Solid Waste Management PDF

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UNIT – I
Part A (2 Marks)
1. What is meant by solid waste Management? [N/D-

16,M/J-11]
Solid waste management is that discipline associated with control of generation, storage, collection,
transfer and transport, processing and disposal of solid waste in a manner that is in accord with the
best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other
environmental considerations, and that also is responsive of public attitudes.
2. Give the composition of Municipal solid waste.
[N/D-16]
ww Component Mass
%
% by
weight
Moisture
Content %
Density
Kg/m3
Paper
Cardboard
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Food waste 14
34
7
15
40
4
70
6
5
288
82
50
Plastics
Textiles asy 5
2
3
2
2
10
64
64
Rubber
Leather
Garden trimmings
Wood
E 0.5
0.5
12
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0.5
0.5
12
2
2
10
60
20
128
160
104
240
Glass
Tin cans
8
6
8
6 nee 2
3
194
88
Non-ferrous metals
Ferrous metals
1
2
1
2
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3
160
320
Dirt, Ashes, brick, e.t.c
Total
6
100
4
100
8
g.n 481
3. Define Municipal Solid Waste.

17]
e [A/M-
Municipal solid waste (MSW), also called urban solid waste, is a waste type that includes
predominantly household waste (domestic waste) with sometimes the addition of commercial
wastes collected by a municipality within a given area.Municipal solid waste consists of
household waste, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste from
streets.
4. State the prerequisites of an effective system of solid waste management. [A/M -
17]

1. To protect environmental health,
2. To promote the quality of the urban environment,
3. To support the efficiency and productivity of the economy
4. To generate employment and income.
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5. Define Garbage? [N/D-
11]
Garbage is the organic fraction of MSW that consists of kitchen waste, fruit peels, food waste,
vegetable waste, flower waste, organic silt, meat waste etc. resulting from the handling,
storage, sale, preparation, cooking, and serving of food. This garbage is not only generated
ww from residential area but also from commercial establishments which includes Oil cake,
bagasse, cowdung, coir waste e.t.c of organic origin.
11]
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6. What are the functional elements in a typical solid waste management system? [ N/D-
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7. What is integrated solid waste management? [N/D-

12]
A management system that uses several techniques such as reduction, reuse, recycling, incineration,
landfilling, and education to dispose of and/or minimize solid waste. The emphasis in modern solid waste
management is on reduction, reuse, and recovery before disposal.
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No single solution completely answers the question of what to do with our waste. Every community or
region has its own unique profile of solid waste. There is no scientific reason, for example, why materials
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recycling should always be preferred to energy recovery.
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This IWM model looks at the life cycle of municipal solid waste, from the moment it becomes waste (loses
value) until it ceases to be waste by becoming a useful product, residual landfill material or an emission to
air or water.
8. Define hazardous waste? [N/D-

12,M/J-10]
Hazardous waste are solid wastes that posea substantial present or potential hazard to human health,
living organisms or the environment because (1) such wastes are nondegradable or persistent in nature,
(2) they can be biologically magnified, (3) they can be lethal, or (4) they may otherwise cause or tend to
cause detrimental cumulative effects. The hazardous characteristics are its ignitability, corrosivity,
reactivity or toxicity like nuclear waste, chemical waste, hospital waste and certain industrial waste.

9. Define "solid waste". state its types? [M/J-

13]
Solid waste include all solid (or) semisolid materials that the possessor no longer considers of sufficient
value to retain.
Types of solid waste: Garbage, Rubbish, Ashes and residues, Demolition and Construction waste,
Special wastes, Treatment plant wastes, Agricultural wastes and Hazardous wastes.
10. What are the improper methods of solid waste disposal? [M/J-
13]
ww1. Open dumping on land

2. Dumping into nearby water body (stream or river).
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3. Dumping in ocean.
11.How will you determine the moisture content of the solid waste?
12]
[M/J-
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E M= w-d
where, M= moisture content,%

d
X 100
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w= initial weight of samples as delivered
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d= weight of samples after drying at 105˚C, lb (kg)
12.List out the various solid waste produced by community. rin
[M/J-11]
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(i) Food waste, (ii) paper, (iii) cardboard, (iv) plastics, (v) textiles, (vi) leather, (vii) yard
wastes, (viii) wood, (ix) glass, (x) aluminum.

Part B (16 Marks)
1. (a) (i) Explain various types of solid waste in detail. (8) [N/D-
16,M/J-11]
Garbage
Garbage is the organic fraction of MSW that consists of kitchen waste, fruit peels, food waste,
vegetable waste, flower waste, organic silt, meat waste etc. resulting from the handling, storage, sale,
preparation, cooking, and serving of food. This garbage is not only generated from residential area but
ww also from commercial establishments which includes Oil cake, bagasse, cowdung, coir waste e.t.c of
organic origin.
Rubbish w.E
Rubbish consists of combustible and non-combustible solid wastes of households, institutions,
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commercial activities, etc., excluding food wastes or other highly putrescible materials. Combustible
rubbish consists materials such as Paper, Cardboard, Dry leaves, coconut leaves, husk & shell,
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plastics, textiles, rubber, leather, wood, furniture, wood, Mat, Paddy straw, Gunny bags, rexins, etc.
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Non-combustible rubbish consists of items such as glass, crockery, tin cans, aluminium cans, ferrous
and other nonferrous metals and dirt.
Hazardous waste
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Hazardous waste aresolid wastes that posea substantial present or potential hazard to human health,
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living organisms or the environment because (1) such wastes are nondegradable or persistent in
nature, (2) they can be biologically magnified, (3) they can be lethal, or (4) they may otherwise cause
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or tend to cause detrimental cumulative effects.The hazardous characteristics are its ignitability,
corrosivity, reactivity or toxicity like nuclear waste, chemical waste, hospital waste and certain
industrial waste.
Construction wastes
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Wastes from construction, remodeling and repairing of individual residences, commercial buildings,
and other structures are classified as construction wastes. They often include dirt, stones, concrete,
bricks, plaster, lumber, shingles and plumbing, heating and electrical parts.
Agricultural wastes
Wastes and residues resulting from diverse agricultural activities - such as the planting and harvesting
of row, field, and tree and vine crops, the production of milk, the production of animals for slaughter,
and the operation of feedlots-are collectively called agricultural wastes.
Treatment plant wastes.

The solid and semisolid wastes from water, wastewater and Industrial waste treatment facilities are
all collectively called treatment plant wastes.
Ashes and residues

Materials remaining from the burning of wood, coal, coke, and other combustible wastes in homes,
stores, institutions, and industrial and municipal facilities for purpose of heating, cooking, and
disposing of combustible wastes are categorized as ashes and residues. Ashes and residues are
normally composed of fine, powdery materials, cinders, clinkers, and small amounts of burned and
partially burned materials. Glass, crockery and various metals are also found in the residues from
municipal wastes.
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(ii)Explain the physical and chemical characteristics of MSW..
16,M/J-12]
(8) [N/D-
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A brief explanation of the following:
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A. Physical properties of MSW:
1. Percentage by weight
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2. Density
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3. Ignitability
4. Corrosivity nee
5. Explosivity rin
6. Reactivity
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7. EP Toxicity
B. Chemical properties:
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a. Proximate analysis:
1. Moisture content(loss at 105oC for 1 hour)
2. Volatile matter content(additional loss on ignition at 950oC)
3. Ash content(residue after burning)
4. Fixed carbon content(remainder)
b. Fusion point of ash

c. Ultimate analysis(percent of C,H,O,N,S and ash)
d. Heating value
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2. Explain the factors influencing the solid waste generation rate. [N/D-
16,N/D-11]
FACTORS AFFECTING WASTE GENERATION RATES:
1. Source reduction/recycling: The best way to reduce the total quantity of solid waste in the beginning
itself is to segregate the recyclable waste from others at the source itself(Household/Commercial
establishment) and send it for recycling. The higher the extent of salvage and recovery, the more is the
reduction of overall quantity of waste.
2. Geographic location: The influence of geographic location is related to different climates that can
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influence both the amount of certain type of solid waste generated and also the collection operation.
3. Season of the year: Especially vegetable & fruit wastes are influenced by the growing season in terms
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of quantity generated.
4. Use of home grinders: While the use of home grinders definitely reduces the volume of food waste
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collected, it is not clear whether they affect quantities of wastes generated. Until further studies are carried
out to evaluate the effects of home grinders separately in a given situation, such information is
unwarranted.
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5. Frequency of collection: People think that frequent collection of solid waste leads to more waste
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quantity generated but this is not true. For example if a home owner is limited to one container per week,
he or she may store newspapers or other waste materials in the garage due to the fact that the container is
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already full, thus storing wastes within the household, while on the other hand he or she would immediately
throw them into the container if frequent collection is employed. In this situation the quantity of wastes
generated is the same while the quantity collected is different.
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6. GNP trend, Per capita income: Higher the GNP trend/Per capita income, higher will be the quantity of
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solid waste generated because they are able to buy more resulting in more solid waste quantity.
7. Legislation: Perhaps the most important factor affecting the generation of certain types of waste is the
existence of local, state and central regulation concerning the use of specific materials. Legislation dealing
with packaging and beverage container materials is an example.
8. Public attitudes: Ultimately significant reductions in the quantity of waste will occur only if the people
are willing to change their habits, attitudes and lifestyles. People should think that conservation of national
resources would reduce the burden on the next generation ie their own children.
9. Size of Households: Any increase in these characteristics will definitely increase the generation of
solid waste.

10. Population density: Any increase in these characteristics will definitely increase the generation of
solid waste.
11. Pay as you throw programs: These programs charge the generator of solid waste according to the
quantity he (or) she generates. Often the rich generate more solid waste and hence they pay more for its
treatment and disposal. So each waste is weighted before arriving at the cost.
12. Population increase and Characteristics of population: Any increase in population will increase the
generation of solid waste. The waste quantity generated/capita in wealthier nations is not only high but also
their characteristics are also different. For example, the quantity of Yard waste (ie paper, cardboard,
plastics, textiles etc) is higher in wealthier nations while the quantity of organic wastes (ie food waste) is
higher in low-income countries.
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3. Explain the need of public awareness and role of NGOs in solid waste management
16,M/J-14]
[N/D-
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Non-Governmental Organizations
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Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) operate between the private and governmental realms.
Originating outside of the communities in which they work, NGOs are motivated primarily by humanitarian
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and/or developmental concerns rather than an interest in service improvement for their own members. The
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self-creation of meaningful employment for members may also be a motivation for NGO formation. NGOs
may help increase the capacity of people or community groups to play an active role in local solid waste
management by contributing to:
(i) People’s awareness of waste management problems, nee

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(ii) Organizational capacity and the formation of community-based organizations
(CBO),
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(iii) Channels of communication between CBO and government authorities,
(iv) CBO.s voice in municipal planning and implementation processes,

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(v) Technical know-how of locally active CBO, and
(vi) Access to credit facilities.
NGOs may also provide important support to informal sector waste workers and enterprises, assisting them
to organize themselves, to improve their working conditions and facilities, increase their earnings and
extend their access to essential social services such as health care and schooling for children.
Private Sector Enterprises

The formal private sector includes a wide range of enterprise types, varying from informal micro-enterprises
to large business establishments. As potential service suppliers, private enterprises are primarily interested
in earning a return on their investment by selling waste collection, transfer, treatment, recycling and/or
disposal services. Operating in various forms of partnership with the public sector, they may provide capital,
management and organizational capacity, labour and/or technical skills. Due to their profit orientation,
private enterprises can, under appropriate conditions, provide MSWM services more effectively and at
lower costs than the public sector. However, private sector involvement does not, in itself, guarantee
effectiveness and low costs. Problems arise when privatization is poorly conceived and regulated and, in
particular, when competition between suppliers is lacking. Private sector waste collectors may be
contracted directly by individual households, neighbourhood associations or business establishments. More
often, they operate under contractual agreement with municipal authorities. In this case, the authorities
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commonly retain responsibility for user fee collection. This arrangement ensures more equitable service
access; when private enterprises depend on the direct collection of user charges they have little incentive
to provide services in low-income areas where revenue potentials are weak.
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4) State the solid waste management recommendations of expert committee 1999 considered by
Honorable Supreme Court of India. State the major functions of civic body. (16)
[A/M-17]
Local Government:
Local government authorities are generally responsible for the provision of solid waste collection and
disposal services. They become the legal owner of waste once it is collected or put out for collection.
Responsibility for waste management is usually specified in bylaws and regulations and may be
derived, more generally, from policy goals regarding environmental health and protection. Besides their
legal obligations, local governments are normally motivated by political interests. User satisfaction with
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provided services, approval of higher government authorities and financial viability of the operation are
important criteria ofsuccessful solid waste management from the local government perspective. The
authority to enforce bylaws and regulations and to mobilize the resources required for solid waste
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management is, in principle, conferred upon local governments by higher government authorities.
Problems often arise when local government’s authority to raise revenues is not commensurate with
their responsibility for service provision. Besides solid waste management, municipal governments are
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also responsible for the provision of the entire range of infrastructure and social services. Needs and
demands for MSWM must therefore be weighed and addressed in the context of the needs and relative
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priorities in all sectors and services.
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To fulfill their solid waste management responsibilities, municipal governments normally establish
special purpose technical agencies, and are also authorized to contract private enterprises to provide
waste management services. In this case, local authorities remain responsible for regulating and
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controlling the activities and performance of these enterprises. Effective solid waste management
depends upon the cooperation of the population, and local governments should take measures to
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enhance public awareness of the importance of MSWM, generate a constituency for environmental
protection and promote active participation of users and community groups in local waste management.
National Government:
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National governments are responsible for establishing the institutional and legal framework for MSWM
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and ensuring that local governments have the necessary authority, powers and capacities for effective
solid waste management. In many countries, responsibility is delegated without adequate support to
capacity building at the local government level. To assist local governments to execute their MSWM
duties, national governments need to provide them with guidelines and/or capacity-building measures
in the fields of administration, financial management, technical systems and environmental protection.
In addition, national government intervention is often required to solve cross-jurisdictional issues
between local government bodies, and to establish appropriate forms of association when as in most
metropolitan areas effective waste management calls for the collaboration of several local bodies.
5. Write a note on Environmental and Health risk scenarios of solid waste. (16) [A/M-17,N/D-
11,N/D-15]
1. Health of people and sanitary workers:

The group at risk from the unscientific disposal of solid waste include – the population in areas where there
is no proper waste disposal method, especially the pre-school children; waste workers; and workers in
facilities producing toxic and infectious material. Other high-risk group includes population living close to a
waste dump and those, whose water supply has become contaminated either due to waste dumping or
leakage from landfill sites. Uncollected solid waste also increases risk of injury, and infection.
In particular, organic domestic waste poses a serious threat, since they ferment, creating
conditions favourable to the survival and growth of microbial pathogens. Direct handling of solid waste can
result in various types of infectious and chronic diseases with the waste workers and the rag pickers being
the most vulnerable.
Occupational hazards associated with waste handling:
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(i) Infections:
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1. Skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste, and from infected wounds.
2. Eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure to infected dust, especially during landfill
operations.
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3. Different diseases that results from the bites of animals feeding on the waste.
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4. Intestinal infections that are transmitted by flies feeding on the waste.
(ii)Chronicdiseases:
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Incineration operators are at risk of chronic respiratory diseases, including cancers resulting from exposure
to dust and hazardous compounds.
Disease Source of solid waste Symptoms

Contamination rin Health Hazards
All symptoms of common g.n

Acute respiratory
tract infections
Cowdung, poor hygiene
cold, fever and heavy
coughing, chest pain and
pain between shoulder
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Influenza and Pneumonia may
cause severe complications
blades in pneumonia
Contaminated food that Watery stools atleast 3

Dehydration especially in children
accidentally got mixed times a day with or
shown by dark coloration of urine,
with solid waste due to without blood or slime.
Diarrhea dry tongue or leathery skin.
carriers like rats, May be accompanied by
Severe risk to
cockroach and flies in fever, nausea and
immunocompromised persons.
home. vomiting.
Viral Hepatitis A Poor hygiene, improper Nausea, Slight fever, pale Long term disabling effects,

handling of solid waste colored stools, dark impair the liver and kidney
by workers. colored urine, jaundiced
eye whites and skin after
several days.
Poor hygiene of solid

Starts off like malaria
waste management Without appropriate medical care,
sometimes with diarrhea,
Typhoid fever workers. Unwashed may lead to fatal complications in
prolonged fever,
hands before consuming a few weeks.
occasionally with delirium
food.
Poor hygiene of solid
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Cholera
waste
workers.
management Abdominal cramps, fever, Dehydration shown by dark
Unwashed vomiting, liquid diarrhea coloration of urine, dry tongue or
w.Ehands before consuming (rice water stools)

food.
leathery skin.
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(iii) Accidents-Bone and muscle disorders resulting from the handling of heavy containers.
2. Disease Outbreaks: E ngi

Another danger, especially with open pits, comes from the spread of diseases--usually carried by rodents
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and bugs. An example of this is malaria, which festers in open areas with standing water and particularly
hot and muggy temperatures. In addition, there may be a propensity for people to scavenge wastes in
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landfills and open pits, which again can create unsanitary conditions and aid the spread of disease.
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3. Wind shifts bring an odorous smell to offend residents living close to the dump. It was also noted that
the residents whose houses are less than 200 meters from the dumpsite are victims of malaria, chest
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pains, cholera, and diarrhea. However, residents whose houses are more than 200 meters are also
affected with the chest pain and bad smell from the dumpsite, but mainly when wind is blowing in their
direction. The study concludes that dumpsites should be located at least 200 meters away from human
settlements.
4. Open dumping and burning of domestic and industrial waste is a common phenomenon in many
developing countries. This often takes place at waste disposal sites and can be the result of spontaneous
combustion or deliberate attempts to reduce waste volume. The health hazards posed by the vermin and
un-supervised scavenging have serious implications for the health of local people and livestock. While open
dumping attracts rats and flies, the open burning of waste leads to toxic releases to both ground water and
air. Burning the garbage in dump causes black smoke, filled with toxic byproducts from burning rubber,
plastic etc to fill the air.
5. Landfills pollute groundwater while incinerators cause air pollution:

a. Groundwater Contamination:
Rain and snow melt trickle through the garbage and carry materials into surface and groundwater supplies.
If waste isn't discarded properly on land, when it rains the waste is soaked and is then carried through the
landfill, eventually making its way into the water you may drink. Especially dangerous chemicals are volatile
organic compounds, or VOCs, which usually come from household cleaners and industrial solvents used in
operations like dry cleaning. These compounds have been linked to everything from cancers to birth
defects.
b. Air Quality:
When wastes are burned, especially toxic chemicals like dioxin, they're released into the surrounding
environment and can then cause serious public health risks. When disposing of garbage that contains
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harmful chemicals such as bleach, acid or oil it is important that it is disposed of in approved containers and
labelled correctly. Paper, plastics and other materials that are burned can contaminate the air when they
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are burned. Over time the chemicals can build up in the ozone layer. If they contain toxic chemicals like
dioxin they can reach the air that people breathe and cause a public health risk. Garbage that is disposed
of improperly can also begin to release methane gases. According to the Energy Information
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Administration, these gases are greenhouse gasses that can destroy the earth's ozone layer and contribute
to significant climate changes or global warming.
c. Soil Contamination: E ngi

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Less than 25 percent of that waste is recycled and the rest ends up in landfills, incinerated
or in ditches and roadsides. Improper garbage disposal isn't just an eyesore; it poses a serious threat to
nature. Littering, due to waste pollutions, illegal dumping, Leaching: is a process by which solid waste enter
soil and ground water and contaminating them.
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It is important to learn the basics of recycling so that the waste that does end up in landfills
can be disposed of properly. Plastics, metals, papers and certain types of glass can all be recycled at your
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local recycling center. If you take the time to send these items to recyclable locations, the items can be
reused and returned to consumers. They won't end up as trash or hurting the environment. If recyclables
are placed into the ground they can potentially contaminate the surrounding soil. As plastic water bottles
break down they can release DEHA, a type of carcinogen that can cause reproductive problems, liver
issues and weight loss. This type of chemical can leach into the soil and cause contamination that can
reach plant and animal life as well as water sources. Newspapers or paper that contains ink can be toxic to
the soil as well. If the garbage is dumped or not contained properly in a landfill it will contaminate the
surrounding ground.
6. Also improper disposal of solid waste affect the animals and marine life:
Humans are not the only ones affected by improper garbage disposal---animals are too. Conservation
International notes that garbage dumping and discharging raw or untreated sewage can threaten marine
life and animals who come in contact with the water. When waste forms a cluster or algal bloom, the area

can suffocate and contaminate sea bottom habitats such as coral and fish reducing their numbers. This
contamination not only destroys their habitat it can also affect human consumption as fish and shellfish that
were feasting off of contaminated areas reach fishermen and are caught for human consumption. Old
fishing lures, plastic bottles, rope, Styrofoam, cigarette butts and fishing lines can be consumed by marine
animals leading to the death of millions each year according to Conservation International. These ill effects
are observed frequently:
• Increase in mercury level in fish due to disposal of mercury in the rivers.
• Plastic found in oceans ingested by birds
• Resulted in high algal population in rivers and sea.
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7. Climate Change:
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As waste begins to break down, methane is produced. Methane is considered a greenhouse gas that is
responsible for increase in the earth's temperatures.
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Waste breaks down in landfills to form methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
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Change in climate and destruction of ozone layer due to waste biodegradable.
8. Habitat Destruction:
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Disposal locations may encroach upon existing habitat for native flora and fauna, especially when sited in
areas near wetlands. In some cases, people have taken steps to reclaim the land by capping the landfill
and later attempting to grow vegetation on it.
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9. Most of the solid wastes, like paper, plastic containers, bottles, cans, and even used cars and
electronic goods are not biodegradable, which means they do not get broken down through inorganic or
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organic processes. Thus, when they accumulate they pose a health threat to people, plus, decaying wastes
also attract household pests and result in urban areas becoming unhealthy, dirty, and unsightly places to
reside in. Moreover, it also causes damage to terrestrial organisms, while also reducing the uses of the
land for other, more useful purposes.
10. Populations living close to waste dump may have one or more of the following health problems:
• Nausea and vomiting.
• Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation.
• Uncollected waste can obstruct the storm water runoff resulting in flood.
• Low birth weight.

• Cancer.
• Congenital malformations.
• Neurological disease.
• Increase in hospitalization of diabetic residents living near hazard waste sites.
• Mercury toxicity from eating fish with high levels of mercury.
11. More and more of our everyday products contain toxic chemicals, such as mercury or PBDEs
(flame retardant chemicals), and these toxic products are combined with a plethora of other chemicals,
which eventually impact public health and the environment. Waste products that are used and thrown away
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contain more dangerous and health-affecting chemicals than ever before. More than 60,000 untested
chemicals pervade the consumer products on our shelves and in our homes. Even those chemicals whose
health implications are at this point clear, such as Biphenyl-A (BPA), commonly found in plastics like toys,
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are poorly regulated. The unprecedented toxicity of garbage exacerbates the problem that nationally we
have no clear solution for dealing with waste.
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12. The pre- school children and waste workers are most affected where there is no proper waste
disposal method and uncollected solid waste also increases risk of injury and infection. Contamination due
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to the incubation and proliferation of flies, mosquitoes, and rodents transmit diseases of gastrointestinal,
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dermatological, respiratory, genetic, and several other kind of infections.
13. Solid waste disposal often takes up valuable and costly land.
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6. Explain the Principle of solid waste management. (M/J-
11),(N/D-12)
Principle of solid waste management
A SWM system refers to a combination of various functional elements associated with the management of
solid wastes. The system, when put in place, facilitates the collection and disposal of solid wastes in the

community at minimal costs,while preserving public health and ensuring little or minimal adverse impact on
the environment. The functional elements that constitute the system are:
(i)Waste generation:
Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter,at every stage as raw materials are
converted into goods for consumption. The sourceof waste generation, as we touched upon earlier in
Section 1.1, determines quantity,composition and waste characteristics (see Unit 2 for details). For
example, wastes are generated from households, commercial areas, industries, institutions, street cleaning
and other municipal services. The most important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the identification
of waste.
(ii)Waste storage:
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Storage is a key functional element because collection of wastes never takes place at the source or at the
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time of their generation. The heterogeneous wastes generated in residential areas must be removed within
8 days due to shortage of storage space and presence of biodegradable material. Onsite storage is of
primary importance due to aesthetic consideration, public health and economics involved. Some of the
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options for storage are plastic containers, conventional dustbins (of households),used oil drums, large
storage bins (for institutions and commercial areas or servicing (depots), etc. Obviously, these vary greatly
(iii)Waste collection:
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in size, form and material.
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This includes gathering of wastes and hauling to the location, where the collection vehicle is emptied,
which may be a transfer station (i.e.,intermediate station where wastes from smaller vehicles are
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transferred to larger ones and also segregated), a processing plant or a disposal site. Collection depends
on the number of containers, frequency of collection, types of collection services and routes.Typically,
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collection is provided under various management arrangements, ranging from municipal services to
franchised services, and under various forms of contracts.Note that the solution to the problem of hauling is
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complicated. For instance, vehicles used for long distance hauling may not be suitable or particularly
economic for house to house collection. Every SWM system, therefore, requires an individual solution to its
waste collection problem.
(iv)Transfer and transport:
This functional element involves:the transfer of wastes from smaller collection vehicles, where necessary
toovercome the problem of narrow access lanes, to larger ones at transfer stations;the subsequent
transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to disposal sites.The factors that contribute to the
designing of a transfer station include the type of transfer operation, capacity, equipment, accessories and
environmental requirements.

(v)Processing:
Processing is required to alter the physical and chemical characteristics of wastes for energy and resource
recovery and recycling.
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UNIT II
Part A (2 Marks)
1. What are the 4 – R’s in waste hierarchy? [N/D-16]

Reduction,Resuse,Recovery,Recycling
2. List the various advantages of waste segregation? [N/D-16]
 To reduce the volume of waste

 To alter the physical form of waste
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3. Define waste minimization.[A/M-17,N/D-11]
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Waste minimization or reduction at source is the most desirable activity, because the community does not incur
expenditure for waste handling, recycling and disposal of waste that is never created and delivered to the waste
systems.
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management system. However, it is an unfamiliar activity as it has not been included in earlier waste management
4. What is the purpose of onsite processing?[A/M-17,M/J-10]
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At the end of all sorting processes, biological processes and thermal processes, the non-utilisable waste has to be
disposed off on land. Prior to this disposal, waste may need to be subjected to transformation by mechanical
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treatment, thermal treatment or other methods to make it suitable for land filling.
5. State the advantages of on-site segregation of solid waste? [A/M-13,N/D-

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The advantage of on-site segregation of solid waste are as follows
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1. Waste minimization: The separation of recoverable materials like metal, plastics e.t.c. from waste
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result in less quantity of remaining waste which are to be treated. Hence the cost of treatment
reduces. Also these recoverable materials like plastic, ferrous metals, etc. fetch revenue in those
industries that utilize them.
2. On-site segregation may include intermediate sorting stations wherein the solid wastes are separated,
baled and converted into a form which can easily be transported to the treatment or disposal yard.
3. Advantage of segregation: If waste cannot be segregated in the beginning, then it becomes very
difficult to segregate them at the end in the dumping yard. Also the solid wastes which are
segregated in the beginning are sent to respective treatment facilities. eg. The garbage can be sent
to composting yard to obtain bio-manure, while the combustible fraction of the rubbish can be sent
for incineration from where electricity can be produced via thermal power plant and also other green
waste can be sent for sanitary land filling from where methane is produced. Thus all fractions of the
solid waste are easily treated separately from which beneficial products are obtained.
6. What are the different on-site process on solid waste? [A/M-13]

1. Screening (Vibrating screen, Trommel screen, disc screen)

2. Shredding ( Flail mills, Hammer mills, Grinders and Wet pulping)
3. Magnetic separation (Ferromagnetic separators and eddy current separators)
4. Air classification (Horizontal air classifier, Inclined and moving chair curtains, Cyclone separators and
Vibrating tables)
7. List out the factors causing variations of solid waste generation?

[N/D-11]
1. Geographic location 2. Season of the year 3. Frequency of collection 4. Use of home grinders 5.
Characteristics of the population 6. Extent of salvage and recovery 7. Legislation 8. Public attitudes.
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8. What is recovery and recycling of solid waste? List out the operations involved in recycling?
[N/D-11,M/J-11]
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The collection of materials like glass, plastics, ferrous metals, etc from solid waste and the utilization of
these materials as raw material in the manufacture of new products is called recycling. The collection
of materials like paper, cardboard, coir may be of sufficient value to warrant their separation and can be
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converted into energy source (through incineration or direct combustion in power boilers to produce
steam) is called energy recovery.
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Operations involved in recycling: Handsorting, Air separation, Magnetic separation, Screening,
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Inertial separation, Floatation, Optical sorting, Electrostatic separation, Drying and dewatering,
centrifugation and filtration.
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9. What is the purpose of reduction in volume of solid waste? [N/D-10]
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If the volume of solid waste is reduced then the final volume to be treated is also reduced thus saving in
cost.
Also the transport cost reduces.
10. What is the essential of proper storage of MSW? g.n [N/D-10]
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1. The solid waste storage facility must have lid or must be covered on top to prevent litter and bad
odour problems.
2. The storage bin or container must be of sufficient volume or capacity to temporarily store the waste
before unloading. Often the container overflows due to insufficient size.
3. Municipal solid waste must not be kept more than 24 hours in the storage container since the organic
waste starts to undergo putrefaction leading to odour problems.
4. The municipal workers as well as the people should not touch the solid waste directly by hand.
Instead gloves must be provided to handle the solid waste. Also solid waste must be segregated and
put into colour coded bags before discharge into street containers.

Part B (16 Marks)
1. (a) (i)Explain briefly about the onsite storage methods. (8) [N/D-
16,A/M-17,]
Onsite storage methods.
In a usual setting of municipal solid waste management service, on-site storage is the point at
which the service demand meets its supply, or more specifically, it is where solid waste
generated is stored for collection by the municipal authority or its contractor. On-site storage
ww (often in some sort of container such as a bin, basket or bag) can be classified under two
categories:
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(1) individual storage serving the occupiers of a house, shop or office, and
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(2) communal storage serving the occupiers of more than one house, shop or office. Normally,
the responsibility for the provision and maintenance of individual storage rests with the
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owner/occupiers of each unit while the municipal solid waste management authority assumes
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the responsibility of providing and maintaining communal storage. Therefore, it is not easy to
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assign the previously identified indicator types to the on-site storage indicators. The indicators
relating to individual storage are generally classified as socioeconomic and physical condition
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indicators while those relating to communal storage are considered to be resource input
indicators.
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The following indicators are useful for the design and operational management of a solid
waste collection system.
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(a) Individual storage - Type (e.g. bin, bag, basket, no container) - Size or capacity (litre) -
Material (e.g. plastic, metal, bamboo) - Number and location (on a map) - Maintenance
condition (by observation) - Cover or lid (by observation) - Use of standardized containers (%)
(b) Communal storage - Type (e.g. bin, bag, basket, no container) - Size or capacity (litre or
m3) - Material (e.g. plastic, metal, wood, bamboo) - Number and location (on a map) -
Maintenance condition (by observation) - Cover or lid (by observation) Maximum distance
from houses (m)
(c) Cost - purchase cost of individual container ($/container) - purchase cost of communal
container ($/container) - repair cost of communal container ($/container).

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(b) (ii)Describe the various methods of sorting the solid waste. (8) [N/D-
16,A/M-14]
Municipal waste is being generated in ever increasing volumes in the urban areas. Theschematic
diagram describes how municipal solid waste is segregated and where it can be used.
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Methods of segregation: g.n
1. Onsite segregation:
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Sorting of solid waste into biodegradable fraction, combustible fraction, recyclable fraction, and
Hazardous fraction at the point of collection itself is called onsite segregation of solid waste. Onsite
segregation may also include intermediate sorting stations wherein the solid wastes are separated,
baled and converted into a form which can easily be transported to the treatment or disposal yard.
2. Segregation in sorting yard at transfer stations:
This involves hand sorting and mechanical sorting. It also consists of a series of mechanized equipments
like
1. Vibrating screens, trommel and disc screens. - separating smaller sized particles from larger sized
particles.
2. Magnetic separation - of ferrous metals (Ferromagnetic separator and Eddy current separator)
3. Air classification - of light, medium and heavy fractions
4. Incline and moving chair curtains - to separate glass from plastic bottles and aluminium cans)
5. Cyclone separators - dense materials from light materials
6. Vibrating tables - to separate light and heavy particles

7. Ballistic separator- to separate high density particles from low density particles
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2. (ii) Explain the measures to be taken by local bodies towards segregation of recyclable waste?
(8)
[N/D-
16]
Public health
• Public health concerns areas used for the storage of solid waste with vermin and
insects that serve as potential disease vectors.
• The most effective control measure for both rats and flies is proper sanitation.
ww • It involves the use of containers with lids, the periodic washing of the containers,
storage areas
and removal of biodegradable materials.
Aesthetics
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• Aesthetic considerations related to production of odours and unsightly conditions when
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adequate attention not given to maintenance.
• Odours can be controlled through use of containers with lids and reasonable collection
frequency.
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• If odour persist, sprayed with masking deodorant.
• To maintain aesthetic conditions, the container should be scrubbed and washed
periodically.
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3. (a) What can you do to reduce solid waste? With a neat diagram explain the resource
recovery
[A/M-17] rin
facility producing various marketable products from municipal solid waste. (16)
g.n
Waste handling and sorting involves the activities associated with management of wastes until they are
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placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded containers
to the point of collection. Sorting of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of
solid waste at the source. For example, best place to separate waste materials for reuse and recycling is at
the source of generation. the Households are becoming more aware of the importance of separating
newspaper and cardboard, bottles/glass, kitchen wastes and ferrous and non-ferrous materials. On-site
storage is of primary importance because of public health concerns and aesthetic consideration. Unsightly
makeshift containers and even open ground storage, both of which are undesirable, are often seen at many
residential and commercial sites. The cost of providing storage for solid wastes at the source is normally
borne by the household in the case of individuals, or by the management of commercial and industrial
properties. Processing at the source involves activities such as backyard waste composting
Collection: The functional element of collection, includes not only the gathering of solid wastes and
recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the location where the

collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a materials processing facility, a transfer station, or a
landfill disposal site.
Sorting, Processing and Transformation of Solid Waste: The sorting, processing and transformation of
solid waste materials is the fourth of the functional elements. The recovery of sorted materials, processing
of solid waste and transformation of solid waste that occurs primarily in locations away from the source of
waste generation are encompassed by this functional element. Sorting of commingled (mixed) wastes
usually occurs at a materials recovery facility, transfer stations, combustion facilities, and disposal sites.
Sorting often includes the separation of bulky items, separation of waste components by size using
screens, manual separation of waste components, and separation of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Waste processing is undertaken to recover conversion products and energy. The organic fraction of
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) can be transformed by a variety of biological and thermal processes. The
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most commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic composting. The most commonly used
thermal transformation process is incineration. Waste transformation is undertaken to reduce the volume,
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weight, size or toxicity of waste without resource recovery. Transformation may be done by a variety of
mechanical (eg shredding), thermal (e.g. incineration without energy recovery) or chemical (e.g.
encapsulation) techniques.
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4.Explain the types, mode of action, and applications of equipment used for component
separation?
[N/D-11]
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Screening: Most MSW composting facilities first convey the waste into a bag-opener and screen or
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trommel to separate different sizes of waste (Figure 1). Fine materials, including soil, grit, and much of the
organic wastes, fall through the screen as "unders". Plastic films and large paper products are retained on
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the screen as "overs" and may possibly be recycled or marketed as a refuse derived fuel (RDF), which is
burned for energy recovery. But the main purpose of size segregation in a composting plant is to facilitate
further separation. It is much easier for either people or machines to further separate materials of a similar
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size, as small items are not buried under large ones. Size fractionation also takes advantage of the size
distribution properties of different waste components, generating streams in which certain recyclables or
contaminants are concentrated.
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Figure 1. Trommel

Manual Separation: With materials segregated to a relatively uniform size, it becomes much more
practical to hand separate recyclables and contaminants as they move along conveyor lines. As manual
separation of MSW can be an unpleasant task, worker comfort and safety are very important. Ergonomic
design can help workers function at their best, and issues such as conveyor speed, reach, placement of
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containers, flooring material, lighting, ventilation and dust control should all be considered. Here, as
throughout the plant, it is recommended that workers wear safety glasses, gloves and adequate clothing to
protect against injury from sharp objects, and hearing and respiratory protection wherever appropriate (see
Fact Sheet 5).
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Conveyors and other materials handling machinery are critical to the operation of a plant. While this
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equipment may seem mundane, proper materials handling can minimize downtime and cleanup, and
contribute to the overall efficiency of the facility. Steady materials flow will improve the efficiency of all the
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separation devices described below.
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Air classification is an additional separation technology used in some MSW composting facilities, and is
commonly used to generate a marketable RDF. This technology has been used in the combustion industry
for many years. The heart of an air classification system is an air column or "throat", into which the waste
stream is fed at a gradual rate. The air column is usually oriented vertically. A large blower sucks air up
through the throat, carrying light materials such as paper and plastic, which then enter a cyclone separator
where they loose velocity and drop out of the air stream. Heavier materials, such as metal, glass, and food
waste, fall directly out of the throat (Figure 3). These two streams tend to be different sizes as well as
densities, facilitating further separation. Glass and metal can be sorted out of the heavy fraction by systems
such as the wet separator described below. The light fraction can be marketed directly as an RDF, or
sorted for recyclable paper or plastic prior to composting.

Figure 3. Air Classification
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Wet separation technologies, while taking advantage of the same sorts of density differences as air
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classifiers, use water rather than air as the floating medium. These units are usually used to separate
particles of glass, sand, and other heavy particles from organic materials prior to composting. A hammermill
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or other size reducer is needed prior to wet separation to minimize the potential for air pockets in the heavy
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fraction. After entrainment in a circulating water stream, the heavy fraction drops into a sloped (and
sometimes vibrating) tank where it moves to a removal zone. This heavy fraction may be marketable as an
aggregate substitute in construction applications. The less dense organic matter floats and is removed from
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the recirculating water using screening systems similar to those employed by wastewater treatment
facilities. Wet separation is particularly effective at removing glass fragments and other sharp objects,
which tend to be heavier than organic materials.
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g.n
Ballistic separation takes advantage of both density and elasticity differences to separate inert and
organic constituents. This method can be used in either initial processing or in the refinement of the final
compost product. Compost is dropped on a rotating drum or spinning cone, and the resulting trajectory
differences bounce glass, metal and stones away from the compost.
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Compost refining refers to separation processes which occur after biological processing (see Fact Sheet 2).
These can include screening, ballistic, and/or magnetic separation, and are important in preparing a
visually attractive product. Contaminant separation at this late stage has a limited effect of chemical
contaminants (see Fact Sheet 3), but can significantly reduce inert materials like plastics, glass, and
stones.
5.What are the types of containers and collection vehicles used for the collection of solid waste?
Discuss.
[N/D-11,M/J-12]
Material used for storage containers:
Galvanized metal containers, Plastic containers, Container liners, Temporary and disposable
containers(paper or plastic bags), Large portable or fixed containers, Large open top containers, enclosed

storage containers, containers equipped with self-contained compacting mechanism, special containers
that are sealed to carry toxic or radioactive wastes.
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(ii) Types of collection vehicles:
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1. Light-Weight Open Top Trailers – for direct open top loading (grapple trucks)

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2. Self-Contained Compactor Trailers – for self-contained compactor loading
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3. Light-Weight Closed Top Trailers – for pre-load compactor loading

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5. Side dump trucks - for unloading solid waste
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6. Drop box trailers for unloading trash.
6. List out the factors to be considered in selection of equipment for on-site processing of solid
waste. Explain them?
(M/J-13)
The selection of equipment for On-site processes such as 1.Grinding. 2. Crushing 3. Shearing 4.
Shredding. 5. breaking 6. tearing 7. Hydropulpery include small grinders, chippers, large grinders, jaw
crushers, rasp mills, shredders, hammer mills and hydropulpers.
Factors to be considered in selection of equipment for on-site processing of solid waste:
1. Properties of the material to be reduced, cut, grinded, sheared or shredded.
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3. Type of operation (Continuous or intermittent)
4. Operational characteristics including energy requirements, routine and specialized

maintenance
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requirements, simplicity of operation, proved performance and reliability, noise output and air
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(principally dust)and water pollution control requirements.
5. Site considerations including space and height, access, noise and environmental limitations.
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6. Material storage after size reduction and in anticipation of next functional operation.
7. Horse power requirements from manufacturers for different equipment operation and power
availability.
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7. Explain the estimation of storage capacity of community bins?
13,N/D-13) g.n (M/J-
The storage capacity of the community bins depend on the following
a. Volume of solid waste collected per day per bin.

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b. Type of collection system (whether stationary or hauled container system)
c. No. of houses emptying their contents into the bin and its population.
d. Frequency of collection service at that location.
e. Type of material of the container, make, cost and available standard sizes of it.
f. Distance to empty and back, nearness to transfer station, on-site processing, off-site treatment
and
disposal yard.

g. Availability on the no. of push-cart/wheel barrow/ trucks for that particular area.
h. No. of trips, No. of municipality workers for that area in consideration.
Based on the above considerations the storage capacity of the community bin is decided.
Low-rise dwellings: Because solid waste are collected manually from most residential low-rise detached
dwellings, the community bins must be large enough to store solid waste from 7 to 15 individual dwellings.
(ie) 3 m3 (or) 6m3 size bins kept at regular intervals.
Medium and High rise buildings: Where solid waste cutes are available, separate storage containers are
not used. In some older medium and high-rise apartments without cutes, wastes are stored in containers on
the premises between collections. Large open top, roll-off containers. (ie) size = 26 m3 (20L x 8W x 6H) are
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provided at the basement, Large containers equipped with self-contained compaction mechanism (ie) size
= 23 m3 (22L x 8W x 8H) can also be used to reduce the volume in the basement of medium rise
apartments.
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8.What is mechanical volume reduction? Discuss its importance and method of carrying out. (M/J-
13,N/D-10)
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The mechanical methods by which compaction (or) volume reduction of solid waste takes place are
Importance:
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called mechanical volume reduction.
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The reduction in the volume of the waste results in less volume of solid waste to be treated
resulting in 1. economy in MSW treatment 2. less wear and tear of machinery 3. more volume of solid
waste can be hauled in less no. of trips.
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The method of volume reduction are as follows
g.n
a compaction mechanism is employed to compress the waste.
Types: Stationary compactors and Mobile compactors

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The wastes are brought to and loaded into the compactor either manually or mechanically wherein
According to compaction pressure the compactors are divided into
1. Low pressure compaction: These low-pressure compactors are used in apartments and
commercial establishments having a pressure less than 7 kg/cm2 wherein a bailing equipment is used for
compressing wastepaper and cardboard.
2. High pressure compaction: Recently a no. of high pressure compaction systems having a
pressure upto 350 kg/cm2 are used to produce compressed solid waste blocks or bales of various sizes.

(eg) In some systems the size of completed block is 4ft x 4ft x 16inches and the density is about
1600 Ib/yd3 to 1800 Ib/yd3resulting in volume reduction of 3 to 1 through to 8 to 1
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UNIT III
Part A (2 Marks)
1. What are factors considered in collection of solid waste? [N/D-

16,M/J-12]
1. Distance to empty
2. Volume of collection vehicle
3. Weekly waste generation rate
4. No of collection trips required per week
5. Time required for collection and disposal in each route.
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2. Differentiate between Primary and Secondary collection.
16,M/J-10]
[N/D-
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The wastes dumped from the source into R.C.C bins or garbage bins(primary collection points) kept at the
side of streets is collected by conservancy workers and transferred into tricycles/wheel barrows or small
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motorized vehicles (that can enter into narrow indian streets) and taken to secondary collection points.
The secondary collection points consist of series of waste bins or trolley bins kept in a public location in the
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main road to collect segregated wastes. From the secondary collection points, collection vehicles of
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capacities varying from 6 tons to 1 tons pick up the waste and transport to nearest transfer stations. Half of
the city area is privatized for lifting from the collection points (RCC bins) and transportation of the waste. In
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the other half of the city area, vehicles are used for the purpose of collection, lifting, transportation of the
waste.
3.What is transfer station?

17,M/J-16] rin [A/M-
g.n
A transfer station is a solid waste processing site where solid waste is transferred from one vehicle to
another vehicle or storage device for temporary storage until transferred to a permanent disposal site
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approved by the SWMA or permitted by any other solid waste management authority having jurisdiction
over the location of the permanent disposal site. Some processing may be included therein. The term
does not include public waste storage bin facilities or temporary construction & demolition waste storage
facilities.
4.What is Haul distance? [A/M-

17]
Haul represents the time required to reach the location where the contents of the container will be emptied,
starting when a container whose contents are to be emptied has been loaded on the truck and continuing
through the time after leaving the unloading location until the truck arrives at the location where the empty
container is to be redeposited. Haul time does not include any time spent at the location where the contents
of the container are unloaded.

5. What is meant by secondary collection of solid waste? [A/M-

13]
The waste from the primary collection points are transported by the conservancy workers to the secondary
collection points and dumper placers through wheel borrows and hand carts. From the secondary collection
points, collection vehicles of capacities varying from 6 tons to 1 tons pick up the waste and transport to
nearest transfer stations. This is called secondary collection of solid waste.
6. What are the information available in a collection route schedule? [A/M-
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13]
1. Existing policies and regulations related to such items as the point of collection and frequency of
collection.
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2. Existing system conditions such as crew size and vehicle types
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3. No. of pick-up locations in each route.
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4. For stationary container system, the rate of waste generation at each pick-up point is important as it
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determines the number of containers that can be emptied per trip.
7. Write down the methods of collection of solid waste? [N/D-
12]
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a. Residential Collection services:
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The common types of services for Low-rise detached dwellings are 1. Curb pick-up 2. Alley pick-
up 3. Setout-setback 4. setout and 5. Backyard carry
g.n
Here containers of different sizes can be used depending on the volume of MSW and
compactors(either manually or mechanically loaded) are used to haul wastes from secondary points
system"
b. High rise and commercial-Industrial service:
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to the transfer station/treatment sites. The system of collection adopted is "stationary container
This involves the use of large containers of standard sizesanduse of large drop boxes if the waste
quantity is large. Compactors could compress the solid waste at specific points and bale them so
that large quantities could be hauled in quick time in large trailer trucks.The system of collection is
"Hauled container system".
8. What are the objective of using transfer station? [N/D-

12]
1. Excessive Haul distances: When the distance between the collection points and the final disposal
sites (or) treatment places are very large, it becomes uneconomical to transport solid wastes in small
vehicles over large distances. Hence a transfer station becomes necessary which may be located at
an intermediate point between the collection routes and the disposal site preferably near a national
highway or expressway.

2. Economy of transport: A transfer station transfers waste collected from small collection vehicles to
large trailer trucks which then haul them over long distances to disposal/treatment sites. This results
in economy of transport.
3. Sorting and material recovery: Certain transfer stations have sorting yards wherein recyclable
materials can be separated and salvaged.
9. Define: Ultimate analysis of solid waste? [N/D-
11]
The assessment of solid waste composition in terms of its primary elements like C(carbon),
H(hydrogen), O(oxygen), N(nitrogen), S(sulfur) and ash is called ultimate analysis.
10. What are the factors to be considered while deciding collection frequency in a SWM system?
[N/D-
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11,N/D-10]
1. Distance to empty
2. volume of collection vehicle
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3. weekly waste generation rate
4. No. of collection trips required per week
5. time required for collection and disposal in each route.
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E Part B (16Marks)
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1.(a) Define Transfer station, Explain the role and usefulness of transfer station. Also explain
selection of site for Transfer Station.
(16) [N/D-16,A/M-13,N/D-15]
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Transfer station
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A transfer station is a solid waste processing site where solid waste is transferred from one vehicle to
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another vehicle or storage device for temporary storage until transferred to a permanent disposal site
approved by the SWMA or permitted by any other solid waste management authority having jurisdiction
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over the location of the permanent disposal site. Some processing may be included therein. The term does
not include public waste storage bin facilities or temporary construction & demolition waste storage
facilities.
Objectives of using transfer station
• Removal and transfer of solid waste from collection and other small vehicles to larger transport system.
• To serve as intermediate station between final disposal and collection point
Role and usefulness of transfer station
1. Excessive haul distances: When the distance between the collection points and the final disposal sites
(or) treatment places are very large, it becomes uneconomical to transport solid wastes in small vehicles

over large distances. Hence a transfer station becomes necessary which may be located at an intermediate
point between the collection routes and the disposal site preferably near a national highway or expressway.
2. The use of small capacity collection trucks (generally upto 20 yd 3) is useful to enter into narrow streets
of residential and commercial areas for the collection of the solid waste but the location of disposal sites
may be far off from the collection routes (ie. more than 10 miles). A transfer station transfers the waste from
small containers to large trucks or trailers which then haul them over long distances to disposal sites. This
results in economy of transport.
3. A transfer station is used to accomplish the removal and transfer of solid wastes from collection and
other small vehicles to larger transport equipment. Hence capacity of the transfer station is important.
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Based on the capacity, transfer stations are classified into small (<100 tons/day), medium (100 to 500
tons/day) and large (>500 tons /day)
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4. The method used to load the transport vehicles in a transfer station also plays a major role. Depending
on the method of loading, transfer stations are classified into a. Direct discharge b. Storage discharge and
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c. Combined direct and storage discharge.
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5. Remote locations cannot be reached directly by the highway. In such circumstances it is easier for the
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small-capacity collection trucks to reach such locations and collect wastes from sparsely populated areas.
Hence a transfer station may be located very near the highway which transfers solid waste from small
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container trucks to large truck-trailers that haul them over long distances.
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6. The presence of illegal dumps and large amount of litter necessitates the use of medium sized
containers for the collection of waste. Also hydraulic or pneumatic collection systems work best if the
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transfer station is nearby to unload these containers. In a transfer station, these wastes can be temporarily
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stored (upto 24 hours) before being loaded into large trailer trucks for hauling them to treatment site or
disposal site.
1. (b)Discuss in detail the present scenario in collection of MSW under Indian conditions.(16)
[N/D-16,N/D-
12,M/J-12]
Stationary container system ( SCS ) :

Collection systems in which the containers used for the storage of wastes remain at the point of
generation, except when moved for collection are defined as SCS. Collection trucks are equipped
with self-contained compaction mechanism and may either be manually loaded or mechanically
loaded.

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The containers are small in size and of varying sizes (capacities of 0.6m 3 to 8m3 if mechanically loaded &
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weight not exceeding 30kg if manually loaded), which is often made of galvanized metal or Plastic. Trips to
the disposal site, transfer station, or processing station are made after the contents of a number of
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containers have been collected and compacted and the collection vehicle is full. Because a variety of
container sizes and types are available, these systems are used for collection of all types of waste
especially from residential areas and commercial establishments. The truck may itself be segmented to
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segregate various kinds of waste loaded onto it either manually or mechanically.
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For systems using mechanically self-loading compactors,
Tscs = ( Pscs + s + a + bx )
Where, Tscs = time/trip for SCS, h/trip
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Pscs = pickup time/trip for SCS, h/trip rin
The pickup time for SCS is give by
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Pscs = Ctuc + ( np – 1)(dbc)
Where Ct = No. of containers emptied/trip. e
uc = average unloading time per container for SCS, h/container
np = No. of container pickup locations/trip.
dbc = average time spent driving between container locations, h/location
The term np – 1 accounts for the fact that the No. of times the collection vehicle will have to be
driven between container locations is equal to the No. of containers less one.
Also Ct = vr /cf , where v = volume of collection vehicle
r = compaction ratio
c = container volume, m3/container

f = weighted container utilization factor.

3 (a)Expalin about Hauled Container System (HCS) [N/D-16,N/D-
11,A/M-13]
Hauled Container System (HCS)

: Collection systems in which containers used for storage of wastes are hauled to the transfer
station, disposal site or processing station, emptied and returned to either the original location or
some other location are defined as HCS. These containers are uniform in size (having capacities of
8m3 to 40m3) mechanically loaded onto trucks and transported to the disposal site or transfer
stations where they are emptied mechanically.
There are mainly two types of HCS (1) Tilt-frame containers which are large open-top containers
(often called drop boxes or debris boxes) loaded on tilt-frame vehicles, suited for collection of all
ww kinds of solid waste & rubbish. (2) Trash-trailer containers are similar to tilt-frame containers
except that they are used for the collection of heavy rubbish (such as sand, timber and metal
scraps) and are often used for the collection of demolition wastes at construction sites. Because of
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the large volume that can be hauled, the use of both tilt-frame & trash-trailer has become
widespread. In both container systems, the collector is responsible for driving the vehicle, loading
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full containers & unloading empty containers and emptying the contents of the container at the
disposal site. In some cases an additional helper along with driver is used for safety purposes.
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We can resolve the time taken for activities involved in the collection of solid waste as follows:
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1. Pick-up ( Phcs ) – The time spent picking up the loaded container, the time required to redeposit
the container after its contents have been emptied and the time spent driving to the next
container.
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2. Haul ( hhcs ) – The time required to reach the disposal site, starting after a container whose
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contents are to be emptied has been loaded on the truck, plus the time taken after leaving the
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disposal site until the truck arrives at the location where the empty container is to be redeposited.
Time spent at the disposal site is not included.
well as the time spent unloading. e

3. At-site (s) – The time spent at the disposal site, including the time spent waiting to unload as
4. Off-route (W) – All time spent on activities that are nonproductive from the point of collection
operations. (eg) time spent due to unavoidable congestion, time spent on repairs etc
Thcs = Phcs + s + a + bx
Speed limit a b
( km/h ) ( h/trip ) ( h/km )
88 0.016 0.011
72 0.022 0.014 Where Thcs = time/trip for HCS, h/trip
Phcs = pickup time/trip for HCS, h/trip
56 0.034 0.018 s = at-site time/trip, h/trip (0.0127 to 0.133)
40 0.050 0.025 a = empirical haul constant, h/trip

b = empirical haul constant, h/km

x = round-trip haul distance, km/trip
Also, Phcs = pc + uc + dbc,
Where pc = time required to pickup loaded container, h/trip
uc = time required to unload empty container, h/trip
dbc = average time spent driving between container locations, h/trip
The number of trips that can be made per vehicle per day in HCS:
Nd = [ (1 – W )H – ( t1 + t2 ) ] / ( Phcs + s + a + bx )
Nd = number of trips per day, trip/d
W = off-route factor, expressed as fraction ( usually 0.15)
ww t1 = time from garage to first container location, h

t2 = time from last container location to garage, h
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4. Discuss on Heuristic Routing Rules.
11,A/M-15] rin [A/M-17,N/D-
1. Define community goals and constraints

2. Characterize waste generation and service area g.n
3. Determine public and private collection; and transfer options
4. Determine system funding structure
5. Identify waste preparation and collection procedures
6. Identify collection equipment and crew size requirements
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7. Evaluate transfer needs and options
8. Evaluate collection and transfer alternatives
9. Develop routes and schedules
10. Implement the collection system
11. Monitor system performance, adjust as necessary
5.Rules to be kept in mind while designing the collection route [M/J-
10,N/D-10]

UNIT IV
Part A(2 Marks)
1. What do you understand by the processing of waste?[N/D-16A/M-15]

Any method, system, or other means designated to change the physical form or chemical content of solid wastes.
2. Write the merits and demertits of Incineration.[N/D-16,A/M-15]

Merits
There are a number of advantages to using incineration as a waste management method. Two of
the primary advantages of incineration are that waste volumes are reduced by an estimated of
80-95%, and the need for land and landfill space is greatly reduced². For urban areas, this can
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be especially important, as urban land is often at a premium.
Demerits
Smoke and ash emitted by the chimneys of incinerators include acid gases, nitrogen oxide, heavy
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metals, particulates, and dioxin, which is a carcinogen. While incineration pollution control technology is
evolving to reduce these pollutants, it has been found that even with controls in place, some remaining
dioxin still enters the atmosphere
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3. What are the four main ways to treat organic biodegradable waste?
[A/M-17]
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Composting, aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion and Incineration
4. What is Municipal solid waste composting? ngi [A/M-17,N/D-10]
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Composting is the biochemical degradation of organic fraction of the solid waste material into a
stable, humus-like end product under controlled conditions. This humus-like end product is called
compost and is primarily used for soil conditioning. Bacterial decomposition of municipal solid
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waste may be accomplished either aerobically or anaerobically but since anaerobic processes
are extremely slow and offensive odours associated with these processes may be difficult to
control, most composting operations are aerobic.
5. Mention the process parameters of composting? g.n[N/D-11,M/J-10]
control 7. C/N ratio 8. pH 9. Heat evolution 10. RQ, respiratory quotient
6. Define in-vessel composting?

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1. Particle size 2. Seeding 3. Mixing/turning 4. Air requirements 5. Moisture content 6. Temperature
[N/D-11]
In-vessel composting uses a completely enclosed system to treat feedstock materials, control odours
and optimise compost processing conditions. In-vessel composting systems can consist of metal or
plastic tanks or concrete bunkers in which air flow and temperature can be controlled, using the
principles of a "bioreactor". Generally the air circulation is metered in via buried tubes that allow fresh air
to be injected under pressure, with the exhaust being extracted through a biofilter, with temperature and
moisture conditions monitored using probes in the mass to allow maintenance of optimum aerobic
decomposition conditions.
7. What are the off-site processes? [A/M-13,N/D-12]

The off-site processes of solid waste are 1. Incineration 2.Pyrolysis 3.Composting 4. Anaerobic digestion
5.Incineration-pyrolysis (Purox system)

8. List any four recoverable products from off-site processing of solid waste? [A/M-13,N/D-10]
1. Compost, a rich bio-manure from composting process

2. Heat recovery from Incineration
3. Methane from pyrolysis and purox system
Part B(16Marks)
1. (a)Describe the incineration Technologies and air emissions and its Control in detaiL (16)
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Combustion products and residues:
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2. (b)Write briefly about the composting facilities and various types of composting
techniques.(16)[N/D-16,A/M-17,A/M-13]
Composting is the biochemical degradation of organic fraction of the solid waste material into a
stable, humus-like end product under controlled conditions. This humus-like end product is called
compost and is primarily used for soil conditioning. Bacterial decomposition of municipal solid waste
may be accomplished either aerobically or anaerobically but since anaerobic processes are extremely
slow and offensive odours associated with these processes may be difficult to control, most
composting operations are aerobic.
The organic fraction of most municipal solid wastes can be classified as follows:
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1. Water-soluble constituents, a group which includes sugars, starches, amino-acids, and various
organic acids.
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2. Hemicellulose, a condensation product of five and six carbon sugars.
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3. Cellulose, a condensation product of six carbon sugars, glucose.
4. Fats, oils and waxes, which are esters of alcohols and higher fatty acids.
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5. Lignin. a material the exact chemical nature of which is still not known (present in some paper
products such as newsprint and fibreboard)
6. Lignocellulose, a combination of lignin and cellulose.

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7. Proteins, which are composed of chains of amino acids.
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If these materials are subjected to bacterial decomposition, the end product remaining after
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dissimilatory and assimilatory bacterial activity is called humus. Most composting operations consist of
three basic steps, preparation of the solid wastes, decomposition of the solid wastes and product
preparation and marketing.
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1. Receiving, sorting, separation of organic fraction, size reduction and moisture & nutrient
addition are part of preparation.
2. To accomplish decomposition step, several techniques and methods have been developed.
(eg. Windrow method, aerated static pile, In-vessel and vermicomposting)
3. Product preparation and marketing include fine grinding, blending with various additives,
granulation, bagging, storage, shipping and in some cases direct marketing.
The entire process involving both the seperation and the bacterial conversion of the organic solid
wastes is known as composting.

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"Typical process flow diagram of composting process" rin
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Although they are extremely diverse, the principal microorganisms involved in the aerobic
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decomposition of solid wastes can be identified as bacteria, fungi, yeasts and actinomycetes. While
members of each of these groups can be found that are capable of decomposing all the raw materials
in solid wastes, as a group they prefer different compounds. Typically, bacteria prefer simple water-
soluble sugars, while fungi, yeasts and actinomycetes are particularly effective in the decomposition of
cellulose and hemicelluloses.
Initially, the material being composted heats up as a result of the release of energy accompanying
the degradation of the readily convertible organic food wastes and simple sugars. When the
temperature rises above 20oC, the mesophilic organisms begin to predominate. These organisms will
predominate upto about 45oC, after which the thermophils grow and dominate. The temperature of the
compost may reach 70oC due to thermophils wherein most pathogens are destroyed (ie. if maintained
at 70oC for 24 hours). Once the substrate becomes limiting, the temperature once again falls down to
mesophilic range, a stage called curing of compost.

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In windrow composting, prepared solid wastes are placed in windrows in an open field. The
windrows are turned once or twice per week for a composting period of about 5 weeks. The material is
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usually cured for an additional 2 to 4 weeks to ensure complete stabilization, a process called curing.
By controlling the operation carefully in a mechanical system, it is possible to produce a humus within
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5 to 7 days in a controlled environment but it is often followed up by curing in open windrows for an
additional period of 3 weeks. Once the solid waste have been converted into humus like material, they
are ready for the third step of product preparation and marketing.
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3.Explain the classification of composting technologies and discuss briefly the basic steps
involved in the composting practise.[N/D-11,A/M-14,A/M-15]
The various classification of composting are
1. Windrow composting
2. Static pile composting
3. In-vessel Composing
4. Vermicomposting

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4.Explain about Explain about In-vessel composting and vermin- composting. [N/D-12,A/M-
13,N/D-14]
In-vessel composting generally describes a group of methods that which confine the composting
materials within a building, container, or vessel. In-vessel composting systems can consist of metal or

plastic tanks or concrete bunkers in which air flow and temperature can be controlled, using the
principles of a "bioreactor". Generally the air circulation is metered in via buried tubes that allow fresh
air to be injected under pressure, with the exhaust being extracted through a biofilter, with
temperature and moisture conditions monitored using probes in the mass to allow maintenance of
optimum aerobic decomposition conditions. This technique is generally used for municipal scale
organic waste processing, including final treatment of sewage biosolids, to a safe stable state for
reclamation as a soil amendment. Offensive odors are caused by putrefaction (anaerobic
decomposition) of nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter gassing off as ammonia. This is controlled
with a higher carbon to nitrogen ratio, or increased aeration by ventilation, and use of a coarser grade
of carbon material to allow better air circulation. Prevention and capture of any gases naturally
occurring (volatile organic compounds) during the hot aerobic composting involved is the objective of
the biofilter, and as the filtering material saturates over time, it can be used in the composting process
and replaced with fresh material.
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In-vessel composting is a vital tool in the management of BMW(Biodegradable Municipal Waste). It
uses a completely enclosed system to treat feedstock materials, control odours and optimise compost
processing conditions. By source separating BMW into garden and kitchen wastes, and utilising
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natural composting process, the biodegradable waste can be reduced in weight by up to 50% and
converted into a soil conditioner rich in nutrients and humus.
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The technique of in-vessel composting occurs within a contained vessel. This technique allows the
operator to maintain close control over the process. Other advantages of this technique compared to
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other composting techniques are: the effects of weather are diminished, the quality of the resulting
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product is more consistent, less manpower is required to operate the system and public acceptance of
the facility may be better. In addition, due to the smaller space requirement, in-vessel technology is
more suitable in suburban and urban technologies compared to the other composting technologies. In
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addition, the in-vessel system allows for detailed containment and treatment of air to remove odors
before release. Disadvantages of this technique are that it is generally more costly than the other
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methods, particularly with respect to capital expenditures. The higher level of mechanization with this
technique also results in more maintenance requirements which increases operational costs.
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Vermicomposting:
Vermicompost is the product or process of composting using various worms, usually red wigglers,
white worms, and other earthworms to create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetable or
food waste, bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicast, also called worm castings, worm humus or
worm manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by an earthworm. These
castings have been shown to contain reduced levels of contaminants and a higher saturation of

nutrients than do organic materials before vermicomposting. Containing water-soluble nutrients,

vermicompost is an excellent, nutrient-rich organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. This process of
producing vermicompost is called vermicomposting.
Composting is the only the first step in the process of breaking down organic matter. Earthworms
finish this process. By feeding on the microrganisms which feed on organic waste, earthworms
convert “garbage” into a nutrient rich substance which provides many benefits to plants. Through
vermicomposting we contribute to soil preservation and waste reduction.Vermicomposting involves
mixing a bedding substance, such as shredded newspaper, peat moss, coir, or composted manure, a
small amount of soil, organic matter, and moisture. Once added, the worms will need to be fed organic
matter. Unlike your family dog, worms don't need everyday feeding, and in fact less is often
better.Over a short period of time (usually 2 – 3 months) the worms will break down the organic matter
in the vermicomposting unit, and leave behind nutrient rich "castings". These castings are the best
imaginable soil amendment for your plants, but worms cannot tolerate too high a concentration of
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castings. After this period of time the worms will need to be transferred to fresh bedding, and you will
be able to harvest a bin full of "Black Gold"
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Advantages of vermicompost include enriching soil, increasing harvest yields and suppressing plant
disease.
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1.Vermicompost is superior to most composts as an inoculant in the production of compost.
2.Worms have a number of other possible uses on farms, including value asa high-quality animal
feed.
3.It restores microbial population which includes nitrogen fixers, phosphate solubilizers etc.
4.Provides major and micro- nutrients to the plants.
5. Improves soil texture and water holding capacity of the soil.
6. Provides good aeration to soil, thereby improving root growth and proliferation of beneficial soil
microorganisms.
7. Decreases the use of pesticides for controlling plant pathogens.
8. Improves structural stability of the soil, thereby preventing soil erosion.
9. Enhances the quality of grains/ fruits due to increased sugar content.
Disadvantages:
1. Ratios Between Waste and Time:
Vermicomposting requires waste to be applied in thin layers because of temperature concerns. If you

apply too much waste to the bin in a short amount of time, the temperature will rise too fast and kill off
the worms. Large quantities of waste must be spread out over large areas of ground to maintain the
correct temperature.
2. Temperature Limits:
Vermicomposting requires a low temperature to be maintained in the compost operation so the worms
do not lose moisture and dry out. The normal temperature for vermicomposting is between 55 and 80
degrees F.
3. Care:
Vermicomposting requires greater care than regular composting methods. The worms used in
vermicomposting require care, food, heat and moisture at proper levels to remain healthy and create
the compost material. It requires more space because worms are surface feeders and won’t operate
in material more than a meter in depth. It is more vulnerable to environmental pressures, such as
temperature, freezing conditions and drought.
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4. Cost:
Vermicomposting is more expensive to set up than regular compost piles or batch composters.
Vermicomposting needs special materials to start, such as plastic or metal containers and red worms.
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Regular composting requires nothing but a hill or barrel to start. Vermicomposting also requires lime to
stabilize the acid levels created by the waste in the new soil.
5. Size Scales:
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Vermicomposting requires more space than regular composting. Eventually, you will need several
bins to get the same compost yield as you would from one traditional composting bin.
6. Concerns:
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Vermicomposting does not destroy any weed seeds which may have entered the bedding area with
the food supply. There is not enough evidence to show that pathogens would be destroyed if large
amounts of pathogens are present in organic material. Bedding must be provided that allows the
worms to breed away from their food.
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5. Write short notes on (i) Shredding and pulverizing:
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There are four types of shredders used for the shredding or pulverizing of solid waste: hammermills,
drum pulverizers, crushers, and wet pulverizers. Each type of equipment has a variety of designs,
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advantages, and disadvantages. Major considerations in selecting a shredder are its capacity, speed,
power requirements, maintenance needs, ability to produce the end product desired, and, most
important, reliability. These characteristics will differ significantly for various types of solid waste and
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differing end products. In choosing a type and particular design of a shredder, it is desirable to obtain
information on the performance of the shredder in circumstances similar to those for which the
machine is to be used.
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UNIT V
Part A(2 Marks)
1. List out the various methods of disposal of solid waste. [N/D-16,N/D-14]

• Sanitary landfill
• Composting
• Incineration
• Gasification
• Pyrolysis
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2. List the effects of improper disposal of solid waste.
• Acute respiratory tract infections
• Diarrhea
[N/D-16,A/M-14]
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• Viral Hepatitis A
• Typhoid fever
• Cholera
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3.How is designate sanitary landfill?
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[A/M-17,N/D-14]
Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe. It is considered when it has
completely degraded biologically, chemically and physically. In high-income countries, the level of isolation achieved
may be high.
4.What is landfill gas? What are its advantages? nee [A/M-17]
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Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill. Landfill gas is
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approximately forty to sixty percent methane, with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide. Trace amounts of other
volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder (<1%).
5. What are the factors which affect production of leachate and landfill gas in the landfill?
e [N/D-11]
1. The amount of runoff, infiltration and percolation will determine the amount of leachate generation.
2. The precipitation less runoff, transpiration and evaporation will determine the amount of infiltration of
leachate.
3. The runoff depends on rainfall intensity and duration over the landfill, permeability of the cover soil, surface
slope (4%, not greater than 30% for side slopes), condition of the soli and its moisture content, and the
amount and type of vegetative cover. Evapotranspiration during the growing season for grasses and grains
may be 20 to 50 inches.

6. What is Variation in gas production with time? [N/D-11,A/M-14]
7. Define -Leachate. [N/D-12]
ww The generation of leachate is caused principally by precipitation percolating through waste deposited in a
landfill. Once in contact with decomposing solid waste, the percolating water becomes contaminated and if it then
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flows out of the waste material it is termed leachate.
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8. What do you mean by pyrolysis? [N/D-12]
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Most organic substances are thermally unstable and upon heating in an oxygen-free environment can be split
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through a combination of thermal cracking and condensation reactions into gaseous, liquid and solid fraction.
Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of a condensed substance by heating. Pyrolysis is a special case of
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thermolysis, and is most commonly used for organic materials. It occurs spontaneously at high temperatures (ie above
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300 °C for wood, it varies for other material), for example in wildfires or when vegetation comes into contact with lava
in volcanic eruptions. It does not involve reactions with oxygen or any other reagents but can take place in their
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presence. Extreme pyrolysis, which leaves only carbon as the residue, is called carbonization and is also related to the
chemical process of charring.
9. Brief the treatment mechanism of a sanitary land filling? e [A/M-13]
Sanitary landfilling is an operation in which solid wastes are buried into the ground in various layers, each layer
being compacted and covered with a layer of soil (daily cover and final cover) in order to provide for moisture and
nutrients to the microbes. Initially, the bacterial decomposition occurs under aerobic conditions because a certain
amount of air is trapped within the landfill. However, the oxygen in the trapped air is soon exhausted, and the
long-term decomposition occurs under anaerobic conditions with the evolution of gases (CH4& CO2) and liquids
(leachate).
10.What is the advantage of segregated solid waste disposal by sanitary land filling? [A/M-13]
1. The segregated solid waste will separate biodegradable fraction from the rest and send it to the sanitary landfill for
disposal. This rejects solid waste that may not undergo bacterial decomposition inside a landfill.(e.g) The
recyclable fraction like paper, plastic, glass e.t.c can be segregated and sent to the respective industries for
recycling. The combustible fraction can be segregated and sent to incinerator for heat recovery. Finally only the
biodegradable fraction can be segregated and sent to sanitary landfilling for bacterial decomposition.

2. Since the segregated solid waste sent to sanitary landfills are mostly of biodegradable origin, the bacterial
decomposition will take place at a faster rate and the sanitary landfill will mature in short time. (e.g) Maturation of a
sanitary landfill is a stage wherein the bacterial decomposition has exhausted all the organic matter present in the
waste and the bacterial reaction has almost ceased. At this stage the sanitary landfill is said to be mature and its
surface can be used for other purposes like playground or golf course etc.
Part B (16 Marks)
1. What is leachate? Mention the various methods of treatment of leachate and disposal (16)
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The generation of leachate is caused principally by precipitation percolating through waste deposited in a landfill.
Once in contact with decomposing solid waste, the percolating water becomes contaminated and if it then flows
out of the waste material it is termed leachate. Additional leachate volume is produced during this decomposition
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of carbonaceous material producing a wide range of other materials including methane, carbon dioxide and a
complex mixture of organic acids, aldehydes, alcohols and simple sugars.
The risks of leachate generation can be mitigated by properly designed and engineered landfill sites, such as
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sites that are constructed on geologically impermeable materials or sites that use impermeable liners made of
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geotextiles or engineered clay. The use of linings is now mandatory within both the United States and the
European Union except where the waste is deemed inert. In addition, most toxic and difficult materials are now
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specifically excluded from landfilling. However despite much stricter statutory controls leachates from modern
sites are found to contain a range of contaminants that may either be associated with some level of illegal activity
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or may reflect the ubiquitous use of a range of difficult materials in household and domestic products which enter
the waste stream legally.
Composition of leachate g.n

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When water percolates through the waste, it promotes and assists process of decomposition by bacteria and
fungi. These processes in turn release by-products of decomposition and rapidly use up any available oxygen
creating an anoxic environment. In actively decomposing waste the temperature rises and the pH falls rapidly and
many metal ions which are relatively insoluble at neutral pH can become dissolved in the developing leachate.
The decomposition processes themselves release further water which adds to the volume of leachate. Leachate
also reacts with materials that are not themselves prone to decomposition such as fire ash and cement based
building materials changing the chemical composition. In sites with large volumes of building waste, especially
those containing gypsum plaster, the reaction of leachate with the gypsum can generate large volumes of
hydrogen sulfide which may be released in the leachate and may also form a large component of the landfill gas.
In a landfill that receives a mixture of municipal, commercial, and mixed industrial waste, but excludes significant
amounts of concentrated specific chemical waste, landfill leachate may be characterized as a water-based
solution of four groups of contaminants ; dissolved organic matter (alcohols, acids, aldehydes, short chain sugars
etc.), inorganic macro components (common cations and anions including sulfate, chloride, Iron, aluminium, zinc
and ammonia), heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cu, Hg, , and xenobiotic organic compounds such as halogenated
organics, (PCBs, dioxins etc.). [3].

The physical appearance of leachate when it emerges from a typical landfill site is a strongly-odoured yellow- or
orange-coloured cloudy liquid. The smell is acidic and offensive and may be very pervasive because of hydrogen,
nitrogen and sulfur rich organic species such as mercaptans.
Leachate management
In older landfills and those with no membrane between the waste and the underlying geology, leachate is free to
egress the waste directly into the groundwater. In such cases high concentrations of leachate are often found in
nearby springs and flushes. As leachate first emerges it can be black in colour, anoxic and may be effervescent
with dissolved and entrained gases. As it becomes oxygenated it tends to turn brown or yellow because of the
presence of Iron salts in solution and in suspension. It also quickly develops a bacterial flora often comprising
substantial growths of Sphaerotilus.
ww2. Describe in detail the different methods of landfilling and the operations involve with neat Sketches.
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Landfills are facilities for the final controlled disposal of waste in or onto land.
material they accept.
Types of landfill
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Under the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA), landfills must have consent conditions which are appropriate to the
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Municipal solid waste
landfills
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Landfills that accept household waste as well as other wastes.
Landfills composed mainly of cleanfill, but also construction and demolition
Managed landfills
Construction and
waste with light contaminants.
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Landfills where contruction and demolition materials such as wood products,
demolition landfills asphalt, plasterboard, insulation and others are disposed to land.
Landfills where cleanfill material is disposed to land.
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people or the environment. e
Cleanfill material is material that when buried will have no adverse effect on
It includes virgin natural materials such as clay, soil and rock, and other inert
materials such as concrete or brick that are free of:
 combustible, putrescible, degradable or leachable components
 hazardous substances
 products or materials derived from hazardous waste treatment,
hazardous waste stabilisation or hazardous waste disposal practices
 materials that may present a risk to human or animal health such as
medical and veterinary waste, asbestos or radioactive substances
Cleanfills  liquid waste.
Landfills that accepts specified industrial wastes. In most cases industrial
Industrial landfills waste landfills are monofills associated with a specific industry or facility.

3. Discuss the solid waste disposal options. (16) [A/M-17,N/D-13]

Landfill
Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this remains a common practice in most countries.
Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly-
designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste
materials. Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental
impactssuch as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another common
byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic
waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a
greenhouse gas.
A landfill compaction vehicle in action.
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Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining
material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to prevent
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attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to
extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas
engine to generate electricity
Incineration
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Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of waste material. Incineration and other high
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temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert
waste materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash.
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Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to
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dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain
hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste
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disposal, due to issues such as emission of Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is
more scarce, as these facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or
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energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat,
steam and/or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about
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micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very
persistent organics such as dioxins which may be created within the incinerator and which may have serious
environmental consequences in the area immediately around the incinerator. On the other hand this method
produces heat that can be used as energy.
Recycling methods
PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS are also recyclable, although these are not as commonly collected. These items are
usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The
recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the
additional dismantling and separation required..
Biological reprocessing
Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be
recycled using biological composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting
organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste
gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity. The intention of

biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of
organic matter.
There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies varying in complexity from
simple home compost heaps, to industrial-scale enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste (see
Mechanical biological treatment). Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic or
anaerobic methods, though hybrids of the two methods also exist.
An example of waste management through composting is the Green Bin Program in Toronto, Canada, where
household organic waste (such as kitchen scraps and plant cuttings) are collected in a dedicated container and
then composted.
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Energy recovery
Anaerobic digestion component
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The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or
indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Recycling through thermal treatment ranges from using
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waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating, to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine.
Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high
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temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The process typically occurs in a sealed vessel under high
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pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can
be burnt to produce energy or refined into other products. The solid residue (char) can be further refined into
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products such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert
organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is
then burnt to produce electricity and steam.
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Avoidance and reduction methods
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An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as
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waste reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of
buying new, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags),
encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any
food/liquid remains from cans, packaging, and designing products that use less material to achieve the same
purpose (for example, light weighting of beverage cans .

4.What are the requirements of a landfill layout? Write a note on sanitary land filling. (16)
[A/M-17,N/D-12,A/M-10]
The construction of a landfill requires a staged approach. Landfill designers are primarily concerned with the
viability of a site. To be commercially and environmentally viable a landfill must be constructed in accord with
specific requirements, which are related to:
Location
 Easy access to transport by road
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


Transfer stations if rail network is preferred
Land value (price)
Cost of meeting government requirements

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Location of community served
Type of construction (more than one may be used at single site)
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• Pit - filling existing holes in the ground, typically left behind by mining
• Canyon - filling in naturally occurring valleys or canyons
• Mound - piling the waste up above the ground
Stability E ngi
 Underlying geology
 Nearby earthquake faults
 Water table
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 Location of nearby rivers, streams, and flood plains
Capacity rin
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The available voidspace must be calculated by comparison of the landform with a proposed restoration profile.



This calculation of capacity is based on:
Density of the wastes
Amount of intermediate and daily cover
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 Amount of settlement that the waste will undergo following tipping
 Thickness of capping
 Construction of lining and drainage layers
SANITARY LANDFILLS
Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe.
It is considered when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically and physically. In high-income
countries, the level of isolation achieved may be high. However, such an expensive high level of isolation may
not be technically necessary to protect public health. Four basic conditions should be met before a site can be
regarded as a sanitary landfill (see following.) The ways of doing this should be adapted to local conditions.
The immediate goal is to meet, to the best extent possible, the four stated basic sanitary landfill conditions,
with a longer term goal to meet them eventually in full.

Small incremental improvements in landfill design and operation over several years are more likely to succeed
than attempts to make a single, large leap in engineering expectations.
Large landfills will require more investment to improve standards than smaller sites. However, the unit cost of
these improvements (measured per tonne of waste landfilled or per head of population served) will decrease
with increasing site size. There are financial and other benefits to sites with long operating lifetimes (ten years
or more). Large regional sites serving two or more cities could be economically beneficial, providing waste
transport costs are not too high.
Basic requirements
As a minimum, four basic conditions should be met by any site design and operation before it can be regarded
as a sanitary landfill:
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• Full or partial hydrogeological isolation: if a site cannot be located on land which naturally contains leachate
security, additional lining materials should be brought to the site to reduce leakage from the base of the site
(leachate) and help reduce contamination of groundwater and surrounding soil. If a liner - soil or synthetic - is
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provided without a system of leachate collection, all leachate will eventually reach the surrounding
environment. Leachate collection and treatment must be stressed as a basic requirement.
• Formal engineering preparations: designs should be developed from local geological and hydrogeological
the
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investigations. A waste disposal plan and a final restoration plan should also be developed.
• Permanent control: trained staff should be based at the landfill to supervise site preparation and construction,
depositing of waste and the regular operation and maintenance.
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• Planned waste emplacement and covering: waste should be spread in layers and compacted. A small
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working area which is covered daily helps make the waste less accessible to pests and vermin.
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5.Explain the various phases of municipal solid waste decomposition in a closed landfill?
[N/D/11,A/M-12,N/D-14]
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6. Identify the adverse effects of landfill leachate and list appropriate control measures?
[N/D/11,A/M-11]
Adverse effects of landfill leachate:

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1. The nature of landfill leachate is the function of waste type, solubility, the state of decomposition and
degradation. Rainfall input can serve to dilute and flush contaminants in addition to assisting the degradation
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process by wetting the wastes. A wide range of substances may be present in leachate, some of which are
potentially harmful to human health.
2. The major potential environmental impacts related to landfill leachate are pollution of groundwater and surface
water. The risk of groundwater pollution is probably the most severe environmental impact from landfill because

historically most landfills were built without engineered liners and leachate collection systems in the past. Most
recent regulations in many countries have required the installation of liners and leachate collection systems. The
pollution impact of leachate plumes downgradient of landfills is vital as it could contaminate the ground water.
Surface water pollution caused by leachate have also been observed in certain cases wherein the goundwater
comes to the surface during rainy seasons thus affecting the flora and fauna of nearby streams, lakes and rivers.
3. Most landfills containing organic material will produce methane, some of which dissolves in the leachate. This
could in theory be released in weakly ventilated areas in the treatment plant. This may result in explosion risk and
the zone should be identified to prevent future accidents. The most important requirement is the prevention of
discharge of dissolved methane from untreated leachate when it is discharged into public sewers, and most
sewage treatment authorities limit the permissible discharge concentration of dissolved methane to 0.14 mg/l, or
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1/10 of the lower explosive limit. This entails methane stripping from the leachate.
4. Leachate streams running directly into the aquatic environment have both an acute and chronic impact on the
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environment which may be very severe and can severely diminish bio-diversity and greatly reduce populations of
sensitive species. Where toxic metals and organics are present this can lead to chronic toxin accumulation in
both local and far distant populations. Rivers impacted by leachate are often yellow in appearance and often
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support severe overgrowths of sewage fungusand ammonia toxicity.
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5. The greatest environmental risks occur in the discharges from older sites constructed before modern
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engineering standards became mandatory and also from sites in the developing world where modern standards
have not been applied. There are also substantial risks from illegal sites and ad-hoc sites used by criminal gangs
to dispose of waste materials.
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6. Leachate stored or treated at a landfill site can become low in oxygen, resulting in generation of odorous
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compounds such as sulphides. This can result in odour from tanks used to store leachate. This is likely to
contribute to odour complaints asociated with landfill sites.
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7. Toxic Metal concentrations in leachate could become poisonous to all living beings including flora and fauna of
waterbodies.
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8. Lastly leachate could contain organo-nitogenated substances, organo-halogenated compounds and toxic
metals and any form of mixing into public water supply system underground due to leakage could be disastrous.
9. Since nitrogenous compounds are abundant in leachate, its overflowing from storage tanks in rainy season
could spark off sporadic algal blooms in lakes, thus killing off fishes and biodiversity being seriously disturbed.

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__________________________________________________________________________
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1. What is meant by solid waste Management? [N/D-

3. Define Municipal Solid Waste.

4. State the prerequisites of an effective system of solid waste management. [A/M -

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1. To protect environmental health,

2. To promote the quality of the urban environment,

3. To support the efficiency and productivity of the economy

4. To generate employment and income.

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5. Define Garbage? [N/D-

bagasse, cowdung, coir waste e.t.c of organic origin.

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7. What is integrated solid waste management? [N/D-

8. Define hazardous waste? [N/D-

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9. Define "solid waste". state its types? [M/J-

ww1. Open dumping on land

where, M= moisture content,%

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Part B (16 Marks)

Treatment plant wastes.

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Ashes and residues

1. Moisture content(loss at 105oC for 1 hour)

2. Volatile matter content(additional loss on ignition at 950oC)

3. Ash content(residue after burning)

4. Fixed carbon content(remainder)

b. Fusion point of ash

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c. Ultimate analysis(percent of C,H,O,N,S and ash)

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FACTORS AFFECTING WASTE GENERATION RATES:

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(i) People’s awareness of waste management problems, nee

(iv) CBO.s voice in municipal planning and implementation processes,

(vi) Access to credit facilities.

Private Sector Enterprises

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1. Health of people and sanitary workers:

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Occupational hazards associated with waste handling:

Disease Source of solid waste Symptoms

All symptoms of common g.n

Contaminated food that Watery stools atleast 3

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Poor hygiene of solid

Poor hygiene of solid

w.Ehands before consuming (rice water stools)

2. Disease Outbreaks: E ngi

5. Landfills pollute groundwater while incinerators cause air pollution:

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c. Soil Contamination: E ngi

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• Increase in mercury level in fish due to disposal of mercury in the rivers.

• Plastic found in oceans ingested by birds