUDED IN THE COST OF WIRING

When you are preparing a detailed estimate covering the cost of wiring a proj
ect, it is good practice to start with the first item required to bring electric ser
vice to the project. This may be the service wires from the transmission lines to
the building, unless they are furnished by the utility. The following list may be
used as a guide:
1. Service wires, if required

2. M eter box
3. Entrance switch box and fuses to circuit breakers
4. Wire circuits
a. Conduit
b. Wires
5. Junction boxes
6. Outlets for
a. Switches, single-pole, double-pole, three-way
b. Plugs, wall, and floor
c. Fixtures
7. Bell systems, with transformers
8. Sundry supplies, such as solder, tape, etc.
ROUGHING IN ELECTRICAL WORK
TYPES OF WIRING
The types of wiring used in buildings may be governed by the National
Electrical Code (N EC), published by the National Board of Fire Underwriters,
or in some locations by state or municipal codes, which specify minimum
requirements for materials and workmanship. Codes require that electrical
wiring be protected against physical damage and possible short circuits by one
or more methods such as installing them in conduit or by the use of wires that
are furnished with factory-wrapper coverings.
39 8 Estim ating C onstruction Costs
RIGID CONDUIT
Rigid conduit is made of light galvanized pipe. Heavy conduit, which can be
used for outside or inside installations, is threaded at each end. Since the walls
of light conduit are too thin for threads, it is necessary to use special clamping
fittings for making joints or entering boxes. The conduit extends into outlet or
other boxes, where it is securely fastened with locknuts and bushings or with
clamps. The conduit must be adequately supported and fastened in position
along its run. The electric wires are pulled through the conduit at any desirable
time after the conduit is installed.
Table 21.1 gives the sizes of conduit required for the indicated sizes and
numbers of wires, as specified by the NEC.
T A B L E 21.1 I Size conduit required for rubber-covered electric wires.
S ize of M axim um nu m ber of w ire s in one conduit

w ire ,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
B & S
gauge S ize con duit required, in.
1 1 1 1 3 3 3
14 2 2 2 4 4 4 1 1
1 1 1 3 3
12 2 2 4 4 1 1 1 U
1 1 3 3 1 1
10 2 4 4 1 1? 1?
1 3
8 4 1 1 1? U 1? 13 15
1
6
!
1 1I -4 1I -4 H 2 2 2
5 n 1±
14 1114 2 2 2 2
1 1l -4 1I -2 2 2 2 2 pi
4 2 1}
3 2 2 2 pi
3 4 11 14 12 ^2
2 3 2 2 pi .
4 1* 1? H H 25 ^2
3 2 pi 3 3
1 4 11 1J 2
0 1 2 2 pi 3 3 3
ii 2 !
00 1 2 2 2\ 2l 3 3 3 3|
000 1 2 2 2j 3 3 3 3j 3i
0000 11 2 2 2j 3 3 3i 3i 4
FLEXIBLE METAL CONDUIT

This conduit consists of an interlocking spiral steel armor, which is constructed
in such a manner that it permits considerable flexibility. It can be used where fre
quent changes in direction are necessary. End connections must be made with
special fittings.
ARMORED CABLE
Armored cables or conductors are made with or without a lead sheath under the
armor. Special fittings are required to connect this cable into boxes, outlets, etc.
NONMETALLIC CABLE
The wires of this cable are covered with a flexible insulated braiding impreg
nated with a moisture-resisting compound. It is furnished in wire sizes 14 to 4
gauge. It is very popular for use in residences.
ELECTRIC WIRE
Electric wires are usually made of copper, either solid or standard. The wires may
be plastic-covered for use indoors or weatherproof for use outdoors. The size of
a wire is designated by specifying the Brown and Sharpe (B & S) gauge number,
or for sizes larger than B & S gauge no. 0000, by the number of circular mils.
Table 21.2 gives the resistance in ohms per 1,000 feet and the electric cur
rent capacity in amperes, as specified by the NEC, for copper wire.
T A B L E 2 1 .2 I Resistance and current capacity of copper

wire.
Capacity, A
B& S /..’'-Resistance,;.-'. Plastic- Weather-
.’’.'gauge:'' ohms/1,000 ft covered proof
18 6.374 3 5
16 4.009 6 10
14 2.527 15 20
12 1.586 20 25
10 0.997 25 30
8 0.627 35 50
6 0.394 50 70
5 0.313 55 80
4 0.248 70 90
3 0.197 80 100
2 0.156 90 125
1 0.124 100 150
0 0.098 125 200
00 0.078 150 225
000 0.062 175 275
0000 0.049 225 325
ACCESSORIES
In addition to the conduit and wire, numerous accessories will be needed to
install wiring. Among the items needed will be:
1. M eter box
2. Entrance cap and conduit
3. Entrance box with switch and fuses or circuit breaker
4. Couplings, elbows, locknuts, bushings, and straps for conduit
5. Special fittings and clamps for flexible conduit and cable

6. Outlet boxes
7. Junction boxes
8. Light sockets
9. Rosettes
10. Solder, tape, straps, etc.
COST OF MATERIALS
The cost of materials for electric wiring will vary with the location, quality,
quantities purchased, and time. Representative costs are given in Tables 21.3 to
21.8. The costs given in the tables should be used as a guide only. W hen esti
mating the cost of a project for contract purposes, the estimator should obtain
current prices applicable to the particular project.
T A B L E 2 1 .3 I Representative costs of rigid conduit.
Cost per 100 lin ft

Size, Heavy rigid Light thin wall—EMT Rigid PVC
in. (galvanized) (electrical metallic tubing) (schedule 40)
i $56.OC $12 99 $8 05
2
3
4 69.99 23.00 9.95
1 105.00 46.00 16.80
1? 136.00 64.00 24.77
1? 175.00 70.00 28.58
2 229.00 93.00 37.16
pi 355.00 129.00 61.73
3 455.00 175.00 78.58
LABOR REQUIRED TO INSTALL

ELECTRIC WIRING
The labor required to install electric wiring can be estimated by one of three
methods: by assuming a certain cost per outlet, by assuming that labor will cost
a certain percentage of the cost of materials, and by assuming the time required
to perform each operation of the work.
The first two methods may produce a sufficiently accurate estimate if
dependable cost data are available from similar work previously done. If an esti
mate is prepared for a project that is unlike work previously done, it may be dif
ficult to assume costs accurately.
The third method requires the preparation of a list of all materials needed,
by quantity and quality. If the time required to install each item is known, the
total time for the job can be estimated. Electric wiring is usually installed by two
workers, an electrician and a helper, who work together as a team. The time per
operation may be based on labor-hours or team-hours.
TA B L E 21.4 I Representative costs per fittings for rigid conduit.

Size, in.
Fitting i
2
3
4 1 11 2 2-
*2 3 4
For heavy conduit
Couplings $0.73 $0.98 $1.45 $1.82 $2.29 $3.00 $5.32 $9.14 $12.06
Elbows 2.00 2.40 3.64 5.24 6.80 9.84 15.83 23.79 42.62
Locknuts 0.07 0.08 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.55 1.43 1.51 2.52
Bushings 0.10 0.15 0.23 0.27 0.29 0.63 1.07 1.28 1.78
Straps, 2 holes 0.08 0.09 0.15 0.22 0.29 0.40 0.97 1.73 2.62
Condulets 3.25 3.92 7.91 10.87 13.47 22.94 56.02 70.30 127.90
Dr thin-wall conduit
Elbow — 1.44 1.82 2.22 2.85 4.44 10.12 14.50 22.87
Setscrew connectors 0.25 0.40 0.78 1.51 1.82 2.60 7.36 8.74 10.13
Setscrew couplings 0.29 0.40 0.91 1.65 2.56 3.20 7.32 10.34 12.53
Dr PVC schedule 40 conduit:
Conduit bodies 2.08 2.43 2.66 5.05 5.81 10.26 51.17 52.88 57.98
Elbows 0.60 0.66 1.02 1.44 1.98 2.90 5.42 8.44 13.17
Caps 0.86 0.93 1.04 1.45 1.90 2.68 5.75 6.12 13.00
TA B L E 21.5 I TA B L E 21.6 I Representative costs of

Representative costs of nonmetallic cable with ground (Romex).
flexible metal conduit.
B& S Number Cost per
Size, Cost per gauge of wires 1,000 lin ft
in. IOO lin ft 14 2 60.40
1
20.00 12 2 94.80
2
3
28.00 10 2 183.90
4
1 55.00 8 2 344.50
69.00 14 3 115.80
ii
99.00 12 3 169.80
1J
2 155.00 10 3 287.90
8 3 538.00
6 3 722.80
TA B L E 21.7 I Representative costs
of plastic-covered copper wire.
T A B L E 2 1 .8 I Representative costs
Cost per of electrical accessories.
B & S gauge 1,000 lin ft
Item Cost
14THHN solid 30.70
12THHN solid 31.30 Main breaker load center:
10THHN solid 52.50 100 amps $121.29
8 THHN stranded 103.20 150 amps 395.75
6 THW stranded 150.80 200 amps 454.83
4 THW stranded 226.80 Outlet boxes, 4 in., ea. 0.83
2 THW stranded 395.60 Switch boxes, ea. 0.57
1 THW stranded 500.20 Wall plates, ea. 0.38
0 THW stranded 540.00 Switches:
00 THW stranded 620.00 Toggle, single-pole, ea. 4.36
000 THW stranded 820.00 Toggle, three-way, ea. 6.70
0000 THW stranded 1,046.00 Receptacles 4.11
If the estimate is started with the service wires that enter a building, the
estimate should include any work required to bring the wires to the building.
Frequently the utility company will bring the service wires to a building, and the
contractor will install an entrance cap, a conduit, and wires to the meter box,
then install conduit and wires from the meter to a service fuse panel, with the
main switch located within the building. From this panel, as many separate cir
cuits as are necessary are installed throughout the building. Frequently a single
conduit may be used for several circuits for at least a portion of the building,
with individual circuits coming out of junction boxes installed in the main con
duit line.
Wires must be installed from a circuit to each outlet, switch, and plug.
Heavy rigid conduit is installed with threaded couplings, elbows, and lock-
nuts and bushings where it enters boxes. It should be supported with pipe straps
or in some other approved manner, depending on the type of construction used
for the building. This conduit is furnished in 10-ft lengths.
Lightweight rigid conduit is installed with special couplings and connectors.
Flexible conduit, armored, and nonmetallic cable can be bent easily as it is
installed. Usually only end connectors are required where it enters boxes. It can
be installed more rapidly than rigid conduit.
W here conduit, boxes, and accessories are installed in a building under con
struction, especially a concrete building, it may be necessary to keep one or
more electricians on the job most of the time, even though they are unable to
work continuously. This possibility should be considered by an estimator.
W hen 100 ft of straight rigid conduit is installed, the operations will include
connecting 10 joints into couplings, plus the installation of any outlet boxes
required. The installation of an outlet box requires the setting of a locknut and a
bushing for each conduit connected to the box. M ore time will be required for
large than for small conduit. Table 21.9 gives the labor-hours required for
installing conduit.
The installation of a switch, fixture outlet, or plug requires a two-wire cir
cuit from the main circuit to the outlet. The time required will vary with the
length of the run and the type of building. For a frame building, it may be nec
essary to drill one or more holes through lumber, whereas for a masonry build
ing it may be necessary to install the conduit through cells in concrete blocks,
then chip through the wall of a block to install the outlet box.
The wires usually are pulled through the conduit just before the building is
completed.
FINISH ELECTRICAL WORK

Under roughing in electrical work, the conduit, wires, and outlet boxes are
installed. After the building is completed and the surfaces are painted, the fixtures
C hapter 21 Electric Wiring
TABLE 2 1.9 I Labor-hours required to install electric wiring per 100 lin ft.
Class of work Electrician Helper

install service entrance cap and conduit* 0.5-1.0 0 5-1.0
Install conduit and fuse panel* 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0
Install heavy rigid conduit with outlet boxes:
| and | in. 5.0-10.0 5.0-10.0
1 and 1^ in. 7.0-11.0 7.0-11.0
1 j in. 9.0-13.0 9.0-13.0
2 in. 12.0-17.0 12.0-17.0
2 j in. 15.0-21.0 15.0-21.0
3 in. 20.0-28.0 20.0-28.0
4 in. 25,0-35.0 25.0-35.0
Install thin-wall conduit with outlet boxes:
| and j in. 4.0-6.0 4.0-6.0
1 in. 4.3-7.0 4.3-7.0
11 in. 4.5-7.5 4.5-7.5
1j in. 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0
Install flexible conduit with outlet boxes:
\ and | in. 3.0-5.0 3.0-5.0
1 and 1j in. 4.0-6.0 4.0-6.0
Install nonmetallic cable with outlet boxes:
14/2, 12/2, 10/2, and 8/2+ 3.0-6.0 3.0-6.0
14/3, 12/3, 10/3, and 8/3+ 3.5-6.5 3.5-6.5
6/3 and 4/3 4.0-7.0 4.0-7.0
Pull wire through conduit and make end connections, per
circuit:
14, 12, and 10 gauge 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0
8 and 6 gauge 1.0-1.5 1.0-1.5
4 gauge 1.5-2.0 1.5-2.0
2 gauge 2.2-3.2 2.2-3.2
1 gauge 2.7-3.7 2.7-3.7
*T h e u n it in th is c a s e is " e a c h . ”
tT h e n u m b e rs 8 /2 d e s ig n a te tw o w ire s , e a c h n o. 8 g a u g e in a c a b le .
are installed. The costs of fixtures vary so much that a list of prices in this book
would be of little value to an estimator. The costs should be obtained from a cur
rent catalog or jobber.
LABOR REQUIRED TO INSTALL

ELECTRIC FIXTURES
Installing a fixture such as a switch or a plug involves connecting it to the wires
which are already in the outlet box and attaching a cover plate. Installing a ceil
ing or wall fixture such as a light involves securing the fixture to a bracket and
connecting it to the wires. Table 21.10 gives representative labor-hours required
to install electrical fixtures.
T A B L E 2 1 .1 0 I Labor-hours per fixture required to

install electric fixtures.
Class of work Electrician Helper

Install ceiling fixture 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.4
Install wall light 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.4
Install base or floor plug 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2
Install wall switch 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2
Install three-way switch 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.2
PROBLEMS
For these problems use the representative wage rates and the costs of materials listed in
this book. Use an electrician and a helper to do the work.
21.1 Estimate the cost of furnishingand installing 420 lin ft of lj-in. heavy-duty con
duit, including 36 couplings, 12 elbows, and 18 Condulets under average condi
tions.
21.2 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing 680 lin ft of 1-in. heavy rigid conduit,
including 38 couplings, 20 elbows, and 14 Condulets, when the installation is
made in a concrete building under construction. The conditions are such that the
electrician and the helper can work at only about 75 percent of normal efficiency.
21.3 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing the following items in a frame
residence:
1 service fuse panel with switch for six branches
180 lin ft of f-in. light conduit
130 lin ft of ^-in. light conduit
23 junction boxes
28 switch boxes
12 single-pole toggle switches
16 flush receptacles
8§-in. elbows
1 2 f-in. couplings
2 4 1 -in. connectors
18 ^-in. couplings
1 2 j-in. elbows
18 j -in. couplings
48 \ -in. connectors
28 wall plates
320 lin ft of no. 10 gauge plastic-covered copper wire, two wires per circuit
280 lin ft of no. 1 2 plastic-covered copper wire, two wires per circuit
21.4 Estimate the cost of furnishing and installing the wiring for a residence, includ
ing the following items:
20 lin ft of 1 ^-in. heavy rigid conduit
4 l|- in . elbows
2 1 ^ -in. couplings
4 1 5 -in. locknuts and bushings
1 main breaker load center, 150 amps
980 lin ft of no. 12 gauge two-wire nonmetallic cable with ground wire
320 lin ft of no. 14 gauge two-wire nonmetallic cable with ground wire
26 junction boxes, 4 in.
36 switch boxes
36 wall plates
20 flush receptacles, wall plugs
16 single-pole switches
Sewerage Systems
ITEMS INCLUDED IN SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
Sewerage systems include one or more types of pipes and other appurtenances
necessary to permit the system to collect waste water and sewage and transmit
them to a suitable location where they can be disposed of in a satisfactory manner.
A sewerage system can be classified as one of two or more types depending
on its primary function:
1. Sanitary sewer
2. Storm sewer
3. Other
This chapter is devoted to the construction of sanitary sewerage systems.
Among the items included in this system are the following:
1. Sewer pipe and fittings
2. Manholes
3. Service connections
4. Cleanout services
SEWER PIPES
Sewer pipes can be made of one of the following materials:
1. Vitrified clay
2. Ductile iron
3. PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
The properties and other qualities of these pipes may be designated by such
agencies as the American Society for Testing Materials (A STM ), the American
W ater Works Association (AW W A), or another appropriate agency.
406
Chapter 2 2 Sewerage Systems 407
Vitrified clay pipe. This pipe is available in variable diameters, lengths,

and wall thicknesses to enable it to be used under different load
conditions. The pipe has a rubberlike gasket installed in the bell end,
which engages the spigot of the inserted pipe to produce a flexible
watertight joint.
D uctile iron pipe. This pipe is available in various diameters, lengths,
and wall thicknesses. Joints are made by inserting the spigot end of one
pipe into the bell end of another pipe. An O-ring or a rubberlike gasket is
used to produce a watertight flexible joint.
P V C pipe. This pipe is available in various sizes, lengths, and wall
thicknesses. Joints are made by inserting the spigot end of one pipe into
the bell end of the connecting pipe, to produce a flexible watertight joint.
Fittings for Sewer Pipe

Fittings for sewer pipe include single and double wyes, tees, curves, increasers,
decreasers, and stoppers or plugs.
CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS
When a sewerage system is constructed, the operations will include, but may not
be limited to, these:
1. Clearing the right-of-way, if necessary
2. Excavating the trench for the pipe
3. Laying the pipe
4. Excavating the hole for the manhole
5. Placing the manhole in the hole
6. Installing service lines
7. Installing cleanout boots, if required
8. Backfilling with earth over the pipe and manhole
9. Removing surplus earth, if necessary
Equipment Required
The equipment required to install a sewerage system will include, but is not lim
ited to, these items:
1. Trenching machines
a. Wheel-type trencher
b. Ladder-type trencher
c. Backhoe
d. Dragline
2. Combination front-end loader, dozer, pipe handler

3. Truck to dispose of surplus earth
4. Power-type earth compactor
5. Trench braces or shoring, if necessary
6. Dewatering pumps, if necessary
7. Power-operated pipe saw
8. General utility truck
9. Laser beam generator
CONSTRUCTING A SEWERAGE SYSTEM

Typically, sewer lines follow existing grades to ensure a gravity flow system,
otherwise a lift station is necessary. In constructing a sewerage system it is com
mon practice to begin at the outlet end of the pipeline and proceed to the other
end. As the excavation progresses, shores or bracings are installed, if necessary,
to protect against earth cave-ins.
The depth of the trench as excavation progresses is determined by using a
laser beam, which produces a light spot shining on a target mounted on a depth
pole set in the trench from time to time. This beam is set at a slope parallel to
the slope of the bottom of the trench, and it can be used from one setup for sev
eral hundred feet of trench.
Depending on their weights, the pipe and fittings may be lowered into the
trench manually or by a machine. The spigot end of a pipe should be lubricated
with a specified compound, to enable easy insertion into the bell of the connect
ing pipe and to provide a watertight joint.
Manholes
Manholes are installed along sewer lines, usually 300 to 4 0 0 ft apart, to enable
access to the lines for inspection and cleaning. Also, manholes should be
installed at intersections with laterals, at changes in the grade or directions, and
for changes in the size of the pipe.
At one time manholes were constructed with bricks laid in place. But brick
manholes have largely been replaced with precast (Fig. 22 .1 ) or cast-in-place
concrete manholes. When precast manholes are used, the base may be cast at the
bottom of the hole first; then the remainder of the precast manhole will be set on
the base to complete the installation. Another method of constructing a manhole
is to cast the concrete base monolithically with a lower section of the manhole.
This section of the manhole is set in place; then one or more sections are added
to produce the desired depth. At the time the manholes are cast, holes are cast
through the walls to permit pipes of the sewer line to enter or leave the manhole.
Cast-in-place rubberized gaskets are installed to produce watertight seals for the
pipes. The manhole may be cast with an invert at the bottom to permit the
sewage to flow more effectively (see Fig. 22.2).
Chapter 22 Sewerage Systems 409
C ast-iron fra m e and

cover fo r m a nh o le to
PVC wye
FIG U R E 2 2 .2 I Drop connection detail for a manhole.

Cleanout Boots
Cleanout boots are frequently installed at the upper end of sewer lines to enable
easy access to the lines for cleaning and flushing purposes. The boots are made
of cast iron, with a base, throat, and cover, usually set in concrete for stability.
To provide this installation, the last joint of the sewer line ends with a wye,
pointing upward. Sewer pipe of the desired size is extended upward to the boot.
Figure 22.3 illustrates a cleanout boot installation.
Service Branches
When the main pipeline is installed, it may be desirable to provide access to the
pipe for future connections from users of the facility. This provision can be made
by installing wye branches in the main line at the time it is installed. Pipes of
desired sizes can be extended from the wye branch to locations near the surface
of the ground. The ends of the pipe are closed with stoppers, which permits easy
access to the services. Figure 22.4 illustrates representative service line installa
tion. Tables 22.1 through 22.5 give the approximate labor-hours of construction
operations to install sewer lines.
TABLE 2 2 .1 I Labor-hours required to lay PVC sewer pipe,

using joints 20 ft long.
Labor-hours per
100 lin ft
Size pipe, Pipe laid,
in. lin ft/hr Pipe layers Laborers
4 70 1.5 1.5
6 60 1.7 1.7
8 60 1.7 1.7
10 40 2.5 2,5
12 40 2.5 5.0
15 40 2.5 7.5
Chapter 22 Sewerage Systems 4 11
o f centerline o f tee fittin g
FIGURE 2 2 .4 I Sewer connection detail for a sewer line.
TABLE 2 2 .2 I Labor-hours TABLE 2 2 .3 I Machine-hours and labor-hours required

required to backfill and tamp to excavate the earth for manholes, using a backhoe.
earth by hand to 12 in. above the
Hours per manhole
top of the sewer pipe. Depth of
manhole, ft Machine Operator Labor
Size of Labor-hours
Up to 6 0.75 0.75 1.5
pipe, in. per 100 lin ft*
6-9 1.00 1.00 2.0
4 7 9-12 1.25 1.25 3.0
6 9 12-15 1.50 1.50 4.0
8 10
10 11
12 12
15 14
*lf the backfill is placed by machine but

tamped by hand, the number of labor-
hours can be reduced by 50 percent.
TABLE 2 2 .4 I L a b o r-h o u rs re q u ire d to install se rv ic e inlets to sew er

p ip e .
Labor-hours
Size of Length of Pipe Backhoe
inlet, in. inlet, ft layers Helper operator
4 10-15 1.00 1.00 0.50
4 15-20 1.50 1.50 0.75
4 20-30 2.00 2.00 1.00
6 10-15 2.25 2.00 0.50
6 15-20 2.75 2.75 0.75
6 20-30 3.25 3.25 1.00
TABLE 2 2 .5 I L a b o r-h o u rs re q u ire d to install a c le a n o u t boot.
Labor-hours
Backhoe
Depth of
trench, ft Pipe layers Helpers Operator Helper
4-6 1.00 1.00 0.50 0.50
6-8 1.50 1.50 0,75 0.75
8-12 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00
12-15 2.75 2.75 1.25 1.25
EXAMPLE 22.1
Estimate the direct cost of installing a sewerage system requiring the laying of PVC
pipe, fittings, manholes, service connections, and cleanout boots for the given con
ditions.
Length of project: 4,290 lin ft

Size of pipe: 6 in.
Maximum depth of trench: 12.4 ft
Minimum depth of trench: 6.5 ft
Average depth of trench: 8.0 ft
Number of manholes: 14
A verage depth of manholes: 8.0 ft
The project will be constructed in an open and clear area with no obstructions,
land clearing, utility lines, or other items to delay progress. Surplus earth will be
hauled to a disposal site approxim ately 2 mi distant.
The soil will be dense clay, with no groundwater. The trenches will be excavated
with a f-c y backhoe, which will enable the trench walls to assume normal slopes,
with no shoring required. After the pipe is laid, the backfill will be select earth from
along the trench. The backfill around the pipe will be hand-tam ped to a depth of
12 in. above the top of the pipe. The balance of the backfill will be placed by a
bulldozer-loader in 1 2 -in. layers and com pacted with a power-operated tamper.
The manholes will be precast concrete of a type illustrated in Fig. 22.1.
Service inlets will be spaced at 40-ft intervals along the pipeline. Each inlet will
require a wye fitting.
Four cleanout boots will be required.
The quantities of pipe, fittings, manholes, service connections, and cleanout
boots will be as follows:
Total length of pipeline = 4,290 lin ft

Deduct total diameters of manholes:
requiring no pipe, 1 4 x 4 lin ft = - 5 6 lin ft
Subtotal length of pipe = 4,234 lin ft
Number of wyes required: 4,290/40 = 107
D educt length of wyes: 107 x 2 lin ft = - 2 1 4 lin ft
Subtotal length of pipe = 4,020 lin ft
A dd for breakage and waste: 2% = + 8 0 lin ft
Total length of pipe required = 4,100 lin ft
The direct costs will be:

Sewer pipe: 4,100 lin ft @ $8.40 = $34,440.00
Wyes: 4,290 lin ft/40 lin ft = 107 @ $28.50 = 3,049.50
Pipe stoppers: 107 @ $5.76 = 616.32
Joint lubricant: 2 gal @ $9.60 per gal = 19.20
Backhoe: 4,290 lin ft/60 ft/hr = 71 hr @ $64.85 per hr = 4,604.35
Backhoe operator: 71 hr @ $21.67 per hr = 1,538.57
Pipe layer: 71 hr @ $18.10 per hr = $1,285.10
Laborers: 2 x 71 hr = 142 hr @ $15.56 per hr = 2,209.52
Laborers tam ping and backfilling trench:
4,234 lin ft x 5 hr/100 lin ft = 211 hr @ $15.56 per hr = 3,283.16
Bulldozer backfilling trench: 71 hr @ $48.50 per hr = 3,443.50
Bulldozer operator: 71 hr @ $21.67 per hr = 1,538.57
Laser beam generator: 71 hr @ $12.50 per hr = 887.50
Foreman: 71 hr @ $28.50 per hr = 2,023.50
Utility truck: 71 hr @ $11.62 per hr = 825.02
Total cost of pipeline = $59,763.81
Cost per lin ft of pipe: $59,763.81/4,290 lin ft = $13.93/lin ft
Manholes, total no., 14:

Concrete base, 6-ft diameter, 9 in. thick: 14 @ $200.00 = $2,800.00
Manhole barrel, 8 ft deep: 14 @ $675.00 = 9,450.00
Cast-iron ring and cover: 14 @ $213.00 = 2,982.00
Concrete for setting rings:

1 4 x 4 cf/ring = 56 cf @ $2.56/cf 143.36
Backhoe excavating hole @ 1 hr/hole = 14 hr @ $64.85 907.90
Backhoe operator: 14 hr @ $21.67 303.38
Backhoe setting manholes:
14 @ 1 hr each = 14 hr @ $64.85 907.90
Backhoe operator: 14 hr @ $21.67 per hr 303.38
Laborers: 2 x 14 hr = 28 hr @ $15.56 per hr 435.68
Backhoe and loader backfilling earth around manhole:
14 @ 1 hr each = 14 hr @ $64.85 907.90
Laborers tam ping earth around manholes:
14 @ 3 hr each = 42 hr @ $15.56 653.52
Power-operated earth tam per: 14 @ 1 hr each =
14 hr @ $3.22 45.08
Dump truck to haul surplus earth to disposal site:
14 trips @ 1 hr/trip = 14 hr @ $28.50 399.00
Total cost of manholes $20,239.10
Cost per manhole, $20,239.10/14 $1,445.65
Service lines:
Total no. of service lines: 4,290 lin ft/40 lin ft/line = 107
Average cost per service:
20 ft of 4-in. pipe @ $1.34 per lin ft $26.80
4 in. x I bend @ $6.45 25.80
4-in. stopper @ $7.56 7.56
Backhoe excavating trench: \ hr @ $64.85 32.43
Backhoe operator: \ hr @ $21.67 10.84
Pipe layer: \ hr @ $21.97 10.99
Laborer: \ hr @ $15.56 7.78
Total cost per service line $ 122.20
Total cost for 107 service lines: 107 X $122.20 $13,075.40
C leanout boots:
Total number, 14
Average cost per boot:
8 lin ft of 6-in. pipe @ $2.92 per lin ft $23.36
6 in. X ^ bend @ $12.41 12.41
Cleanout casting 11.14
6-in. plug 3.40
I cy concrete @ $75.00 cy 18.75
Pipe layer: 1 hr @ $21.97 21.97
Labor placing pipe and casting: 2 hr @ $15.56 31.12
Trenching machine excavating trench: \ hr @ $64.85 = 32.43

Trenching machine operator: | hr @ $21.67 = 10.84
Total cost per boot = $165.42
Total cost for 4 boots, 4 X $165.42 = $661.68
Total cost for the project:
Pipeline = $59,763.81
Manholes = 20,239.10
Service lines = 13,075.40
Cleanout boots = 661.68
= $93,739.99
Cost per linear foot: $93,739.99/4,290 lin ft = $21,85/lin ft
TRENCHLESS TECHNOLOGY
W hen it is necessary to install new underground utility systems that are located
in congested areas near existing utility lines, it may be desirable to use one of
the modem methods of trenchless technology, rather than the open cut trench
method of utility construction. Trenchless technology includes all the methods
of underground pipeline and conduit installation with minimum or no surface or
subsurface disruption. It includes new installations and pipeline renewal.
Trenchless technology has been developed to address social costs, new safety
regulations, and difficult underground job conditions such as deep ditches, high
water tables, and the existence of natural or artificial obstructions. Social costs are
the costs incurred to the general public: safety hazards and damage to the envi
ronment and public assets such as road pavements. Examples of social costs are
loss of business activity due to road closings, reduced life of pavements due to
trenching, cutting trees and damage to green areas, increased possibility of acci
dents due to trenching and trench cave ins, and noise and air pollution. Safety is
also achieved because the workers remain above ground during the construction
process, rather than entering an open trench or a pipe below grade.
There are several methods of trenchless technology, including horizontal
directional drilling and microtunneling, which are presented in this book.
Horizontal directional drilling is used primarily for installation of underground
cables, gas and water lines, and sewer laterals (see Chapter 23). Microtunneling
is ideally suited for installation of gravity sewer lines where a high degree of
accuracy is required.
MICROTUNNELING
Microtunneling machines are laser-guided, remotely controlled, and have the
capability to install pipeline on precise lines and grades. Microtunneling can be
used to install pipes into almost any type of ground condition up to 150 ft below
the ground surface and up to 1,000 ft in length from the entry drive shaft to the
reception shaft. By definition, microtunneling is a remote-controlled pipe-jacking
operation, and there is no maximum size diameter specified for microtunneling
machines, although most jobs apply to pipe diameters from 24 to 60 in.
Microtunneling is a method of installing pipe below ground, by jacking the
pipe behind a remotely controlled and steerable articulated microtunnel boring
machine (M TBM ). The MTBM, which is connected to and followed by the pipe
that is being installed, bores through the ground as the excavated soil is trans
ported out at the same rate as the boring operation. The minimum depth of cover
above the pipe is generally greater than 6 ft, or 1.5 times the outer diameter of
the pipe being installed. The overcut of the MTBM is usually 1 in. beyond the
outside radius of the pipe. Based on the mode of operation, microtunneling meth
ods can be subdivided into two major groups: slurry method and auger method.
Both microtunneling methods consist of these major components:
1. Microtunnel boring machine
2. Remote control system
3. Active direction control
4. Automated spoil transportation and rate of excavation controls
5. Pipe-jacking equipment suitable for direct installation of the pipe
6. Jacking pipe
MICROTUNNEL BORING MACHINE

Figure 22.5 shows a typical microtunneling operation. An entry shaft, or send
ing shaft, is constructed where the boring operation starts and a receiving shaft
/—Crane or other
Jf lifting device
Truck for removing solids
Tool storage Hydraulic -er Solid separation

pump r@_ system
JZ
Pipe!
Sending shaft - Receiving shaft Depth
.r-Pipe
N 6 to 150 ft
Concrete backing -
/ \ Microtunneling boring
for jacking thrust
machine (MTBM)
Laser —/
W m
Hydraulic jacking frame -Usually 100 to 1,000 ft-
F IG U R E 2 2 .5 I Microtunneling operation.
F IG U R E 2 2 .6 I Lowering MTBM into entry shaft.

Courtesy: Luckinbill, Inc.
is constructed at the end of the boring operation. Figure 22.6 is a view looking
down an entry shaft that shows positioning of the MTBM for the boring opera
tion. A view of the MTBM boring the tunnel is shown in Fig. 22.7. A concrete
thrust block on the back side of the sending shaft provides resistance to the thrust
during the pipe-jacking operation. A hydraulic jacking frame at the bottom of
the sending shaft provides the mechanism to push the pipe. As the MTBM bores
through the soil, additional pipe sections are added. Lowering of an additional
pipe section into the entry shaft is shown in Fig. 22.8.
A laser system provides accurate guidance for the line and grade of the
MTBM. In the slurry microtunneling, a hydraulic pumping system provides
removal of the cuttings of the soil material. The solid soil material is separated
and removed by trucks. In auger microtunneling, the spoil is transported by
rotating augers to the sending shaft.
The MTBM is capable of controlling rotation and roll by means of either a
bidirectional drive on the cutter head or the use of fins or grippers. Electric or
hydraulic motors power the MTBM cutter head. The MTBM is articulated to
enable remote steering of the system.
A display showing the position of the shield in relation to a target is avail
able to the operator on an operation console, together with other information
such as face pressure, roll, pitch, steering attitude, and valve positions. The
MTBM has a closed face system capable of supporting the full excavated area
at all times.
isSs
F IG U R E 2 2 .7 i MTBM boring tunnel for sewer pipe.
F IG U R E 2 2 .8 I Lowering an additional section of sewer pipe.

REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEM

A remote control system enables operation of the microtunneling system with
out the need for personnel to enter the microtunnel. The control equipment
simultaneously integrates the processes of excavation, soil removal, and replace
ment of pipe. As each pipe section is jacked forward, the control system syn
chronizes all of the operational functions of the system. The system provides
complete and adequate ground support at all times.
ACTIVE DIRECTION CONTROL

Line and grade is controlled by a guidance system that relates the actual position
of the MTBM to a design reference, by a laser beam transmitted from the jacking
shaft along the centerline of the pipe to a target mounted in the shield. The MTBM
is capable of maintaining grade to within ± 1 in. and line to within ± 1.5 in.
The active steering information is monitored and transmitted to the operation
console. The minimum steering information available to the operator on the con
trol console usually includes the position relative to the reference, roll, inclination,
attitude, rate of advance, installed length, thrust force, and cutter head torque.
AUTOMATED SPOIL TRANSPORTATION

The automated spoil transportation system should match the excavation rate to
the rate of spoil removal, thereby maintaining settlement or heave within the tol
erance specified in the contract documents. Balancing of groundwater pressures
is achieved by using either a slurry pressure or compressed air for the auger
M TBM system. The system continuously balances the groundwater pressure to
prevent the loss of slurry and/or ground water.
In a slurry spoil transportation system, the groundwater pressure is con
trolled by the use of variable-speed slurry pumps, pressure control valves, and a
flow meter. A slurry bypass unit is included in the system to allow the direction
of flow to be changed and isolated as necessary.
A separation process is provided when using the slurry transportation system.
The process is designed to provide adequate separation of the spoil from the slurry
so that the clean slurry can be returned to the cutting face for reuse. The type of
process used is dependent on the size of the tunnel being constructed, the type
of soil being excavated, and the space available for erecting the plant.
If an auger spoil transportation system is used, the groundwater pressures
are managed by controlling the volume of spoil removed with respect to the
advance rate (earth pressure balance methods) and the application of compressed
air to counterbalance earth pressure and underground water.
JACKING PIPE
In general, pipe used for jacking is round, with a smooth uniform outer surface
and with watertight joints that also enable easy connections between joints. Pipe
lengths m ust be within specified tolerances and pipe ends must be square and
smooth so the jacking loads will be evenly distributed around the entire pipe
joint such that point loads will not occur when the pipe is jacked in a reasonably
straight alignment.
Pipe used for pipe jacking must be capable of withstanding all forces that
will be imposed by the installation process, as well as the loading conditions that
will be applied to the pipe after final installation. The pipe manufacturer speci
fies the required protection against damage to the ends of the pipe and interme
diate joints during the jacking process. The detailed method proposed to cush
ion and distribute the jacking forces is specified for each particular pipe
material.
If a pipe shows signs o f failure, it may be necessary to jack it through to the
reception shaft and remove it. The pipe manufacturer’s design jacking loads
should not be exceeded during the installation process. In general, the ultimate
axial compressive strength of the pipe must be a minimum of 2.5 times the
design jacking loads of the pipe. The pipe materials specially manufactured for
microtunneling operations include vitrified clay pipe, glassfiber reinforced poly
ester (G R P) pipe, reinforced concrete pipe, steel pipe, resin concrete pipe, and
ductile iron pipe.
Pipe-Jacking Equipment
The main jacks are mounted in a jacking frame that is located in the drive (start
ing) shaft. The jacking frame successively pushes the MTBM, along with a
string of connected pipes, toward a receiving shaft. The jacking capacity of the
system must be sufficient to push the MTBM and the string of pipes through the
ground. Calculations are made in advance of the boring operation to determine
the excavation forces, frictional forces, and the weight of the MTBM and pipes.
For larger pipe, it may be necessary to use intermediate jacking stations.
Spreader rings and packing are used to provide a uniform distribution of the
jacking forces on the end of the pipe. A lubricant may be injected at the rear of
the MTBM and through the pipe walls to lower the friction developed on the sur
face of the pipe during the jacking operation.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

MICROTUNNELING METHODS
Microtunnel methods are capable of installing pipes to accurate line and grade
tolerances into all types of soil without extensive dewatering systems that are
sometimes required of open trench construction. The need to load earth is mini
mized, compared to deep burial open trench construction. Utility lines can be
installed without a drastic effect on the cost. The depth factor becomes increas
ingly important as underground congestion is increased, or when a high water
table is encountered. Safety is enhanced because workers are not required to enter
trenches or tunnels, only the entry and receiving shafts. The pipe with sufficient
axial load capacity can be jacked directly in place without the need of a separate
casing pipe.
One of the major disadvantages of microtunneling methods has been the
inability to utilize flexible or low-strength pipes, such as PVC pipe. Other dis
advantages include high capital cost necessary to purchase the microtunneling
equipment and the problems caused by obstructions, such as large boulders,
roots, or old manmade structures.
MICROTUNNELING PROCESS
A breakdown of the procedures for microtunneling include:
1.Mobilization, soil investigation, and setup of equipment
2. Design and construction of entrance and exit shafts
3. Equipment setup
4. Delivery and preparation of pipe section
5. Tunneling operation
6. Retrieving the MTBM
7. Pipe inspection, testing, and demobilization
Prior to any tunneling project, a soil investigation is conducted to determine
the type of soil and the extent of water. The amount and mix of clays, sands,
silts, or clayey gravel must be known to determine the average time for pushing
the pipe. The presence of water determines the amount of water control that will
be necessary for preparation of the entrance and exit shafts. Mobilization
includes transportation of equipment to the jobsite, site preparation, temporary
facilities, and setup of the equipment.
The contractor is responsible for the design and construction of the
entrance and exit shafts. W here water is present, it may be necessary to install
sheet piling, cofferdams, pumping facilities, or other methods of dewatering the
shaft for the microtunneling operation. A shaft-sinking m ethod may be desir
able in areas with high water table and to eliminate the dewatering process. A
hollow, bottomless structure (reinforced concrete) is built on top of the ground
and is lowered into position by excavating material from within and below to
enable the structure to settle by force of gravity. Once the desired depth is
reached, a tremie seal is placed, the shaft is pumped free of water, and a struc
tural bottom is constructed.
After mobilization and construction of the entrance and exit shafts, the
micotunneling equipment is set up, pipe sections are prepared, and the tunneling
operation can be started. A typical crew consists of the microtunneling machine
operator, crane operator, technician, two laborers, and supervisor. Table 22.6
gives the equipment required for a microtunneling project.
Since speed of installation in a microtunneling project is critical, everything
required for the successful installation should be available when needed.
Consideration must be given to alternative or corrective procedures that might
TABLE 2 2 . 6 I Equipment for a microtunneling project.
Tunnel-boring machine
Control room with operator station and control cables
Laser guidance equipment
Pipe-jacking frame and hydraulic pump equipment
Water and slurry tanks for solids separation
Pumps, hoses, and flow meters for slurry and lubricants
Portable compressor, generator, and welding machine
Backhoe for excavating entrance and exit shafts and spoil removal
Crane for hoisting jacking frame and pipe sections into entrance shaft
be required if conditions at the site are different than anticipated. Table 22.7 pro
vides an example of the time and production rates for a microtunneling opera
tion. The actual production rates are dependent on the experience and skills of
the contractor and the operator, and on the project-specific job conditions, such
as surface and subsurface conditions, type of pipe and equipment used, and
degree of planning and preplanning for the project.
T A B L E 2 2 .7 I Illustration of typical times and production rates for

microtunneling.
Type of work Time

Mobilization and installation of microtunneling equipment 5 days
Production rate for pushing a 24-in.-dia. 8-ft pipe section
Clay 1.5 in./min
Silt 4.0 in./min
Sand 5.5 in./min
Clayey gravel 2.0 in./min
Time for installation of a 24-in.-dia 8-ft pipe section
Clay 3.1 hr
Silt 1.7 hr
Sand 1.5 hr
Clayey gravel 2.2 hr
Demobilization and loading equipment 3 days
Water Distribution Systems
COST OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The cost of a water distribution system will include the materials, equipment,
labor, and supervision to accomplish some or all of the following:
1. Clear the right-of-way for the trench.
2. Remove and replace pavement.
3. Excavate and backfill trenches.
4. Relocate utility lines.
5. Install pipe.
6. Install fittings.
7. Install valves and boxes.
8. Install fire hydrants.
9. Install service connections, meter, and meter boxes.
10. Drill holes under roads and pavements, and install casings for pipeline.
11. Test and disinfect water pipe.
PIPELINES
The following types of pipes are used for water systems:
1. Cast iron
a. Bell and spigot
b. Mechanical j oint
c. Push-on joint, or gasket-seal joint
d. Threaded
e. Cement-lined
423
2. Steel
a. Threaded, black or galvanized
b. Welded, plain or cement-lined
3. Reinforced concrete
a. Prestressed
b. Nonprestressed
4. Brass and copper
5. Lead
6. Plastic
BELL-AND-SPIGOT CAST-IRON PIPE

Bell-and-spigot pipe is cast with a bell on one end and a spigot on the other.
Joints are made by inserting the spigot end into the bell of an adjacent pipe,
caulking one or two encircling strands of yarning material into the bell, then fill
ing the balance of the bell with a specified jointing material, such as lead,
cement, or an approved substitute. Fittings and valves are installed in a pipeline
in the same manner. A joint of pipe may be cut if necessary to enable a fitting
or valve to be installed at a designated location.
The inside surface of cast-iron pipe can be lined with Portland cement to
reduce tuberculation.
Several types of cast-iron pipe are available. Table 23.1 gives the weights of
bell-and-spigot and push-on joint pipe cast in metal molds, for water and other
liquids.
T A B L E 23.1 I Weight of bell-and-spigot and push-on joint cast-iron centrifugally cast in metal molds, AWWA
C106-70 or ANSI A21.6-1970, Ib/lin ft.
Internal water Internal water Internal water Internal water

pressure pressure pressure pressure
Pipe
1 00 Ib/sq. in. 1 50 Ib/sq. in. 2 0 0 Ib/sq. in. 250 Ib/sq. in.
size,
in. 18-ft pipe 20-ft pipe 18-ft pipe 20-ft pipe 18-ft pipe 20-ft pipe 18-ft pipe 20-ft pipe
3 12.0 11.9 12.0 11.9 12,0 11.9 12.0 11.9
4 16.1 16.0 16.1 16.0 16.1 16.0 16.1 16.0
6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6
8 36.9 36.8 36.9 36.8 36.9 36.8 36.9 36.8
10 49.0 48.7 49.0 48.7 49.0 48.7 49.0 48.7
12 63.4 63.1 63.4 63.1 63.4 63.1 68.3 67.9
14 78.2 77.8 78.2 77.8 83.8 83.4 89.5 89.0
16 94.5 94.0 94.5 94.0 100.9 100.4 109.0 108.4
18 113.9 113.3 113.9 113.3 122.8 122.2 131.8 131.1
20 134.9 134.2 134.9 134.2 144.9 144.2 154.8 154.0
24 177.3 176.4 189.4 188.4 203.6 202.6 203.6 202.6
Chapter 23 Water Distribution Systems 425
PUSH-ON JOINT CAST-IRON PIPE

This pipe, which can also be identified as gasket-type joint, or gasket-seal joint,
has a built-in rubber-type gasket in the bell or hub that produces a watertight
joint when the spigot end of the joining pipe is forced into the bell. This is now
the most widely used type of cast-iron pipe in the water service.
The American W ater Works Association (A W W A) and the American
National Standards Institute (A NSI) specify the same laying lengths, properties,
and weights for this pipe as for bell-and-spigot cast-iron pipe for service under
the same water pressure. Thus the information appearing in Table 23.1 applies
to this pipe.
FITTINGS FOR BELL-AND-SPIGOT

CAST-IRON PIPE
Fittings for bell-and-spigot cast-iron pipe include tees, crosses, bends, reducers,
etc. The fittings can be purchased with any desired combination of bells and
spigots. The joints are made with the same materials that are used in joining the
pipelines.
Table 23.2 gives the approximate weight of lead and jute required per joint
for cast-iron pipe and fittings.
T A B L E 2 3 .2 I Approximate weights of lead and jute required per joint for cast-iron
pipe and fittings.
Weight of lead, lb Weight of jute, lb

Per lin ft Per lin ft
Size Per Per
pipe, in. joint 12-ftpipe 18-ft pipe joint 12-ft pipe 18-ft pipe
3 6 50 0 54 0 36 0 .1 8 0 .0 1 5 0 .0 1 0
4 8 .0 0 0 .6 7 0 .4 5 0.21 0 .0 1 8 0 .0 1 2
6 11.25 0 .9 4 0 .6 3 0.31 0 .0 2 6 0 .0 1 7
8 14.50 1.21 0.81 0 .4 4 0 .0 3 7 0 .0 2 5
10 1 7.5 0 1.46 0 .9 7 0 .5 3 0 .0 4 4 0 .0 3 0
12 2 0 .5 0 1.71 1.14 0.61 0.051 0 .0 3 4
14 2 4 .0 0 2 .0 0 1.33 0.81 0 .0 6 8 0 .0 4 5
16 3 3 .0 0 2 .75 1.84 0 .9 4 0 .0 7 8 0 .0 5 2
18 3 6 .9 0 3 .0 7 2 .0 5 1.00 0 .0 8 3 0 .0 5 6
20 4 0 .5 0 3 .3 7 2 .2 5 1.25 0 .1 0 4 0 .0 7 0
24 5 2 .5 0 4 .3 8 2 .9 2 1.50 0 .1 2 5 0 .0 8 4
30 6 4 .7 5 5 .4 0 3 .6 0 2 .0 6 0 .1 7 2 0 .1 1 5
36 7 7 .2 5 6 .4 5 4 .3 0 3 .0 0 0 .2 5 0 0 .1 6 7
42 104 .25 8 .7 0 5 .8 0 3 .5 0 0 .2 9 2 0 .1 9 5
48 1 19 .00 9 .9 3 6 .6 2 4 .0 0 0 .3 3 4 0 .2 2 2
MECHANICAL-JOINT CAST-IRON PIPE

A joint for this pipe is made by inserting the plain end of one pipe into the socket
of an adjoining pipe, then forcing a gasket ring into the socket by means of a
cast-iron gland, which is drawn to the socket by tightening bolts through the
gland and socket. Fittings are installed in a similar manner. Joints may be made
quickly with an unskilled crew, an ordinary ratchet wrench being the only tool
required.
Table 23.3 gives the weights of mechanical-joint cast-iron pipe for working
pressures of 100, 150, 200, and 2 5 0 lb/sq. in. for 18- and 20-ft lengths. In some
locations, 16-ft lengths are available.
T A B L E 2 3 .3 I Weights of mechanicai-joint cast-iron pipe centrifugally cast in metal molds, AWWA C106-70 or
ABSI A21.6-1970. Ib/lin ft.
internal water Internal water Internal water Internal water

pressure pressure pressure' pressure
Pipe
1 0 0 lb/sq. in. 1 50 lb/sq. in. 2 0 0 lb/sq. in. 2 5 0 lb/sq. in.
size,
in. 18-ft pipe 2 0 -ft pipe 18-ft pipe 2 0 -ft pipe 18-ft pipe 2 0 -ft pipe 18-ft pipe 2 0 -ft pipe
3 12.0 11.9 12.0 11.9 12.0 11.9 12.0 11.9
4 16.2 16.1 16.2 16.1 1 6.2 16.1 16.2 16.1
6 2 5.5 2 5 .4 2 5 .5 2 5.4 2 5.5 2 5.4 2 5 .5 2 5.4
8 3 6 .4 3 6 .2 3 6 .4 3 6.2 3 6 .4 3 6 .2 3 6 .4 3 6 .2
10 4 8 .2 4 8 .0 4 8 .2 4 8 .0 4 8 .2 4 8 .0 4 8 .2 4 8 .0
12 6 2 .6 6 2 .3 6 2 .6 6 2 .3 6 2.6 6 2.3 6 7 .4 67.1
14 7 8 .2 7 7 .8 7 8 .2 7 7 .8 8 3.8 8 3 .4 8 9 .4 8 9 .0
16 9 4.5 9 4.0 9 4 .5 9 4 .0 100.9 100.3 108.9 108.3
18 1 13 .9 1 13 .2 113.9 1 13.2 1 22 .8 1 22 .2 131.7 131.0
20 1 34 .9 1 34 .2 134.9 134.2 1 44.9 1 44.2 1 54 .8 154.1
24 1 77 .2 176.2 189.2 188.2 2 0 3 .5 2 0 2 .6 2 0 3 .5 2 0 2 .6
VALVES
Valves for cast-iron water pipes are usually cast-iron body, bronze-mounted,
bell or hub type. Gate valves should be used. A cast-iron adjustable-length valve
box should be installed over each wrench-operated valve to permit easy access
when it is necessary to operate the valve.
SERVICE LINES
Service lines are installed from the water pipes to furnish water to the customers.
These lines usually include a bronze corporation cock, which is tapped into the
water pipe, copper pipe extending to the property line or meter, a bronze curb
cock, and a meter set in a box. Customers install the service pipe from the meter
to their house or business.
FIRE HYDRANTS
Fire hydrants are specified by the type of construction, size of valve, sizes and
number of hose connections, size of hub for connection to the water pipe, and
depth of bury. It is good practice to install a gate valve between each hydrant
and the main water pipe, so that the water can be shut off in the event repairs
to the hydrant are necessary.
TESTS OF WATER PIPES

Specifications usually require the contractor to subject the water pipe to a hydro
static test after it has been laid, prior to backfilling the trenches. If any joints
show excessive leakage, they must be recaulked. It is common practice to lay
several blocks of pipe, install a valve temporarily, and subject the section to a
test. If a test satisfies the specifications, the valve is removed and the trench is
immediately backfilled. Additional lengths are laid and tested. This procedure is
repeated until the system is completed.
STERILIZATION OF WATER PIPES

Prior to placing a water distribution system in service, it should be thoroughly
sterilized. Chlorine is most frequently used to sterilize water pipes. It should be
fed continuously into the water that is used to flush the pipe lines. After the pipes
are filled with chlorinated water, the water is permitted to remain in the pipes for
the specified time; then it is drained, and the pipes are flushed and placed in ser
vice.
COST OF CUTTING CAST-IRON PIPE

Cast-iron pipe may be cut with chisels or with chain cutters. Chisel cutting is
done by two or more laborers using a steel chisel with a wood handle and a 6-
to 8-lb hammer. Chain cutters can be operated by hand for pipes up to 12 in.
diameter, but for larger pipes a power-driven cutter should be used.
Machines are available that can cut 10- to 60-in.-diameter pipe. It requires
60 to 70 cf/min of air at a pressure of 85 lb/sq. in. The saw is a portable milling
machine on wheels, which travels around the pipe under two silent-type chains,
which hold the machine to the pipe and act as a flexible ring gear for the feed
sprockets. The machine moves, while the chains remain stationary. A complete
cut is made in 1 revolution (r ) around the pipe. It will require 1 min of cutting
time for each inch of pipe diameter. Thus a 24-in. pipe is cut in 24 min of cut
ting time. An experienced crew of two individuals can install the machine on a
pipe in approximately 15 min.
The total time allowed for cutting cast-iron pipe should include measuring,
supporting on skids, if necessary, and cutting. In cutting pipe larger than 24 to
30 in., it may be necessary to use a crane to handle the pipe. Table 23.4 gives
TABLE 2 3 .4 I Approximate time required to cut cast-iron pipe.
Hand cutting
Size
With chisel With chain cutter Power cutting, hr
pipe,
in. Skilled Laborer Skilled Laborer Skilled Laborer
4 0 .3 0 0 .3 0 0 .2 5 0.2 5
6 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .4 0 0.4 0
8 0 .6 0 0 .6 0 0 .5 5 0 .5 5
10 0 .9 0 0 .9 0 0 .8 0 0 .8 0 0 .6 0 0 .6 0
12 0 .9 5 1.90 0.8 5 1.70 0 .6 3 1.26
14 1.10 2.20 — — 0.66 1.32
16 1.25 2.5 0 — — 0 .7 0 1.40
18 1.40 2 .8 0 — — 0 .7 5 1.50
20 1.50 4 .5 0 — — 0 .8 0 2 .4 0
24 1.65 6 .6 0 — — 0 .8 5 3 .4 0
3 0* 1.25 3 .7 5 — — 0 .9 5 2 .85
36* 1.50 4 .5 0 — — 1.00 3 .0 0
42* 2.00 6.00 — — 1.10 3 .3 0
48* 2 .4 0 7 .20 — — 1.20 3 .6 0
54* 2 .8 0 8 .4 0 — — 1.30 3 .9 0
60* 3 .2 0 9 .6 0 — — 1.50 4 .5 0
*For pipes larger than 24 in. diameter, include the cost of a crane and an operator to handle the pipe.
the approximate time in hours required to cut various sizes of cast-iron pipe. The
time given includes measuring, setting up, and cutting for average conditions.
LABOR REQUIRED TO LAY CAST-IRON PIPE

The installation of bell-and-spigot cast-iron pipe will include some of or all the
following operations:
1. Cutting the pipe, if necessary
2. Lowering the pipe into the trench
3. Inserting the spigot into the bell
4. Yarning the bell
5. Attaching a runner and pouring the lead
6. Removing the runner and caulking the lead
Each joint of pipe is lowered into the trench by hand or with an excavator,
crane, tractor-mounted side boom, or other suitable equipment. After the spigot
end is forced into the bell to full depth, two or more strands of yarning, which
completely encircle the pipe, are caulked into the bell to center the pipe and to
prevent molten lead from flowing into the pipe. A runner is placed around the
pipe against the bell, with an opening near the top to enable molten lead to be
poured into the joint. The lead for a joint should be poured in one continuous
operation, without interruption. After the lead cools to the temperature of the
pipe, the runner is removed and the lead is caulked by hand or with a pneumatic
caulking hammer.
The size of crew required to lay the pipe and the rate of laying will vary con
siderably with the following factors:
1. Class of soil
2. Extent of groundwater present
3. Depth of trench
4. Extent of shoring required
5. Extent of obstruction such as utilities, sidewalks, pavement
6. Size of pipe
7. Method of lowering pipe into trench
8. Extent of cutting required for fittings and valves
Often, water lines are installed above sewer lines. The depth of water lines
are placed below the frost line. Since water lines are under pressure, they can be
routed up or down, rather than following grade to ensure gravity flow like sewer
lines.
The crew required to dig the trenches, lay the pipe, and backfill the trenches
for 12-in. pipe furnished in 18-ft lengths, using a tractor-mounted side boom to
lower the pipe into the trench, in trenches 3 to 6 ft deep in firm earth, with no
groundwater and no shoring needed, might include:
1 trenching machine operator
2 laborers on bell holes
1 tractor operator
2 laborers on pipe
2 workers centering pipe and installing yarning
1 person melting and supplying lead
1 person installing runners and pouring lead
2 workers caulking lead joints by hand*
1driver for utility truck
1bulldozer operator backfilling trench
1foreman
A crew should install four to six joints per hour, either pipe or fittings. The
length of pipe laid will vary from 72 to 108 ft/hr, with 90 ft/hr a fair average for
the conditions specified.
Table 23.5 gives representative labor-hours required to lay cast-iron pipe in
trenches 3 to 6 ft deep in firm soil with little or no shoring required, and no
groundwater, using caulked lead joints. For pipe laid under other conditions, the
*If the joints are caulked with a pneumatic hammer, use only one person. It will be necessary to
include the cost of an air compressor, hose, and hammer.
T A B L E 2 3 .5 I Labor-hours required to lay 100 lin ft of cast-iron pipe with lead joints.
Labor-hours
Size Pipe Trenching
pipe, laid, machine Tractor Truck Kettle Pipe
in. ft/hr operator operators driver operator layers* Laborers* Foreman
4 120 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 1.66 4.15 0.83
6 110 0.91 1.82 0.91 0.91 2.73 4.55 0.91
8 100 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 6.00 1.00
10 95 1.05 2.10 1.05 1.05 3.15 6.30 1.05
12 90 1.10 2.20 1.10 1.10 4.40 6.60 1.10
14 85 1.17 2.34 1.17 1.17 4.68 7.02 1.17
16 80 1.25 2.50 1.25 1.25 6.25 7.50 1.25
18 70 1.43 2.86 1.43 1.43 7.15 8.58 1.43
20 60 1.67 3.34 1.67 1.67 8.35 10.02 1.67
24 50 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 10.00 12.00 2.00
•Includes workers pouring lead and caulking joints by hand. If the joints are caulked with a pneumatic hammer, reduce the time by one-third.
+lncludes the workers digging bell holes and handling and centering the pipe. Five workers are used for the 4- and 6-in. pipe and six for the other
sizes.
labor-hours should be altered to fit the conditions for the particular project. If a
crane is used to lower the pipe, replace the tractor operator with a crane operator.
LABOR REQUIRED TO LAY CAST-IRON PIPE

WITH MECHANICAL JOINTS
The operations required to lay cast-iron pipe with mechanical joints include low
ering the pipe into the trench, installing the gasket and gland on the spigot, cen
tering the pipe in the bell, pushing the gasket into the bell, and setting the gland
by tightening the bolts. The nuts may be tightened with a hand or pneumatic
wrench.
The crew required to dig the trench, lay 12-in. pipe furnished in 18-ft
lengths, and backfill the trenches for trenches 3 to 6 ft deep in firm earth with no
shoring needed might include the following:
2 laborers on bell holes
1 tractor operator
2 laborers on pipe
2 workers installing gland and gasket and centering pipe
1 person tightening nuts
1 driver for utility truck
1 bulldozer operator backfilling trench
1 foreman
Chapter 23 Water Distribution Systems 4 31
A crew should lay five to seven joints per hour, either pipe or fittings. The
length of pipe laid will vary from 90 to 136 ft/hr, with 100 ft/hr a fair average.
Table 23.6 gives representative labor-hours required to lay cast-iron pipe
with mechanical joints in trenches 3 to 6 ft deep in firm soil with little or no
shoring required and no groundwater. For pipe laid under other conditions, the
labor-hours should be altered to fit the conditions of the particular job. If a crane
is used to lower the pipe, replace the tractor operator with a crane operator.
T A B L E 2 3 .6 I Labor-hours required to lay 100 lin ft of cast-iron pipe with mechanical joints.
Labor-hours
Size Pipe Trenching
pipe, laid, machine Tractor Truck Pipe
in. ft/hr operator operators driver layers Laborers Foreman
4 140 0.72 1.44 0.72 1.44 3.60 0.72
6 130 0.77 1.54 0.77 1.54 3.85 0.77
8 120 0.83 1.66 0.83 1.66 4.15 0.83
10 110 0.91 1.82 0.91 1.82 4.55 0.91
12 100 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 5.00 1.00
14 90 1.11 2.22 1.11 2.22 5.55 1.11
16 85 1.18 2.36 1.18 2.36 5.90 1.18
18 80 1.25 2.50 1.25 2.50 6.25 1.25
20 75 1.33 2.66 1.33 2.66 6.65 1.33
24 65 1.54 3.08 1.54 3.08 7.70 1.54
30 55 1.82 3.64 1.82 3.64 9.10 1.82
LABOR REQUIRED TO LAY PUSH-ON JOINT

CAST-IRON PIPE
The operations required to lay cast-iron pipe and fittings with push-on joints
include cutting the pipe to length, if necessary, lowering the pipe and fittings
into the trench, using a tractor with a side boom or a crane, then forcing the
spigot end of the pipe being laid into the bell end of the pipe previously laid. Bell
holes should be dug in the trench for proper bedding of the pipe and joints.
The crew required to dig the trench, lay the pipe, and backfill the trench will
vary with the requirements of the job, including the method of backfilling the
earth around and over the top of the pipe.
Consider a project which requires the laying of 12-in. push-on joint cast-
iron water pipe for a pressure of 150 lb/sq. in. in 18-ft lengths, in a trench whose
depth will vary from 4 to 6 ft in a soil that will not require shores or side sup
port for the trenches. The pipe will be laid in a new subdivision of a city, under
average conditions.
The trench, which will be 30 in. wide, will be dug with a gasoline-engine-
operated wheel type of trenching machine. The backfill must be of select earth,
free of rocks, hand-placed, and compacted to a depth of 6 in. above the top of
the pipe. The rest of the backfill may be placed with a bulldozer and compacted
by running the bulldozer along the trench over the backfill, requiring an esti
mated three or four passes of the bulldozer.
The compaction around and 6 in. over the top of the pipe will be obtained
from using a hand-operated gasoline-engine type of self-contained tamper.
The pipe will be lowered into the trench with a tractor-mounted side boom.
The pipe will be laid along one side of the trench prior to digging the trench.
The crew should lay four to seven joints per hour, for either pipe or fittings.
For pipes furnished in 18-ft lengths, the total length laid should vary from 72 to
136 ft/hr with 100 ft/hr representing a reasonable average rate.
The crew might include:
2 laborers cleaning trench and digging bell holes
1 tractor operator lowering pipe into trench
1 laborer assisting tractor operator
2 laborers in trench handling pipe
1 pipe layer with pipe and fittings
2 laborers backfilling trench
1 laborer operating tamper
1 bulldozer operator backfilling trench
1 foreman
Table 23.7 gives representative labor-hours required to lay push-on joint
cast-iron pipe in trenches whose depths average around 6 ft, in firm soil with lit
tle or no shoring required, with no groundwater, and no major obstacles to delay
the progress.
T A B L E 2 3 .7 I Representative labor-hours required to lay 100 lin ft of push-on joint cast-iron pipe.*
Labor-hours
Sne Pipe Trenching
pipe, laid, machine Tractor Truck Pipe
in. ft/hr operator operators driver layers Laborers Foreman
4 140 0.72 1.44 0.72 0.72 5.70 0.72
6 130 0.77 1.54 0.77 0.77 6.15 0.77
8 120 0.83 1.66 0.83 0.83 6.65 0.83
10 110 0.91 1.82 0.91 0.91 7.25 0.91
12 100 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 8.00 1.00
14 90 1.11 2.22 1.11 1.11 8.88 1.11
16 85 1.18 2.36 1.18 1.18 9.44 1.18
18 80 1.25 2.50 1.25 1.25 10.00 1.25
20 75 1.33 2.67 1.33 1.33 10.64 1.33
24 65 1.54 3.08 1.54 1.54 12.32 1.54
*lf for a given job the estimated number of feet of pipe laid per hour differs from the values given in this table, the information in the table can be
used. If the estimated rate of laying 8-in. pipe is 100 ft/hr, the labor-hours for a rate of 100 ft/hr should be used.
In some locations it may be necessary to reclassify some of the individuals

of the crew into semiskilled or skilled ratings.
COST OF A CAST-IRON PIPE WATER

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
In estimating the cost of installing a water distribution system, the estimator
must consider the many variables that will influence the cost of the project. No
two projects are alike. For one project, there may be very favorable conditions,
such as a relatively level terrain, free of trees and vegetation, out in the open
with no obstructions, no rocks, no groundwater, no utility pipes, and no pave
ment, and little rain to delay the project. The equipment may be in good physi
cal condition. The construction gang may be well organized and experienced.
The specifications may not require rigid exactness in construction methods,
tests, and cleanup. For another project the conditions may be entirely different,
with rough terrain, restricted working room (as in alleys), considerable rock,
pavement, and unmarked utility pipes to contend with, as well as groundwater
and rain. The equipment may be in poor physical condition, and the construction
gang may be poorly organized, with inexperienced workers. The specifications
may be very rigid regarding construction methods, tests, and cleanup. As a result
of the effect of these variable factors, an estimator should be very careful about
using cost data from one project as the basis of estimating the probable cost of
another project, especially if the conditions are appreciably different. The fol
lowing example is intended to illustrate a method of estimating the cost of a
water distribution system, but it should not be used as the basis of preparing an
estimate without appropriate modifications to fit the particular project.
EXAMPLE 2 3 .1
Estimate the cost per unit in place for a cast-iron pipe water distribution system con
sisting of the indicated quantities for each item.
The cast-iron pipe will be AWWA push-on joint for 150-lb/sq. in. water pressure,
in 18-ft lengths. The fittings will be push-on joint AWWA class D.
The quantities will be:
3,964 lin ft of 12-in. pipe

8 each 1 2 x 1 2 x 8 x 8 all bell crosses
6 each 12 x 12 x 6 x 6 all bell crosses
9 each 12 x 12 x 6 all bell tees
2 each cast-iron body bronze-m ounted 1 2 -in. gate valves
2 each cast-iron valve boxes for 3-ft 0-in. depth
84 each dom estic water services including for each service:
1 corporation cock, f in.
30-lin-ft average length of f-in. type-K copper pipe
2 copper-to-steel pipe couplings, | in.

1 brass curb cock, f in.
1 water meter, f-in. disk type
1 cast-iron meter box with cover
The trenches for the pipe will be dug to an average depth of 3 ft 6 in. and 30 in.
wide, by using a w heel-type trenching machine. The soil is firm, sandy clay that will
not require shores or trench supports. In backfilling the trench around and over the
pipe, the earth will be placed by hand and com pacted to a depth of 6 in. above the
top of the pipe, by using a self-contained gasoline-engine-operated tamper.
The pipe and fittings will be distributed along the trenches prior to digging the
trenches. The cost of the pipe and fittings includes furnishing and delivering the
materials along the trenches. Assume that the job conditions will perm it the pipe to
be laid at a rate of 80 lin ft/hr.
Use Table 23.7 to estimate the cost of labor.
The cost per unit will be:
1 2 -in. cast-iron pipe:

Pipe delivered to job, per lin ft = $47.85
Trenching machine: $52.00 per hr/80 ft/hr = 0.65
Tractor lowering pipe: $42.50 per hr/80 ft/hr = 0.53
Bulldozer backfilling trench: $46.25 per hr/80 ft/hr = 0.59
Pipe cutter:
36 cuts X 0.25 hr per cut = (9 hr x $12.50)/3,964 = 0.03
Utility truck: $11.62/80 ft/hr = 0.15
Earth tam per: $3.22 per hr/80 ft/hr = 0.04
Trenching machine operator: $21,97/80 ft/hr = 0.27
Tractor operator: $20.67 per hr/80 ft/hr = 0.26
Bulldozer operator: $20.67 per hr/80 ft/hr = 0.26
Truck driver: $15.56 per hr/80 ft/hr = 0.19
Pipe layer: $21.67 per hr/80 ft/hr = 0.27
Laborers: 8 x $15.56 per hr/80 ft/hr = 1.56
Foreman: $28.50 per hr/80 ft/hr = 0.36
Testing and sterilizing pipe = 0.18
Total direct cost per lin ft = $53.19
Total cost for pipe: 3,964 lin ft x $53.19 per lin ft = $210,845.16
ast-iron fittings, per unit, delivered to the job:

1 2 - x 1 2 -in. fitting crosses or tees = $473.60
Trenching machine: 4 lin ft x $0,363 per lin ft = 1.45
Trenching machine operator: 4 lin ft X $0,473 per lin ft = 1.89
Assume that 0.5 hr is required to place fitting in trench
Tractor lowering fitting in trench: 0.5 hr x $46.90 per hr = 23.45

Tractor operator: 0.5 hr x $21.97 per hr = 10.99
Labor helping place fitting: 0.5 hr x $15.56 = 7.78
Pipe layer installing fitting: 0.5 hr x $21.75 = 10 .88
Helper for pipe layer: 0.5 hr x $15.56 per hr = 7.78
Foreman: 0.5 hr x $28.50 per hr = 14.25
Testing and sterilizing fittings = 1.13
Utility truck and tools: 0.5 hr x $11.62 per hr = 5.81
Total direct cost per fitting = $559.01
1 2 -in. gate valves, delivered to the job, per valve = $1,647.00
Labor digging 2 bell holes: 0.25 hr x $15.56 per hr = 3.89
Pipe layer installing valve: 0.5 hr x $21.67 per hr = 10.84
Laborer helping pipe layer: 0.5 hr x $15.56 per hr = 7.78
Labor backfilling around box: 1 hr x $15.56 per hr = 15.56
Foreman: 0.25 hr x 28.50 per hr = 7.13
Utility truck and tools: 0,5 hr x $11.62 per hr = 5.81
Total direct cost per valve = $1,698.01
Valve boxes, delivered to the job, per valve:
Valve box with lid = $69.24
Labor installing box: 0.5 hr x $15.56 per hr = 7.78
Labor backfilling around box: 0.5 hr x $15.56 per hr = 7.78
Foreman: 0.25 hr x $28.50 per hr = 7.13
Utility truck and tools: 0.25 hr X $11.62 per hr = 2.91
Total direct cost per box = $91.84
Domestic water services, per service:
Corporation cock: § in. = $23.68
C opper pipe: § in., 30 lin ft X 1.75 per lin ft = 52.50
C opper-to-steel pipe couplings: 2 x $6.51 = 13.02
Curb cock: § in. = 16.30
W ater meter: § in. = 37.10
Meter box with cover = 23.36
Hauling material to job = 5.10
Power-operated trenching machine:
0.5 hr x $52.30 per hr = 26.15
Trenching m achine operator: 0.5 hr x $21.97 per hr = 10.99
Labor tapping cast-iron pipe and installing corporation cock:
1 hr x $15.56 per hr = 15.56
Pipe layer installing co p p e r pipe, meter, and meter
box: 1.5 hr X $21.67 per hr = 32.51
Labor backfilling trench: 1 hr x $15.56 per hr 15.56

Helper for pipe layer: 1.5 hr x $15.56 per hr 23.34
Foreman: 1 hr x $28.50 per hr 28.50
Utility truck and tools: 0.5 hr x $11.62 per hr 5.81
Total direct cost per service = $329.48
Compilation of costs:
Pipe: 3,964 lin ft x $53.19 per lin ft 210,845.16
Cast-iron fittings: 23 x $559.01 each 12,857.23
Gate valves: 2 x $1,698.01 each 3,396.02
Valve boxes: 2 x $91.84 each 183.68
Domestic water services: 84 x $329.48 each 27,676.32
Total direct cost of project = $254,958.41
HORIZONTAL DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Horizontal directional drilling (H DD) is frequently used for installation of water
lines. It is also used for installation of gas lines and underground cables for
phone and fiber optic cables. In recent years, HDD has been used for gravity
pipelines and, with increased accuracy of locating and tracking equipment and
improvement in methods, this trend is growing. The term directional drilling is
used to describe the unique ability to track the location of the drill bit and steer
it during the drilling process. The accuracy of installation depends on the survey
system that is used and the skill of the operator. Generally the accuracy is within
1 percent of the length.
Directional or horizontal directional drilling methods involve steerable tun
neling systems for both small- and large-diameter lines. HDD usually is a two-
stage process. The first stage consists of drilling a small-diameter pilot hole
along the desired centerline of a proposed line. The second stage consists of
enlarging the pilot hole to the desired diameter to accommodate the utility line
and pulling the utility line through the enlarged hole.
All directional methods consist of a drilling unit to form the borehole and a
survey system to locate the drill head. The drilling process is accomplished
either by mechanical cutting using a drill bit or by fluid cutting with high-pressure
jets, or a combination of both. There are a variety of survey systems that have
been patented by different manufacturers. The choice of a particular system will
largely depend on the type of job, the site conditions and accessibility, operator
skill, finances available, etc.
Unlike microtunneling, presented in Chapter 22 for sewer construction, hor
izontal directional drilling usually does not require entrance shafts or receiving
shafts. However, it is advisable to dig a small pit at the entrance and receiving
locations to collect drilling fluids. The working area should be reasonably level,
firm, and suitable for movement of the HDD machine. At the receiving end, suf
ficient room is required so the complete string of pipeline can be fitted together
and aligned with the proposed borehole.
Classifications of HDD
The HDD methods can be divided into four categories: micro-HDD, mini-HDD,
medium- or midi-HDD, and large- or maxi-HDD (usually called HDD). For
comparison, micro-HDD applies to drive lengths less than 150 ft and pipe diam
eters up to 6 in. Mini-HDD is typically restricted to drive lengths less than 600 ft
and pipe diameters less than 10 in. Micro- and mini-HDD are used primarily in
the telecommunication industry for shallow-depth installation of underground
cables and gas lines. Due to limitations of tracking systems of micro- and mini-
HDD, the depths for these installations are limited to around 15 ft. In contrast,
the maxi-HDD systems have elaborate guidance systems that can install pipes to
depths such as 200 ft. The mini-HDD systems can be launched from a curb,
whereas the maxi-HDD systems require substantial space, 150 by 2 5 0 ft. Table
23.8 provides a comparison of the different HDD systems.
T A B L E 2 3 .8 I Comparisons of horizontal directional drilling systems.
Product pipe Utility Bore Typical

System diameter, in. depth, ft length, ft applications
Micro-HDD 2-6 13 150 Cables, gas, water, sewer
laterals
Mini-HDD 2-10 15 600 Cables, pressure pipelines
Midi-HDD 10-24 75 900 Pressure pipelines
Maxi-HDD 24-63 200 5,000 Pressure pipelines
PROCEDURE FOR HORIZONTAL

DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
The directional drilling operation involves several operations: pilot hole, pre
ream, and pullback (see Fig. 23.1). The first stage involves drilling a pilot hole,
from one side of the obstacle to the other, along the design centerline of the pro
posed pipeline. The second stage involves enlarging the pilot hole to the desired
diameter to accommodate the pipeline. Usually, enlarging the borehole and
pulling back the product pipe can be accomplished in one step. The pilot hole is
drilled with a specially built rig with an inclined carriage, typically adjusted
between 5 and 20 degrees, which pushes the drill rods into the ground. The opti
mum angle of entry of the pilot drill pipe, or pilot string, is 12 degrees with
respect to the ground surface. The pilot hole continues at a 12-degree angle until
it passes through a sagbend to level out horizontally under the obstacle at a
desired depth. Once the hole has passed the obstacle, it rises through another
sagbend to exit on the far side at an angle of approximately 8 to 12 degrees.
I.D.1. Pilot Hole
Wash
Wash Pipe Bit Riot string Bit
. Siiiycy Tool [ ___ -r
Drill Proffia:
Pilot String
I.D.2. Preream
'.'Wash Pips ‘R eam er D l"'1P‘P&
l.D.3. Pullback
M l Pipe Product Pipeline.
FIGURE 2 3 .1 I Technique of horizontal directional drilling

Source: Guidelines fora Successful Directional Crossing Bid Package. Courtesy of Directional Crossing
Contractors Association, (www.dcca.org)
As the pilot hole is being drilled, bentonite drilling mud is pumped down the
center of the drill rods. The drill head usually consists of a jetting head and/or a
drill bit. In both cases, the soil is usually cut by the rotating pilot string. In the
jetting head, small-diameter high-pressure jets of bentonite slurry actually cut
the soil and facilitate spoil removal by washing the cuttings to the surface where
they settle out in a pit. When a drill bit is used for rock-boring operations or
maxi-HDD rigs, the bit can be driven by a down-hole mud motor located just
behind the drill bit from energy derived from the pumped drilling fluid. The ben
tonite also functions as a coolant and facilitates spoil removal. In addition to the
drill head, for large-diameter crossings such as maxi-HDD rigs, the drill string
consists of a slightly bent section (typically between 0.5 degrees and 1.5
degrees) of a drill rod, called a bent housing, positioned close behind the drill
head. Rotating and positioning the bent housing affect the steering operation.
The progress of the pilot hole is monitored by a specially designed survey
system. One part of the system (usually for maxi-HDD operations is located
behind the bent housing) records the exact position, inclination, and orientation
of the drill head. This information is transmitted by magnetic fields, or for larger
HDD operations a wireline system, to the other part of the system, which is
located at the ground surface where a computer is used to interpret and plot this
data. The actual position of the drill head is then compared to the required posi
tion on the design path and deviations, if any, are corrected by moving the bent
housing and steering the drill head to the desired location. For mini-HDD and
most midi-HDD systems, a walkover system is used where the drill head is
located through magentic signals by a transmitter, located behind the drill head.
These signals are identified and interpreted on the surface by a receiving instru
ment, which is actually “walked over” the drill head location.
For larger diameters, the operator may make several passes to achieve the
final diameter of the borehole. For each pass, a larger diameter reamer tool, a
“step reamer,” is used. Alternatively, reaming devices can be directly attached
to the drill pipe and pulled back through the pilot hole, enlarging it to the desired
diameter suitable to accept the designed pipeline.
For diameters less than 20 in., the pipeline can be attached directly behind
the reamer using a swivel device so that the total assembly can be pulled back
in one pass. However, even for diameters less than 20 in., many contractors
choose to preream the borehole. Prereaming widens the pilot hole to a diameter
slightly greater than the utility diameter. A circular cutting tool, attached to the
drill pipe end, is then rotated by the drilling rig simultaneously pulling it back
along the drilled pilot hole. Bentonite is pumped down the drill pipe to carry the
soil cuttings to the surface.
Prior to the pipeline pullback operation, the pipeline has to be made up in
one full length. For steel pipe, which is usually used for larger diameters, it is
welded, X-rayed, coated, tested, etc. before installation. It is positioned on rollers
in line with the drilled hole to minimize any axial loads that will be imposed on
the line as it is being pulled, and to protect the product line from excessive
stresses. The pipeline is then attached to the drill pipe with special adapters. A
fly cutter, or other type reamer, and swivel are installed between the drill pipe
and the pipeline to increase the borehole to the desired diameter, to smooth the
hole, and to ensure that the rotating action of the drill pipe is not transmitted to
the pipeline. The pipeline is then pulled along the drilled path and installed in
position. When polyethylene pipe is used, it is butt-fused using fusion devices.
Usually steel pipe is used for large diameters, whereas, for small diameters,
PVC and most frequently polyethylene pipe is used for horizontal directional
drilling. It is possible to install,multiple lines of small-diameter pipe in a single

pull, such as a line crossing of 2,800 ft with five separate lines ranging from 6
to 16 in. in diameter. The installation procedure for a bundle is the same as a sin
gle unit along the prereamed profile.
Clay is an ideal material for directional drilling; However, cohesionless sand
and silt generally behave in a fluid manner and are able to stay in suspension in
the drilling fluid for a sufficient period of time to be washed out of the borehole.
As the grain size increases into gravel, it is harder to maintain the fluid structure
and installation may be more difficult.
PRODUCTION RATES
M ost mini-HDD jobs are usually completed in a day or even a few hours. It is
common to complete a 200-ft job in a few hours. For midi-HDD projects, and
for lengths of 1,000 ft or longer, the job may take 10 or 15 days, including mobi
lization and setup of the rig and preparation of the product pipe. For major river
crossings using maxi-HDD, the project may take several months to complete.
. It should be noted that the duration of an HDD project is site-specific, and
it is dependent on many factors, such as experience of the operator and the con
tractor, project surface and subsurface conditions, equipment used, type of appli
cation, and the degree of planning and preplanning for the project.
Total Cost of
Engineering Projects
The previous chapters of this book have discussed methods of estimating the
costs of constructing engineering projects. However, the cost of construction is
not the only cost that the owner of the project must pay. The total cost to the
owner may include, but is not necessarily limited to, these items:
1. Land, right-of-way, easements

2. Legal expense
3. Bond expense, or cost of obtaining money to finance the project
4. Cost of construction
5. Engineering and/or architect’s expense
6. Interest during construction
7. Contingencies
COST OF LAND, RIGHT-OF-WAY,

AND EASEMENTS
If it is necessary to purchase land or obtain rights to use land in constructing an
engineering project, the owner of the project must provide the money to finance
these acquisitions.
The land on which a project is to be constructed may be purchased by the
owner. In general, the cost of acquiring the land should be included in the total
cost of the project.
If the project includes the construction of pipelines, power lines, telephone
lines, or other extended items, the owner of the project may prefer to obtain a con
tinuing right to construct and maintain a facility through the property without
actually purchasing it. This right may be defined as an easement, for which the
owner of the project may pay the owner of the land.
LEGAL EXPENSES
The construction of a project frequently involves actions and services that
require the employment or use of an attorney. The actions requiring an attorney
may be the acquisition of land and easements, holding a bond election for a gov
ernment agency, printing and obtaining approval of bonds to be sold for provid
ing the money to finance the project, or assistance to a private corporation. The
legal fees paid for these services should be included in the cost of the project.
BOND EXPENSE
Before a project can be constructed by a government agency, it is usually nec
essary to hold a bond election for the purpose of permitting qualified voters to
approve or reject the project. In the event voters approve the project, it is neces
sary to print, register, and sell the bonds, usually through a qualified underwrit
ing broker, who charges a fee for these services. Private corporations frequently
sell bonds to finance new construction. In any event, it is correct to charge to the
project the costs of these services.
COST OF CONSTRUCTION
The cost of constructing a project is usually an estimate only, made in advance
of receiving bids from contractors, prepared by an engineer or an architect. It is
the amount that she or he believes the owner will have to pay for the construc
tion of the project.
The estimate may be a lump-sum cost, such as for a building, or it may be
a unit-price estimate, for a project that requires the construction of various items
whose exact quantities are not exactly known in advance of construction. For
example, the contract for constructing a highway may specify a given payment
to the contractor for each ton of asphaltic material placed in the pavement.
For a project that involves the construction of units of work, the bid form
will provide for the bidders to state the amounts that they will charge for con
structing each specified unit.
ENGINEERING EXPENSE
Prior to construction, the owner engages an engineer or an architect to make nec
essary surveys and studies, prepare the plans and specifications, assist in secur
ing bids for the construction, and act as the owner’s representative during con
struction. The cost of engineering services is by one of the following methods:
lump-sum, salary cost times a multiplier, cost plus a fixed payment, or percent
age of construction.
Chapter 24 Total Cost of Engineering Projects 443
For simple or small projects, the cost of engineering design may be based
on a single lump-sum payment. This method applies only when the work to be
performed is well defined and the project has no unusual requirements.
The salary times a multiplier method is used for complex projects or for
projects that do not have a well-defined scope of work. The designer provides a
fee schedule to the owner that lists the classification and salary cost of all per
sonnel, and a rate schedule for all other costs that will be directly charged for
engineering services. A multiplier, usually within a range from 2.0 to 3.0, is
applied to direct salary costs to compensate the design organization for over
head, plus a reasonable margin for contingencies and profit.
The cost plus a fixed payment method is often used when an engineering
design is required to start before the cost and scope of the project can be accu
rately determined. Such indeterminate projects generally result when the owner
wants to accelerate the design process, analyze special problems that require
studies, or prepare estimates for alternate types of construction. The fixed fee
usually varies from 10 percent for large projects to 25 percent for small projects
that are short in duration.
The percentage of construction cost method may be used for certain types of
engineering design, where design procedures, methods of construction, and types
of material are well known and relatively standard. This method applies only
where engineering experience has established a correlation between engineering
costs and construction costs. Generally the percentage is on a sliding scale that
decreases as the construction cost increases. The percentage also varies depend
ing on the level of design services that are provided, such as design only; design
and preparation of drawings; or full design services that include design, prepara
tion of drawings, and observation during construction. The percentage generally
will range from 5 to 12 percent of the anticipated construction cost.
INTEREST DURING CONSTRUCTION

Most construction contracts provide that the owner pay to the contractor at the
end of each month during the period of construction a specified percentage of
the value of the work completed during the month, frequently about 90 percent.
In addition to the amounts that the owner must pay to the contractor, he or she
likely will have to pay other costs prior to completion of the project. Thus the
owner will have considerable funds invested in the project while it is under con
struction. Since the owner must pay interest on the money required to finance
these costs, there will be an interest cost during construction, which should be
included in the total cost of the project.
The amount of interest chargeable to the project during construction is usu
ally estimated when the total cost of the project is estimated. A method some
times used is to assume that one-half the cost of the project will require the pay
ment of interest during the full period of construction. However, if the full cost
of the project is secured in advance of the beginning of construction, and if inter
est is paid on the full amount during this period, then the total cost of interest
should be included in the cost of the project.
CONTINGENCIES
If the exact cost of the project is not known in advance of raising funds to
finance it, as is frequently the case, it is good practice to provide funds to cover
any additional costs that may occur during construction. An estimator should
rely on personal judgment to determine the amount of contingencies desirable.
EXAMPLE ESTIMATE FOR TOTAL COST OF

AN ENGINEERING PROJECT
Table 24.1 is an example illustrating an estimate for the total cost of a project
involving drilling three water wells and furnishing all materials, labor, and equip
ment required to provide additional sources of water for a city. The project will
require acquiring land and easements, drilling wells, and installing pumps and
cast-iron water pipes, fittings, and valves to bring the water to the city.
A bond election will be held to provide the money to finance the total cost
of the project. The estimated total cost is determined as shown in the table.
This is the minimum amount that should be included in a bond election for
the project.
T A B L E 24.1 I Example of total project cost.
Item Estimated cost

1. Land and easements = $86,000
2. Legal expense = 12,000
3. Bond expense = 8,100
4. Cost of construction:
a. Water wells with pumps: 3 @ $106,625 — $319,875
b. Pump houses: 3 @ $4,500 = 13,500
c. Extend electric power lines to well:
9,420 lin ft @$11.36 _ 107,011
d. 12-in. class 250 ductile Iron pipe:
8,780 lin ft @$15.63 _ 137,231
e. Cast-iron fittings: 8.64 T @ $1,003.11 = 8,667
f. 12-in. gate valves: 4 @ $920.00 = 3,680
Total cost of construction = $696,064
5. Engineering expense: 7% of $589,964 = 48,724
6. Interest during construction, estimated to be
10 months @ 8%/year: $696,064/2 x 0.08 X 10/12 = 23,202
7. Contingencies: 5% of $696,064 = 34,803
8. Estimated total cost = $802,793
C
Computer Estimating
INTRODUCTION
The preceding chapters of this book presented the principles and concepts of esti
mating construction costs. Emphasis was placed on the thought process that is
required of the estimator to analyze job conditions and assess the required labor,
equipment, and method of construction that will be necessary to perform the
work. These are functions that can only be performed by the estimator because
experience and good judgment are required to prepare reliable estimates.
To assemble a complete estimate for bid purposes, the estimator must com
bine knowledge of construction methods and techniques into an orderly process
of calculating and summarizing the cost of a project. This process requires
assembly of large amounts of information in an organized manner, and numer
ous calculations must be performed. The computer is an effective tool to facili
tate this process by decreasing the time and increasing the accuracy of cost esti
mating. The computer can retrieve data and perform calculations in seconds,
enabling the estimator to give more attention to alternative construction meth
ods, assess labor and equipment productivity, obtain prices from subcontractor
and material suppliers, and focus on bidding strategies.
Preparing a detailed estimate is an ideal task for the computer. Estimates
consist of dozens, hundreds, or thousands of cost elements that must be summa
rized into various levels of subtotals and totals for intelligent review. The com
puter can perform the calculations rapidly and accurately, thus relieving the esti
mator from tedious and repetitious arithmetic.
Although the computer has dramatically improved the process of preparing
estimates, the estimator should never accept everything that comes out of the
computer as being totally correct. Estimators must use common sense and judg
ment and use the computer as a tool to assist the estimating process, and not
depend solely on the computer.
This chapter introduces computer methods for estimating construction costs.
Many commercial software programs are available. In this book, reference is
445
made to the HeavyBid/Express 2.0 program, published by Heavy Construction

Systems Specialists (H CSS) in 2001. It is a freeware estimating program that
can be freely shared with anyone. Because it is free, it does not contain many
advanced features, but it does contain enough functionality so that most sub
contractors and smaller general contractors can use it to improve their estimat
ing productivity. It is also ideally suited for the reader to practice the concepts
in this book and learn to master a simple computer estimating product.
IMPORTANCE OF THE ESTIMATOR

Although the computer is an effective tool for estimating, the estimator must still
control the estimating process. The computer should work for the estimator; the
estimator should not work for the computer. The estimator must know the soft
ware being used and both its capabilities and limitations. The results of a com
puter estimate are only as good as the estimator using the computer. The phrase
“garbage in equals garbage out” certainly applies to computer estimating.
The computer cannot exercise judgment; only the estimator has that capa
bility. The computer can perform calculations rapidly, store vast amounts of
information, and print reports with consistent formats. Once the estimator is
relieved of the mundane calculations, the estimator can focus on “what i f ’ analy
sis, such as the impact on the total cost if the production rate of a particular piece
of equipment is changed. The estimator can also perform sensitivity analysis to
determine which aspects of the bid contain the greatest risk, and thus more intel
ligently determine the best markup for contingency.
The estimator plays a vital role as the estimate nears completion. In the final
hours of competitive bidding, subcontractors and material suppliers frequently
provide adjustments (adds and deducts) in their quotes. The estimator must
effectively manage this exchange of information to ensure it is correctly entered
into the computer. Catastrophic errors can be made during this process without
organized techniques and experienced estimators.
USE OF COMPUTERS IN ESTIMATING

The computer has many uses for construction estimating. The amount of usage
depends on a company’s philosophy with respect to computers and automation,
the type and size of project for which the estimate is to be prepared, the com
plexity and level of detail anticipated in the estimate, and the knowledge and
computer skills of the estimator. Computers can be used for the following tasks.
1. Maintaining master checklists

2. Maintaining an inventory of subcontractors, vendors, and suppliers
3. Maintaining bidding records of competitive bidders
4. Performing material quantity takeoffs
5. Storing and retrieving historical cost data
Chapter 25 Computer Estimating 447
6. Storing and retrieving labor and equipment productivity

7. Establishing codes for labor and equipment resources
8. Extending prices and summarizing costs at various levels
9. Distributing overhead and indirect costs
10. Analyzing risk and assessing contingency for markup
11. Preparing and delivering the bid or proposal in electronic form
12. Sharing of cost data and information within an office or company
These tasks can be accomplished by a variety of software and hardware.

Depending on the task, the estimator may use word processors, spreadsheets, or
commercial software packages. Hardware may include computers, disks (floppy
and CDs), digitizers, printers, plotters, modems, and a variety of Internet con
nections for electronic transfer of data, information, and communications.
One of the benefits of computer estimating is consistency in the methods of
preparing estimates and formatting of the final results. The computer can be
used as a master checklist to reduce the potential of omitting a cost item from
the estimate, or including it twice.
Computer programs are available to assist in the quantity takeoff by helping
the estimator to measure, count, compute, and tabulate quantities of lengths, areas,
and volumes. One method of accomplishing this is to connect a large digitizing
tablet to the computer, lay the plans on the tablet, and then use a light stick or
highly accurate cursor/keypad to count and measure the items directly on the draw
ing. Today, many drawings are created in the electronic media using computer-
aided design (CAD) software. Electronic drawings enable the estimator to transfer
quantity information into estimating programs without the use of digitizers.
Since most construction projects are competitively bid, it is an advantage to
contractors to have information and knowledge about their subcontractors, ven
dors, and suppliers as well as other contractors against whom they are bidding.
The computer can be an effective tool for maintaining an inventory of the com
panies with which they will be doing business. The computer can also keep bid
ding records of competitors. For example, competitor records can be maintained
on jobs bid, amount, difference between low bid and next higher bidder, etc.
This type of information assists the estimator and the estimating team in deter
mining an appropriate markup, yet still be competitive.
One of the greatest benefits of computer estimating is the storage and
retrieval of historical cost data and productivity rates of labor and equipment. As
illustrated in preceding chapters of this book, there are many ways that con
struction can be performed and there are many scenarios that can be analyzed in
estimating construction costs. The computer has the ability to store vast amounts
of information and to retrieve the information almost instantaneously.
Another benefit of the computer is its ability to perform accurate and rapid
mathematical calculations. The computer enables the estimator to analyze
numerous alternatives and options without the laborious computations required
using conventional estimating methods. Computers can improve the precision
level of estimates. For example, conventional estimating often involves round

ing off numbers to manage calculations, whereas computers carry the numbers
to more significant figures. Also, in conventional estimating it is common prac
tice to use average wage rates of crafts or insurance rates. With computers, it is
possible to use the exact wage and insurance rates for each craft.
The computer is an ideal tool for distribution o f nonpay quantity costs. For
unit-price projects some, but not all, of the quantities will be specified in the
contract as the basis for payment. The cost of those items not specified as pay
quantities must be prorated into some of the pay items, or prorated over all of
the pay items. The computer allows the estimator many choices in distribution
of nonpay items. For fixed-price projects, bid pay quantities are not specified,
but the distribution of overhead and indirect costs are important in the measure
for progress payments.
ELECTRONIC MEDIA
Today, many companies operate in a paperless environment by using electronic
media and the Internet. Engineers produce drawings and specifications using
CAD and word processing software. Thus, full sets of bid documents are some
times supplied entirely in the electronic media.
E-mail is often used for communications both inside and outside a com
pany’s office. It enables users to send written messages with optional attach
ments to anyone and everywhere at no cost. Attachments can include drawing
files, word processing documents, spreadsheets, photos, multimedia clips, and
web pages. Faxes can also be sent over the Internet instead of over regular voice
lines. A request for information (RFI), request for quote (R FQ ), request for pro
posal (R FP), letter of intent, transmittal, and similar type correspondence are
often via the electronic media. Many state Departments of Transportation
(D OTs) provide pay quantities for bidding on their websites for access to
prospective bidders. This information can be downloaded into the estimator’s
computer.
Security of information is always a concern of businesses. Security issues
must be addressed with Intranets and Extranets. An Intranet is an Internet site set
up for private use of a company that might include certain corporate financial
data or other confidential information. The Intranet controls access of informa
tion. An Extranet is an Internet site set up by a company for shared use with oth
ers. It might contain a variety of information with limited or full access to its
employees, subcontractors, suppliers, or the general public.
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

W hen computers were first developed, people with technical knowledge wrote
computer programs in programming languages for very expensive computers
that were accessible to few people. The programs were difficult to write and
required maximum efficiency due to the limited speed and storage capacity of
early computers.
With the rapid evolution of inexpensive microcomputers, the growth of

user-friendly software tools has developed such that most educated people can
become amateur programmers. The combination of a microcomputer and a
spreadsheet program such as Lotus 1-2-3 or Microsoft Excel is a commonplace
tool for most offices. Spreadsheets are especially popular among estimators.
FUNDAMENTALS OF SPREADSHEETS
Essentially, a spreadsheet is an electronic file that consists of hundreds of
columns and thousands of rows. The intersection of a row and column is called
a cell. Text and numerical data can be entered into cells and formulas can be
written by the user to program any desired calculation. Figure 25.1 is a simpli
fied spreadsheet of a bid summary for an estimate.
Spreadsheets have capabilities beyond simple calculations. Most have pow
erful graphic packages that enable the estimator to provide meaningful reports
to management. The user has considerable flexibility in formatting the input and
output.
Using Spreadsheets for Estimating

Spreadsheet programs are particularly effective in reducing repetitious arith
metic. Estimating was performed primarily by hand until the personal computer
and spreadsheet programs were invented. Enterprising estimators learned how to
program spreadsheets to reduce their arithmetic and reduce the drudgery of esti
mating. However, for most companies spreadsheets are only an interim step
between paper and pencil, and a com puter estimating system.
Spreadsheets are essentially a duplication of the paper and calculator pro
cess that estimators have used for years to prepare estimates. Most estimators
simply write down the items in a spreadsheet exactly as they did on paper before
A B c D E
1
2 Summary o f Costs fo r Bid
3
4 Item Labor Material Equipment Total
5 Install foundations $2,000 $0 $3,000 $5,000
6 Build Structure $4,000 $7,000 $2,000 $13,000
7 Finish work $3,000 $4,000 $1,000 $8,000
8 Clean up and move o ff $1,000 $1,000 $2,000 $4,000
9 Direct cost totals $10,000 $12,000 $8,000 $30,000
10 Overhead $2,400
11 Contingency 500
12 Profit $3,290
13 Total bid $36,190
F IG U R E 25.1 I Simple spreadsheet of bid summary.
the advent of computers. Shown is a simple example of a traditional paper and

calculator method to estimate the cost of excavating 900 cy of earth.
E xcavate 900 cy:

Foreman 24 hr @ $20 = $480
Backhoe 24 hr @ $50 = $1200
Operator 24 hr @ $20 = $480
3 Laborers 72 hr @ $10 = $720
Crew total = $2880/900 cy = $3.20 per cy
Figure 25.2 is a spreadsheet of these hand calculations. The estimator only

needs to type in the hours and wage rates of each item. Formulas in the spread
sheet extend the prices in the rows and sum the column totals to immediately
obtain the cost. For example, after the estimator enters the 24 hr in B7 for the
foreman and $20 in C7 for the forem an’s rate, the spreadsheet formula automat
ically calculates the $480 cost and places it in D7. As entries are made for the
remaining rows, the computer performs all calculations automatically. This is a
huge improvement over the paper and calculator method and it only requires
minimal typing skills.
Spreadsheets also enable the estimator to precisely duplicate the format and
appearance of manual reports that were used before computers. This is an advan
tage to most construction companies because most managers and owners are
more comfortable with computer printouts that look exactly like the handwritten
reports they have used for many years.
There will always be a need for spreadsheet programs. Spreadsheets are
tools for estimators to develop custom routines that otherwise could not get pro
grammed into their estimating system. Like any tool, it is good to know which
tool is appropriate for which job.
A B C D E F
1
2 Excavate
3 900 CY
4 Price Extensions
5
6 Item Hours Rate Cost
7 Foreman 24 $20 $480
8 Backhoe 24 $50 $1,200
9 Operator 24 $20 $480
10 3 Laborers 72 $10 $720
11 Total $ 2 ,8 8 0 / 900 CY = $3.20/CY
F IG U R E 2 5 .2 I Spreadsheets are a duplication of the paper and calculator process.
Chapter 2 5 Computer Estimating 451
Disadvantages of Spreadsheets
When estimators create programs and systems of programs, they are rarely cre
ating professional commercial software products. While this may not be a prob
lem in a company with one estimator who is doing all of the work, it can become
a problem in a larger company where many estimators use the same spread
sheets. Typically, someone in the office writes a spreadsheet at a particular time
for a specific purpose, and only the developer of the spreadsheet knows all the
features that are in the spreadsheet. If the spreadsheet proves useful in the office,
it is common practice to share it among other estimators. However, spreadsheets
may have errors in the logic that no one discovers because it does not occur to
anyone to check the programming. Thus, estimators may be using a spreadsheet
without knowing the results are correct.
As spreadsheets are developed, they are rarely documented, particularly if
they are sophisticated or elaborate. The developer of a complex spreadsheet is
often the only person who can use it as it was originally intended. The newer
users may not grasp the features easily, fully understand the formulas, or verify
the accuracy of the intended results. If the writer of the spreadsheet leaves the
company, often nobody knows how to change it. Thus, there may be a tendency
to continue using the spreadsheet as it was originally written, or one estimator
may make changes in the software without the knowledge of other estimators.
A common error in spreadsheets is to add a line and then forget to adjust the
sum formula to include the added line in the total cost, which results in a bid that
has some of the cost items missing. Too often, errors of this type are not detected
until the bid is submitted. It is then too late to correct the problem.
It is usually better for an estimator to devote time to estimating, rather than
developing elaborate systems of spreadsheets. Some people become intrigued
with computers, and if they are not careful, they spend more time playing with
the computer than doing the job they are supposed to be doing.
Many offices work in a multiuser environment, where several people work
on the same estimate at the same time. Spreadsheets are not conducive to this type
of work environment because they are intended for only one person at a time.
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE
ESTIMATING SOFTWARE
In the United States, computer estimating software is very specialized. The
process of preparing a fixed-price estimate for a high-rise building is quite dif
ferent than preparing a unit-price bid for a highway project. Thus, specialized
estimating software is written for different sectors of the construction industry
to reflect those differences.
The companies tend to specialize in these areas:
1. Residential construction
2, Building construction
3. Infrastructure (heavy/highway) construction

4. Industrial process plant construction
5. Specific trades, such as electrical and mechanical
6 . Takeoff systems, sometimes with estimating modules
Commercial estimating software in the building sector is designed more for
a quantity takeoff and pricing approach to estimating. Building type projects are
generally fixed-price lump-sum bids. Much of the estimating effort involves
pricing labor and material independent of the crew size, crew mix, and equip
ment spreads. Also, much of the work is subcontracted to contractors who spe
cialize in a particular type of work. Popular estimating software packages in the
general building sector include Timberline Software (Precision Estimating) and
Management Computer Controls (MC2).
Infrastructure projects include highways, streets, airports, pipelines, water
ways, underground utilities, and similar type projects. Underground utilities
include water, sewer, gas, electrical, or cables. In general terms, infrastructure
projects are built to move cars, planes, people, water, oil, gas, or other products.
For phones or cables, the product moved is audio or video signals.
Typically, infrastructure projects involve large amounts of construction
equipment and the work is performed in an outside environment where weather
often affects the work. The owner of many infrastructure projects is an agency
of the government, including local, county, state, and federal agencies.
However, some infrastructure projects are in the private sector.
For infrastructure (heavy/highway) construction projects, estimates are
developed based on methods of construction and the resources needed to build
the project. Analysis and selection of crew sizes and equipment spreads are
important in developing the cost estimate for a particular job.
Commercially available estimating programs for infrastructure type projects
include HeavyBid, Construction Link, and HardDollar. Pay Dirt and Agtek are
popular earthwork takeoff software packages. The estimating software furnished
on the CD with this book is HeavyBid/Express 2.0, the shareware version by
HCSS that can be distributed freely. Figure 25.3 is the opening screen of
HeavyBid/Express.
Usually infrastructure projects are unit-price bid. Each biditem in the esti
mate is defined in the bid documents supplied by the owner. In a unit-price bid,
the estimator must take the indirect costs, markup, and other costs not included
in the direct cost biditems and prorate these costs to the unit prices of the direct
biditems, which are the basis for payment. Unit-price bid-oriented estimating
software enables the contractor to unbalance, or shift costs, from items that are
likely to underrun in quantity to those that may overrun, either to shelter risks or
to exploit errors in the quantities, although be aware that doing this conspicu
ously is considered illegal on many government bids. Most programs also pro
vide numerous analysis reports for the labor, material, equipment, and subcon
tract costs, and summary reports to provide a better overall feeling for the bid.
Industrial process plant construction includes oil refining, gas plants, chem
ical manufacturing, pulp and paper, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and similar
HeavyBid/Express R evision 1 0
£Be Edit Setup Estimate Queij' Repeats Sjjmmaty Tsois Window Help
Pfease Read (3 minutes)

mie to He^vybid/'t:-p?e^s Revision 10
tf the instructions exceed one

screen, there is an Up and Down
Arrow bar on the right of the
instruction box. On the heading,
there are buttons to move forward
and backward throughout the
tutorial. After each instruction,
Work on current estimate;
click the n e x t:^ button.
Click the Next button now.

Work on existing estimate
Create a new estimate
Prepare and Send Quotes
r " Do not show this dialog again.

1“ Do .not show fliicK-Slatt tutoiiaf again.
ta d T ffin tg r
F IG U R E 2 5 .3 I Opening screen of HCSS HeavyBid/Express.
type process industry projects. Generally these types of projects involve large
capital investments and the engineering and construction are more integrated
than building or infrastructure projects. Cost estimating often overlaps the engi
neering design phase. The ICARUS software package is commonly used for
process industry type projects.
Advantages of Commercial Estimating Software

Writing good-quality software is extremely time consuming and requires a staff
of full-time professional programmers who are knowledgeable about computers
as well as the tasks the software is to perform. These systems often contain
over 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 lines of computer source code and thus contain many options to
improve estimating productivity.
Historical databases are vital to any computer estimating software. As well
as databases of standardized codes and resources, these systems usually have
databases of past estimates, bidding history of competitors, job cost histories,
databases of vendors, multiple labor rate tables, etc. These databases can contain
thousands or hundreds of thousands of items.
Unlike spreadsheets, commercial estimating software is designed for multi
ple users. Most of these systems allow many estimators or managers to be in the
same estimate at the same time. This feature is valuable for estimating large
projects when numerous estimators are involved in putting a bid together.
Commercial software companies validate and document their product before
it is released for sale. Writing software requires extensive testing and retesting
to validate the results. Validation of their software is a continuous process, based
on feedback from users. Documentation of software packages is extremely
important because inevitable questions will arise by users during actual use and
operation of the software. The systems are well documented and usually contain
instructions and tutorials to assist the users.
To become proficient at any task, training is needed. Investment of a small
amount of training will greatly enhance the proficiency and efficiency of com
puter utilization. Many companies offer on-site training, training at the vendor’s
office, Internet training, and other training materials and opportunities to help
keep estimators up-to-date with the technology. Since estimators often work
long hours, many software companies offer 24-hr support, which is essential
when critical problems arise while using the software.
MANAGEMENT OF DATA
Vast amounts of data may be used in computer estimating. The data must be cre
ated, stored, retrieved, and continually updated. Most data is stored on spinning
disks called hard disks (see Fig. 25.4). Read/write heads move over the disks on
a radius from inside to outside and stop on concentric tracks and wait for the data
F IG U R E 2 5 .4 I Hard disk drive for storing data.

on the spinning disks to reach them. Although the heads move very fast and the
disks spin very fast, these are still mechanical devices that store and retrieve that
data. However, the data remains on the disks even when the power is turned off.
Data that is being temporarily worked on is stored in the computer’s mem
ory. These are electrical circuits that maintain their information only while power
is being supplied to them. This data is processed at electrical speeds several
orders of magnitude faster than data from the hard disks. Typically data is read
from hard disks into memory, processed, and then written back to the hard disks.
Spreadsheet programs load an entire spreadsheet, such as an entire estimate,
into memory where it can then be manipulated. Any new information added to
the spreadsheet is kept in the temporary memory and therefore can be lost until
the spreadsheet is saved again. If power is lost to the computer, any unsaved data
will be lost. Therefore, the estimator should periodically save the spreadsheet to
the hard drive, or have a default set in the spreadsheet program to automatically
save the data every few minutes.
Database systems read only small amounts of data from the hard disk into
memory and then write back to the hard disk when it is saved. For example, if the
user calls up a material item, changes the price, and presses a Save or OK key,
then immediately the data would be written back and safely saved to hard disk.
Although hard disks are usually safe from power failure, they do occasion
ally wear out or crash for various reasons, including malicious pranks such as
computer viruses. There is a substantial chance that one day in 2 or 3 years of
use a hard drive will fail and the data on it will not be recoverable, and estima
tors should plan for this possibility. Therefore, the active estimate on a hard
drive must be copied to a separate physical device as a backup copy.
Many companies have a nightly backup performed by their computer
department. Although this is a good practice, it is usually not sufficient to ensure
against the loss of an estimate. Many estimators work late at night, after normal
work hours. Therefore, substantial work may be performed on an estimate after
the nightly backup, so the work they have done may not get backed up. Also, a
team of estimators can do an extensive amount of work on an estimate during
the day prior to the nightly backup. Thus, active estimates should be backed up
several times during the day, especially the day before, and the day an estimate
must be submitted for an important bid.
For stand-alone personal computers, a backup to a floppy disk is common.
For an important bid, the estimator should use three or four floppy disks for
backups. The estimator should not keep backing up, or overwriting, on the last
backup disk because a serious error may not be discovered until after a backup.
Figure 25.5 shows the backup screen from HeavyBid/Express.
If the estimator’s personal computer is connected to a main computer net
work that contains the estimate, the estimate can be backed up to the hard disk
of the personal computer. For example, an estimator may be working on an esti
mate that is storing data on drive “F” of the central computer. The estimator can
store the estimate on drive “C” of the personal computer as the backup device.
Since the hard drive on the estimator’s personal computer is a separate physical
device from the drive on the main network computer, this constitutes a valid
H eavyBid/Express R evision 1.0 - OVERVIEW - Tutorial Overview Estimate

fte Setup Estimate Query Reports Summary Tijols Window Help
Backup Estimates
Type the location of the estimate to be backed up- To select
another estimate, click the prompt button,
Estimate to be backed up:

|C \H BXPFi ESSSESTSOVE RVIEW|
Code Estimate Name__________

(OVERVIEW (Tutorial Overview Estimate
LastChanae:
F IG U R E 2 5 .5 I Backup screen from HeavyBid/Express.
backup. Depending on how a particular backup routine works, it may be neces

sary to ensure that all estimators are out of the estimate before backing it up.
When relying on a computer-generated bid, it is advisable to have a nearly
completed bid ready a couple of hours ahead of bid time in case anything goes
wrong with the technology. If paper bids are to be submitted, the estimator
should have a completed paper bid with only a few items left open and no bid
total. It is important to ask appropriate technology people what can go wrong
and have backup plans to ensure that bids can be submitted.
STARTING AN ESTIMATE
The enclosed estimating program (HeavyBid/Express) contains a tutorial to
guide the user through the keystrokes of preparing an estimate. The best way to
learn a software package is to explore features and try various scenarios to become
familiar with its capabilities. This chapter is more concerned with presenting the
concepts of computer estimating rather than attempting to teach the reader how
H eavyBid/Express R evision 1.0 - OVERVIEW Tutorial Overview Estimate

Fite Edit Setup Estimate Reports Symmay Tôls Window Help
New Estimate Crtl+N
Backup Estimate
Restore Estimate
1 C:\HBXPRESSSEST\OVERVIEW
2 C:\HBXPRESS\EST\AGENDA
3 C:\HBXPRESS\EST\ESTMAST
[Create a new estimate
F IG U R E 2 5 .6 I File menu for starting a new estimate.
to use a specific software package. Most of the illustrations for this chapter are
from HeavyBid/Express, although some are from the more advanced versions of
HeavyBid.
Most programs start a new estimate by selecting something like the “New”
option in the “File” menu in the top left as in the illustration of Fig. 25.6,
although many may have shortcuts such as the HeavyBid/Express screen of
Fig. 25.3. This particular program walks the user through the steps to start an
estimate consisting of giving the estimate a number, name, and then specifying
where to copy from to create this estimate. The normal source for the estimate
in HeavyBid is the “Master,” but an estimate can be created from any prior esti
mate as well, for example, to make an alternate estimate or evaluate “what i f ’
scenarios while still keeping the original estimate.
The “Master” is a template estimate and contains data that is typically used
in every estimate. Most software vendors use this technique and most people set
up their spreadsheet programs the same way. Very few estimators start an esti
mate from scratch. Typically the Master contains a company’s resources such as
labor, equipment, materials, subcontractors, and crews. It may also contain stan
dard overhead items and markups with or without costs. These are then copied
to be the starting point for a new estimate. The “Master” does not contain any
thing specific to a particular estimate such as biditems, activities, or cost detail.
The concept of copying data to start a completely new estimate makes each
estimate totally independent of each other. Thus, any changes made to one esti
mate have no effect on any other estimate. For example, changing a labor rate in
one estimate would not change other estimates that are in progress. If it is desir
able to change the labor rate everywhere, the new rate would be made in the
“Master” and in every estimate that had already been started. Future estimates
that started from the “Master” would then have the new rate.
After creating a new estimate, the estimator should look for one or more
screens that ask about information that applies to this estimate such as bid date,
sales tax rates, overtime rules, etc., and fill out any that is relevant to this new
estimate.
BIDITEMS
After a new estimate is started, the structure of the estimate can be set up. Most
infrastructure bids are unit-price bids in which the contractor is given a list of
biditems with quantities and the estimator furnishes the unit price of each item.
Since the owner provides the biditems and quantities, it is logical to enter them
into the system all at once. The estimator should find a screen similar to that
shown in Fig. 25.7 and then type or import the biditems into the estimate.
Many commercial software systems have the ability to import biditems and
quantities from major organizations such as state DOTs. These are often available
on the Internet or furnished on floppy disks. The HeavyBid/Express software in
this book does not have import capability, so the biditems must be typed in.
At the end of the estimating and bidding process, the amount of the bid is
simply the summation of all items, where each item is the product of the owner’s
quantity multiplied by the estimator’s unit price. Entry of accurate unit costs is
more important than the total cost because the owner recalculates the individual
cost items in unit-price bids. However, it is embarrassing on bid day if a contrac
tor’s bid total is read in public at the bid opening, and then the next day it has to
be corrected after being recalculated. Although this happens periodically with
spreadsheets or hand-calculated bids, it rarely happens with commercial software.
Sometimes the contractor may not agree with the quantity that is specified
in the owner’s bid documents. For example, the bid document may show
10,500 cy of excavation, but the contractors’ takeoff may show only 10,100 cy.
Thus, the contractor would expect to be paid for 10,100 cy. The 10,100 quantity
is referred to as the “takeoff” quantity, whereas the 10,500 quantity is referred
to as the “bid” quantity. The bid quantity is what the contractor must bid and
what the owner expects to pay. The takeoff quantity used in this context is the
quantity that the contractor expects to actually be measured during construction
and on which payment will be made upon completion.
H eav y B id /E x p ress R ev isio n 1 0 OVERVIEW T utorial O verv iew E stim ate Hflil P |
£8e £dii je t# Esjmate: fluerji Bepoits Stjrnmaty T;fi6ls Window Help
1 h T *B I€ ^ 0 j : E i l l : <3l H i ► M fX
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Description
Mobfcatwi
2 Clearing !< Grubbing 35.500 ACRE
3 Demolition & Removals
4 Sulk Excavation
5 Embankment
6 Fine Grading 190,556.000 SY
67,530.000 TON
8 2.5" A/C Binder Course ■Type D 25,010.000 TON
3 1.5" A/C Surface Course • Type F 15,010.000 TON
10 Striping - 4" Yellow 85.750.000 LF
11 Striping • 4" White 57,170.000 LF
1,245.000LF
lfl? M f!° y L i Oeteie Bow |
Biditems
Umnteiral code lor Diditern v/e recon-mend the -eauentia! item r n te i time: )<1-a 100—
FIG U R E 2 5 .7 I Biditem setup.
Although contractors must still bid the quantity that is given to them, they
must take into account the financial consequences if the takeoff quantity turns
out to be the actual quantity. If the takeoff quantity is less than the bid quantity,
the final revenue for that item will be less than that shown on the bid form.
More sophisticated systems, but not the shareware program in this book,
allow entering both bid quantities and takeoff quantities, and then provide some
analysis about the effect that differing quantities have on the bid. These features
should be tested thoroughly! This is a very complicated subject, and even
knowledgeable estimators do not agree on even the theoretical aspects. Once
agreed on how the program should work, the estimator then needs to verify how
it does work to avoid any surprise bidding errors.
If the bid is not a unit-price bid, but rather is a lump-sum bid in which the
owner only expects a single total price, the contractor could have only one
biditem with a unit of “lump sum” (Is). However, it is better to use the biditem
level to structure the estimate into major categories. For example, biditems might
be earthwork, foundations, structures, etc. Or they might be building 1, building

2, etc. For building construction, it is common to use the 16 divisions of the
Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) Master Format to code the estimate.
For example, Bid Item 03 could be the total cost of concrete items in the job.
Many systems will allow the estimator to structure the bid in multiple lev
els and still provide the information required on the bid form. For example,
advanced levels of HeavyBid allow splitting biditems down into up to nine lev
els of sub-biditems, none of which appear at the bid-pricing level. On a bid with
hundreds of biditems with the possibility of thousands of activities or tasks, it
can be helpful to experiment with a few items in a test estimate for structure
before doing a lot of actual estimating.
QUANTITY TAKEOFF
The term quantity takeoff is sometimes called material quantity takeoff, or sim
ply takeoff. Takeoff is the process of reading the plans and determining the quan
tities of work required to build the project. It is the estimator’s interpretation of
the designer’s intent. Takeoff can be performed by hand calculations or by using
the computer. Area and volume calculations, such as earthwork and paving, are
usually more efficiently done with the computer. Structure takeoffs, such as con
crete and reinforcing steel, are usually performed by hand calculations or with
spreadsheets because the details are often spread over multiple drawings.
Although some vendors have software for both takeoff and estimating/bidding,
most construction software vendors specialize in one or the other.
The process of performing a takeoff is the estimator’s opportunity to fully
understand the work that must be estimated. An estimator who has not per
formed or thoroughly reviewed the takeoff may not have an accurate under
standing of what is to be estimated. Items missed in the takeoff will obviously
not be included in the bid price, but will still be costs that will be incurred dur
ing construction of the project.
For unit-price estimates, the takeoff quantity may verify the bid quantity,
but not include all of the work for which a takeoff is required. For example, an
item to install 18-in. PVC pipe will state the length of pipe to be installed, but
does not address the quantity of excavated earth or the stone pipe bedding that
is required to complete this item. These takeoff quantities are ancillary to the
length of pipe, on which payment is calculated, and can only be determined from
the drawings.
RESOURCE TYPES
Resources for construction projects include labor, material, equipment, and sub
contractors. For infrastructure type projects, contractors typically categorize
costs by the following cost categories:
1. Labor
2. Material (or permanent material and construction material)
d\
HCSS Pag*
6
OVERVIEW/ Tutorial Gvexvfcw 02/12/200 i 22:38
Mike Rydin. DIRECT COST REPORT
Activity Desc Quantity Unit Perm Constr Equip- Sub-

Detail PCS Unit Cost* Labor Material Mttl/Exp Ment Contract Total
BIB ITEM * 12
Description * Install 18" RCP Unit = LF Quantity: 1,245.000
A Install 18“ RCP Quuv: 1,245.00 LF H n/Shft: 8.00

me Drainage Crew 66.40 CH fared: 150.0000 US
2URC0183 18" RCP CL i n 1.03 1^82.35 LF 13.50 17,312 17,312
3ZS24 Small Tools <& Supplies 1,245.00 MHR 0.25 311 311
8E225 CAT 225D Excavator 1.00 66.40 HR 53.25 3,536 3,536
8L950 CAT 950D Loader 1.00 66.40 HR 37.44 2,486 2,486
8RMX Ramex 2.00 132.80 HR 10.49 1,393 1,393
8TPU Pickup Truck 1.00 66.40 HR 5.66 376 376
KFM Pipe Foreman 1.00 66.40 MH 20.50 1/523 1,623
KPL Pipelayer 2.00 132.80 MH 15.75 2,494 2,494
LABR Laborer 3.00 199.20 MH 15.25 3/523 3/S23
OEXC Excavator Operator 1.00 66.40 MH 20.00 1,584 1,584
OLDR Loader Operator 1.00 66.40 MH 19.00 1,504 1,504
$36,241.83 0.4266 MWLF 531.20 MH 10,828 17,312 311 7,791 36,242
=====> Hen. Total*: 12 Install 18 ” RCP

$36,241.83 0.4266 MH/LF 531.20 MH 10,828 17^12 311 7,791 36,242
29.110 1245 LF 8.70 13.91 0.25 6.26 29.11
± u ►R
5 3 ! Finished
The eauinment code must start with 'S'. Last Chanae: ..... ... :..! .
FIG U R E 2 5 .8 I Cost categories in columns.
3. Equipment (or company equipment, rented equipment, operating expense)

4. Subcontractors
These cost categories will be columns on reports such as this example from
HeavyBid/Express shown in Fig. 25.8.
The computer must use some technique to categorize the costs so it knows
which column to use. One technique is to use the first character of the code to
categorize the cost. HeavyBid/Express uses this technique:
Letters = Labor
2 = Permanent Material
3 = Construction Material
4 = Subcontractors
8 = Equipment
Thus the first letter, or number, of a cost category designates the type of
resource. For example, CF (carpenter foreman) is a labor code because it starts
with a “C,” and 4ELEC is an electrical subcontractor because it starts with the
number 4.
The designation used for resources will vary, depending on the software.
For example, some software packages use the following designations:
L = Labor
M = Material
E = Equipment
S = Subcontractors
Using these designations, LCF (carpenter foreman) is a labor code because it
starts with an “L,” and “SELEC” is an electrical subcontractor because it starts
with an “S.”
Some software hides the cost category in an attempt to make the software
appear easier to use. Thus, the estimator doesn’t need to use a number or letter
to identify the resource type. However, the advantage of not having to know is
also the disadvantage of not knowing which cost category has been specified. If
the entry technique is such that the estimator can immediately identify a cost in
the wrong category, this technique is as good as the ones discussed earlier; oth
erwise, the only way to detect an error is to spot a resource in the wrong column
on a display or report.
RESOURCES
Identifying and selecting resources is crucial in estimating infrastructure proj
ects. For example, knowing the quantity of earth to be excavated is not enough
information to estimate the cost of excavation. The cost will depend on the size
of crew and the type of equipment that will be used for excavation. Therefore,
the estimator must select the crew mix and type of equipment to be used before
the cost can be estimated.
Resources, particularly types of equipment, are much more important when
estimating infrastructure projects compared to building type projects. Much of
the work involved in building construction is independent of the number of
workers or type of equipment. For example, knowing the square feet of painting
is normally sufficient information to determine the cost of painting. The estima
tor can simply multiply the square feet of painting by the painter production and
wage rate to determine the total cost.
A major feature of computer estimating software for infrastructure projects
is the ability to set up resources in more detail than building construction soft
ware. Not only do they contain resources such as labor, equipment, material,
subcontractors, and crews, but also the treatment of each of these resources is
more elaborate. Typically labor calculations take into account such details as
taxes, union fringes, and overtime. Equipment can include such details as rental
costs and components of operating costs.
Most contractors pick from the same pool of resources for every job. Thus,
there should be a place in the software to set up company resources that can be
used for every job. In HeavyBid/Express, all resources are entered into the
“Master” estimate and then are copied to start each new job.
LABOR RESOURCES
Labor is typically estimated by craft rather than by individual people because
most contractors bid much more work than they expect to win. Thus, contractors
do not know how many jobs they will need to staff and with whom until after a
bid letting.
In computer estimating, labor crafts are usually selected from selection lists
that pop up on the screen. These codes should appear in a manner that enables
the estimator to quickly find them. For example, if all operator codes start with
the letter “O,” then the estimator is able to pick all of the operators without scan
ning through possibly dozens of unrelated labor codes.
Estimates of labor cost can vary from fairly simple for nonunion 40-hr/week
jobs, to extremely complex union jobs with various combinations of union wage
scales, overtime rules, taxes, and fringe benefit rules.
Regardless of the simplicity or complexity of the actual labor calculations, the
computer system must account for all of the labor costs with a consistent method.
Three typical methods for costing labor resources on infrastructure jobs are
Method 1: Enter all of the burden factors into the estimating software and
let the system compute labor rates.
Method 2: List all possible labor combinations in detailed spreadsheets
and then use the average rates that apply for a particular
estimate.
Method 3: Simply add an historical percentage to the labor base rate to
account for taxes, overtime, and other labor burdens.
The method used will depend on the complexity of the labor conditions, the
capabilities of the estimating software, the level of accuracy desired by the esti
mator, and the flexibility desired while estimating.
For example, HeavyBid/Express, shown in Fig. 25.9, has a base rate, a total
tax rate, a total fringe rate, and an overtime technique (not shown). For contrac
tors with simple labor computations, this software is accurate for method 1. It is
also accurate for any contractor using methods 2 and 3. However, a contractor
with complex labor conditions who wishes to use method 1 must upgrade to a
more sophisticated software package. Method 1 is particularly desirable on a
large, complicated, union job with many unusual conditions such as evening and
weekend work while traffic is shut down.
Regardless of the method used, if possible, the labor codes in the system
should remain consistent across estimates. It is much easier to establish estimating
standards when the codes remain the same and only the rates change when bid
ding in different union areas or different states. If the codes don’t change, then
the crews don’t necessarily have to change, nor anything else in the system that
is set up with labor craft codes.
H eav y B id /E x p ress R ev isio n 1 .0 - OVERVIEW - T utorial O verview E stim ate

File Etft Setup Estimate flueiy Reports Symmaji Tfiols Window Hefci
f j 2 «t i a IH 4 ► ►! X
Description Rate I Unit I Tax ^ } Fringe $ I Total

Asphalt Operator
Asphalt Raker
CARPF Carpenter Foreman
CARPH Carpenter Helper
CARPS Carpenter
Resteel Foreman
Resteelman
Pipe Foreman
Pipe Fitter
Pipelayer
Labor Foreman
Laborer
lowj ,Dê_Rowj
-.must start with tetteis. foi example. C fot cwoentet.

F IG U R E 2 5 .9 I Labor setup.
A more detailed explanation of each of the labor calculation methods is pre

sented in the next subsections.
Method 1: All Labor Factors

Factors that may need to be considered in the labor calculations fall into the cat
egories of taxes, fringes, workmen’s compensation insurance, and overtime.
Taxes for employees that must be paid by the company are usually straight
forward. This includes the company matching portion of Social Security (FICA)
and Medicare payments. Social Security tax stops at a certain income level, but
most workers don’t reach that amount. Many contractors add workmen’s com
pensation insurance to the taxes; however, sometimes this is inappropriate.
Workmen’s compensation is discussed in more detail later.
Fringes in heavily unionized areas can be very complicated. There can be
over a dozen fringe benefits that a company must pay to the union for the
employee, including vacation, health insurance, union dues, education, etc.

Some of these fringes, such as vacation, are taxable to the company, while oth
ers, such as health insurance, are not. Some receive overtime treatment while
others do not, and some do not even apply for overtime hours. Some benefits or
benefit rates differ for workers on second and third shifts.
Overtime considerations that occur include crafts that may receive double
time over 8 hr, while other crafts receive time-and-a-half, shift differential pay,
and pay for Saturday and Sunday. Some contractors also pay overtime over 8 hr
in a day, while others pay overtime over 40 hr/week. These overtime rates may
or may not apply to fringes. There may also be bonus time on second and third
shifts, which complicates productions because the worker must be paid for 8 hr,
but may actually only work 7 or 7.5 hr.
There are many ways in which workmen’s compensation insurance is cal
culated. Some states use gross wages, others use total wages at the straight-time
rate (no premium), and others use labor-hours. Some companies are self-insured
and follow the rules of their insurer.
Workmen’s compensation insurance is often a function of the type of work,
not the labor craft, because as insurance it is associated with risk. Sometimes the
entire job is classified by the major type of work, such as “earthwork” job, and
sometimes it is necessary to charge the appropriate insurance rate for each type
of work. In the latter, a laborer doing concrete work has a different rate than a
laborer helping in steel erection. For simplicity, many companies add the insur
ance rate to the labor tax, but in the preceding labor example that would not be
accurate unless two different labor codes were set up for the same craft. Rates
are typically higher for activities performed over water compared to the same
activities performed on the ground.
Method 2: Prepare All Combinations

Since most estimating packages cannot handle all of the factors that have been
described, some companies with complex union requirements prepare spread
sheets of all possible combinations from which they can select the variations
they need for each particular estimate. They are able to program into the spread
sheet all of the unusual requirements of their particular union, which might
otherwise be difficult to accomplish for an estimating software company with a
nationwide clientele.
The following is an example of what might be in such a spreadsheet, which
would typically include all of the calculations and a final hourly rate:
Carpenter journeyman: 8 -hr day
Carpenter journeyman: 9-hr day
Carpenter journeyman: 1 0 -hr day
Carpenter journeyman: Saturday

Carpenter journeyman: 8 -hr day, second shift
Carpenter journeyman: 8 -hr day, third shift

If an estimator is preparing an estimate for a project that works one shift of

10 hr/day, Monday through Saturday, then the estimator has two choices from
this table:
1. Use both the 10-hr day and the Saturday codes where applicable, or
2. Average those two codes to get a third rate by using 5 times the 10-hr rate
plus the Saturday rate, divided by 6 (days).
Alternatively, the table could also include more entries such as:
Carpenter journeyman: 10-hr day + Saturday
This method is very tedious and has all of the disadvantages of estimators
doing programming, but if the estimating software is not very sophisticated, this
method may have to be used.
Method 3: Simple Historical Rate

Some contractors are able to use one all-inclusive tax rate provided by the
accounting department. For example, if the labor burden of all jobs for last year
was 26 percent, then 26 percent would be used again this year as the tax on all
labor crafts and no attempt would be made to fine-tune an estimate.
This method is valid only if all jobs are similar. For example, a company
that always works 10-hr days, 5 days/week, might find this method reasonable.
However, if a job came up for bid that required 7 days/week, these rates would
no longer be valid, and it might be difficult to figure out what the rates should
be without doing it the detailed way. If the company wins the bid, the account
ing department should consider excluding the actual labor figures for this job
from their annual computations. This is because it would increase their burden
rate and thus penalize all of their normal jobs with too high a labor cost, possi
bly causing future estimates to be noncompetitive.
PRECISION IN LABOR COSTING

When choosing a labor-costing strategy, the estimator should recognize that the
labor hours in the estimate are truly an estimate and thus too much precision in
the rate makes little practical sense. For example, an item may be estimated for
7.2 hr. which is less than a full 8 -hr day. The question arises: Will the workers
go home when they finish, or start something else? The difference between 8 and
7.2 hr represents over a 10 percent margin of error. The amount of potential error
may exceed any attempt to develop a precise labor cost figure.
This last example brings up the issue of rounding. For example, if in a job
with 8 -hr work days, a task computes to 31 crew-hours of work, most estimators
have a tendency to change the crew-hours to 32 hr to make it an even 4 days.
This roundup represents a 3 percent margin of error compared to the computed
production rate, and it would be a true error if this activity started at noon one
day and actually finished in 31 hr.
The estimator should always consider reasonableness when assessing labor

hours. For example, if an estimator is using 8 -hr days and the estimated time for
an activity is computed as 76 hr (9.5 days), rounding may be introducing an
error. Often it is not possible to estimate with sufficient accuracy to know
whether it would take 9 days, 9.5 days, or 10 days to do the work. Therefore, 9.5
days may be the best estimate. Even if the hours were 78 and rounded to 80, an
error of ^ = 2 .6 % is introduced unless the estimator is certain that this task will
take exactly 1 0 days.
EQUIPMENT RESOURCES
Setting up equipment has many of the same considerations as labor. Equipment
is usually generic as opposed to any specific piece of equipment because the
estimator typically does not know exactly which machine will be used, only the
required size and capacity. Equipment should be coded in like groups. For exam
ple, all dozers should appear together in selection lists. If specific pieces of
equipment are used in estimating jobs, they should be coded such that they
appear near generic equipment of the same type. The equipment codes kept by
the accounting department are often inappropriate to use in an estimating system
because they were often coded in historical sequence, rather than with quick
lookups in mind. Like labor, the equipment can be fairly complex, although the
HeavyBid/Express software (see Fig. 25.10) has one simple all-inclusive equip
ment rate.
The ability to fine-tune an estimate based on job conditions can be accom
plished more accurately when the equipment rates can be broken down into two
components: ownership costs and operating expenses. Operating expenses of
equipment are relatively straightforward costs, but ownership costs are more
complicated.
Equipment purchased by a contractor requires cost recovery calculations
that include purchase price, interest, insurance, repairs, etc., which are indepen
dent of the utilization of the machine. These costs must be recovered through the
estimates in which the equipment is used.
The contractor may be making installment payments on some equipment, so
it is obvious that the equipment is not free; however, other purchased equipment
may be owned with no debts, and thus the lack of payments may make the equip
ment appear to be free. However, all equipment must be charged a rent to cover
the cost of ownership or replacement, and ideally should bear some relationship
to the cost of ownership and the competitive rates other contractors are using.
From a cash flow perspective, equipment totally paid for requires no cash out
lay on a particular job, and if the ownership costs are broken down in an esti
mate, the contractor can determine how much of the equipment ownership cost
is not an immediate cash outlay.
Another issue related to construction equipment is whether to charge for
days the equipment is on the job, but not used. If operating expenses are broken
out separately from ownership costs, the estimator has the ability to ensure that
H eavyBid/Express R evision 1.0 - OVERVIEW Tutorial Overview Estimate HHsfESl

Ffe Edit Setup Estimate fiueiy fieports Symmaji Tsois Window Help
! s si i fl l< < ► ►! I X
Setup Equipment
Arrow Board
Asphalt Paver {LG} 119.60-
Asphalt Paver (SM) 51.42
Asphalt Reclaimer 215.00
Roadway Saw (w/Blade)
8BH416 CAT 41SBaekhoe
8BH426 CAT 426 Backhoe
8BH510
8BH710 JD 710 Backhoe
8BH71C J D 710 Backhoe w/c
8BH71D JD 710 Backhoe w/hoe ram
Trench Box
.P.eieie Row
Equipment c o d es roust start

with 8.
‘Equipment
i t>e eoujcmenl cod* mug «i«l with ' k Last Change:
F IG U R E 2 5 .1 0 I Equipment setup.
operating costs are incurred only when the equipment is actually operating
regardless of how the rent is charged.
Some software systems allow entering many equipment operating compo
nents, such as fuel consumption, lube consumption, GEC (ground engaging
components, or tires and treads), mechanic time, minor repairs, major repairs,
etc. Each of these factors can be individually adjusted for the particular job,
including fuel rates and mechanic rates. These cost components can be obtained
from actual job records, or from equipment manufacturer’s literature such as the
Caterpillar Performance Handbook, or from rental rate sources such as the
Dataquest Blue Book.
For company-owned equipment, the contractor may charge it by the hour,
day, week, or month. Some contractors do not charge the equipment to the job
when it is idle because they feel it makes no difference whether it sits on the job
site or in the equipment yard. Since it is a company policy issue, the method of
preparing the estimate should reflect the company’s method of charging equip
ment to the job.
If the company policy is to charge for idle time, the idle time must be
reflected in the estimate, either as more hours for that equipment or as a higher
rate. For example, working 30 hr but paying rent for 40 equipment hours creates
a factor of 40/30 = 1.33. Thus, the equipment cost would be increased by the
1.33 multiplier factor. It is much clearer if the computer software allows the user
to enter the 1.33 factor rather than change the base rental rate. For example, if
the equipment is entered into the estimate as used 40 hr (instead of 30 hr), there
would be another 1 0 -hr increase in the operating costs, which would make the
estimate artificially high and thereby increase the risk of losing the bid. This
could be adjusted by reducing the operating expense by 30/40 = 75%, a feature
actually possible in advanced versions of HeavyBid.
MATERIAL
Some companies lump all material together, while others break material down
into permanent materials that are incorporated into the work and other materials,
often called construction materials.
A significant problem with automating materials is the large number of
materials that may be used. It is not uncommon for a company to have from
1,000 to 5,000 materials that are consistently used. One technique for entering
material is simply to create a code and description only for the material that is
used in the estimate. However, it is more common to have a database setup from
which to choose material. It is also common to have “plug” prices for many of
those items. For example, “Class A Concrete” could be set up with a unit of cy
and a price of $55.00.
This is an example of how a material database might be coded and structured:
Code Description
2 Material
2C Concrete
2CR Reinforcement
2CRS Reinforcing Steel
2CRS60 Grade 60 Rebar
It is important for the estimator to be able to find the appropriate material

code quickly. A good structure for material codes improves estimating speed
and accuracy and the structure is a good one if that objective is achieved.
Establishing material codes must also work in conjunction with the software.
Most software handles material codebooks differently, so the structure may need
to depend some on the retrieval techniques the software uses. Before setting up
thousands of material codes, the estimator should test one branch of the pro
posed database structure, such as the earlier rebar example.
Because HeavyBid/Express is designed for smaller contractors, subcontrac
tors, and students, it assumes a small number of material codes, and for sim
plicity, handles them as a simple selection list like the other resources.
CREWS
Most systems use the concept of a crew to link together labor, equipment, and
optionally material. Figure 25.11 shows the crew setup in HeavyBid/Express.
Using crews is a very fast way to enter labor and equipment into an estimate.
When the estimator selects one of these crews and enters a production rate, the
computer can pull in many laborers and pieces of equipment and compute their
hours and total costs. The estimator can do in 5 sec what takes 2 or 3 min on
handwritten estimates, and there are no arithmetic errors.
Most companies should set up anywhere from a few to 20 or 30 standard
crews that can then be used over and over in future estimates. However, some
software does not allow modification of a crew, which might require the esti
mator to have hundreds of crews to account for every possible variation in the
crew. HeavyBid/Express allows the estimator to modify the crew where it is
used in the estimate; therefore, the same crew can be used in many places with
minor variations.
H eavyBid/Express R evision 1.0 OVERVIEW Tutorial Overview Estimate

File £<* Setup Estimate Suety Reports Summary Tfiols Window Help
8RPF F -Set
CoayCtew |
8RSW S ee ' • Rotter
8TWT3 Water Truck 3000 G
lab o r Foreman
(laborer
0RGLL BoSet Operator
insert Row j I Select Labor I Select Eqtap. I
Crew C odes c a n start

with any chaiacter.
feasible.Codes; CQNC05 IS man core' crewt: R4VE08 f8 man paving c m /i' La$tChangg-...i
F IG U R E 25.11 I Setup for crews.
The “pieces” field simply tells how many members are in the crew and thus
the number of hours per crew-hour. For example, 3 carpenters means that if the
crew is entered for 40 hr, there will be 120 hr of carpenter. The “pieces” field
should not require just whole numbers. For example, a foreman running two
crews could be put into each as 0.5 pieces. If one operator takes turns driving a
backhoe and dozer, the backhoe and dozer might be entered as 0.5 each, depend
ing on how equipment rent is being charged. Also, the equipment does not have
to have the same number of hours as the operators. For example, if there are 4
dozers and 1 is standby, there could be 4 dozers but only 3 operators.
STRUCTURING THE ESTIMATE

For unit-price jobs, the owner provides the biditems which, for most contrac
tors, determines the first level of structure in the estimate. If the job is lump
sum, then the contractor can use the first level, referred to as a “biditem” in the
enclosed shareware, as the highest level of work such as an area, a building, a
type of work, etc. Typically, the contractor then lists all of the activities that
will be performed in that biditem, as shown in Fig. 25.12 for the Mobilization
Item. HeavyBid/Express has three levels of structure for an estimate as:
Level 1—Biditem
Level 2—Activities
Level 3—Resources (Detail)
The second level is referred by HeavyBid/Express as an “activity.” This is

not a universal construction term. Other commonly used terms are tasks, phases,
operations, etc. An activity is something being performed during construction
and is usually represented by a verb, such as “Buy Pipe,” “Place Pipe,”
“Excavate,” etc. The third level is the resources of labor, equipment, material,
and subcontractors.
Some software packages have more levels in their structure, which is useful
when biditems regularly contain a dozen activities or more and need to be
grouped to make them more understandable. For example, if the owner’s
biditem is “Drainage, 1 Lump Sum,” it might be useful to subdivide it into sev
eral items, such as “Reinforced Concrete Pipe, 400 lin ft,” “Inlet Structures, 6
ea,” and “Rip Rap, 42 cy,” each of which may require several activities, yet still
have a subtotal and unit cost that is meaningful.
Some contractors rarely have more than one activity per biditem and thus
could use very simple software that omits the activity level. However, such
software would not be appropriate for a company that intends to expand into
more complex work.
Activities can be created “on-the-fly” for each estimate, or come from for
mal databases of codes. Next is an example of activities created on-the-fly:
H e a v y B id /E x p r e s s R e v is io n 1 .0 - O V E R V IE W T u to ria l O v e r v ie w E s tim a te
E n te r E s tim a te M a in E n try
yiewot Estimate:
*A= Tutorial Overview Estimate T (Mobifeafen ------------------- I---------- raff fcs—
0 S3 ^: Mobilization__________ Cost | 3:25.625.42 L|. Cost: I S 5 3 5 5 ^2 0
C - T emp. Utility Supply

. * A 0- Install Telephone System "" .............
j -install Fuel Storage Tanks j Hfs/Shi» Cl 1.1 .. br'C-Oft
© H? 2: Clearing & Grubbing r n I— n " - i ? f...irsm nsr
$■■!§? 3; Demolition & Removals
E3 W 4; Bulk Excavation
$ £ 5: Embankment
i|S 8: Fine Grading
S 7 : Aggregate Base Course • 9, CtewHours;
0 ^f? S : 2-5" A/C Binder Course • T j
E3 & 3 :1 .5 " A/C Surface Course • j Manhows f Unit-/Hr f
S S 10: Striping-4 " Yellow
f Uref/MH f
83 © 11: Striping • 4" White
S ® 12 : Install 18"RCP jil U rtC ost I X
m -S 13: Install 24" RCP 32X90 Psmifc, 500.00 100.00 0.00 'P “ ■
® S 14: install 36" RCP 8THT i™> Lov>boy a 3?. 30 100.00 0.00 :U58080i
£3 & 15: Type III Precast Inlets 8TPU .==> Pickup Trii 5.66 100.00 0.00 *54*36'
1$ J P 16: Cast-ln-Place Headwalls j LABF ==:■ Labor Fore 18.00 100.00 0.00 5:2.060.64.
-> Laborer 15.25 100.00 0.00 •! 745.82
10.00 100.00 0.00
RetuSdTreef Add Activity
iftsal'Bew 1 D'm&erBcf/ ; .
Last Ch a w
F IG U R E 2 5 .1 2 i Mobilization biditem.
10 Furnish and Install 18-in. CMP 650 lin f t

A Excavate 2342 cy
B Lay pipe 650 lin ft
C Backfill 2020 cy
Rather than A, B, and C, the activity codes could have been 1, 2, 3, but those
may be confused with biditems 1, 2, 3. In either case, there is no historical data
associated with these items because they do not represent any kind of unique
code. There likely would be an activity “A” in every single biditem, each hav
ing a different description.
This is an example of activity codes from a formal database:
10 Furnish and Install 18-in. CMP
55150 Excavate
55405 Lay pipe
55720 Backfill
The code 55150 would typically be stored with a description, a unit of mea
sure, and possibly a crew code and production rate. Some systems also allow
linking materials to the activity code. For example, specifying activity 55405
might automatically pull into the estimate, the description, unit, 5 labor crafts, 2
pieces of equipment, pipe, and use the production rates to compute all quantities
and totals.
Most companies initially think these codes should come from the job cost
accounting system. This may not be a good choice, especially if nonestimators
established the job cost codes. The main objective of the estimator is to bid fast
and accurately, and to win profitable work. Typically only 10 percent of jobs
estimated are going to be won, therefore, the structure of an estimate or database
of activity codes should be developed to help the estimator, not necessarily the
project manager or accountant. When an estimator has 5,000 codes to choose
from, it is essential to be able to find one quickly.
For the jobs that are won, most companies do not have a one-to-one corre
spondence with cost codes on the job. For example, an estimate with 200 activ
ities might result in a job with only 100 cost codes. This has to do with the
impracticality of getting information correctly recorded on vague or minor items
compared to the ease with which an estimator can theoretically figure a cost for
anything.
Nevertheless, coordination between estimate and job cost code is desirable
so estimators can benefit from feedback on the job to improve their estimating
accuracy. It is also expected that the estimate can be translated into the starting
budget if the bid is successful and that process should be automated between the
estimating software and the job-costing software.
ENTERING THE ESTIMATE

The previous section showed several activities in a biditem to illustrate the struc
ture of the estimate. Some contractors enter all of the activities without resources
as an outline, and then work on them later, while others complete each activity
as they build the estimate. The best technique is the one that keeps the estima
tor’s thought processes organized so that nothing is omitted.
For each activity, the estimator enters a description, quantity, and unit of
work to be done. Since many biditems have only one activity, a good software
system should have a way to copy the biditem content down to the activity. If the
estimator is retyping data the computer should already know, the software ven
dor should be informed of the wasted time so the software vendor can correct the
problem and improve the software. Some software vendors value constructive
suggestions and others do not, but most want to know the defects in their systems
that annoy customers.
For activities that require a crew, the estimator should be able to choose one
from a selection list. As shown in Fig. 25.13, there are several choices for pro
ductivity in HeavyBid/Express. The more choices a software package has the
better, because estimators come from many different backgrounds and have
H e a y y B id /F ; x p ie s s R e v is io n 1 .0 O VKRVU W T u to n a ! O v e m e w K s tim a te
Eite £d» Setup Estimate Queiy Reports Summary loot: Vtfndow H -’Cl
Q <9 x
Tutorial Overview
:Actwiy In fa ;
456.00
juDC ~ ] |OrainageDew
90.0000
UH vnits/Ht
HU Hr/Unit
SU Shifts/Unit
i . .
Exc 40.53 HR
rPU Pickup Tw et 40.53 HR 100.00 1.00
FIGURE 2 5 .1 3 I Productivity choices.
memorized different productivities. For example, one estimator may think in

terms of man-hours (mh) per unit, and another in units per man-hour, and trying
to use the wrong one is very disorienting and likely will result in mistakes.
If the crew needs to be modified, look for a place to modify the crew. In
HeavyBid/Express, the crew can be modified from the icon down the right side
containing the worker’s head and the dozer. For systems that do not allow mod
ifying crews, the estimator may need to set up a new crew and then select that
new crew.
The estimator should make use of the notes to describe anything that is not
straightforward. Sometimes jobs get put on hold and start up again months later
after many of the details have been forgotten. They may also be consulted years
later when similar work is being bid. Notes also help other people review the esti
mate. If the bid is successful, the estimate may be given to the project manager,
who might benefit from knowing what the estimator was thinking that resulted in
the particular techniques chosen.
When using the calculator to make calculations for the estimate, it is a good
idea to put the factors of the calculation in the notes with unit labels because it
is difficult to check a total with no backup factors. HeavyBid/Express includes
three simple calculation routines (on the + /— icon) and writes the entire calcu
lation into the notes. More advanced software packages usually have interfaces
to Excel spreadsheets to document calculations and they work with varying
degrees of integration.
For each activity, there should be a way to select resources. In HeavyBid/
Express, it is the three icons at the bottom right represented by the worker, the
dozer, and the pipe. Crews are a shortcut to enter labor and equipment into the
activity. But in HeavyBid/Express those resources could also be entered the long
way by selecting from labor and equipment resources.
Most companies include the material in the activity where it is used, for
example:
Place pipe 500 lin f t
Pipelayer 80 mh
Laborer 40 mh
Operator 40 mh
Backhoe 40 hr
Pipe 500 lin ft <—
Some companies separate material activities from those containing labor
and equipment. This is an example:
Buy pipe 500 lin f t
Pipe 500 lin ft <—
Place Pipe 500 lin f t
Pipelayer 80 mh
Laborer 40 mh
Operator 40 mh
Backhoe 40 hr
The latter technique may be used because there are years of historical data
on unit costs that do not include material, or simply because the company wishes
to isolate high-risk labor items from low-risk material ones.
COPYING FROM PAST ESTIMATES

A useful and often used feature in computer estimating is the ability to copy
within the current estimate or from past estimates. The split-screen copy func
tion of HeavyBid/Express is shown in Fig. 25.14. Whereas HeavyBid/Express
only allows copying in the current estimate, other versions of HeavyBid allow
selecting a “source” estimate that can be any estimate on the computer.
■■
C opy B id ite m s /A c tiv itie s Hfifra
" Copy From: Copy To:

frfrfeEfeSyfSTVOVEIMEW
Tutorial Overview Estimate Tutorial Overview Estimate
B -a 1 Mobilization & -ff 1 Mobilization
t @ A Mob Land Equipment i ® 2 Clearing '&Stubbing
Ej3~@| B Guild Yard t Office S3's 3 Demolition & Removals
j ja i l C Temp. Utility Supply g S 4 Bulk Excavation
B S 5 Embankment
Install Fuel Storage Tanks gi- § 6 Fine Grading
Clearing S, Grubbing S fzf 7 Aggregate Base Course-9 " Type
Demolition & Removals tS S 8 2.5" A/C Binder Course • Type D
Bulk Excavation Bs ® 9 1.5“ A/C Surface Course • TypeF
Embankment ® ,§? 10 Striping • 4“ Yellow
Fine Grading B S 11 Striping • 4" White
Aggregate Base Course - 9" Type ®S 12 Install IS '‘ RCP
2.5“ A/C Binder Course - Type D mS 13 Install 24“ RCP
1.5" A/C Surface Course • Type F m S 14 Install 36" RCP
Striping - 4" Yellow ® § 15 Type III Precast Inlets
—-
Last Change:
F IG U R E 2 5 .1 4 I Copy screen.
When copying from another estimate, the following important questions

must be addressed:
1. If the quantity for this item is double that of the previous item, will all
quantities be doubled? What about lump-sum items?
2. If the labor rates are different in the two estimates, does the old estimate
rate get replaced with the current estimate rate?
3. If the equipment rates are different in the two estimates, does the old
estimate rate get replaced with the current estimate rate?
4. If the material has not been used in the current estimate, which rate is
used, the quoted rate from the prior estimate or the “plug” rate in the
database?
5. If the previous estimate had 10-hr shifts and the activity was estimated using
shifts, and the current estimate has 8 -hr shifts, what should the computer do?
The estimator should use copying features cautiously, and it is a good idea
to set up two small estimates and copy items back and forth with several see-
narios to see what happens. It is the responsibility of the estimator to know how
the tools being used work.
Another real time-saver in computer estimating is to set up a library estimate
containing fully worked-up biditems of work that an estimator typically uses,
and then copy them into future estimates. These biditems could have many
activities and thus not need to be looked up one-at-a-time from a database for
every new estimate.
A library can be built gradually over time. For example, an estimator may
wish to save 1 1 biditems out of 60 from the first computer estimate and copy
them into a library estimate. A library estimate is an estimate just like any other
except that it is used to collect parts of previous estimates. Any software program
that allows copying from other estimates can make use of this concept. If 8
biditems were saved after the second computer estimate, and 13 biditems from
the third computer estimate, there would then be 32 items from which an estima
tor could select for future estimates. In this manner, a contractor can quickly and
easily acquire an extensive library of items from which to build new estimates.
Another way in which a library of biditems can be used is to develop a pick
list of all possible activities within a biditem, even those that may be mutually
exclusive. This requires software that allows selecting from the activities with
out necessarily selecting the entire biditem, although software without this fea
ture can be used in this manner by copying too many activities and then delet
ing those that do not apply. The pick-list concept serves as a reminder of options
so something is not overlooked.
When anticipating a library that may have hundreds of items, there should
be a coding structure so estimators can quickly find the desired item. Also, sig
nificant figures must be considered because huge rounding errors can occur. For
example, an item with a unit of 1 cy might have a mathematical computation of
0.000449 units/hr and be rounded by the computer to 0.0004. This innocent-
looking rounding represents an 1 1 percent error, which results in a huge error
when copied into an estimate with 500,000 cy. The estimator might never know
this has happened because no one knew about the initial 0.000049 that the com
puter discarded. Normally the quantity in the library should be greater than 100
except items that are typically bid in low quantities.
CHECKING ESTIMATES
FOR REASONABLENESS
Some software systems may have a screen or report to assist in finding unusual
things about the estimate that could be an error. For example, Fig. 25.15 shows
a screen from HeavyBid/Express that shows some information about biditems.
Options like “Bid Price < Cost” help an estimator to quickly identify situations
that may be an oversight or mistake.
In addition to features provided specifically to highlight potential mistakes,
the estimator should cross-reference the totals in various places. For example,
the cost total on a cost report should equal the cost total on summary screens
and the bid total should be significantly more than the cost total. Some of these
H e av y B id /E x p ress R e v isio n 1 . 0 - OVERVIEW T utorial O verview E stim ate

0e £dt £etup E#nate fluery flepoits Summary Took Window Help
e * i T <a~7< « > ► 1 >
stim ate Inquiry
-Biditems--------- ;—
No. of Biditems:
f tL ^ L I Qi j
Bid < Balanced Bid:

Bid < Cost
BkStems with no Activities:
14 Install 36" RCP
FIG U R E 2 5 .1 5 I Screen to check biditems for errors.
checks may appear trivial, but the better an estimator is at correlating numbers,
the more he or she is likely to eventually spot something that is wrong. Although
computers may seem infallible, the human factor must always be considered and
a careful check of the numbers is prudent.
INQUIRIES
In addition to speeding up estimating and reducing errors, a computerized esti
mating system should provide the estimator with quick answers to questions
about the estimate. These features will likely be quite different in software from
different vendors. Figure 25.16 shows an inquiry from HeavyBid/Express that
enables the estimator to study activities. The tabs at the top allow selecting the
productivity that is most meaningful to the person reviewing the estimate. As
well as displaying in biditem order, the display can be changed to activity order,
H e av y B id /E x p ress R ev isio n 1 .0 - OVERVIEW T utorial O verview E stim ate

File £dit Setup Estimate Query Reports Summary Tsois Window Help
A ctivity Inquiry P ro d u ctio n
MHAJnit.j Uffte/MH j Unjts/OHrj Shifts | Ui -.rJnto |

I .Actv I Description 1 Cn MHAInit j CosWnit I
2A Clearing &G tubbing CG 32.000 $2,166 320 $76,904
Demolition ■Hyd.Break DEMO 10.050.00.SY 00401 $1,770 $17,784
Demolition - Houses DEMO 4.00 EA 90.000; $4,568,940 $18,276
Bulk Excavation EX235 125,455.00 CY
34.500.00 CY
Place &Compact Fill 8RC 34.500.00 0 "
Biditem Description Quantity Unit

j S’ [Embankment I— w m m fcv
Display Order
gid Totals
A syity Inquiry - Production
rhe Bkftem/Cost Category m which this activity tails. t astCfrvmnfi-
F IG U R E 2 5 .1 6 I Inquiry of activity production.
which, if standard activity codes have been used, would result in like activities
being displayed together. This can be helpful to ensure that similar activities
have similar crews and production rates.
Inquiries are very easy to try because they require no entry and therefore
no chance of harming the estimate. Therefore the estimator should try all of the
tabs and buttons to see what information is available that may prove useful in
the future.
TURNING A COST ESTIMATE INTO A BID

After an estimate has been prepared that contains all of the costs for the pro
posed project, the company costs not related to the project and profit sufficient
to make the project undertaking worthwhile must also be added to it. All costs
and profit must then be converted into a bid.
In HeavyBid/Express, the process of converting from a cost estimate to a

bid is referred to as the “Bid Summary Process.” This term is not universal, but
the concept is. There are two parts to the Bid Summary:
1. Summarize all costs to the biditem level, and

2. Compute indirect costs, bonds, addons, markup, and profit, and spread
them back to the various biditems to arrive at bid prices.
Various estimating software programs summarize costs into biditem totals
in several different ways:
1. Some keep a running total as costs are entered while estimating.
2. Some ask the estimator to explicitly run a summary at various pointsin time.
3. Some retotal when an event occurs that requires totals such as calling up
the bid pricing screen.
There are pros and cons to all of these techniques, but they are usually more
computer-related than estimator-related, and for most environments, any of
these techniques should satisfy most estimators.
The second part of the Bid Summary, spreading costs and markup back to
the biditems, is more crucial because it affects the final bid prices. Many esti
mators do not want automatic procedures happening late in the bid when they
are finalizing bid prices.
HeavyBid/Express uses procedure 3 to automatically summarize costs and
spread costs/markup to arrive at new bid prices whenever bid-pricing informa
tion is requested. Thus, while the automatic nature of HeavyBid/Express makes
it easy to use, it also lacks the control over the Bid Summary Process that many
estimators desire.
Figure 25.17 shows the Bid Summary screen from HeavyBid/Express.
Actually, at this point, the first part of the Summary has already been executed,
and this screen is asking for further costs/markup and how to spread them.
These elements are similar in most unit-price bidding software systems.
Each cost category can be marked up a different percentage. For example, most
contractors have high markup on labor because it is high risk, and low markup
on subcontractors and material because it is lower risk. Also, there is usually a
way to add addons and bonds. Some systems have a way to enter indirect costs
that do not apply to any particular biditems, such as the superintendent. However,
HeavyBid/Express is designed for smaller contractors and assumes their mini
mal indirect costs can be entered in a list of addon items. Contingency can also
be entered as an addon.
Estimating software should provide the estimator options for computing and
spreading the markup, addons, and bond. HeavyBid/Express has five ways to
spread markup as:
1. On labor
2. On total cost
Chapter 25 Computer Estimating 4 81
H eavyBid/Express R evision 1 0 OVERVIEW Tutorial Overview Estimate H la ! E 3

File Edit £@tup Estimate Query Reports Summary Tools Window Help
S a l f l ’ H 4 ► >! I X
— - --------------------- - Z J P j T - T
Bid Summary
T o t# j Enfef &ddom j gond Table |
Standard Markuo Instructions-------■*— - A - —-------— Standard Spieads

Cost Basis Maikup % Maikup Maikup Spread: less Sub
Labor: I 423,480 f f f l W
Addon/Bond Spread: Total less Sub
BuKterc I— wm n m i— wm
Perm Matt l“ T M ,S fT 0 0 I--------- § 2 7 fT Totals as of Last Spiead —- - - —
Cost1 Maikup: to ta l
Const Matt: I r~ 5 M i W Direct | 2 ,m iS ? i-------- S B W R W
Sub; . I Z%W [~ W I TT840T Addons: | T3EST i ¥ | W W
Equipment: I S lW fls lo ! 76W Bond: r 18525 f~
Total: f......?M M r ® !--------- 2 4 W ratal JTTfS/FST | 23575? j— TsETW

Show Bond Calculation (
Run Spread
FIG U R E 2 5 .1 7 I Bid Summary screen.
3. On total cost less subcontract cost

4. The way the markup was computed
5. Do not spread
Companies use all of these techniques. For example, a company marking up
subcontractors 5 percent, but not wanting subcontract items to show markup,
might then spread the markup on “Total Cost less Subs.”
Once these instructions are set up, the spreading continues automatically
according to those instructions whenever costs change and the summary is run.
Some companies use the same instructions for all of their jobs, so these instruc
tions could be set up in the Master Estimate Template.
The result of the bid summary and spreads is a computer-generated bid
price, usually called a “balanced” bid. Then, the contractors can change the bid
prices on the pricing screen for various reasons, as discussed in the next section.
BID PRICING
The end result of the estimate is a bid. Figure 25.18 shows a sample of a pricing
screen used to arrive at the final bid. Most unit price estimating systems will
have a screen very similar to this one, the main difference being the number of
features and amount of information available. HeavyBid/Express has a very sim
ple screen with the most basic information.
The “Balanced Price” column is the computer-generated price. The “Bid
Price” column is for any override price the contractor wishes to use. There are
at least five reasons contractors override the price:
1. The item finishes early and the contractor wants the cash flow.
2. The item quantity is expected to overrun or underrun and the contractor
will gain or lose indirect costs, addons, and markup depending on how the
item is priced.
H eavyBid/Express R evision 1.0 - OVERVIEW Tutorial Overview Estimate

Symmay Tools Window Help
Bid Pricing
1M o M s a r . c - n 30, 339 57 31.175.001 31.175.00111

BBSST z . -'I skteliM)
3 DemnWion 39 855 54 40.000.00 40 0130.00 U
4 Bulk Excavation 2.30 288.54C 50
5 'Embankment i3 s o o r n c ‘J
6:Fine Grading 148.S33 68 '
7 Ageing i- E a • * ■ U; 540 240 00 U
812.5“ A/C Binder Course -Type D 895.358.o6fu
9 1 5 " A/C Surface Csutse ■ type F
10 Stf - 4" 0-l.r 0.58 43.7_3K.gp'
11 Striping • 4" White 0.50 28,585. QQj
Gal Total
----------
LastChanoe:
FIGURE 2 5 .1 8 I Pricing screen.

3. The contractor wants to round prices to even numbers.

4. It is one of the few items remaining open and must absorb changes to
items that are already closed.
5. The owner of your company mandates a price regardless of what the
computer generates.
It should be noted that many government entities consider “unbalancing”
prices to be illegal. However, because of the many ways in which estimators
cost, markup, spread, and round, this is difficult to know unless it is blatant.
There is also an element of gambling in unbalancing biditems. The contractor
who unbalances the best has a competitive advantage, and if their bid is not
thrown out, has a better chance to win. A contractor who plays by the rules can
only win if the rules are enforced, which is not consistently the case because of
the ambiguity.
In Fig. 25.18, the last column, labeled “Unbal,” indicates whether the item
has been unbalanced. Some systems will use various combinations of terms such
as unbalanced, frozen, or fixed. The objective is to have a way to identify items
that have been manually adjusted so that the price will not change the next time
the summary is run. In the example, item 2 with the “U” will not change no mat
ter what is done to the estimate, whereas all of the other prices not having a “U”
are subject to being updated when the summary is run.
At the bottom right of Fig. 25.18 are the “Bal Total,” “Bid Total,” and “Net
Difference From Balanced Bid.” The Bal Total is the computer-generated total.
The Bid Total is the total obtained by multiplying the bid price by the bid quan
tity for all items, and then summing them. The difference in those amounts is
the net difference, which is simply an aid to tell how far apart those numbers
are. As prices are changed, the difference changes, so that by trial and error, an
estimator can change some prices up and some prices down until the net differ
ence is close to zero again.
However, it is not necessary to bid the balanced total. It is very common
for contractors to worry that their number is not low enough to win and arbi
trarily cut their bid, even though it is not supported by anything in the estimate.
Others play with the appearance of numbers; for example, if their bid is
$3,003,465, they might bid $2,999,900 hoping to beat someone who bid
$3,000,000 even. However, over time, the companies with the best estimates
are going to come out ahead because guessing what everyone else will bid is
unreliable.
The “Markup%” field is very important. It is a very quick way to tell if the
bid looks profitable. If it is near zero or negative, the estimator should study the
estimate carefully. The terms markup and profit are often used interchangeably
in estimating and their meanings are not always clear. One marks up an estimate
by adding to it. The markups may or may not be all profit, for example, 2 per
cent of the markup may be company overhead. HeavyBid/Express does not use
the term “profit” anywhere, so it is the responsibility of the contractor to under
stand what is included in the final figure referred to as markup.
If the software system has a feature for both bid quantities and takeoff quan
tities, there will probably be two markup percents; one based on bid quantities,
and one based on takeoff quantities. For example, if the Bid% is 8.5 percent and
the Takeoff% is 4.2 percent, this indicates that if the contractor is paid the
owner’s quantities, the job will produce 8.5 percent markup. However, if the
takeoff quantities turn out to be correct, and payments are made on that basis,
the job will only produce 4.2 percent markup. Reality is usually somewhere in
between. The computer analysis is giving the estimator some assistance to help
in exercising judgment. In these situations, experience counts, and bidding truly
becomes an art.
Most unit-price estimating systems have a “cut and add” sheet for accu
mulating last-minute changes that are not to be entered directly into the cost
estimate, but rather to be added at the end as an adjustment to the total bid.
This was more valuable in the past when it might take hours to recompute an
estimate from new cost information. Since computers now allow estimators to
summarize bids in less than a minute, it is more common to make the changes
in the estimate and rerun the bid summary. However, there are still contrac
tors whose policy is to “freeze” the estimate several hours before the bid and
make all last-minute changes as cuts and adds. They do this to control the
changes that are occurring in an attempt to reduce mistakes in the confusion
of bid day.
For the person in charge of the bidding, it is extremely important to
experiment with the bid summary and pricing features of the computer soft
ware. Simple test estimates can be set up with two or three biditems with only
a few costs of different types, such as one laborer, one piece of equipment,
one material, etc. Simple numbers should be used that are easy to work with
mentally, such as 1, 10, 50, 100, etc. These numbers should be followed all
the way through the summary, testing the various spreading techniques that
seem applicable, and making several rounds of changes to see how the num
bers flow through the system. This should give the chief estimator confidence
in understanding what is happening without being confused by too many
numbers.
QUOTE SOLICITATION
More advanced estimating systems may have a feature to help the estimator to
solicit bids from subcontractors and suppliers. Figure 25.19 is an example from
Heavy Bid/Advanced showing a screen that assists in selecting the suppliers
for each type of work, for example, striping subcontractors, and then faxing or
e-mailing them invitations to bid on the job.
This particular screen also has a place to indicate whether each contacted
company plans to bid. It is important to determine in advance the companies that
are expected to provide quotes as bid day approaches. If the estimator is not sure
that several quotes will be received for every class of work, then additional com
panies must be solicited for bids.
H e a v y B id S ta n d a lo n e - S O U T H W A Y - S o u th la n d F r e e w a y
rîî i r«
Fite £dit Setup Estimate Query Reports Summary Subsystems
& & Ta\

S u b /S u p p lie r S o lic ita tio n
t ^ l MTRAK • Track Materials

. I © PAVE • Bituminous Concrete Paving
M # PILE-PileDriving
£3 Temporary Pavement Striping

13 Remove Thermo StripeSMarking East Side Striping
'■■iS Delineator (Class 1) Highway Markings Inc.
@ PNTG - Painting Line &Stripe Tech.
@1 PVC • PVC Pipe Marking Technologies
; @ RCP • Reinforced Cone. Pipe Mid State Paint.
B © REBR ■Reinforcing Steel Install.
S Bend Hooks on Rebar
Cleanouts in 405 Median
i f Rebai • Minor Concrete
13 FW, Handle Rebar
■tS? Reinforcing Steel
I © ROOF -Roofing
B) 123 SAW ■Saw Cutting
SHOT • Shotcrete Repair
. i ,.t2S a a i r r r u . ip i. > . c . n . i. . : . j
Addendum Letter
liJ________ _________________________________
on popupsand reports.
F IG U R E 2 5 .1 9 I HeavyBid/Advanced screen for selecting suppliers.
Finding contractors to quote work can be particularly important if the work

has federal minority requirements. It is not uncommon for the contractor to be
required to use minorities for as much as 20 to 25 percent of the job value.
Obtaining qualified minorities to quote this much of the job is often challeng
ing and cannot be left to chance. Therefore it is important to determine how
many of the subcontractors that have agreed to quote are classified as minority
contractors.
TAKING QUOTES
Most unit price bids are for state, city, and county projects that have a definite
time the bid must be submitted, and in state bids, there may be dozens of projects
whose bids are due at the same time. Traditionally, subcontractors and some sup
pliers wait until the last few minutes to supply their best prices to the contractors
to prevent the contractors from having enough time to call other subcontractors
for better prices.
To process many quotes in a short period of time, a good procedure and
computer system for handling the quotes is essential to ensure the best prices
make it into the system and are reflected in the bid. Taking quotes from sub
contractors and suppliers is complicated by these factors:
1. Quotes are coming in via phone, fax, and e-mail, and possibly for many
jobs at once.
2. The fax machine or machines may be constantly busy and suppliers keep
getting a busy signal.
3. The e-mail coming in may get delayed because of traffic on the Internet.
4. Some suppliers do not quote all of the items and the missing items must
be obtained from someone else in order to be able to make useful
comparisons.
5. Some suppliers quote several classes of items, such as electrical,
mechanical, guardrail, and signage. Often they are low on one category,
and not low on the total, but will not do the one category of work without
the others. This complicates figuring out what combination is both low,
and will be agreed to by the suppliers.
6 . The contractor may be forced to select suppliers that are not low to meet
minority requirements.
7. Sometimes all of the quotes seem too high and the estimator has to make
an estimate at the last minute of what it would cost to do the work
themselves.
Figure 25.20 shows a screen from HeavyBid/Advanced that gives an
overview of the quote status in several quote classes at once. An overview such
as this is helpful to quickly see if a new quote coming in should be considered,
or quickly set aside to go onto the next quote.
As the estimator decides on suppliers to use, there should be a mechanism
to indicate to the system that they have been selected, and if minority goals are
applicable, there should be a way to instantly see the status of the bid with
respect to that goal. For suppliers with incomplete quotes, there must be a way
to supply a “plug” price for missing items so that their quotes can be compared
with those of the other suppliers.
TURNING IN THE BID

After days or weeks of estimating, and hours of quote taking, analyzing, and
completing the bid, the estimator cannot relax until the bid has been successfully
submitted to the owner. Most contractors have at one time or another failed to
complete this last step, even before the advent of the computer. Computers have
simply increased the number of things that can go wrong. Figure 25.21 shows
the final bid from HeavyBid/Express for a hypothetical bid.
H eavyB id S ta n d a lo n e - SOUTHW AY - S o u th la n d F reew ay

ft Setup Esgmate Query Reports Summaty Subsystems Tsois Window Help
Q u o te Sum m ary (P a g e 1 )
SEtEC: Electrical $ 130 :3001FENC: Fencing %Guard Ra

j | ’£ !ect->c tighi.it'
$121,750 |I Fence Inc. $41565 I ' l - , ' $372,48
[Power and Lightin; $130,960 :. Acme Fence Comr $42,652 Johns Hauling $382,124
Industrial Electric $131,050 Jonas Fencing Ma $43,050 Haul R Us $331,233
| | HAZ: Hazardous/Contamin $55 0 0 0 . .. LAND: Landscape $ 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 1 PMKG: Pavement Markings

H aj Mat tech $51,000 J South West Trees $145,000 ‘ I |Line& Stripe Tech $8,438
Johnston Waste lr $52,500 West Trees Co. $146,000: (Highway Maikings $9:380*....
Haz Waste Co. $56,000 Landscapes inc. $148,000 jMid State Paint. $9,487
Tree Co. Inc. $148,500 _J [East Side Striping $9530jD8E
Steel Fab Co. $553,494 T j (South East Cutting $12,779 Triple A Sign D
Rebar Install Inc. $572,478 | Mid State Saw Cut $15,294 J.S. & Sons Signs $3,510
Iron ManRebar $591,646 — I SawCutTechnolo $16,467
Steelerslnc. $532,527 »|
mm.
i
Page Qrjer | More M o
F IG U R E 2 5 .2 0 I Quote summary from HeavyBid/Advanced.
Regardless of the method used for submitting bids, the estimator should test
the bidding procedure fo r each particular bid at least a day prior to bid day. The
estimator should print out the bid, even if the prices are still zero, and then com
pare the computer printout to the official bid document to see that the bid that
will be submitted looks exactly like the bid in the owner’s specifications. If there
is anything unusual, it is possible to investigate as long as there are several days
left prior to the bid. If the second-place bidder wants the job after seeing every
one else’s bid, they usually study the winning bid for irregularities in the hope
of getting the winning bid disqualified.
If the bid is submitted in electronic form on disk, a copy of the disk should
be made and used to run through the procedure to ensure it works. It may be
more difficult to test an electronic bid on the Internet, but if the bid can be sub
mitted and then revised later, the early bid should be submitted as early as pos
sible to constitute a test of the procedure.
* * * Mike Rydin BID TOTALS
Biditem Description Quantity Units Unit Price Bid Total
1 Mobilization 1.000 IS 31,175.00 31,175.00

2 Clearing & Grabbing 35.500 ACRE 2375.00 84,312 50 |
3 Demolition & Removals 1.000 LS 40,000.00 40,000.00
4 Bulk Excavation 125,455.000 CY 2.30 288,54650
5 Embankment 34,500.000 CY 4.00 138,000.00
6 Fine Gfading 190,556.000 SY 0.78 148,633.68 1
7 Aggsga* Base Corns* ■9" Type 2 67,530.000 TON 8.00 540,240.00
8 2.5" AiC Binder Cotnse * Tvpr D 25,010.000 TON 35.80 895,358.00
9 1.5U.A/C Sus&ce Course ■ Type F 15,010.000 TON 35.80 537,358.00
10 Striping - 4" Yellow 85,750X100 LF 0.58 49,735.00
11 Striping-4" White 57,170:000 IF 0.50 28,585.00
12 Install 18“ RCP 1,245.000 IF 33 JO 41,707.50
13 Install 24'* RCP 250.000 LF 41.00 10,250.00
14 Install 36" RCP 456.000 LF 59.00 26,904.00
15 Type III PiecastInlets 30.000 EA 2,000.00 60,000.00
16 CastJn-Place Headwals 24.000 EA 1,630.00 39,120.00
17 Rip Rap-Type A 145.000 CY 51.30 7,438.50
18 Box Cuh'wt - Dbl. 8ftxSft 125.000 LF 3,180.00 397,500.00
Bid Total SSSSSSSS^ $3,364,863.68
FIG U R E 25 .21 I Final bid from HeavyBid/Express.
LOADING HEAVYBID/EXPRESS FROM THE

CD INCLUDED WITH THIS BOOK
HeavyBid/Express version 2.0, published in 2001, is a freeware estimating pro
gram, which means that it can be freely shared with anyone provided, as stated
in the license agreement, the original CD is shared and not a copy. Because it is
free, it does not contain many advanced features, but it does contain enough
functionality so that most subcontractors and smaller general contractors can
improve their estimating productivity. It is also ideally suited for the reader of
this book to practice the concepts in this book and learn to master a simple com
puter estimating product in a minimum amount of time.
To load the software, insert the CD into the CD drive of any Intel compati
ble computer with a Pentium class processor running Windows 95 or later. Most
computers will start the installation process as soon as the CD receptacle closes.
F IG U R E 2 5 .2 2 I Installation screen from HeavyBid/Express.
If not, select “Start,” “Run Program,” and for program type “D:Setup” and OK
assuming that the CD drive is drive “D.” Then select the “Install HeavyBid”
option, as shown in Fig. 25.22, and follow the remaining installation directions.
HeavyBid/Express will not conflict with any other versions of HeavyBid
that may already be on the computer and is actually used by contractors owning
full HeavyBid systems as a training device for new estimators.
PROBLEMS
Before attempting the following problems, the reader should become familiar with
HeavyBid/Express by going through the tutorial that is on the CD that accompanies
this book. The example problem on the disk will assist the user with the features of the
software and assist in performing the following problems.
Table 25.1 provides historical production rates for various types of work for
use in Prob. 25.2 and 25.3. The reader should use LF in lieu of lin ft and all capi
tal letters, such as CY and SY, when entering data into the software. The pro
duction rates given as quantities per hour refer to the crew-hours of the standard
crews of Prob. 25.1.
Table 25.1 I Historical production rates:

W ork item Production rate
Concrete— structural
Formwork—walls 4.50 sf/mh
Formwork— slabs 8.25 sf/mh
Formwork—footings 12.00 sf/mh
Formwork— chamfer strip 50.00 lin ft/mh
Install embedded misc. metal 1.00 hr/piece
Reinforcing steel—walls 125.00 Ib/mh
Reinforcing steel— slabs 190.00 Ib/mh
Reinforcing steel—footings 175.00 Ib/mh
Place concrete—walls 30 cy/hr
Place concrete— slabs 45 cy/hr
Place concrete—footings 15 cy/hr
Concrete paving
Set and strip 6-in. forms 120 lin ft/hr
Set and strip 9-in. forms 110 lin ft/hr
Reinforcing mesh 50 sy/mh
Slip formed curb—9 in. x 18 in. 300 lin ft/sh
Place stone base 80 ton/hr
Place and finish 6-in. concrete paving 130 sy/hr
Place and finish 9-in. concrete paving 120 sy/hr
Clean const, jt. (laborer only) 10.00 sf/mh
Spray cure surface 100.00 sf/mh
Rub and finish walls 0.02 mh/sf
Earthwork
Site clearing 1 50 ac/sh
Bulk excav.—over 100,000 cy 175.00 cy/hr
Bulk excav.— under 100,000 cy 140.00 cy/hr
Structural excavation 80.00 cy/hr
Place and compact fill (bulk) 125.00 cy/hr
Place and compact fill (structures) 50.00 cy/hr
Hand place and compact fill 10.00 cy/hr
Fine grade for paving 300.00 sy/hr
Rip rap— hand placed 1.25 mh/ton
Drainage (includes average trenching and backfill)
Install 12-in. RCP orCMP 200 lin ft/sh
Install precast inlet 2 hr/piece
Perforated drains (install pipe only) 50 lin ft/hr
You must also set up the standard summary instructions in the SUMMARY SUMMARIZE section.
25.1 As chief estimator for Tri-State Constructors, a mid-sized company specializing

in highway and bridge construction, you must set up the Master estimate for the
company’s new computer estimating system. The Master estimate will be used
as the starting point for all estimates and the resource codes will be used in all
subsequent estimates.
To establish the Master estimate, codes must be entered for each resource
with an appropriate description, unit of measure, and cost. The codes must be
entered in the ESTMAST estimate under the Setup option. All of the detail codes
may be a maximum of 12 characters. The first character in the code will define
the category of cost. The following codes are representative of actual code struc
tures used by heavy construction contractors and may be used as is or changed at
your discretion. Keep in mind that a database will sort the codes beginning with
the first character in the code, then by each subsequent character. Numbers sort
before letters.
Established company resources and rates for labor, equipment, and subcon
tracts as well as the standard crews for various types of work are given as:
Labor Resources:
Code Description Unit Rate % $/hr
CFS Form setter mh $13.95 23.55 1.95

CMF Cone, mason/finisher mh $15.25 23.55 1.95
CPL Concrete placing labor mh $11.85 23.55 1.95
CREB Rebar installer mh $12.25 23.55 1.95
FORE Foreman mh $16.75 23.55 2.75
LABOR Laborer mh $9.55 23.55 1.95
LPIPE Pipe layer mh $13.05 23.55 1.95
OBH Backhoe operator mh $13.75 23.55 1.95
OCR Crane operator mh $16.75 23.55 1.95
OEXC Excavator operator mh $15.90 23.55 1.95
ODL Dozer/loader operator mh $14.75 23.55 1.95
OGR Grader operator mh $16.10 23.55 1.95
OROLL Roller operator mh $11.15 23.55 1.95
OSCR Screed/curbformer oper. mh $14.35 23.55 1.95
OTD Truck driver mh $10.95 23.55 1.95
SUPT Superintendent mh $22.50 23.55 2.75
SURV Surveyor mh $15.75 23.55 1.95
Note: The payroll burden is 23.55 percent inclusive of workmen’s compensation and there is a health insurance
cost of $1.95 per man-hour (except for the foremen and superintendents who have expanded coverage costing
$2.75 per man-hour). Overtime, if required, is costed at 15 times the base rate for hours worked over 40 hr/week.
Equipment Resources:
Code Description Unit Rate
8B416 Backhoe/loader—Cat 416 hr $11.95

8B426 Baokhoe/loader—Cat 426 hr $15.15
8BDH BH/L demo hammer attachment hr $12.25
8CH18 Hydraulic crane—18 T hr $24.25
8D4 Dozer—Cat D4 hr $15.45
(continued)
(Continued)
8D6 Dozer— Cat D6 hr $35.50

8D8 Dozer—Cat D8 hr $56.85
8E320 Excavator— Cat 320B (1j cy) hr $27.25
8E322 Excavator—Cat 322B (2 cy) hr $36.35
8E330 Excavator— Cat 330B (3 cy) hr $46.45
8L920 Loader— Cat 920 (1| cy) hr $19.25
8L930 Loader— Cat 930 (2 cy) hr $23.40
8L966 Loader— Cat 966 (4 cy) hr $33.75
8M120 Motor grader—Cat 120 hr $37.15
8M140 Motor grader— Cat 140 hr $48.25
8RPC Plate compactor hr $3.25
8RRT5 Rubber tire roller— 5 T hr $14.25
8RT30 Trench roller— 30 in. hr $5.75
8RV66 Vibratory roller—66 in. hr $16.25
8RV84 Vibratory roller—84 in. hr $23.35
8TD12 End dump truck— 12 cy hr $18.85
8TD18 End dump truck— 18 cy hr $24.25
8TF05 Flatbed truck— 5 T hr $ 9.25
8TL30 Lowbed tractor trailer—30 T hr $29.60
8TPU Crew/pickup truck hr $6.25
8TW3 Water truck w/spraybar— 3000 G hr $19.85
8VCS Curb slipformer hr $25.55
8VCT Concrete work tools hr $5.00
8VSC Vibratory concrete screed hr $10.50
Standard Crews:
Crew members may be selected from the appropriate list by entering the number of
pieces required. (All equipment and trucks must have appropriate operator or driver
included in crew.)
Code Nam e and cre w m em bers

CLR Clearing crew
Foreman w/pickup, 3 laborers, D-6 dozer, 966 loader, 3- to 18-cy dump tracks
CPF Cone, paving—formwork crew
Foreman w/pickup, 6 form setter, 1 laborer, 5-T flatbed truck
CPP Cone, paving— place/finish crew
Foreman w/pickup, 1 form setter, 5 concrete laborers, 4 finishers, vibratory
concrete screed, concrete work tools, 5-T flatbed truck
CPX Cone, paving—curing crew
2 laborers, water truck w/driver
CRC Reinforcing steel crew
Foreman w/pickup, 8 rebar installers, 5-T flatbed truck
CSC Concrete curb slip form crew
Foreman w/pickup, 2 finishers, 2 concrete laborers, curb slipformer, Cat 416
backhoe, 30-in. trench roller
CSF Cone, structures formwork crew
Foreman w/pickup, 6 form setters, 5-T flatbed truck
(continued)
(Continued)
C ode Nam e and cre w m em bers

CSP Cone, structures placing crew
Foreman w/pickup, 1 form setter, 4 concrete laborers, 2 finishers, concrete work
tools, 18-T hydraulic crane
CSS Cone. misc. metals crew
1 form setter and 1 laborer
EXB Bulk excavation crew
Foreman w/pickup, 1 laborer, D-8 dozer, 330B excavator, 1/2 Cat 120 motor
grader
EXS Structural excavation crew
Foreman w/pickup, 4 laborers, 320B excavator, trench roller
FBC Base laying crew
Foreman w/plckup, 2 laborers, D-6 dozer, 84-in. vib. roller, rubber tire roller, Cat
120 motor grader, water truck
FGC Fine grading crew
1 laborer, rubber tire roller, Cat 120 motor grader, 1/2 water truck
FGP Granular fill placing crew
Foreman w/pickup, 2 laborers, D-6 dozer, 84-in. vib. roller, 1/2 water truck
FHC Hand backfill/compaction crew
4 laborers, 2 plate compactors (no operator needed), Cat 416 backhoe/loader
LAB Misc. labor crew
Foreman w/pickup, 4 laborers
RRC Rip rap crew
5 laborers, Cat 966 Loader
UDL Drainage crew (large)
Foreman w/pickup, 3 pipe layers, 3 laborers, 322B excavator, 2 trench rollers
UDS Drainage crew (small)
Foreman w/pickup, 2 pipe layers, 2 laborers, 320B excavator, trench roller
UMH Manhole/inlet crew
2 pipe layers, 2 laborers, 18-T hydraulic crane
UPP Perforated pipe inst. crew
Foreman w/pickup, 2 pipe layers, 1 laborer
Material and Subcontract Plugs:

2BAB Graded aggregate base ton $5.25

2BFL Common fill cy $1.25
2BSC Crushed stone ton $4.50
2BSG Sand/granular fill cy $2.50
2BRR Rip rap— 100# max. ton $15.50
2CC30 3000-psi concrete cy $45.50

2CC90 Add microsilica additive cy $6.50
2CC92 Add fiber reinforcing cy $4.50
2CCMPD Concrete curing compound sf $0.04
2CM62.9 Mesh—6 x 6, W2.9 sy $0.95
(continued)
(Continued)
2CM64.0 Mesh—6 x 6, W4.0 sy $1.30

2CMACC Mesh accessories/chairs sy $0.10
2CR60 Gr. 60— plain reinforcing lb $0.25
2CR60E Gr. 60—epoxy coated reinf. lb $0.38
2CRACC Reinf. steel accessories lb $0.03
2CSMG Misc. embedded steel (galv.) lb $1.55
2FACC Form oil and accessories sf $0.10
2FP06 Paving forms— 6 in. lin ft $0.75
2FP09 Paving forms—9 in. lin ft $1.00
2FP12 Paving forms— 12 in. lin ft $1.25
2FWF Wood forms—footings sf $1.00
2FWS Wood forms— slabs sf $0.75
2FWW Wood forms—walls sf $1.50
2IP01 Type I precast inlet ea $1,250.00

2IP02 Type II precast inlet ea $800.00
2IPC Curb inlet ea $1,050.00
2IPFG Inlet frame and grate ea $365.00
2PM12 12-in. corrugated metal pipe lin ft $11.50

2PME12 12-in. CMP flared end section lin ft $100.00
2PPD04 4-in. perforated drain pipe lin ft $1.90

2PPDS Drain pipe fabric sock lin ft $0.75
2PR18 18-in. reinforced concrete pipe lin ft $12.50

2PRE18 18-in. RCP flared end section lin ft $195.00
2ZCP Cell phone charges week $40.00

2ZOC Site offices week $55.00
2ZOE Office/engineering expenses week $25.00
2ZPT Portable toilets (each) week $25.00
4HCY Hauling sub— by the cy cy $4.50

4HHR Hauling sub— by the hr hr $45.50
4HLD Hauling sub— by the load load $325.00
4HTN Hauling sub— by the ton ton $3.75
4CC04 Coring sub— up to 4-in. dia. lin ft $20.00

4CC06 Coring sub— 4-in. to 6-in. dia. lin ft $30.00
(continued)
( Continued)
4CSJ06 Jt. saw cutting sub—6-in. slab lin ft $1.75

4CSJ09 Jt. saw cutting sub—9-in. slab lin ft $2.25
4CSJ12 Jt. saw cutting sub— 12-in. slab lin ft $2.75
4LGR Grassing (landscape) sub sy $0.90
4LGW Grass watering sub (per month) sy/month $0.05
4TCYL Testing sub— conc. cylinders each $17.50

4TCOM Testing sub—fill compaction each $25.00
Markup Instructions:
Item Markup
Labor 25%
Materials 5%
Equipment 10%
Subcontracts 5%
Payment & Performance Bond Rate:

Am ount Rate
First $100,000 $7.25 per thousand

$100,001 to $500,000 $6.50 per thousand
$500,001 to $2,000,000 $5.50 per thousand
$2,000,001 to $5,000,000 $4.70 per thousand
$5,000,001 and over $4.20 per thousand
General Information for All Bids:

Com pany bidding rules
1. All bids will include a superintendent with pickup truck for the duration of the project.
2. All bids will include as a minimum one surveyor with pickup truck for 25 percent of the duration.
3. All bids will include a misc. project overhead costs for portable toilets, office costs, mobile
phone charges, and office/engineering expenses.
4. Superintendent, surveyor, and overhead cost will be included in the Mobilization Biditem.
5. Mobilization will include one load of equipment haul subcontract for each major piece of
equipment required on-site.
6. All bids containing imported borrow material will include 15 percent additional volume
purchased to allow for compaction.
7. Purchased stone products will be calculated at 1.50 T/cy in-place volume.
8. All bids will be estimated at straight time rate (40 hr/week) unless schedule concerns dictate
overtime to be required.
9. Any variation from these guidelines must be approved in advance by the V.P. Estimating
Department.
25.2 Millenium Developers is adding an additional access road between two sections
of their Shady Acres Project. The road will join existing pavements at both ends.
Excavation and preparation of the subgrade have been performed by others.
Prepare a computer estimate for the project. Use the resources and crews
from ESTMAST in Prob. 25.1. Use the labor and equipment resources, crews,
material and subcontract prices, standard markup percentages, and follow the
Company Bidding Rules that were established in the setup of ESTMAST in
Prob. 25.1. Also use the historical production rates in Table 25.1. Assume a
7-week duration for the job. The project owner is a private client and does not
require a Payment and Performance Bond. Project information and the scope of
work to be estimated are detailed next.
Project Information:
Estimate No.: E-001
Estimate Name: New road and drainage—Shady Acres Phase II
Owner: Millenium Developers, Inc.
Engineer: Lanevco Partners, Inc.
Bid Date: 2 weeks from today
Scope of Work:
Paving dimensions 2,560 ft long X 27 ft wide (exclusive of curb) x 9 in. thick
Road details Reinforcing mesh (6 x 6, W2.9) and 3500 psi concrete
Surface to be sprayed with concrete curing compound
Contraction joints Saw cut across width at 15 ft center-to-center along the entire length
Curb 9 in. wide x 18 in. high along both edges, nonreinforced
Base course 6 in. crushed stone
Drainage under road Corrugated metal pipe - 2 each x 18-in. dia. and 3 each x 24-in. dia.
All culverts are 32 lin ft long with flared end sections at each end
Landscaping Grassing to be included along 30 ft on both sides for the entire length
Grass to be watered for 2 months after installation
Biditems:
Code D escription Q uantity Unit
10 Mobilization 1 Is
20 Furnish and place aggregate base course ?? cy
30 Furnish and place 9-in. reinforced concrete paving ?? sy
40 Saw cut construction joints ?? lin ft
50 Concrete curb ?? lin ft
60 Drainage culverts under roadway 1 Is
70 Landscaping (grassing) ?? sy
Note that ?? denotes quantities are to be determined from your takeoff.

25.3 Radio station WARP is adding a new transmitter tower and has asked your Tri-
State Constructors to build the concrete base and anchor blocks. Prepare a com
puter estimate for the project. Use the labor and equipment resources, crews,
material and subcontract prices, standard markup percentages, and follow the
Company Bidding Rules that were established in the setup of ESTMAST in
Prob. 25.1. Also use the historical production rates in Table 25.1. Assume a
3-week duration for the job. The project owner is a private client and does not
require a payment and performance bond. Project information and the scope of
work to be estimated are detailed next.
Project Information:
Estimate No.: E-002

Estimate Name New radio tower anchor blocks—WARP
Owner: Mid-City Communications Co., Inc.
Engineer: Aerial, Inc.
Bid Date: 2 weeks from today
Scope of Work:
All footings are concrete cast directly on the excavated subgrade. To allow for formwork, the
excavations need to be 5 ft larger than the dimensions of the concrete blocks. The top of concrete
is even with the surrounding ground level. Each footing is cast monolithically and receives a spray-
on curing compound on the upper surface and on all four sides. Granular backfill is placed around
the footings.
Tower footing— 1 each at 24 ft wide x 24 ft long x 6 ft deep with 16 steel embeds at 125 lb each
with an average of 100 Ib/cy of grade 60 reinforcing steel.
Anchor blocks— 4 each at 18 ft wide x 18 ft long x 5 ft deep with 4 steel embeds at 175 lb each
with an average of 95 Ib/cy of grade 60 reinforcing steel.
Biditems:
Code Description Q uantity Unit
10 Mobilization 1 Is
20 Site clearing 3 ac
30 Excavate for anchor blocks and footing ?? cy
40 Concrete anchor blocks and footing ?? cy
50 Furnish and install steel embeds ?? lb
60 Hand place granular fill and compact ?? cy
Note that ?? denotes quantities are to be determined from your takeoff.

A P P E N D I X
Example Bid Documents

This appendix contains the plans (drawings) and Division 0 of the written spec
ifications for a project. A complete set of the technical specifications (Divisions
0 through 16) can be obtained from the McGraw-Hill website at www.mhhe.com/
peurifoy_oberlender.
498
PROJECT OWNER'S NAME
CITY, STATE
ARCHITECT-ENGINEER
INDEX of SHEETS
AB C D E S IG N FIRM
A RCHITECTURE - ENGINEERING SERVICES
3456 S TR E E T COVER
C ITY, STATE ZIP
CIVIL C1 SITE PLAN
CONTACT: A rch ite c t / Engineer Name
PHONE NUMBER
ARCHITECTURAL A1 INTERIOR ELEVATION
A2 INTERIOR ELEVATION
A3 EXTERIOR ELEVATION
A4 SECTIONS
BUILDING CODES A5 SECTIONS
A6 FOUNDATION PLAN
T h i s p r o j e c t h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d in
a c c o r d a n c e with:
MECHANICAL M1 HVAC FLOOR PLAN
19 96 BO CA N a t io n a l B u i l d i n g Co de, PLUMBING P1 PLUMBING PLAN
1995 I n t e r n a t i o n a l P l u m b i n g Co de ELECTRICAL E1 ELECTRICAL POWER
w i t h 19 96 S u p p l e m e n t ,
1 996 In te r n a tio n a l M e cha n ica l Code,
E2 ELECTRICAL LIGHTING
1 996 N a t i o n a l E l e c t r i c a l Co de,
1994 Li fe Safety Code.
All w o r k s h a ll b e p e r f o r m e d in
a c c o r d a n c e w ith these codes.
500
PROJECT
O W N E R ’S
N A ME
STREET ADDRESS
LOCATIONS *5HOWN.
COMCRC'E
----- ADi) fi 701F ± . 2 "c SC H .80, PERIMETER P i PE FENCING
tV 2x4 w w r s h e e p f e n c e , to m a t c h e x is t in g f e n c in g
THAT RUNS ALONG SOUTH EDGE OF PROPERTY.
TOP R A O -4 |4 8 " ABOVE CROUND, WITH 6 ’ POSTS. l O '- O " O.C .
luesroNE b ^TULCOW
ITH‘C'U
'NCW
LTT
E A C H 'P ^S X TO BE SET IN 8 "e H 0 l£ ._ 2 -^ ’ DE-E-FH-----------
PROVIDE ALUMINUM CHANNEL DOUBLE GATES AT BOTH ENTRANCE
sr»eiii2£o
UNOl^T'JRB £D
1.^:% 'Z'-l ALTERNATE PRICING
BASE BID - 6" DEEP - 1 - 1 / 2 " CRL
EXISTING GASVlNE
ALTERNATE #1 - i" ASPHALT OVER 6" DEEP 1 'SHER
ALTERNATE #2 - 6’ CONCRETE OVER 5" OE£P
WATER LINE
6" THICK CONCRETE APRON
GATE W/ 6x6 !.4»i 4 WWF
(TYPICAL 4 L0^5±93?=?T
.0. C u lv ert
; xp an SiO JOINT
REFER D
191 675 ’~F.F~]

MAINTENANCE
FACILITY
Sh a p e g r a d e toy
PROVIDE POSITIVE D
AWAY FROM CULVER'
!VI«EEW 6 SANIT>
SEWER -EXISTINI
POWER POLE
NEW 10 "0 .D . CULVERT
B ENC
IRGINIAAVENUE BUILDING
as*winc
APPENDIX FIGURE 1 I Site Plan (Civil Drawing C-1)

APPENDIX FIGURE 2 I Floor Plan (Architectural Drawing A-1)
502
APPENDIX FIGURE 3 I Interior Elevations (Architectural Drawing A-2)

Metal Louvered Project
Owner’s
HEPA Filter Name
HEPA Filter Stack
Street Address
Exhaust Stack
City, State
John Smith, P.E.
Owners Rep.
Street Address
City, State
Phone Number
1" Away
Overhead Door Slope Grade Away From From All Doors
/ f v \ WEST ELEVATION Building at Minimum of ‘NEAST ELEVATION
IJL f) SCALE: 3/32 5 l'-0" ) SCALE: 3/32 = r-0"
6" in 10'-0"
San. Vent
(Typical)
H
W
1 co
>1
Motorized Dampers
w/ Metal Louvers Overhead Door
jft h
hQ <
QQh
NORTH ELEVATION
\f* 7 SCALE: 3/32 = l'-O"
A/A-4 Motorized Dampers
IS
iI s<
/ t TnSOUTH eleva tion

IJD )
SCALE: 3/32 = 1 0 "
APPENDIX FIGURE 4 I Exterior Elevations (Architectural Drawing A-3)

503
504
APPENDIX FIGURE 5 I Building Sections (Architectural Drawing A-4)

APPENDIX FIGURE 6 I Building Sections (Architectural Drawing A-5)
505
506
PROJECT
O W N E R ’S
NAME
STREET ADDRESS
M A I N T E N A N C E RO O M ff 1 0 1 A TO H A V E A L I GHT B R O O M F I N I S H CITY. STATE

ALL O T H E R A R E A S TO HA V E A S M O O T H S T EE L T R O WE L
FI NI SH A P P L I E D
PHONE NUMBER
SET T OP OF F L O O R D R A I N S
IN A N I M A L R O O M # 101A,
AT 9 1 6 . 2 5 E L E V AT I ON
( 15 DRAI NS )
C O N C . SLAB ( M I N I MU M )
W / # 3 B AR S @ 1 8 ” O. C.
/T \F O U N DATI ON PLAN B O T H W A Y S ON 4 " S A N D
\ / "V / s C A L E : 3 / 3 2 " « r - 0 '
\PROJECT3\BUILDINC\e3r\0RAWINGS\BASCPKN OWG
A-6
APPENDIX FIGURE 7 I Foundation Plan (Architectural Drawing A-6)
APPENDIX FIGURE 8 I HVAC Plan (Mechanical Drawing M -1)
507
508
APPENDIX FIGURE 9 I Plumbing Plan (Plumbing Drawing P-1)

APPENDIX FIGURE 10 I Electrical Power Plan (Electrical Drawing E-1)
PROJECT
LIGHT FIXTURE SCHEDULE O W N E R ’S
MANF . & MODEL NO. DE S C R I P T I O N NAME
2LB- 4 3 2 - I 2 0 - ES-CEB -32w® 3500K' STR EET ADDRESS
-2 3 2 -1 20-ES-GEB SURFAC E -32W9 3500K'

CITY. STATE
LI THONI A, T - L B - 2 3 2 - I 2 0 - ES-GEB TANDEM. FLUOR. 4 - 32W® 3500K'
L UMA RK, HPGP-IOO - 1 2 0 V -L I - P E -F I EXTERIOR. HPS
EMERGENCY LI TE PHONE NUMBER
0MPW1R-EL-
1
U1
«
Ip
Saf e
ELECTRICAL LIGHTING PLAN

SCALE; 3 /3 2" = I ' - O "
E-2
APPENDIX FIGURE 11 I Electrical Lighting (Electrical Drawing E-2)

A ppendix Example Bid Documents 511
BID DOCUMENTS
FOR:
1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
DATE: JANUARY 20xx

1234 STREET, ROOM 200
CITY, STATE
SET NUMBER
INDEX
DIVISION 0—BIDDING AND CONTRACT DOCUMENTS Pages

SECTION 00001: ADVERTISEMENT FOR BIDS 1
SECTION 00002: INSTRUCTIONS TO BIDDERS 1-5
SECTION 00003: BID FORM 1-4
SECTION 00004: AFFIDAVIT OF NONDISCRIMINATION,
NONSEGREGATED FACILITIES,
NONCOLLUSION, AND
BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS 1-2
SECTION 00005: BID BOND 1-2
SECTION 00006: CONTRACT 1-2
SECTION 00007: AFFIDAVIT 1
SECTION 00008: PERFORMANCE PAYMENT BOND 1-2
SECTION 00009: STATUTORY BOND 1-2
SECTION 00010: WARRANTY BOND 1-2
SECTION 00011: AFFIDAVIT (RELEASE OF LIENS, ETC.) 1
SECTION 00012: CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL (SURETY’S
CONSENT OF RELEASE OF LIENS) 1
SECTION 00013: GENERAL CONDITIONS 1
SECTION 00014: SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS 1-9
DIVISION 1—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 1-11
DIVISION 2—SITEWORK
SECTION 02200—EARTHWORK 1-4
SECTION 02282—TERMITE CONTROL 1-2
SECTION 02511—HOT-MIXED ASPHALT PAVING 1-4
DIVISION 3—CONCRETE
SECTION 03300—CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE 1-6
DIVISION 4—MASONRY
SECTION 04200—UNIT MASONRY 1-9
DIVISION 5—METALS (NONE)
DIVISION 6—WOOD AND PLASTICS

SECTION 06105—MISCELLANEOUS CARPENTRY 1-2
SECTION 06192—WOOD TRUSSES 1-2
DIVISION 7—THERMAL AND MOISTURE PROTECTION

SECTION 07210—BUILDING INSULATION 1-2
Appendix Example Bid Documents 513
SECTION 07411—MANUFACTURED ROOF PANELS 1-2

SECTION 07901—JOINT SEALANTS 1-2
DIVISION 8—DOORS AND WINDOWS

SECTION 08111—STEEL DOORS AND FRAMES 1-2
SECTION 08360— SECTIONAL OVERHEAD DOORS 1-2
SECTION 08520—ALUMINUM WINDOWS 1-2
SECTION 08710—DOOR HARDWARE 1-3
DIVISION 9—FINISHES
SECTION 09250—GYPSUM BOARD ASSEMBLIES 1-2
SECTION 09650—RESILIENT FLOORING 1-2
SECTION 09678—RESILIENT WALL BASE 1
SECTION 09900—PAINTING 1-2
DIVISION 10—SPECIALTIES
SECTION 10155—TOILET COMPARTMENTS 1
SECTION 10500—METAL LOCKERS 1
SECTION 10522—FIRE EXTINGUISHERS AND
WALL BRACKETS 1
SECTION 10800—TOILET AND BATH ACCESSORIES 1-2
DIVISION 11—EQUIPMENT (NONE)
DIVISION 12—FURNISHINGS
SECTION 12346—WOOD LABORATORY CASEWORK
AND FIXTURES 1-10
DIVISION 13—SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION (NONE)
DIVISION 14—CONVEYING SYSTEMS (NONE)
DIVISION 15—MECHANICAL
SECTION 15100—PLUMBING 1-3
SECTION 15500—HEATING, VENTILATING, AND
AIR CONDITIONING 1-2
DIVISION 16—ELECTRICAL
SECTION 16100—ELECTRICAL 1-4
* * * * * * END OF IN D E X ******
DIVISION 0— BIDDING REQUIREMENTS, CONTRACT

FORMS, AND CONDITIONS OF THE
CONTRACT
SECTION 00001—ADVERTISEMENT FOR BIDS:
ADVERTISEMENT FOR BIDS:
BIDS: 3:00 P.M., FEBRUARY 19, 20XX
The OWNER, will receive bids on:
1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
at the office of OWNER, located in the Room 200 at 1234 Street in City,
State until 3:00 P.M., FEBRUARY 19, 20XX, and then publicly opened and
read aloud at a designated place. Bids received after this time or more than
ninety-six (96) hours excluding Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays before the
time set for the opening of bids will not be accepted. Bids must be turned in at
the above office during the time period set forth. All interested parties are invited
to attend.
The contract documents may be examined in the office of ABC DESIGN
FIRM, 3456 Street, City, State, Zip Code, and copies may be obtained there
upon receipt of a letter of intent to pay $100.00 for two ( 2 ) sets of drawings and
specifications in the event that they are not returned in good condition within ten
(10) days of the date of bid opening. Additional sets may be obtained by paying
the cost of printing the drawings and assembly of specifications.
The OWNER reserves the right to reject any or all bids or to waive any
minor informalities or irregularities in the bidding.
Each bidder must deposit, with his bid, security in the amount and form set
out in the contract documents. Security shall be subject to the conditions pro
vided in the Instruction to Bidders.
No bidder may withdraw his bid within sixty (60) days after the date of
opening thereof. Attention of bidders is particularly directed to the statutory
requirements and affidavit concerning nondiscrimination, nonsegregated facili
ties, noncollusion, and business relationship provisions.
OWNER
By _________Chairman’s Name__________
Chairman
1st Publication: January 29, 20XX
2nd Publication: February 5, 20XX
* * * * * END OF SECTION 00001—ADVERTISEMENTS FOR BIDS * * * * *

SECTION 00002—INSTRUCTIONS TO BIDDERS:

RECEIPT AND OPENING OF BIDS:
The OWNER invites bids on the referenced project on the Bid Form included in
the Contract Documents, all blanks of which must be appropriately filled in. Bids
will be received by the Owner at the time and place set forth in the Advertisement
for Bids and then at said place be publicly opened and read aloud.
The Owner may reject any bid not prepared and submitted in accordance
with the provisions hereof and may reject any and all bids or may waive any
minor informalities or irregularities in the bidding.
Bids received prior to the time of opening will be kept unopened in a secure
place. The officer whose duty it is to open them will decide when the specified
time has arrived, and no bid received thereafter will be considered. No respon
sibility will attach to an officer for the premature opening of a bid not properly
addressed and identified. Unless specifically authorized, telegraphic, oral, fa c
simile or telephonic bids will not be considered, but modifications by telegraph
or facsimile of bids already submitted will be considered if received prior to the
hour set for opening.
BID SUBMISSION:
Each bid must be submitted in a sealed envelope bearing on the outside the
name of the bidder, his address, and the name of the project for which the
bid is submitted, and addressed as specified in the Bid Form.
If forwarded by mail, the sealed envelope containing the bid must be
enclosed in another envelope addressed as specified in the Bid Form.
The Owner shall not be responsible for failure by the postal service to
timely deliver any bid.
SPECIAL BIDDING DOCUMENTS:

Attention is particularly called to those parts of the contract documents
which must be attached to the Bid Form:
a. Affidavit of Nondiscrimination, Nonsegregated Facilities, Noncollusion,
and Business Relationships (pgs. 1 and 2, Section 00004).
b. Bid Bond (pgs. 1 and 2, Section 00005).
c. Power of Attorney.
SUBCONTRACT:
Any person, firm, or other party to whom it is proposed to award a subcontract
under this contract must be acceptable to the Owner.
TELEGRAPHIC MODIFICATION:
Any bidder may modify his bid by telegraphic or facsimile communication at
any time prior to the scheduled closing time for receipt of Bids, provided such
telegraphic or facsimile communication is received by the Owner prior to the

closing time, and provided further, the Owner is satisfied that a written confir
mation of the telegraphic or facsimile modification over the signature of the bid
der was mailed prior to the closing time. The telegraphic or facsimile communi
cation should not reveal bid price, but should provide the addition or subtraction
to the Owner until the sealed bid is opened. If written confirmation is not
received within two days from the closing time, no consideration will be given
to the telegraphic or facsimile modification.
WITHDRAWAL OF BIDS:
Bids may be withdrawn on written or telegraphic or facsimile request received
from bidders prior to the time fixed for opening. Negligence on the part of the
bidder in preparing the bid confers no right for the withdrawal of the bid after it
has been opened.
BASIS OF BID:
The bidder must include all unit cost items and all alternatives shown on the Bid
Forms; failure to comply may be cause for rejection. No segregated bids or
assignments will be considered.
QUALIFICATION OF BIDDER:
The Owner may make such investigation as he deems necessary to determine the
ability of the bidder to perform the work, and the bidder shall furnish to the
Owner all such information and data for this purpose as the Owner may request.
The Owner reserves the right to reject any bid if the evidence submitted by, or
investigation of, such bidder fails to satisfy the Owner that such bidder is prop
erly qualified to carry out the obligations of the contract and to complete the
work contemplated therein. Conditional bids will not be accepted.
BID SECURITY:
Each bid must be accompanied by a certified check made payable to the Owner
in the sum of not less than five percent (5% ) of the base bid, plus add alternates,
if any, or a bond with sufficient sureties, to be approved by Owner, in a penal
sum equal to five percent (5% ) of the base bid, plus add alternates, if any, and
naming the Owner as obligee, or for any bid of $2,000,000 or less an irrevoca
ble letter of credit containing such terms as may be prescribed by the Owner and
issued by a financial institution insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance
Corporation or the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation for the ben
efit of the state, on behalf of the Owner in an amount equal to five percent (5% )
of the bid. Such security shall be returned to all except the three (3) lowest
responsible bidders within three (3) days after the opening of the bids, and the
remaining security within three (3) days after the Owner and the bidder to whom
the contract is awarded have executed the contract.
BID DEFAULT:
If the successful bidder fails or refuses to enter into a contract as required by the
Owner or fails to provide the required bonds and insurance to the Owner, within
the time limited, said bidder shall forfeit to the Owner the difference between the
low bid of said defaulting bidder and the amount of the bid of the bidder to
whom the contract is subsequently awarded and the cost, if any, of republication
of Notice to Bidders and all actual expenses incurred by reason of the bidder’s
default. The amount of said forfeiture shall not exceed the total amount
deposited as security and shall be forfeited to the Owner as liquidated damages
and not as a penalty.
Negligence on the part of the bidder in preparing or submitting the bid con
fers no right for the withdrawal of the bid after it has been opened and shall not
constitute a defense to or excuse from the requirements of this provision.
TIME OF COMPLETION:
Bidder must agree to commence work on or before a date to be specified in a
written “Notice to Proceed” of the Owner and to substantially complete the proj
ect within 180 consecutive calendar days thereafter.
CONDITIONS OF THE WORK:

Each bidder must inform himself fully of the conditions relating to the con
struction of the project and employment of labor hereon. Failure to do so will
not relieve a successful bidder of his obligation to furnish all material and labor
necessary to carry out the provisions of his contract. Insofar as possible, the con
tractor, in carrying out his work, must employ such methods necessary to pre
vent any interruption of or interference with the work of any other contractor.
ADDENDA AND INTERPRETATIONS:

No interpretation of the meaning of the plans, specifications or other contract
documents will be made to any bidder orally. Every request for such interpreta
tion should be in writing addressed to:
ABC Design Firm
3456 Street
City, State Zip
CONTACT PERSON: Designer’s name and phone number
and to be given consideration must be received at least ten days prior to the date
fixed for the opening of bids. Any and all interpretations and any supplemental
instructions will be in the form of written addenda to the specifications, which
if issued, will be mailed to all prospective bidders (at the respective addresses
furnished for such purpose), not later than five days prior to the date fixed for
the opening of bids. Failure of any such bidder to receive any such addenda or
interpretation shall not relieve such bidder from any obligation under his bid as
submitted. All addenda so issued shall become a part of the contract documents.
POWER-OF-ATTORNEY:
The Attomey-in-Fact who signs bid bonds or contract bonds must file with each
bond a certified and effectively dated copy of the Power-of-Attomey.
LAWS AND REGULATIONS:

The bidder’s attention is directed to the fact that all applicable State Laws,
Municipal Ordinances, and the rules and regulations of all authorities having
jurisdiction over construction of the project shall apply to the contract through
out, and they will be deemed to be included in the contract the same as though
herein written out in full.
METHOD OF AWARD:
If the order of acceptance of alternates is not a factor in determining the low bid
der, the Owner may accept any or all alternates in any order of preference. If the
acceptance or rejection of alternates or the order of acceptance of alternates is a
factor the low bidder will be determined by the application of alternates in the
order listed on the proposal form, at the time bids are opened, to the extent that
the amount of budgeted funds will permit. After the low bidder has been so
established, the Owner may elect to revise the extent or order of acceptance of
alternates or may adjust the amount of budgeted funds so long as the selection
of the low bidder is not affected.
The Owner reserves the right to reject any and all bids.
OBLIGATION OF BIDDER:
At the time of the opening of bids, each bidder will be presumed to have
inspected the site and to have read and to be thoroughly familiar with the plans
and contract documents (including all addenda). The failure or omission of any
bidder to examine any form instrument or document shall in no way relieve any
bidder from any obligation in respect of his bid.
Bidders shall carefully examine the documents and the construction site to
obtain first-hand knowledge of the existing conditions, make actual examination
of site, existing construction, and construction conditions prior to submission of
bids. Examination of conditions includes sizes, quantities, functions, etc.
Examination prior to bidding is the Contractor’s responsibility.
Coordinate requests for examination through: Tim Mitchel, Ph. AC &
Number
NOTICE OF REQUIREMENTS FOR AFFIDAVIT OF

NONDISCRIMINATION, NONSEGREGATED
FACILITIES, NONCOLLUSION, AND BUSINESS
RELATIONSHIPS:
Bidders must execute and submit with the bid the affidavit pertaining to
Nondiscrimination, Nonsegregated Facilities, Noncollusion, and Business
Relationships. The Certification of Nonsegregated Facilities must be executed in

contracts exceeding $10,000 which are not exempt from the Provision of the Equal
Opportunity Clause. Failure to execute the required form properly shall result in
rendering the bid proposal non-responsive to the solicitation requirements.
As used in this certification, the term “segregated facilities” means in wait
ing rooms, work areas, restrooms and wash rooms, restaurants and other eating
places, time clocks, locker rooms and other storage or dressing areas, parking
lots, drinking fountains, recreation or entertainment areas, transportation, and
housing facilities provided for employees which are segregated by explicit direc
tive or are in fact segregated on the basis of race, creed, color or national origin,
because of habit, local custom, or otherwise.
NOTICE OF REQUIREMENTS FOR AFFIDAVIT OF

NONCOLLUSION:
The successful bidder must execute and submit with the contract the affidavit
pertaining to noncollusion. Failure to execute the required form properly shall
result in delay of execution of the contract.
SUBSTITUTIONS AND PRODUCT OPTIONS:

Where material is mentioned in the Specifications by trade name or manufac
turer’s name, the same is not a preference for said material, but the intention of
using said name is to establish a type or quality of material. Material of other
trade names or of other manufacturer’s which is equivalent or better in type or
quality shall be submitted for approval 10 days prior to bidding and shall be
accompanied by actual full sized samples and such technical data as the
Architect may need in order to compare the proposed materials with the materi
als which were specified. Approved substitutions shall be made by the Architect
through the issuance of an Addendum. Any substitutions without prior approval
are submitted at the Contractor’s risk and may be rejected.
Before submitting materials or equipment for approval, the Contractor shall
ascertain that it can be installed in the manner indicated and in the space avail
able, and that it complies with the requirement of the Contract. Failure of the
Contractor to do so shall not relieve him of the responsibility for furnishing suit
able materials and equipment.
The Owner reserves the right to reject any proposed substitution which is
submitted after bidding.
IRREVOCABLE LETTERS OF CREDIT:

The successful bidder for contracts in amounts of $100,000 or less may provide
an irrevocable letter of credit for each bond in lieu of the performance payment
bond, statutory bond, and the warranty bond as herein specified. Each letter of
credit shall contain such terms as may be prescribed by the Owner and issued by
a financial institution insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation or
the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation for the benefit of the state,
on behalf of the Owner in an amount equal to the full contract amount. Letters
of credit may not be substituted for bonds required by contracts in excess of
$ 100,000.
SURETY:
The Surety Company required to execute all bonds shall be authorized to trans
act business in the State in accordance with Title XX, State Statutes, Sections
481 et. seq.
MINORITY STATUS:
The contractor shall indicate on the bid form if a claim is being made for minor
ity bid preference in accordance with the State Minority Business Enterprise
Assistance Act (Title XX, Section YY of the State Statutes). Such a claim, if
desired, must be indicated on the bid form at the time of receipt of bids. Claims
for preference after receipt of bids will not be allowed.
* * * * * * SECTION 00002—INSTRUCTIONS TO BIDDERS * * * * *

SECTION 00003— BTD FORM:

Bidders shall note that bid must be made on this form. Amounts of the bid shall
be completely filled in, both in figures and in writing. Enclose the bid form in a
sealed envelope plainly marked and addressed as follows:
1. The name and address of the bidder shall appear in the upper left hand cor
ner of the envelope.
2. The lower left hand comer of the envelope shall be marked as follows:
BID FOR: MAINTENANCE FACILITY PROJECT

1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
3. The envelope shall be addressed to:
OWNER
1234 Street, Suite 200
City, State Zip Code
4. Failure of the bidder to execute and submit the following forms with his
proposal will result in disqualification of his bid:
a. Affidavit of Nondiscrimination, Nonsegregated Facilities,
Noncollusion, and Business Relationships.
b. Bid Security.
c. Power of Attorney (with Surety Bonds).
SECTION 00003—BID FORM:
Place:
Date:
PROPOSAL OF
(hereinafter called “Bidder”), a

(corporation/partnership/an individual) doing business as
TO: The Owner.
Gentlemen:
The bidder, in compliance with your invitation for Bids for the:
1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
having examined the plans and specifications with related documents and the
site of the proposed work, and being familiar with all of the conditions sur
rounding the work, including the availability of materials and labor, hereby
agree to furnish all labor, materials, equipment and supplies, and to perform the
work required by the project in accordance with the contract documents, within
the time set forth in Instructions to Bidders, and at the prices stated below. These
prices are to cover all expenses incurred in performing the work required by the
contract documents, of which this bid is a part.
Bidder acknowledges receipt of the following addenda:_______________ .
All Bid amounts shall be shown in both WORDS and FIGURES. In case of
discrepancy, the amount shown in words will govern.
BASE BID:
Bidder agrees to perform all of the work described in the plans and specifica
tions as being in the Base Bid for the sum of:______________ Dollars.
$______________________
The Bidder agrees to perform all of the work described in the Drawings and
Specifications, which has been designated as Alternate Bids. Alternate Bids
shall be add amounts to the Base Bid. Changes shall include any modifications
of the work or additional work that the Bidder may require to perform by reason
of Owner’s acceptance of any or all Alternate Bids.
ALTERNATE NO. 1 :
Add 3" thick Type “C” asphalt paving to compacted crushed limestone as shown
on Sheet C-l.
ADD: $______________________ .
________________________ Dollars.
ALTERNATE NO. 2:
Added cost difference to provide 6 " thick reinforced concrete paving in lieu of
asphalt paving as shown on Sheet C-l.
ADD: $_______________________.
________________________ Dollars.
The Bidder hereby agrees to commence work under this contract on or before a
date to be specified in a written “Notice to Proceed” by the Owner and to sub
stantially complete the project within 180 consecutive calendar days there
after.
The Owner reserves the right to reject any and all bids.
Bidder agrees that this bid shall be good and shall not be withdrawn for a
period of sixty (60) calendar days after the opening thereof.
In the event a contract is awarded by the Owner to the Successful Bidder, it
shall be executed within thirty (30) days. TheBidder shall return with his exe
cuted contract the Performance Payment Bond, Statutory Bond and Warranty
Bond as required by the Supplementary Conditions.
If the successful bidder fails or refuses to enter into a contract as required by
the Owner or fails to provide the required bonds and insurance to the Owner,
within the time limited, said bidder shall forfeit to the Owner the difference
between the low bid of said defaulting bidder and the amount of the bid of the
bidder to whom the contract is subsequently awarded and, the cost, if any, of re
publication of notice to bidders and all actual expenses incurred by reason of the
bidder’s default. The amount of said forfeiture shall not exceed the total amount
deposited as security and shall be forfeited to the Owner as liquidated damages
and not as a penalty. Negligence on the part of bidder in preparing or submitting
the bid confers no right for the withdrawal of the bid after it has been opened and
shall not constitute a defense to or excuse from the requirements of this provision.
(SEAL) if bid
is by Corporation Respectfully submitted,
By: __________________
Title
FEI/SS Number____________________
Is a claim for minority preference being made?

Y es_____ N o _____
If so, give certificate num ber_______________ .
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00003—BID FORM

SECTION 00004— AFFIDAVIT OF NONDISCRIMINATION, NONSEG

REGATED FACILITIES, NONCOLLUSION, AND BUSINESS RELA
TIONSHIPS
STATE OF ______________________ )
COUNTY OF ______________________ )
The undersigned, of lawful age, being first duly sworn upon oath, deposes and
states that I am the duly authorized agent of the bidder submitting the attached
bid and am authorized by said bidder to execute the within affidavit.
I further swear that if said bidder is successful on this project, it will not dis
criminate against anyone in employment or employment practice because of
race, color, religion, sex, ornational origin. The undersignedfurther statesthat
said bidder will comply with all federal and state lawsand executive orders con
cerning the subject of nondiscrimination.
The undersigned further states that said bidder does not and will not main
tain or provide for its employees any segregated facilities as defined in the
instructions to bidders for this project at any of its establishments, nor permit its
employees to perform their services at any location under its control, where seg
regated facilities are maintained. The bidder further agrees that a violation of
this certification is a breach of the equal opportunity clause of this bid and any
contract awarded pursuant thereto. Said bidder further agrees that (except where
it has obtained identical certification from proposed subcontractors for specific
time periods), it will obtain identical certifications from proposed subcontractors
prior to the award of subcontracts exceeding Ten Thousand Dollars ($10,000)
which are not exempt from the provisions of the equal opportunity laws, and that
said bidder will retain such certifications in its files.
The undersigned further states that, for the purpose of certifying the facts
pertaining to the existence of collusion among bidders and between bidders and
state officials or employees, as well as facts pertaining to the giving or offering
of things of value to government personnel in return for special consideration in
the letting of any contract pursuant to the bid to which this statement is attached;
that I am fully aware of the facts and circumstances surrounding the making of
the bid to which this statement is attached and have been personally and directly
involved in the proceedings leading to the submission of such bid; and that nei
ther the bidder nor anyone subject to the bidder’s direction or control has been
a party: (a) to any collusion among bidders in restraint of freedom of competi
tion by agreement to bid at a fixed price or to refrain from bidding; nor (b) to
any collusion with any state official or employee as to quantity, quality or price
in the prospective contract, or as to any other terms of such prospective con
tractor; (c) in any discussions between bidders and any state official concerning
exchange of money or other thing of value for special consideration in the let
ting of a contract.
The undersigned further states that any partnerships, joint ventures, or other
business relationships that are not in effect, or existed within one ( 1 ) year prior
to this statement, with the architect, engineer or other party to this project; or any
such business relationships between any officer or director of the bidder and any
officer or director of the architectural or engineering firm or other party to the
project are described as follows:
NAME OF BIDDER:
BY: _____________
Affiant
Subscribed and sworn to before me this_______ day o f_____________, 20_

My commission expires: _____
Notary Public
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00004—NONCOLLUSION AFFIDAVIT * * * * *

SECTION 00005—BID BOND

KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS, that we, the undersigned
as Principal, an d _____________________________________________________
as Surety, authorized to transact business in the State, are hereby held and firmly
bound unto Owner, in the penal sum o f_______________________________ for
the payment of which, well and truly to be made, we hereby jointly and sever
ally bind ourselves, our heirs, executors, administrators, successors and assigns.
Signed th is_____ day o f ___________________ , 20_____ .

The condition of the above obligation is such that whereas the Principal has sub
mitted to OWNER a certain bid, attached hereto and hereby made a part hereof
to enter into a contract in writing, for the
1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
NOW THEREFORE,
(a) If said Bid shall be rejected, or in the alternate,
(b) If said Bid shall be accepted and the Principal shall execute and deliver
a Contract in the Form of Contract attached hereto (properly completed
and in accordance with said Bid) and shall furnish all bonds required by
the specifications and shall in all other respects perform the agreement
created by the acceptance of said Bid,
then this obligation shall be void, otherwise the same shall remain in force and
effect; it being expressly understood and agreed that the liability of the Surety
for any and all claims hereunder shall, in no event, exceed the penal amount of
this obligation as herein stated.
The Surety, for value received, hereby stipulates and agrees that the obliga
tions of said Surety and its bond shall be in no way impaired or affected by any
extension of the time within which the Owner may accept such Bid; and said
Surety does hereby waive notice of any such extension.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the Principal and the Surety have hereunto set
their hands and seals, and such of them as are corporations have caused their
corporate seals to be hereto affixed and these presents to be signed by their
proper officers, the day and year first set forth above.
Principal
Surety
SEAL B Y __________________________________
Attomey-in-Fact
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00005—BID BOND * * * * *

SECTION 00006— CONTRACT
THIS AGREEMENT made this_____day of , 20

by and between the OWNER and
an individual, doing business as a partnership, a corporation, of the
City of _ County o f _________________ and,

State of hereinafter called “Contractor.”
WITNESSETH: That for and in consideration of the payments and agreements

hereinafter mentioned, to be made and performed by the Owner, the Contractor
hereby agrees with the Owner to commence and complete the construction
described as follows:

1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
hereinafter called the Project, for the sum of
Dollars (. .)
as stated in the Contractor’s base proposal as attached hereto and made a part of
these contract documents and all extra work in connection therewith, under the
terms as stated in the General and Supplementary Conditions of the Contract,
and at his (its or their) own proper cost and expense to furnish all the materials,
machinery, tools, superintendence, labor, insurance, and other accessories and
services necessary to complete the said project in accordance with the conditions
and prices stated in the Bid Form, the General Conditions, and Supplementary
Conditions of the Contract, the plans which include all maps, plats, blueprints,
and other drawings and printed or written explanatory matter thereof, the speci
fications and contract documents for:

1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
as prepared by ABC Design Firm of 3456 Street, City, State, Zip, herein enti
tled the Architect, and as enumerated in Para. 4.1 of the Supplementary
Conditions, all of which are made a part hereof and collectively evidence and
constitute the contract.
TIME OF COMPLETION
The Contractor hereby agrees to commence work under this Contract on or
before a date to be specified in a written “Notice to Proceed” of the Owner, and
to substantially complete the project within 180 consecutive calendar days
thereafter.
PAYMENTS
The Owner agrees to pay the Contractor from current funds for the performance
of the Contract, subject to the additions and deductions, as provided in the
General Conditions of the Contract and to make payments on account thereof as
provided in the General Conditions.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties to these presents have executed this
Contract in eight ( 8 ) counterparts, each of which shall be deemed as original, in
the day and year first above mentioned.
SEAL: THE OWNER

1234 Street, Suite 200
City, State, Zip Code
ATTEST:
By:_____________________________ B y:_____________________________
S E A L : _________________________________________
Contractor
ATTEST:
By:_____________________________ By:_____________________________
Corporate Secretary
FEI/SS Number________________________
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00006—CONTRACT * * * * *

SECTION 00007—AFFIDAVIT
(The successful bidder must submit this affidavit with the contract)
STATE O F ______________________)
COUNTY O F ____________________ )
The undersigned, of lawful age, being first duly sworn upon oath, deposes and
states that I am the duly authorized agent of the contractor under the contract
which is attached to this statement, for the purpose of certifying the facts per
taining to the giving of things of value to government personnel in order to pro
cure said contract; that I am fully aware of the facts and circumstances sur
rounding the making of the contract to which this statement is attached and have
been personally and directly involved in the proceedings leading to the procure
ment of said contract; and that neither the contractor nor anyone subject to the
contractor’s direction or control has paid, given or donated or agreed to pay, give
or donate to any officer or employee of this State any money or other thing of
value, either directly or indirectly, in the procuring of the contract to which this
statement is attached.
NAME OF CONTRACTOR: ____________________________________
Affiant and Agent of Contractor

Title:________________________________
Subscribed and sworn to before me th is_____day o f ______________ 20_____ .
My commission expires: __________________________________

Notary Public
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00007—AFFIDAVIT * * * * *

SECTION 00008—PERFORMANCE PAYMENT BOND
KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS:
That we ( 1 ) __________________________________ ______________ _______

a ( 2 ) _____________________________________ hereinafter called “Principal”
and ( 3 ) ________________________________ o f _________________________
State o f ___________________ , and authorized to transact business in this State

hereinafter called the “Surety” are held firmly bound unto The Board of Regents
for the Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges Acting for and on Behalf of
OWNER, in the penal sum o f __________ Dollars ($_____________________ )
in lawful money of the United States, for the payment of which sum well and
truly to be made, we bind ourselves, our heirs, executors, administrators and suc
cessors, jointly and severally, firmly by these presents.
THE CONDITION OF THIS OBLIGATION is such that: WHEREAS, the

Principal entered into a certain contract with the Owner, dated th e ______ day
o f ______________________, 2 0 _____ a copy of which is hereto attached and
made a part hereof, for the construction of:
1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
NOW THEREFORE, if the Contractor shall promptly and faithfully perform
said contract in accordance with the plans, specifications, and other construction
documents furnished by the Owner, then this obligation shall be null and void;
otherwise, it shall remain in full force and effect.
Surety hereby waives notice of any alteration or extension of time made by
Owner.
Whenever Contractor shall be, and declared by Owner to be in default under
the contract, Owner having performed Owner’s obligations thereunder, Surety
may promptly remedy the default or shall promptly complete the contract in
accordance with its terms and conditions or, at the option of the owner, obtain a
bid or bids for submission to Owner for completing the Contract in accordance
with its terms and conditions, and upon determination by Owner and Surety of
the Lowest responsible bidder, arrange for a contract between such bidder and
Owner, and make available as work progresses (even though there should be a
default or a succession of defaults under the contract or contracts of completion
arranged under this paragraph) sufficient funds to pay the cost of completion less
the balance of the contract price; but not exceeding, including other costs and
damages for which Surety may be liable hereunder, the amount set forth in first
paragraph hereof. The term “Balance of the contract price”, as used in this para
graph shall mean the total amount payable by Owner to Contractor under the
Contract and any amendments thereto, less the amount properly paid by Owner
to Contractor.
Any suit under this Bond must be instituted before the expiration of three
(3) years from the date on which final payment under the contract falls due.
No right of action shall accrue on this Bond to or for the use of any person
or corporation other than the Owner named therein or the heirs, executors,
administrators or successors of Owner.
IN WITNESS OF WHEREOF, this instrument is executed in 5 counterparts,

each of which shall be deemed an original, this th e _____ day o f __________,
20________.
{SEAL:} ___________________________________________
Name of Principal
ATTEST:
By:_____________________________ By:______________________________
Title:____________________________Title:____________________________
****************************************************************
{SEAL:}
Name of Surety
ATTEST
B y:____ By:----
Attomey-in-Fact
Title:__ Title:____________________
Address
SURETY CLAIMS REPRESENTATIVE

(1 ) Contractor
(2) Corporation, Partnership Name: _
or Individual
(3 ) Name of Surety Address:
Telephone:
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00008—PERFORMANCE BOND * * * * * *

SECTION 00009—STATUTORY BOND
(To be used this State as required by Title 61, State Statutes, Sections 1 and 2 as
amended.)
KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS:
(1 )_______________________________________________________________
(2 ) _________________________________________________ , as principal, and
(3 ) ______________________________________ ___________ , a Corporation,
organized under the laws of the State of _________________________and
authorized to transact business in this State, as Surety, are held firmly bound
unto the OWNER in the penal sum o f ______________ Dollars ($___________)
lawful money of the United States, for the payment of which sum well and truly
be made, said Principals and Surety bind themselves, their heirs, administrators,
executors, successors and assigns, jointly and severally, by these presents.
Signed, sealed and delivered th is____day of __________________ , 20______ .
THE CONDITION OF THE FOREGOING OBLIGATION IS SUCH THAT,
WHEREAS, said Principal has entered into a written contract with
OWNER dated_________ _ _ _ , 20_____, for the construction of or making

of the following described improvements:

1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
In accordance with the detailed plans and specifications and other contract
Documents on file in the office of the ABC Design Firm.
NOW, THEREFORE, if the principal or the subcontractor or subcontractors
of said Principal, shall pay all indebtedness incurred by such Principal of the
subcontractors who perform work in the performance of such contract for labor
and materials, and repairs to and parts for equipment used and consumed in the
performance of said contract, this obligation shall be void; otherwise it shall
remain in full force and effect.
The said surety, for value received, hereby stipulates and agrees that no
change, extension of time, alterations, or additions to the terms of the contract
or to the work to be performed, thereunder or the specifications accompanying
the same, shall in anywise affect its obligation on this Bond, and it does hereby
waive notice of any such change, extension of time, alteration or addition to the
terms of the contract or to the specifications.
This Bond is executed in 5 counterparts.
{SEAL:} ___________________________________________
Name of Principal
ATTEST:
B y:_____________________________ B y:_____________________________
Title:____________________________Title:____________________________
****************************************************************
{SEAL:} ___________________________________________
Name of Surety
ATTEST:
By:_____________________________ By:____________________________
Attomey-in-Fact
Title:____________________________ _____________________________
Address
Name:_________________________
Address:_______________________
Telephone:____________________
NOTE: Dateof Bond must not be prior to the date of Contract.

NOTE:If Contractor is partnership, all partners should execute the Bond.
(1) Name of Contractor.

(2 ) Corporation, Partnership, or Individual.
(3) Name of Surety.
(4) Full amount of Contract.
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00009— STATUTORY BOND * * * * *

SECTION 00010—WARRANTY BOND
KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS, that on th is____________ day of

____________ , 20___ ,
we as principal, a n d ________________________ _____________, authorized to
transact business in this State, as Surety, are held and firmly bound unto the
OWNER in the full and just sum of the full contract price of
_________________________________________ Dollars ($________________ )
for payment of which, well and truly to be made, we and each of us, bind our
selves, our heirs, executors and assigns, themselves, and its successors and
assigns, jointly and severally, firmly by these presents, as follows:
WHEREAS, the conditions of this obligation are such that said principal
has, by a certain contract between ____________________________ and the
OWNER, dated th e ______ day o f ____________________ , A.D., 20_____
agreed to construct MAINTENANCE FACILITY PROJECT, located at
1234 Street, City, State.
AND WHEREAS, Principal and Surety agree to correct any defects in
workmanship or materials appearing during a period of one ( 1 ) year from
the date of acceptance of the project as complete by the OWNER.
NOW THEREFORE, said ______________________________________,
Principal, agrees for a period of one (1 ) calendar year from and after com
pletion of said project and acceptance by OWNER to perform all acts nec
essary to correct any and all defects appearing in workmanship and materi
als and to bear the costs of all labor and materials, including the prime
contractor and all subcontractors, which may develop during the term of this
bond.
IT IS FURTHER AGREED that if said Principal and/or Surety shall fail to

correct defects which may develop due to faulty workmanship and/or materials,
then the cost of said corrective work shall be determined by OWNER, and if,
upon thirty (30) days notice to Principal and Surety of said amount so ascer
tained, the necessary corrections are not made, the said amount shall become
due and payable to the OWNER and suits may be maintained in any Court of
competent jurisdiction to recover the amount so determined, together with court
costs and reasonable attorney fees.
The amount so determined shall be conclusive upon the parties as to the
amount due on this bond for the corrections included therein. The cost of all cor
rections shall be so determined from time to time during the life of this bond, as
the condition of the improvements may require.
This obligation is for a period of one (1) year from the date of acceptance of
improvements.
SIGNED, SEALED AND DELIVERED the day and year first above written.
{SEAL:} __________________________________________
Name of Principal
ATTEST:
By:_____________________________ By:________________
Title:____________________________Title:.
{SEAL:}
Name of Surety
ATTEST:
By:____________________________ _ By:___
Attomey-in-Fact
Title:____________________________ ______________________
Address

Name:_________________________
Address:_______________________
Telephone:
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00010—Warranty Bond :

A p p e n d ix Example Bid Docum ents 537
SECTIONOOOll—RELEASE OF LIENS AFFIDAVIT
(Attach to FINAL Application and Certificate for Payment)
STATE OF _____________________ )
COUNTY OF _____________________ )
__________________________ of lawful age, being first duly sworn upon his

oath, deposes and says:
That he is th e __________________ of th e ____________________________ ,

a corporation organized and existing under the laws of the State of
______________________________ ; that he makes this Affidavit for and on
behalf of said corporation; and, that he has authority from the corporation to
make this Affidavit.
That the corporation named herein is the same corporation that entered into
an Agreement with OWNER on th e _________ day o f _________________ ,
2 0 ______ , for:

1234 STREET
CITY, STATE
That the said corporation has completed the work set forth in said agree
ment; and that in accordance with said agreement, affiant further says under oath
that there are no existing claims, judgements or liens, outstanding for labor
and/or materials furnished under said agreement and that all persons, firms or
corporations who have performed work or furnished materials under this agree
ment have been fully paid. Further affiant sayeth not.
Affiant
Subscribed and sworn to before me this_____ day o f ______________20_____
My commission expires: _________________________________

Notary Public
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00011—RELEASE OF LIENS AFFIDAVIT * * *

SECTION 00012— CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
(Attach to FINAL Application and Certificate for Payment)
T he________________________________________________ Surety Company,

hereby certifies through its constituted Attomey-in-Fact,__________________ ,
that it has seen the attached Affidavit o f ________________________, a corpo
ration, sworn to on th e ____day o f _____________________ , 2 0 ______ , stating
that there were no existing claims, judgements or liens outstanding against said
corporation for labor and/or materials furnished under its agreement with the
OWNER and that all persons, firms or corporations who have performed work
or furnished materials under said agreement have been fully paid; and further
more, approved and becomes legally bound to said Board of Regents under the
terms of its surety bond agreement with the Board, by virtue of the execution of
said Affidavit without qualification, condition or exception.
Further, it consents that the said OWNER shall make its final payment
under the above mentioned agreement to said corporation upon the showing of
such affidavit.
Surety Company
Attomey-in-Fact
Dated th is_______ day o f ________________ , 2 0 ______ .
(SEAL)
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00012—CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL * * * * *

SECTION 00013—GENERAL CONDITIONS
The provisions of AIA Document A201, GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE

CONTRACT FOR CONSTRUCTION, Fourteenth Edition, 1987, shall apply to
this project, except as hereinafter amended or altered. Copies of this document
are available for inspection in the ABC Design Firm office.
* * * * * * END OF SECTION 00013— GENERAL CONDITIONS * * * * *

SECTION 00014 - SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS
The following supplements modify the “General Conditions of the Contract for
Construction,” AIA Document A201, Fourteenth Edition, 1987. Where a portion
of the General Conditions is modified or deleted by these Supplementary
Conditions, the unaltered portions of the General Conditions shall remain in effect.
REFER ARTICLE 1:
Add the following to subparagraph 1.1.1:
ENUMERATION OF DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS AND ADDENDA
Following are the Drawings and Specifications, which form a part of this con
tract:
Drawings:
Cover
C l Site Plan
A1 Floor Plan
A2 Interior Elevations
A3 Exterior Elevations
A4 Building Sections
A5 Building Sections
A 6 Foundation Plan
PI Plumbing Plan
M l HVAC Plan
E l Electrical Power Plan
E2 Electrical Lighting Plan
Contract Documents:
Index to Specifications
Advertisement for Bids
Bid Form
Affidavit of Nondiscrimination, Nonsegregated Facilities, Noncollusion, and
Business Relationships
Bid Bond
Contract
Affidavit
Performance Payment Bond
Statutory Bond
Warranty Bond
Release of Liens Affidavit
Certificate of Approval
AIA General Conditions
Supplementary Conditions (where applicable)
Specifications:
Divisions 1-16, Sections as indicated on the Index.
Addenda:
All Addenda issued before Bid Opening also form a part of the contract.
Add the following sub-subparagraph 1.2.3.1:
In the event of conflicts or discrepancies among the Contract Documents, inter
pretations will be based on the following priorities:
1. The Agreement.
2. Addenda, with those of later date having precedence over those of earlier
date.
3. The Supplementary Conditions.
4. The General Conditions of the Contract for Construction.
5. Drawings and Specifications.
In the case of an inconsistency between Drawings and Specifications or within
either Document not clarified by addendum, the better quality of greater quan
tity of Work shall be provided in accordance with the Architect’s interpretation.
REFER ARTICLE 2:
The term Owner as used in the following specifications and the contract docu
ments shall be construed to mean OWNER.
Omit subparagraphs 2.1.2 and 2.2.1 in their entireties.
Subparagraph 2.2.5 is hereby modified as follows:
The Contractor will be furnished, free of charge, 10 copies of the drawings and
specifications for the execution of the work.
REFER ARTICLE 3:
No work shall be done for any trade during “off hours,” weekends, or any other
time aside from the Owner’s normal working hours, unless the Contractor’s
Superintendent is present, and unless express permission is obtained from the
Owner for accomplishing such work.
TAXES:
All sales taxes and any other Municipal, State and Federal taxes applicable to
this work shall be paid by the Contractor. An exemption may be obtained from
state and municipal sales tax on purchases of tangible personal property which
is incorporated into and becomes a part of the project and where title thereto
passes directly from the vendor to the Owner. If a Contractor desires to endeavor
to take advantage of this sales tax relief, the Owner will designate the Contractor
as an agent of the Owner for the purpose of purchasing tangible personal prop
erty. This agency will be created for the sole and exclusive purpose of avoiding
sales tax and will contain a provision stating that it is so limited and that the
Owner is not responsible to the vendor or any other person dealing with the des
ignated agent for the payment of the purchase price. Furthermore, said agency
shall not be deemed to apply to minor isolated sales, purchases of small or ran
dom items, or to property used only incidentally in connection with the project.

A building permit will not be required if building constructed on State property.

The Contractor shall acquire all necessary licenses and pay all necessary royal
ties and license fees and shall defend all suits or claims for infringement of any
patent rights and shall indemnify and save the Owner harmless from all loss on
account thereof whether or not such suits, claims, or losses arise from the spec
ification by the Owner of a particular design, process, or the product of a par
ticular manufacturer or manufacturers.
REFER ARTICLE 4:
The term Architect, as used on the contract documents, shall be construed to be
ABC Design Firm, who have prepared the plans and specifications and who will
review the work.
Omit subparagraph 4.1.4 in its entirety.
Subparagraphs 4.3.2, 4.3.4, 4.4.4 are hereby modified as follows:
Omit “arbitration” from these subparagraphs.
Omit “(2) an order by the Owner to stop the Work where the Contractor was not
at fault,” “(4 ) failure of payment by the Owner, (5) termination of the Contract
by the Owner, ( 6 ) Owner’s suspension,” from this subparagraph and add “as
determined by the Owner” after “reasonable grounds.”
Subparagraph 4.3.8.1 is hereby modified as follows:
Omit “of cost and” from this subparagraph and add the following:
“Requests for time extensions shall be submitted with each request for progress
payment and shall cover the same time period as the Application for Payment.
Failure to submit such request waives Contractor’s right to claim time exten
sions for that designated period.
It is agreed that the Owner’s liability for delay or any cost incurred there
from is limited to granting a time extension to the Contractor, and there is no
other obligation expressed or implied on the part of the Owner to the Contractor
for the delay or any cost incurred therefrom.
Time extension requests may not be acted upon until substantial completion
of the project has been reached as defined in Article 9.8 of the General
Conditions.
The maximum extension of time granted will not exceed the total requested.
The Owner reserves the right to approve or disapprove with cause such
requested extensions.”
Omit subparagraph 4.3.8.2 and replace with the following:
No extension of time for completion of the work will be granted on account of
weather during the contract time.
Omit Paragraph 4.5 in its entirety.
REFER ARTICLE 7:
Delete subparagraph 7.2.2 and replace with the following:
7.2.2 When the need for a change order has been justified, the Architect will
send the Contractor drawings, descriptions, and specifications which will define
the proposed changes. The Contractor shall then establish a cost for accom
plishing the changes and shall notify the Architect in writing of the amount on
forms furnished by the Architect. The amount shall then be reviewed. If a deci
sion is reached agreeing to pursue the changes for the established amount, then
the Architect will request approval from the Owner. Upon approval of the
changes by the Owner a Formal Change Order will be prepared and issued to the
Contractor for the stated amount. Processing time for change orders normally
requires several weeks from the time the Contractor’s estimate is received by the
Architect until issuance of formal change order. Processing change orders of a
critical nature may be expedited with permission of the Owner. Section 121 of
the STATE Public Competitive Bidding Act of 1974, as amended provides that
all change orders shall contain a unit price and total for each of the following
items:
a. All material with cost per item.
b. Itemization of all labor with number of hours per operation and cost per hour.
c. Itemization of all equipment with the type of equipment, number of each
type, cost per hour for each type, and number of hours of actual operation
for each type.
d. Itemization of insurance cost, bond cost, social security, taxes, workers
compensation, and overhead cost.
e. Profit for the contractor.
Individual Change Orders less than $10,000 may be based on an acceptable unit
price basis in lieu of the itemization as listed above.
Accordingly, we must request that the foregoing information be provided as
an attachment to the change order proposal request.
REFER ARTICLE 8:
Omit “or by delay authorized by the Owner pending arbitration,” from this sub-
paragraph.
REFER ARTICLE 9:
Delete “Before the first application for payment” and replace with “Immediately
after formal award of Contract.”
Omit subparagraph 9.3.1 and replace with the following:

9.3.1 Applications for monthly progress payments shall be executed on AIA
forms G702 and G703. The cost breakdown shall be itemized in a schedule of
values as approved by the Architect. Submit seven (7) copies of Payment
Request including the signed and notarized original.
Applications shall be reviewed by the Architect. If approved, they will be
forwarded to the appropriate office of the institution of record. If not approved,
it will be returned to the Contractor for revisions as noted. Application will then
be reviewed by the appropriate State agency for disbursement of funds. Approxi
mately three weeks are required for processing of a properly prepared applica
tion. All stored materials must be on the project site to be certified for payment.
Omit subparagraph 9.6.1 and replace with the following:

9.6.1 After the Architect has issued a Certificate for Payment, the Owner shall
make monthly progress payments amounting to ninety percent (90% ) of the por
tion of the contract sum properly allocable to labor, materials and equipment
incorporated into the work or suitably stored at the site or at some other location
agreed upon in writing by the parties up to five days prior to the date on which
the application for payment is submitted, less the aggregate of all payments in
each case. Provided, however, that at any time the Contractor has completed in
excess of fifty percent (50% ) of the total contract amount, the retainage may be
reduced to five percent (5% ) of the amount earned to date. Provided further,
however, that the Owner or the Owner’s duly authorized representative has deter
mined that satisfactory progress is being made and upon approval by the Surety.
The Contractor may, from time to time, withdraw any part, or the whole, of
the amount which has been retained from partial payments upon depositing with
or delivery to the Owner of (1) United States Treasury bonds, United States
Treasury notes, United States Treasury bills, or (2) general obligation bonds of
this State, or (3) certificates of deposit from a state or national bank having its
principal office in this State. The withdrawal of such retainage shall be accom
plished in accordance with procedures established by the business office of the
Owner and Section 113.2 of this State’s Competitive Bidding Act of 19XX, as
amended.
If such use prior to the Contract time for completion increases the cost of the
work or delays its completion, the contractor shall be entitled to extra compen
sation or extension of time, or both provided that the contractor shall notify the
Owner of the potential for extra cost and time extension upon giving written
consent for such use.
The Contractor’s claim for such extra compensation shall be in writing, with
vouchers and other supporting data attached.
After the Contract time for completion has expired, the Contractor shall not
be entitled to extra compensation or extension of time due to such use, neither
shall the amount of the liquidated damages, if required by these documents, be
reduced because of partial use or occupancy.
The following items must be received before final payment will be processed:
a. Monthly Progress Payment Application,
b. Affidavit (Release of Liens, Judgements, Etc.),
c. Certificate of Approval (Surety),
d. As-Builts,
e. Operating, Maintenance, and Instruction Manuals,
f. Warranties, Bond, and Guarantees.
REFER ARTICLE 10:

Omit the portion of the last sentence beginning with . . . “or in accordance with”
. . . and ending with . . . “under Article 4.”
REFER ARTICLE 11:

Add the following to Article 11:
“The Contractor shall not commence any work under this contract until he has
obtained all the insurance required under this paragraph and such insurance has
been approved by the Owner, nor shall the Contractor allow any subcontractor
to commence work on his subcontract until the insurance required of the sub
contractor has been obtained and approved.”

“The Contractor shall procure and shall maintain during the life of this contract,
Public Liability Insurance, Property Damage Insurance, and Vehicle Liability
Insurance, in the amounts of not less than $100,000 for injuries, including acci
dental death, to any one person and in an amount of not less than $500,000 for
each accident. Limits of Liability for Contractor’s Property Damage Insurance
shall not be for less than $100,000 each occurrence. Workers’ Compensation
and Employer’s Liability Insurance limits of liability shall be as established by
Oklahoma Statutes.”
Modify paragraph 11.2 as follows:
“The Contractor shall name the Owner and the Architect as additional insured
under said Public Liability Insurance as specified in subparagraph 11.1.2. above.
This insurance shall protect the Owner and the Architect from claims arising
from operations under this contract.”
Modify paragraph 11.3 as follows:

“The Contractor shall purchase the property insurance in lieu of the Owner. At
the option of the Contractor, this insurance may be All-Risk type of insurance
policy.” This insurance shall cover the entire work at the site equal to the full
contract amount.
Modify subparagraph 11.3.9 as follows:
Delete the phrase beginning with “or in accordance with” and ending with “as
provided in paragraph 4.5.”
Modify subparagraph 11.3.10 as follows:
Delete the portion of the subparagraph beginning with “if such objection” and
ending with “as provided in Paragraph 4.5.”
Omit subparagraph 11.4 and replace with the following:
11.4.1 The Contractor to whom this work is awarded will be required to furnish
a Performance Payment Bond and Statutory Bond each in the Principal sum of
the contract. These bonds to be payable to OWNER and shall be executed on
forms adopted by the Owner which are a part of the contract documents. The
surety company executing these bonds shall be one that is authorized to do busi
ness in this State, and shall be subject to the approval of the Owner.
REFER ARTICLE 12:

The Contractor to whom this work is awarded will be required to furnish a
Warranty Bond in the Principal sum of the contract. This bond to be payable to
OWNER and shall be executed on a form adopted by the Owner which is a part
of the contract documents. The surety company executing this bond shall be one
that is authorized to do business in this State, and shall be subject to the approval
of the Owner.
The Contractor does hereby warrant and/or guarantee against and shall rem
edy any defect due to faulty materials or workmanship and shall pay for any
damages to other work resulting therefrom, which may appear within a period
of one (1) year from the date of Substantial Completion of the project.
Supplemental, special and extended warranties or guarantees which are also
required are indicated in the various Sections of the Specifications.
REFER ARTICLE 13:

Delete subparagraph 13.6.1 and replace with the following:
13.6.1 Interest shall only be paid according to Section 113.3 of this State’s
Public Competitive Bidding Act of 19XX, as amended.
Delete paragraph 13.7 in its entirety.
Add the following paragraph 13.8:
13.8 STATUTORY AND REGULATION COMPLIANCE
13.8.1 COMPLIANCE WITH TITLE 68, STATE STATUTES, Section
1701 et. seq.:
All contractors and subcontractors shall comply with all requirements of Title
6 8 , State Statutes, Section 1701 et. seq. A copy of this document is on file in the
Owner’s office, for any contractor wishing to check same.

13.8.2 BUY IN THIS STATE AND THE U. S. A.:
It is the policy of this State, as expressed by the Legislature in Title YY, State
Statutes, Sections 9 and 10, to “Buy in this State;” which means preference shall
be given to this state’s labor, equipment, materials and products produced and/or
manufactured in this State, when quality and quantity are available and the price
thereof is equal to or less than that of such labor, materials, and products avail
able from other sources. Also, preference shall be given to materials and equip
ment produced and/or manufactured in the United States of America. Foreign
made items shall not be incorporated in the finished work unless approval
thereof is obtained from the Owner.
13.8.3 EMPLOYMENT LAWS COMPLIANCE:
The Contractor shall comply with all pertinent federal laws, regulations, and
executive orders as well as state laws, pertaining to employment practices as
delineated in his bid certificate on this subject.
13.8.4 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT OF 1970
(OSHA):
The contractor shall comply with the latest edition and revisions of the Federal
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 for construction.
13.8.5 BIDDING ACT:

The Contractor shall comply with all provisions of the “Public Competitive
Bidding Act of 1974” of Title 61, State Statutes, Sections 101 et. seq. and the
amendments thereto.
13.8.6 HAZCOM:
The contractor shall comply with all the requirements of the STATE Hazard
Communications Standard and 29 CFR (1910.1200) and OWNER Policy and
Procedures.
REFER ARTICLE 14:

14.2.1.5 is adjudged bankrupt, or if he makes a general assignment for the ben
efit of his creditors, or if a receiver is appointed on account of his insolvency.
* * * * * END OF SECTION 00014— SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS * * * * *
i
INDEX
A Bidding requirements, 25-32

Accessories for brick veneer walls, 323 bid forms, 29-32
Accuracy of conceptual estimates, 64 bid solicitations, 26
Addenda, 14, 32 information for bidders, 26-29
Adjustments for location, 6 8 instructions to bidders, 26
Adjustments for size, 60 Bid documents, 13, 22—43
Adjustments for time, 67-68 arrangement of, 23-24
Aesthetic exterior siding, 303-304 bid vs. contract documents, 22-23
Aggregates for asphalt mixes, 179-180 building specifications, 24-25
Alternates, 32 example of, 498-548
Approximate estimates, 5 heavy/highway specifications, 25
Area of a roof, 314 Bid forms, 29-32
Armored electrical cable, 398 for lump-sum contracts, 29-30
Arrangement of bid documents, 23-24 for unit-price contracts, 29-32
Arrangement of contract documents, 23 Bid solicitations, 26
Asphalt pavements, 179-191 Bolting structural steel, 271-272
aggregates for, 179-180 Bolts and screws, 284-287
asphalt, 180-181 Bond patterns, 329-331, 342-343
asphalt plants, 181-183 for brick and CMU, 329-331
compacting asphalt mixes, 185-186 for stone, 342-343
cost of asphalt pavements, 186-191 Bonds, 16, 33-35
equipment for asphalt payments, 186 bid bond, 33-34
transporting and laying asphalt, 183-185 material and labor payment bond, 34
Asphalt plants, 181-183 performance bond, 34
batch-type, 181-182 Brass and copper pipe, 381-382
drum-mix, 182-183 Brick veneer walls, 332-336
Asphalts, 180-181 joints for brick masonry, 321
Asphalt shingles, 316-318 labor-hours laying bricks, 335-336
labor required, 317-318 sizes and quantities of bricks, 329
Assessing estimate sensitivity, 61 Bridging for steel joists, 348
Broad-scope conceptual estimates, 6 6
Builder’s risk insurance, 35
B Building construction drawings, 37-43
Backhoe excavation, 138-141 Building construction projects, 8-10
Batching and hauling concrete, 167-168 Building construction specifications, 24
Batch-type asphalt plants, 181-182 Built-up roofing, 320-322
Bell-and-spigot cast-iron pipe, 42 felt for, 320
Bid and contract documents, 22 gravel and slag, 320
Bid bonds, 22, 33-34 laying on concrete, 321-322
549
550 Index
Built-up roofing—Cont. labor installing, 428-433

laying on wood decking, 321 mechanical-joints, 416
pitch and asphalt, 320 push-on joints, 425
valves for, 426
C Cellular-steel floor systems, 249
Capacity ratio estimates, 74-75 Change orders, 14, 32
Capital recovery equation, 90-91 Checklist of operations, 12, 52-53
Carpentry, 279-305 Clamshell excavation, 131-132
classification of lumber, 279-282 Classification of lumber, 279-282
plywood, 282 plywood, 282
sizes of, 279-280 sizes of, 279-280
species and grades of, 280-282 species and grades of, 280-282
exterior finish carpentry, 302-304 Clay tile roofing, 319-320
aesthetic exterior siding, 303-304 Clearing and grubbing land, 158-165
fascia, frieze, and comer boards, 302-303 estimating time to pile trees, 163-164
soffits, 303 disposal of brush, 164-165
fabricating lumber, 288 intermediate clearing, 159
fasteners, 284-288 large clearing, 159-160
bolts and screws, 284-287 light clearing, 158-159
nails and spikes, 283-285 rates of clearing land, 160-165
timber connectors, 287-288 Cleaning brick masonry, 333-334
floors, 290-292, 310-312 Cleanout boots, 410
finishing, 310-312 Column capitals, 238
framing, 290-292 Column clamps, 232-233
girders, 290-291 Column materials, 232-234
subfloors, 300-301 Commercial estimating software, 451
framing lumber, 289-290 advantages of, 453-454
heavy timber structures, 304-305 Commercial prefabricated forms, 229
joists for floors and ceilings, 291-293 Compacting asphalt mixes, 185-186
roofs, 295-299 Comprehensive general liability, 36
decking, 299 Computer applications, 18-20
prefabricated trusses, 298-299 Computer estimating, 18, 445-489
rafters, 295-298 biditems, 458-460
wood shingles, 300 bid pricing, 482^4-84
walls, 290-295, 303-304 checking for reasonableness, 477-478
aesthetic exterior siding, 303-304 commercial software, 451-454
sills, 290 copying past estimates, 475-477
studs, 293-294 entering the estimate, 472-475
window and door openings, 295 evolution of programming, 448
Cast-in-place concrete piles, 205-206 importance of estimator, 446
cost of, 205-206 inquiries, 478-479
Cast-iron pipe, 424-426 management of data, 454-455
bell-and-spigot, 424—430 quantity takeoff, 460
cost of cutting, 427-428 quote solicitation, 484-485
fittings for, 425 resources, 460-471
Index 551
crews, 47CM-71 joints for brick masonry, 321

equipment, 467^169 labor-hours laying, 339-342
labor, 463-467 quantities of, 328-329
material, 469 Concrete materials, 256-261
starting an estimate, 456-458 labor and equipment placing, 258-260
structuring the estimate, 471-473 lightweight concrete, 260-261
taking quotes, 485-486 quantities for, 257-258
turning an estimate to a bid, 479-481 Concrete pavements, 165-179
turning in the bid, 486-488 batching and hauling concrete, 167-168
using computers, 446 concrete pavement joints, 170-172
Conceptual estimating, 64-79 construction methods used, 167
accuracy of, 64-65 curing concrete pavements, 172-173
broad-scope estimates, 66-67 placing concrete pavements, 168-170
liability of, 65 preparing subgrade for, 166-167
location adjustments, 68-69 Concrete piles, 204-206
narrow-scope estimates, 72 cast-in-place, 205-206
preparation of, 65-66 prestressed, 204-205
size adjustments, 69 Concrete reinforcing steel, 251-256
time adjustments, 67-68 cost of, 253-254
unit-cost adjustments, 70-71 estimating quantity of, 252-253
Concrete beams, 240-242 labor placing, 254-256
cost of concrete beams, 242-243 properties of, 252
material and labor-hours for, 240-242 types of, 251-252
Concrete columns, 230-238 welded-wire fabric, 256
capitals, 238 Concrete slabs on grade, 220
clamps, 232-233 Concrete stairs, 249-251
cost of concrete columns, 233-238 cost of, 250-251
economy of reuse, 236-237 lumber required, 249-250
materials and labor-hours for, 232-234 Concrete structures, 215-262
Concrete floors, 243-246 Concrete tilt-up concrete walls, 261
cellular-steel floor systems, 249 Concrete walls, 220-230
corrugated-steel forms, 248-249 commercial forms, 229-230
cost of concrete floors, 245-246 cost of concrete walls, 224-228
material and labor-hours, 244 materials and labor-hours for, 223-224
patented forms floor slabs, 246-248 prefabricated forms, 228-229
Concrete footings, 221, 228-229 Connections for steel structures, 264
Concrete formwork materials, 216-219 Construction equipment, 88-99
form liners, 218 Construction labor, 81-88
form oil, 217-218 Contingency, 57-61
form ties, 218-219 assessing estimate sensitivity, 61
lumber, 217 expected net risk, 59-61
nails, 217 percentage of base estimate, 58-59
plywood and Plyform, 216-217 simulation, 59-61
Concrete masonry units, 338-342 Contractor’s equipment floater, 36
cost of, 339-342 Contractor’s protective liability, 36
55 2 Index
Contract requirements, 23 line work, 41

Copper tubing, 382 plans, elevations, and
Corrugated-steel forms, 248-249 sections, 37-41
Cost capacity curve estimates, 73-74 scales, 41
Cost capacity curves, 73-74 schedules, 41-42
Cost of symbols and abbreviations, 42-43
asphalt pavements, 186-191 Drilled shaft foundations, 209-213
carpentry, 279-304 Drilling and blasting rock, 149-151
concrete pavements, 165-172 Drum-mix asphalt plants, 182-183
concrete structures, 215-262
electric wiring, 396-404 E
equipment, 88-95 Earthwork
fabricating steel, 267 backhoe excavation, 138-141
floor finishes, 359-367 clamshell excavation, 131-132
floor systems, 347-356 dragline excavation, 129-131
glass and glazing, 368-371 drilling and blasting rock, 149-154
labor, 81-84 front shovels, 133-136
lumber, 283 hand excavation, 123-124
masonry, 327-344 hauling earth, 136-138
painting, 372-377 methods of excavation, 1 2 0
plumbing, 378-394 physical properties of, 120-123
reinforcing steel, 253-254 shrinkage factors, 1 2 1 - 1 2 2
roofing, 314-326 swell factors, 1 2 1 - 1 2 2
sewerage systems, 406-420 scrapers, 141-146
shop drawings for steel, 265-266 shaping and compacting, 146-149
steel structures, 263-277 trenching machines, 125-129
structural steel, 263-277 Easements and right-of ways, 441
transporting steel, 267 Electric wiring, 396-404
water distribution systems, 423-440 accessories for wiring, 399^-00
Covering capacity of paints, 373-374 armored cable, 398
Curing concrete pavements, 172-174 cost of wiring materials, 400
Cycle times, 102-106 electric wire, 399
Cycle times and production rates, 102 factors affecting cost, 396-397
finish electrical work, 402-403
D flexible metal conduit, 398
Decision to bid, 44 items in wiring cost, 397
Depreciation costs, 89-90 labor installing wiring, 400
Detailed estimates, 6 nonmetallic cable, 399
Disposal of brush, 164-165 rigid conduit, 398
Documentation of estimates, 53-54 types of wiring, 397
Dragline excavation, 129-131 Equipment-factored estimates, 75-78
Drawings Equipment for erecting steel, 270
building construction projects, 37-41 Equipment for hot-mix asphalt, 186
example of, 498-510 Equipment operating costs, 90-93
heavy/highway projects, 36-37 fuel consumption, 94
Index 553
lubricating oil, 95 risk analysis, 57

rubber tires, 95 risk assessment, 57
Equipment ownership costs, 93-95 Estimator, 3, 46
depreciation costs, 89-90 importance of, 3
investment costs, 89 teams of estimators, 46
maintenance and repair costs, 93-94 Excavating, 123-141
taxes and insurance, 90 by backhoes, 138-141
Erecting structural steel, 270-277 by draglines, 129-131
bolting steel, 271-272 by front shovels, 133-136
equipment used, 270-271 by hand, 123-124
labor and equipment cost, 275-277 by hydraulic excavators, 132-133
welding steel, 272-275 by scrapers, 141-146
Estimates, 5-6, 47-79 by trenching machines, 125-129
approximate estimates, 5-6 Expected net risk, 59
checklists, 52-53 Exterior finish carpentry, 302-304
conceptual estimates, 64-79 aesthetic exterior siding, 303-304
detailed estimates, 6-7 fascia, frieze, and comer boards, 302-303
documentation of, 53-54 soffits, 303
forms for, 2 0 - 2 1 wall sheathing, 302
organization of, 7-8
overhead, 14 F
preparing of, 50-51 Fabricating lumber, 288
representative estimates, 17 Factors affecting cost records, 72
reviews of, 54-56 Fascia, frieze, and comer boards, 302-304
types of, 4-5 Fasteners for lumber, 284-288
work plan for, 47^-9 bolts and screws, 284—287
Estimating, 2, 12, 52-57 nails and spikes, 283-285
checklist of operations, 12, 52-53 timber connectors, 287-288
contingency, 57-61 Felt for built-up roofing, 320
assessing estimate sensitivity, 61 Field painting structural steel, 277
expected net risk, 59-61 Finish electrical work, 402-403
percentage of base estimate, 58-59 Finishing wood floors, 310-312
documentation, 53-54 Finish plumbing, 392-394
estimating team, 46-41 Fire hydrants, 427
feedback for improvement, 62-63 Fittings for sewer pipe, 385
methods and techniques, 49-50 Fittings for water pipe, 425
procedures for preparing, 51-52 Flashing, 323-326
process industry estimates, 72-78 flashing roofs at walls, 324
capacity ratios, 74-75 flashing valleys and hips, 324-325
cost capacity curves, 73-74 labor installing flashing, 326
equipment-factored, 75-78 metal flashing, 323
plant cost per unit, 75 Flexible metal conduit, 398
process of preparing, 44-56 Floor and ceiling joists, 291-292
purpose of, 3 Floor finishes, 359-367
quantity takeoff, 1 1 concrete, 359-363
554 Index
Floor finishes—Cont. pile-driving equipment, 196-199

labor finishing, 361, 362 sheeting trenches, 194-196
monolithic topping, 359-360 sheet piling, 2 0 0 - 2 0 2
separate concrete topping, 360-362 steel piles, 206-209
terrazzo, 363-365 wood piles, 202-204
vinyl tile, 366-367 driving wood piles, 203-204
wood, 310-312 Framing lumber, 289-290
Floors, 290-292, 310-312 Framing windows and doors, 295
finishing, 310-312 Fringe benefits, 84
framing, 290-292 Front shovels, 133-136
girders, 290-291 Fuel consumption, 94
subfloors, 300-301
Floor systems, 347-355 G
bridging, 348 General conditions, 33

ceiling extensions, 349 Girders, 290-291
corrugated-steel forms, 355-358 Glass and glazing, 368-370
joists and supports, 349 labor-hours installing, 369-370
metal decking, 349 putty required, 369
sizes of steel joists, 349-350 for steel and aluminum sash, 369
steel-joist system, 347-354 types of glass, 368-369
Footings, 194 Gravel and slag, 320
Form liners, 218 Gypsum wallboards, 309
Form oil, 217-218
Forms for H
concrete beams, 240-243 Hand excavation, 123-124

concrete columns, 230-238 Handling material by clamshell, 131-132
concrete walls, 223-230 Haul distances for scrapers, 145-146
flat-slab floors, 243-246 Hauling earth, 136-138
Forms for concrete structures, 215-216 Hauling materials
form liners, 218 bricks, 112-115
form oil, 217-218 cast-iron pipe, 115-116
form ties, 218-219 excavated materials, 136-138
labor building, 2 2 0 lumber, 106-108
lumber, 217 sand and gravel, 108-111
materials, 216 Heavy engineering projects, 9
nails, 217 Heavy/highway drawings, 36-37
plywood, 216-217 Heavy/highway specifications, 25
Forms for preparing estimates, 20-21 Heavy timber structures, 304-305
Forms for slabs on grade, 220 Highway pavements, 165-191
Form ties, 218-219 hot-mix asphalt pavements, 179-191
Foundations, 193-206 Portland cement pavements, 165-179
concrete piles, 204-206 Horizontal directional drilling, 436-440
cast-in-place, 205-206 classifications of, 437
prestressed, 204-205 procedure for, 437-440
drilled shafts, 209-213 production rates, 440
Index 555
Hydraulic excavators social security tax, 82

backhoes, 138-141 unemployment compensation tax, 82-83
front shovels, 133-136 workermens compensation insurance, 83
Labor and equipment crews, 12, 467-490
I Labor and equipment placing concrete, 258
Information available to bidders, 26-29 Labor burden, 16
Installing corrugated sheets, 355-356 Labor erecting steel joists, 350-351
Instructions to bidders, 26 Labor erecting structural steel, 275-277
Instructions to the readers, 17 Labor finishing concrete floors, 361-363
Insurance, 16, 35-36 Labor-hours to set and trim doors, 307
basic builder’s risk, 35 Labor-hours to set and trim windows, 308
builders risk extended coverage, 35 Labor installing metal decking, 381
comprehensive general liability, 36 Labor laying bricks, 325-338
contractor’s equipment floater, 36 Labor laying built-up roofing, 322-323
contractor’s protective liability, 36 Labor placing welded-wire fabric, 351
public liability/property damage, 35-36 Labor setting stone masonry, 344
workmen’s compensation, 15, 36 Labor taxes, 15
Interest during construction, 443 Ladder-type trenching machines, 127-129
Interior finish carpentry, 307 Land-clearing operations, 158-160
Interior finishes, 307-312 intermediate clearing, 159
floors, 310-312 large clearing, 159-160
gypsum wallboards, 309 light clearing, 158-159
interior trim moldings, 310 Laying asphalt pavements, 182-185
labor-hours for doors, 307-308 Laying built-up roofing on concrete, 322
wall paneling, 309-310 Laying built-up roofing on wood deck, 321
wood furring strips, 308 Laying vinyl tile, 366-367
Interior trim moldings, 310 Legal expenses, 442
Intermediate clearing of land, 159 Liability of conceptual estimates, 65
Investment costs, 89 Lightweight concrete, 260-261
Line work, 41
J Lubricating oil, 95
Jacking pipe, 420 Lumber, 217, 279-282
Jetting piles into position, 209 for concrete formwork, 217
Job factors, 119 for wood framing, 279-282
Joists for floors and ceiling, 291-293
M
L Maintenance and repair costs, 93-94
Labor, 16, 82-85 Management factors, 119-120
burden, 16 Manholes, 408-409
cost of, 82, 84-85 Mortar for stone masonry, 342
fringe benefits, 84 Masonry, 327-345
labor/equipment crews, 1 2 bond patterns, 329-331, 342-343
labor rates, 81-82 for brick and CMU, 329-331
production rates for, 85-88 for stone, 342-343
public liability and property damage, 83 brick veneer walls, 332-336
556 Index
Masonry—Cont. Monolithic Topping, 359-360

joints for brick masonry, 321 Mortar, 332-339
labor-hours laying bricks, 335-336 quantity for bricks, 332-333
sizes and quantities of bricks, 329 quantity for CMU, 338-339
cleaning brick masonry, 333-334
concrete masonry units, 338-342 N
cost of, 339-342 Nails and spikes for carpentry, 283-285
labor-hours laying, 329 Nails for concrete formwork, 217
quantities of, 328-329 Narrow scope cost estimates, 72
joints for brick masonry, 321 Negotiated work, 32
mortar, 332-339 Nonmetallic electric cable, 399
quantity for bricks, 332-333
quantity for CMU, 338-339 O
solid brick walls, 334-335 Operating costs of equipment, 93-95
stone masonry, 342-345 fuel consumption, 94
bonds for, 342-343 lubricating oil, 95
cost of, 343-344 rubber tires, 95
labor-hours for, 344 Overhead, 14
mortar for, 342-343 Ownership costs of equipment, 89-94
weights of, 342-343 depreciation costs, 89-90
Materials and labor payment bond, 34—35 investment costs, 89
Materials for maintenance and repair costs, 93-94
concrete beams, 240-243 taxes and insurance, 90
concrete columns, 232-236
concrete floors, 243-244 P
concrete walls, 220-224 Painting, 372-377
footings, 220-223 labor-hours applying, 375-377
forms, 216-219 materials, 372-374
painting, 372 preparing, 374
steel structures, 263-264 Patented forms floor slabs, 246-248
Material taxes, 15 materials and labor for, 247
Mechanical-joint cast-iron pipe, 426 Pattern bonds, 329-331
Metal decking, 349 Pavement joints, 170-172
Metal flashing, 323-324 Pavements, 165-191
Methods and techniques, 49 hot-mix asphalt pavements, 179-191
Methods of excavation, 120 Portland cement pavements, 165-179
Microtunneling, 415-421 Performance bond, 34
active direction control, 419 Physical properties of earth, 120-123
advantages and disadvantages, 420—421 shrinkage factors, 1 2 1 - 1 2 2
automated spoil transportation, 419 swell factors, 1 2 1 - 1 2 2
jacking pipe, 419-420 Pile-driving equipment, 196-200
microtunnel boring machine, 416^118 Pipe, 381-385, 424-435
pipe-jacking equipment, 420 brass and copper, 381-382
process of, 421-422 cast-iron, 424-426
remote control system, 419 PVC, 382-384
Index 557
soil, waste, and vent, 384-385 Properties of reinforcing steel, 252

steel, 380-381 Property damage insurance, 35-36
Pitch and asphalt, 320 Public liability insurance, 35, 83
Placing concrete pavements, 168-170 Purpose of estimating, 3-4
Plans, elevations, and sections, 37-41 Push-on joint cast-iron pipe, 425
example of, 498-510 PVC water-supply pipe, 382-384
Plant cost per unit of production, 75
Plumbing, 278-394 Q
brass and copper pipe, 381-382 Quantity takeoff, 11
codes for, 379
R
copper tubing, 382
finish plumbing, 392-394 Rafters, 295-298
fittings, 385-386 Rates of clearing land, 160-165
house drain pipe, 485 clearing light vegetation, 160-161
indoor CPVC plastic water pipe, 384 estimating time to fell trees, 161-163
labor installing fixtures, 394 estimating time to pile trees, 163-164
labor installing plastic pipe, 384 Rates of drilling holes, 152-153
labor installing rough in plumbing, 388-390 Reinforcing steel, 251-256
plastic drainage pipe and fittings, 387-388 cost of, 253-254
PVC water-supply pipe, 382-383 estimating quantity of, 252-253
requirements for, 378 labor placing, 254-256
rough in plumbing, 386-387 properties of, 252
sizes of soil and waste pipe, 380-381 type of, 251-252
soil, waste, and vent pipes, 384-385 welded-wire fabric, 256
steel pipe, 380-381 Representative estimates, 17
traps, 386 Review of estimates, 54-56
valves, 386 Rigid conduit, 398
Plyform, 217 Risk analysis, 57
Plywood for carpentry, 282 Risk assessment, 57
Plywood for formwork, 216-217 Roofing and flashing, 314-326
Prefabricated form panels, 228-229 area of roofs, 314
Prefabricated roof trusses, 298-299 asphalt shingles, 316-318
Preparing a surface for paint, 374 cost of, 317-318
Preparing conceptual estimates, 65-66 labor-hours required, 317
Preparing estimates, 50 built-up roofing, 320-323
Preparing subgrades, 166-167 gravel and slag, 320
Prestressed concrete piles, 204-205 labor-hour for, 322-323
Process industry estimates, 72-78 on concrete, 321-322
capacity ratios, 74-75 pitch and asphalt, 320
cost capacity curves, 73-74 on wood, 321
equipment-factored, 75-78 laying build-up roofing, 321
plant cost per unit, 75 clay tile, 319-320
Production rates, 17-18 felt for roofing, 315
Production rates for labor, 85-86 metal flashing, 323-325
Production rates for scrapers, 142-143 labor-hours required, 326
558 Index
Roofing and flashing—Cont. haul distances for, 145

at valleys and hips, 324-325 production rate for, 142-144
at walls, 324-325 Separate concrete topping, 360-361
slate roofing, 319 Service branches for sewers, 410-411
wood shingles, 300 Service lines for water lines, 426
Roofs, 295-299 Sewerage systems, 406-422
decking, 299 cleanout boots, 410
prefabricated trusses, 298-299 equipment required, 407-408
rafters, 295-298 items included, 406
wood shingles, 300 manholes, 408-409
Rough carpentry, 289 microtunnel boring machine, 416-428
floor and ceiling joists, 291-292 microtunneling, 415-422
floor girders, 290-291 active direction control, 416
framing door openings, 295 advantages of, 420-421
framing window openings, 295 automated spoil transportation, 419
rafters, 295-298 jacking pipe, 419-420
roof decking, 299 process of, 421
sills, 290 remote control system, 419
studs, 293-294 service branches, 410-411
subfloors, 300-301 sewer pipes, 406—407
Roughing in electrical, 387^4-02 trenchless methods, 415
accessories, 399-400 Sewer pipes, 406-407
armored cable, 398 Shaping and compacting earth, 146-149
cost of materials, 400 Sheeting trenches, 194-196
electric wire, 398 Sheet piling, 200-202
flexible metal conduit, 398 Shores and scaffolding, 238-240
labor required, 400-402 Sills, 290
nonmetallic cable, 399 Simulation, 59-61
rigid conduit, 398 Sinking fund equation, 91
type of wiring, 387-388 Size adjustments for estimates, 69
Roughing in plumbing, 386-392 Sizes and quantities of bricks, 329
cost of materials, 386-387 Sizes of lumber, 279-280
estimating the cot of, 386-387 Slabs on grade, 220
labor required, 388-389 Slate roofing, 319
lead, oakum, and solder, 387 Social security tax, 82
plastic drainage pipe, 387 Soffits, 303
Rubber tires, 95 Soil, waste, and vent pipes, 384-385
Solid brick walls, 334-335
S Sources of equipment, 8 8
Scales, 41 Sources of labor rates, 81-82
Schedules, 41-42 Species and grades of lumber, 280-282
Scrapers Specifications, 24-25, 511-555
cost of excavating and hauling, 144 for building projects, 24-25
excavating and hauling example of, 511-548
earth, 141-142 for heavy/highway, 25
Index 559
Spreadsheets, 449-451 Transporting sand and gravel, 108-111

disadvantages of, 451 Traps, 386
fundamentals of, 449 Trenching machines, 125-129
use of, 449-450 Trenchless technology, 415-421, 436-440
Steel piles, 206-209 horizontal directional drilling, 436-440
Steel pipe, 380-381 microtunneling, 415-421
Steel structures, 263-277 Types of
connections for, 264 estimates, 4-5
cost of fabricated steel, 268-270 foundations, 193
erecting steel, 270 joints for brick masonry, 331
bolting steel, 271-272 reinforcing steel, 251-252
equipment used, 270-271 steel structures, 263
labor and equipment cost, 275-277 wiring, 397
welding steel, 272-275
estimating the cost of, 264-265, 268-269 U
fabricating steel, 267 Unemployment compensation tax, 82-83
field painting, 277 Unloading and hauling pipe, 115-116
materials used, 263 Use of computers in estimating, 446-448
shop drawings, 265-267
V
transporting steel, 267
types of steel structures, 263 Valves for sewer systems, 386
Steepness of roofs, 315 Valves for water systems, 426
Sterilization of water pipes, 427 Vinyl tile floors, 366-367
Stone masonry, 342
W
bonds for, 342
mortor for, 342 Walls, 290-295, 303-304
weights of, 342 aesthetic exterior siding, 303-304
Studs for wall framing, 293-294 paneling, 309-310
Subfloors, 300-301 sheathing, 303
Symbols and abbreviations, 4 2 ^ 3 sills, 290
studs, 293-294
T window and door openings, 295
Taxes, 15, 82-83 Warranties, 33
labor, 15 Water distribution systems, 423-440
material, 15 cast-iron pipe
social security taxes, 15, 82 bell-and-spigot, 424-430
unemployment, 82-83 cost of cutting, 427-428
Taxes and insurance, 90 fittings for, 425
Terrazzo floors, 363-365 labor installing, 428-433
Test of water pipes, 427 mechanical-joints, 416
Tilt-up concrete walls, 261 push-on joints, 425
Timber connectors, 287-288 valves for, 426
Time adjustments for estimates, 67-68 cost of water systems, 423
Total cost of engineering projects, 441 fire hydrants, 427
Transporting and laying asphalt, 183-185 horizontal directional drilling, 436—440
560 Index
Water distribution systems—Cont. Window and door openings, 295

pipelines, 423 Wood floors, 310-312
push-on joint cast-iron pipe, 425 Wood furring strips, 308
service lines, 426 Wood piles, 202
Welded-wire fabric, 256 driving wood piles, 203
labor placing, 256 Wood shingles, 300
Welding structural steel, 272-274 Workmen’s compensation, 15-16, 83
Wheel-type trenching machines, 127 Work plan for estimates, 47-49
Acronyms
AAA—American Arbitration Association

AAR—Association of American Railroads
AASHTO—American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
ABC—Associated Builders and Contractors
ACEC—American Consulting Engineer’s Council
ACI—American Concrete Institute
AGC—Associated General Contractors
AIA—American Institute of Architects
AISC—American Institute of Steel Construction
AITC—American Institute of Timber Construction
ANSI—American National Standards Institute
ARA—American Railway Association
AREA—American Railroad Engineering Association
ARTBA—American Road and Transportation Builders Association
ASA—American Standards Association
ASCE—American Society of Civil Engineers
ASHRAE—American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers
ASLA—American Society of Landscape Architects
ASME—American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM—American Society of Testing and Materials
AWI—Architectural Woodwork Institute
AWPA—American Wood Preservers Association
AWS—American Welding Society
AWWA—American Water Works Association
BHMA—Builder’s Hardware Manufacturers Association
BIA—Brick Institute of America
BOCA—Building Officials and Code Administrators
T h is book cannot be re-exported from the country to w h ich it is sold by M cG ra w -H ill.
T h e International Edition is not available in N orth A m erica.
The fifth edition of Estimating Construction Costs retains the fundamental concepts of
estimating that have made this bock so successf~: Numerous example problems have bee'
added to illustrate new construction methods and various techniques of preparing cost
estimates. The example problems are presented in a consistent format throughout the text,
from quantities of materials and production rates through pricing of labor, material, and
equipment.
Many chapters have been extensively revised. The Conceptual Cost Estimating chapter has
been expanded to include additional emphasis on preparing early estimates. The Highways and
Pavements chapter has been rewritten to include modern equipment and illustrative examples
of preparing cost estimates for asphalt and concrete pavements. Particular emphasis is placed
on infrastructure-type projects.
The fifth edition has three new chapters: Bid Documents, Estimating Process, and Computer
Estimating. Bid Documents introduces the reader to aspects of the contract document that
specifically apply to preparing estimates. Estimating Process presents the total estimating
process, including development of cost databases, establishment of estimating procet.'e:
and retrieval of costs from completed projects for use in preparing future estimates. Computer
Estimating gives helpful insights on the use of computers for preparing cost est ~ate: ” ~e
accompanying CD-ROM, the HeavyBid/Express tutorial, assists the reader ' r e r : : e s ;
computer estimating.
Also Available from McGraw-Hill:

Project Management for Engineering and Construction, Second Edition (2000!
Garold D. Oberlender
ISBN 0-07-039360-5
Construction Contracts, Second Edition (2001)

Jirnmie Hinze
ISBN 0-07-232172-5
Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods, Sixth Edition (2002)

Robert L. Peurifoy and Clifford J. Schexnayder
ISBN 0-07-232176-8
mmum ISBN : 3 7 - ' 2 3 9 - 5 - 6
Me
Graw
Hill
Higher Education
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, 9 780071 239455
m ay not be available to customers outside the United States. www-mhhe-coi

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Estimating

The photograph on the cover shows a slipform concrete paving machine.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Peurifoy, R. L. (Robert Leroy), 1902-1995

When ordering this title, use ISBN 007-123945-6

In m em ory of R o b e rt L. P e u rifo y, for his pioneering w o rk as an

Robert L. Peurifoy (deceased) was a distinguished author and consulting engi­

Garold D. Oberlender is professor and coordinator of the graduate program in

About the Authors iv Computer Applications 18

Methods and Techniques 49 Cost of Labor 82

Estimate Feedback for Continuous Equipment Costs 8 8

Accuracy of Conceptual Estimates 64 Handling and Transporting

Prefabricated Form Panels 228 CHAPT ER 11

Wheel-Type Trenching Machines 127 Transporting and Laying Asphalt

Framing for Window and Door Slate Roofing 319

Steel-Joist System 347

PVC Water-Supply Pipe 382 Labor Required to Install Electric

Labor Required to Lay Cast-Iron Pipe with Commercially Available Estimating

A new chapter on computer estimating is presented and a CD-ROM of

Garold D. Oberlender, Ph.D, P.E.

Workbook estimating involves performing a material quantity takeoff,

IMPORTANCE OF THE ESTIMATOR AND THE

Figure 1.1 I Estimates and re-estimates through phases of project development.

called feasibility, screening, authorization, preliminary, conceptual, order-of-

TA B L E 1.1 I AACE International cost estimation classifications (18R-97).

Estimate Level of project End usage— Expected

quantities of material, workmanship, location, and construction difficulties.

T A B L E 1 .2 I Steps for preparing a detailed estimate.

Material cost = Quantity x Unit price

Labor cost = (Quantity/Labor production rate) x Labor rate

Equipment cost = (Quantity/Equipment production rate) x Equipment rate

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

Item Division Material Labor Subcontract Total

TABLE 1 .4 I Division 2 estimate for sitework.

Cost code Division Quantity Material Labor Subcontract Total

TA B LE 1.6 1Division-level report for transmission line A— Code 2100.

Code Description Material Labor Equipment Total

TA B LE 1.7 I Component-level report for tower foundations--C o d e 2370.

Code Description Quantity Material Labor Equipment Total

Other types of heavy engineering projects, such as highways, utilities, and

LABOR AND EQUIPMENT CREWS

Supervisor and pickup

TA B L E 1.9 I Asphalt crew for TA B L E 1.10 I Curb and gutter concrete

ADDENDA AND CHANGE ORDERS

Amount of general overhead chargeable to a project:

WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION INSURANCE

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE READERS

Trucks: 4 trucks X 16 hr = 64 truck-hours @ $28.50/hr = $1,824.00

Truck drivers: 4 drivers X 16 hr = 64 labor-hours @ $18.50/hr = $1,184.00

A production rate is the number of units of work produced by a unit of

TABLES OF PRODUCTION RATES

Electronic spreadsheets are widely used for preparing cost estimates. A

FORMS FOR PREPARING ESTIMATES

Item Num ber Unit M aterial Equipm ent Labor To ta l

2350-0 Furnish and drive 200 creosote-treated piles.

-50 In d ire ct costs

-70 Total dire ct and ind irect costs $86,277

-90 Performance bond 1% X ($86,277 + $12,942) $922

-91 Total cost, amount of bid $86,277 + $12,942 + $922 $100,141

Robert L. Peurifoy (deceased) was a distinguished author and consulting engi

Figure 2.2 is an abbreviated example of instructions to bidders. This exam

Place: Date: _______________