Analysis of Pupil

Performance
`

PSYCHOLOGY

Research Development and Consultancy Division

Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations
New Delhi
Year 2018
__________________________________________________________________________________

Published by:
Research Development and Consultancy Division (RDCD)
Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations
Pragati House, 3rd Floor
47-48, Nehru Place
New Delhi-110019

Tel: (011) 26413820/26411706

E-mail: council@cisce.org

© Copyright, Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations

All rights reserved. The copyright to this publication and any part thereof solely vests in the Council for
the Indian School Certificate Examinations. This publication and no part thereof may be reproduced,
transmitted, distributed or stored in any manner whatsoever, without the prior written approval of the
Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations.
 FOREWORD

This document of the Analysis of Pupils’ Performance at the ISC Year 12 and ICSE Year 10
Examination is one of its kind. It has grown and evolved over the years to provide feedback to
schools in terms of the strengths and weaknesses of the candidates in handling the examinations.

We commend the work of Mrs. Shilpi Gupta (Deputy Head) of the Research Development and
Consultancy Division (RDCD) of the Council and her team, who have painstakingly prepared this
analysis. We are grateful to the examiners who have contributed through their comments on the
performance of the candidates under examination as well as for their suggestions to teachers and
students for the effective transaction of the syllabus.

We hope the schools will find this document useful. We invite comments from schools on its
utility and quality.

Gerry Arathoon
October 2018 Chief Executive & Secretary

i
 PREFACE

The Council has been involved in the preparation of the ICSE and ISC Analysis of Pupil Performance
documents since the year 1994. Over these years, these documents have facilitated the teaching-learning
process by providing subject/ paper wise feedback to teachers regarding performance of students at the ICSE
and ISC Examinations. With the aim of ensuring wider accessibility to all stakeholders, from the year 2014,
the ICSE and the ISC documents have been made available on the Council’s website www.cisce.org.

The documents include a detailed qualitative analysis of the performance of students in different subjects
which comprises of examiners’ comments on common errors made by candidates, topics found difficult or
confusing, marking scheme for each answer and suggestions for teachers/ candidates.

In addition to a detailed qualitative analysis, the Analysis of Pupil Performance documents for the Examination
Year 2018 have a component of a detailed quantitative analysis. For each subject dealt with in the document,
both at the ICSE and the ISC levels, a detailed statistical analysis has been done, which has been presented in
a simple user-friendly manner.

It is hoped that this document will not only enable teachers to understand how their students have performed
with respect to other students who appeared for the ICSE/ISC Year 2018 Examinations, but also provide
information on how they have performed within the Region or State, their performance as compared to other
Regions or States, etc. It will also help develop a better understanding of the assessment/ evaluation process.
This will help teachers in guiding their students more effectively and comprehensively so that students prepare
for the ICSE/ ISC Examinations, with a better understanding of what is required from them.

The Analysis of Pupil Performance document for ICSE for the Examination Year 2018 covers the following
subjects: English (English Language, Literature in English), Hindi, History, Civics and Geography (History
and Civics, Geography), Mathematics, Science (Physics, Chemistry, Biology), Commercial Studies,
Economics, Computer Applications, Economic Applications, Commercial Applications.
Subjects covered in the ISC Analysis of Pupil Performance document for the Year 2018 include English
(English Language and Literature in English), Hindi, Elective English, Physics (Theory), Chemistry (Theory),
Biology (Theory), Mathematics, Computer Science, History, Political Science, Geography, Sociology,
Psychology, Economics, Commerce, Accounts and Business Studies.

I would like to acknowledge the contribution of all the ICSE and the ISC examiners who have been an integral
part of this exercise, whose valuable inputs have helped put this document together.

I would also like to thank the RDCD team of, Dr. M.K. Gandhi, Dr. Manika Sharma, Mrs. Roshni George and
Mrs. Mansi Guleria who have done a commendable job in preparing this document.

Shilpi Gupta
October 2018 Deputy Head - RDCD

ii
CONTENTS

Page No.

FOREWORD i

PREFACE ii

INTRODUCTION 1

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 3

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 10
 INTRODUCTION

This document aims to provide a comprehensive picture of the performance of candidates in the
subject. It comprises of two sections, which provide Quantitative and Qualitative analysis results in
terms of performance of candidates in the subject for the ISC Year 2018 Examination. The details of
the Quantitative and the Qualitative analysis are given below.

Quantitative Analysis
This section provides a detailed statistical analysis of the following:

 Overall Performance of candidates in the subject (Statistics at a Glance)

 State wise Performance of Candidates
 Gender wise comparison of Overall Performance
 Region wise comparison of Performance
 Comparison of Region wise performance on the basis of Gender
 Comparison of performance in different Mark Ranges and comparison on the basis of Gender for
the top and bottom ranges
 Comparison of performance in different Grade categories and comparison on the basis of Gender
for the top and bottom grades

The data has been presented in the form of means, frequencies and bar graphs.

Understanding the tables

Each of the comparison tables shows N (Number of candidates), Mean Marks obtained, Standard
Errors and t-values with the level of significance. For t-test, mean values compared with their
standard errors indicate whether an observed difference is likely to be a true difference or whether it
has occurred by chance. The t-test has been applied using a confidence level of 95%, which means
that if a difference is marked as ‘statistically significant’ (with * mark, refer to t-value column of the
table), the probability of the difference occurring by chance is less than 5%. In other words, we are
95% confident that the difference between the two values is true.

t-test has been used to observe significant differences in the performance of boys and girls, gender
wise differences within regions (North, East, South and West), gender wise differences within marks
ranges (Top and bottom ranges) and gender wise differences within grades awarded (Grade 1 and
Grade 9) at the ISC Year 2018 Examination.

The analysed data has been depicted in a simple and user-friendly manner.

1
Given below is an example showing the comparison tables used in this section and the manner in
which they should be interpreted.

The table shows comparison

between the performances of boys
and girls in a particular subject.
Comparison on the basis of Gender
The t-value of 11.91 is significant at
Gender N Mean SE t-value 0.05 level (mentioned below the
Girls 2,538 66.1 0.29 table) with a mean of girls as 66.1
11.91*
Boys 1,051 60.1 0.42 and that of boys as 60.1. It means
*Significant at 0.05 level
that there is significant difference
between the performance of boys
and girls in the subject. The
probability of this difference
occurring by chance is less than 5%.
The mean value of girls is higher
than that of boys. It can be
interpreted that girls are performing
significantly better than boys.

The results have also been depicted

pictographically. In this case, the girls
performed significantly better than the
boys. This is depicted by the girl with a
medal.

Qualitative Analysis
The purpose of the qualitative analysis is to provide insights into how candidates have performed in
individual questions set in the question paper. This section is based on inputs provided by examiners
from examination centres across the country. It comprises of question wise feedback on the
performance of candidates in the form of Comments of Examiners on the common errors made by
candidates along with Suggestions for Teachers to rectify/ reduce these errors. The Marking Scheme
for each question has also been provided to help teachers understand the criteria used for marking.
Topics in the question paper that were generally found to be difficult or confusing by candidates,
have also been listed down, along with general suggestions for candidates on how to prepare for the
examination/ perform better in the examination.

2
STATISTICS AT A GLANCE

Total Number of
Candidates: 2,821

Mean Marks: Highest Marks: 100

78.6 Lowest Marks: 05

3
 PERFORMANCE (STATE-WISE & FOREIGN)

West Bengal 73.3

Uttarakhand 83.2

Uttar Pradesh 79.4

Telangana 80.8

Tamil Nadu 83.9

Rajasthan 84.6

Punjab 79.2

Odisha 60.6

Maharashtra 85.7

Madhya Pradesh 86.3

Kerala 80.5

Karnataka 76.9

Jharkhand 64.0

Himachal Pradesh 69.2

Haryana 86.5

Gujarat 77.1

Goa 71.1

Chandigarh 78.0

Assam 84.9

Foreign 88.3

The States of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra secured

highest mean marks. Mean marks secured by candidates studying
in schools abroad were 88.3.
4
 GENDER-WISE COMPARISON

GIRLS BOYS

Mean Marks: 79.6 Mean Marks: 73.3

Number of Number of
Candidates: 2,368 Candidates: 453

Comparison on the basis of Gender

Gender N Mean SE t-value
Girls 2,368 79.6 0.33
7.45*
Boys 453 73.3 0.78
*Significant at 0.05 level

5
 REGION-WISE COMPARISON

East North
Mean Marks: 72.9 Mean Marks: 81.4

Number of Number of
Candidates: 1,028 Candidates: 780

Highest Marks: 100 Highest Marks: 100

Lowest Marks: 05 Lowest Marks: 38

REGION
Mean Marks: 78.8 Mean Marks: 83.8

Number of Number of
Candidates: 386 Candidates: 579

Highest Marks: 100 Mean Marks: 88.3 Highest Marks: 100

Lowest Marks: 37 Lowest Marks: 38
Number of
Candidates: 48
South West
Highest Marks: 100
Lowest Marks: 51

Foreign

6
 Mean Marks obtained by Boys and Girls-Region wise

91.6
82.8 85.1 84.2
80.8
75.1 73.6 76.7
68.0 71.2

North East South West Foreign

Comparison on the basis of Gender within Region

Region Gender N Mean SE t-value
Girls 641 82.8 0.56
North (N) Boys 139 75.1 1.34
5.26*
Girls 905 73.6 0.58
East (E) Boys 123 68.0 1.70
3.07*
Girls 308 80.8 0.79
South (S) Boys 78 71.2 1.76
4.98*
Girls 487 85.1 0.59
West (W) Boys 92 76.7 1.42
5.47*
Girls 27 91.6 2.06
Foreign (F) Boys 21 84.2 2.96
2.04*
*Significant at 0.05 level

The performance of girls was

significantly better than that of
boys in all the regions.

7
 MARK RANGES :
COMPARISON GENDER-WISE

Comparison on the basis of gender in top and bottom mark ranges

Marks Range Gender N Mean SE t-value
Girls 1,320 91.6 0.16
Top Range (81-100) Boys 173 90.2 0.46
2.88*
Girls 1 5.0 0
Bottom Range (0-20) Boys 0 0 0
-
*Significant at 0.05 level

Boys Girls All Candidates

Marks Range (81-100) 90.2

81 - 100 91.6
91.4

70.6
61 - 80 71.6
71.4

Marks Range (81-100) 52.1

41 - 60 53.0
52.8

36.8
21 - 40 37.8
37.5

0 - 20 5.0
5.0

8
 GRADES AWARDED :
COMPARISON GENDER-WISE

Comparison on the basis of gender in Grade 1 and Grade 9

Grades Gender N Mean SE t-value

Girls 816 95.5 0.11
Grade 1 Boys 92 95.0 0.35
1.18
Girls 2 16.0 11.00
Grade 9 Boys 1 29.0 0
-1.18

Boys Girls All Candidates

95.0
1 95.5
95.4
No significant difference was
84.2
observed between the average 2 84.9
84.8
performance of girls and boys.
74.8
3 74.8
74.8
64.8
4 64.7
64.7
57.1
5 56.8
56.9
52.3
6 51.9
52.0
47.5
7 47.3
47.4
40.6
8 40.6
40.6
29.0
9 16.0
20.3

9
 PART I (20 Marks)
Answer all questions.

Question 1 [20]
Answer briefly all the questions (i) to (xx):
(i) Who put forward the General Adaptation Syndrome Model of stress?
(ii) Define personality according to Allport.
(iii) What is meant by abnormal behaviour?
(iv) Name one information processing theory of Intelligence.
(v) Explain the term central trait.
(vi) What is counter transference?
(vii) How is discrimination related to prejudice?
(viii) What is attribution?
(ix) Explain the term superego.
(x) State any two symptoms of histrionic personality disorder.
(xi) What is the difference between interest and achievement?
(xii) Name the principle on which Id functions.
(xiii) Who put forward the theory of moral development?
(xiv) What is meant by intelligence?
(xv) State two characteristics of Generalized Anxiety Disorder.
(xvi) What is meant by the term psychoanalysis?
(xvii) Explain the term relaxation training.
(xviii) What is meant by gender stereotype?
(xix) Explain the term belief.
(xx) What is meant by the term puberty?

10
Comments of Examiners
(i) Many candidates mis-spelt ‘Selye’. A few candidates Suggestion for teachers
were unable to write the full name of the psychologist.
− Insist that the students learn the full
(ii) Majority of the candidates wrote the definition of names of the psychologists and
personality, given by psychologists other than Allport. ensure that they have been given
Some candidates, who attempted to write Allport’s adequate practice to spell them
definition, wrote an incomplete definition missing out correctly.
− Emphasize that the definitions of
on key words. personality as given by Allport,
(iii) Most of the candidates were able to write the meaning Cattell and Eysenck are learnt
of abnormal behaviour along with the keywords. properly and with distinctiveness.
(iv) Majority of the candidates wrote Robert Sternberg. A − While teaching the theories of
intelligence, teach the concept of
few candidates wrote J.P. Guilford’s Structure of information processing with
Model of Intellect or the Two-factor Theory, or the reference to the example of Robert
names of Cattell or Gardner. Sternberg.
(v) Majority of the candidates were unable to write this − Explain all the three types, i.e.,
cardinal, central and secondary traits
answer. Most candidates wrote very general answers while teaching Allport’s trait theory.
which did not have any key words or terms. Some Supplement the explanation with
candidates wrote the definition of cardinal trait. examples and distinguish each from
(vi) Very few candidates could give the precise and the other two.
− Explain the term counter transference
accurate meaning of counter transference. Many and transference with relevant
candidates just stated it as opposite of transference, examples to bring out the difference
without giving any further explanation. between the two.
(vii) Majority of the candidates were able to answer this − Teach the relationship between
question. Some candidates, however, explained either prejudice and discrimination with
discrimination or prejudice, and were unable to bring relevant examples.
− Explain all the three systems of
out the relationship between discrimination and
personality, i.e., Id, Ego, and
prejudice.
Superego with their operational
(viii) Majority of the candidates were able to answer this
principles and their inter-
question. relationships.
(ix) Majority of the candidates were able to answer this − Teach, with examples, the symptoms
question. Some candidates, however, wrote the specific to the DSM criteria.
functions of ego instead. − Clearly bring out the differences, with
(x) Majority of the candidates were able to write the examples, amongst intelligence,
symptoms of histrionic personality disorder. aptitude, interest and achievement.
However, a few candidates wrote symptoms which − Ensure that the students learn the full
were connected to bipolar disorder. names of the psychologists with
(xi) Majority of the candidates were able to define interest. proper spellings.
However, some candidates wrote a very vague − Empasize on the key words given by
definition of achievement. A few candidates stated any psychologist and insist that
achievement as winning prizes, while some confused it students write them in their answers.
with aptitude.

11
(xii) Some candidates, instead of mentioning pleasure
principle wrote desire principle. − Explain how Psychoanalysis as a
(xiii) Majority of the candidates were unable to write the therapy brings out the hidden
full name correctly. Some candidates mis-spelt unconscious and repressed material
Kohlberg. into the consciousness.
(xiv) Majority of the candidates were able to answer this − Tell the students to explain in detail,
question. gender stereotype with specific
(xv) Most of the candidates answered this question quite mention of male/female,
well. man/women, girl/boy, etc., and
(xvi) Many candidates wrote a general explanation of stereotype.
psychotherapy with no emphasis on psychoanalysis. − Emphasize that it is imperative to
Several candidates did not write key words such as
highlight belief as a cognition,
unconscious material, hidden motives, etc.
thought or attitude.
(xvii) Majority of the candidate were able to write the
essential meaning and explanation of relaxation − Tell students that they must explain
training. puberty in terms of physical and
(xviii) Majority of the candidates either explained stereotype psychological changes seen during
or gender. Many candidates did not write the adolescent years.
differences and in most of the answer scripts the
explanations were without the key words.
(xix) A large number of candidates were able to explain the term belief in their own words and wrote a
general meaning of the term.
(xx) Most of the candidates answered this question quite well having written terms related to physical
or emotional or psychological changes of adolescence.

MARKING SCHEME
Question 1
(i) Hans Selye

(ii) According to Allport, personality is a dynamic organisation within the individual of those
psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.
(iii) Abnormal behaviour means, the behaviour which deviates from what is considered normal,
usually refers to maladaptive behaviours.
(iv) Triarchic theory of Intelligence.
(v) According to Allport, the five and ten traits that best describe an individual’s personality is
called central trait.
(vi) Counter transference: In psychotherapy, the therapist may transfer to the patient, attitudes or
feelings which originated outside the therapy situation.
(vii) Discrimination is the behavioural manifestation of prejudice. Members of a particular
community, class or group are treated in a particular way, i.e. either positively or negatively,
because of belonging to a particular community, class, gender or caste and not because of any
other genuine or personal factors.

12
(viii) Attribution is the process through which we seek to determine the causes behind other’s
behaviour.
(ix) Superego: According to Freud, it is the portion of human personality representing the
conscience/ morality/ right and wrong
(x) Symptoms of histrionic personality disorder:
(a) Immature (b) Self-centered (c) seductive, attention getting behaviour (d) Manipulative,
they get others to do their bidding by indirect tactics (e) They are flamboyant (f) Such people
imagine ailment or illness that actually has psychological origin (g) excessive anxiety (h) low
self-esteem (i) lack of confidence (j) lack of self-control (k) uneasiness (any two)
(xi) Difference between interest and achievement:
Interest is what a person prefers to do or finds interesting with or without any training.
Achievement is the knowledge or skill a person acquires for something after the person has
been trained in it.
(xii) The principle on which Id operates is called pleasure principle, according to which immediate
pleasure is the sole motivation for behaviour.
(xiii) Lawrence Kohlberg/ L. Kohlberg
(xiv) Intelligence: Intelligence is the global capacity to understand resources effectively when faced
with challenges.
(xv) Characteristics of Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Physical symptoms like feeling tired,
dryness of throat, sweating, breathlessness, trembling, increased palpitation, dizziness, feeling
faint, increasing heart beat, cardio-vascular changes, nervousness, worry, tension,
apprehension, lack of sleep, difficulty in concentration. (any
two)
(xvi) Psychoanalysis: A method of therapy based on Freud’s theory of personality in which the
therapist attempts to bring repressed unconscious material into consciousness.
(xvii) Relaxation training: Relaxation training is any method, process, procedure, or activity that
helps a person to relax, to attain a state of increased easiness or otherwise reduce levels of
pain, anxiety, stress or anguish.
(xviii) Gender stereotype: Cultural beliefs about differences between women and men.
(xix) Belief refers to the cognitive component of attitude and forms the ground on which attitudes
stand, such as belief of gods, or belief in democracy as political ideology or belief are
cognition or thoughts about the characteristics of objects.
(xx) Puberty: The period of rapid growth and change during which individuals reach sexual
maturity.

13
 PART II (50 Marks)
SECTION A
Answer any two questions.

Question 2
(a) Explain the various subtests of Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. [6]
(b) Give any four reasons for assessing Interest. [4]

Comments of Examiners
(a) Very few candidates were able to write the correct
Suggestions for teachers
description of the subtests. Majority of the − Explain each subtest with its purpose,
candidates were unable to understand the name of the test constructor,
requirement of the question. administration and scoring details.
(b) Majority of the candidates were able to answer this − Explain the need for assessing interest
question. Some candidates, however, instead of which helps in jobs, vocations, etc.
writing the reasons for assessing Interest, wrote
about What is Interest.

MARKING SCHEME
Question 2
(a) The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale:
David Wechsler developed a scale for measuring intelligence of 1939. The WAIS is an
individual test. It consists of two parts, the verbal part has six tests and non-verbal or
performance part has five tests which require a minimum of language. The full scale is a
combination of the two WISC is used to identify children suffering from various learning
disabilities subjects of WAIS. It is used for 16 to 64 years and takes one hour.

S.No. Test Description

Verbal Tests
1 Information 29 questions are given, which intend to test a
recall of knowledge concerning wider
varieties of information. (general knowledge)
2. Comprehension 14 items which intend to measure
understanding of knowledge concerning a
certain object, event or the meaning of
proverbs. (common sense and practice
intelligence)
3. Arithmetic 14 arithmetical problems which intend to
measure numerical ability, given orally and
are to be solved through mental manipulation.
No paper and pencil allowed.
(simple calculation and reasoning)
14
 4. Similarities 13 items which intend to measure abstract
verbal reasoning, require the examinees to
compare two objects and determine the
relationship between the two. (identifies
relationship between objects and concepts)
5. Digit span Intends to measure meaning for digits. In the
first part, the examinee is required to repeat in
the same order 3 to 9 digits presented in a
forward direction and in the second part, he is
required to repeat the digit in a backward
direction. (attention and memory)
6. Vocabulary Intends to measure verbal ability, 40 words of
increasing difficulty are presented and the
examinee is required to tell their meaning.
(meaning of words)
Performance Scale
7 Digit symbol 9 digits each with different symbols are given.
The numbers in jumbled order are given and
the examinee is to write the matching symbols
with each digit.
8. Picture completion Measures the ability to analyse parts from the
whole. 21 cards each containing a picture
from which something is missing – the testee
is required to fill in the missing part.
(identifying missing parts)
9. Block Design Intends to measure the ability to analyze the
complex whole. (arranging coloured blocks)
10. Object Assembly Examinees attempt to solve picture puzzles.
11. Digit symbol Examinees fill in small boxes with coded
symbols corresponding to a number above
each box. (arrange six sets of pictures to make
a sensible story.
(b) Reasons for assessing Interest:
• Guidance / Vocational Guidance – Interest assessment can be used for the purpose of
guidance in selecting subjects for studying in schools and colleges. It can be used for
selecting the profession of a person’s choice. Psychologists and counsellors
supplement the results of an interest test with intelligence test, school records,
interview and interest tests.
• Vocational selection / selection for jobs: it can be used for selecting a profession or
proper career planning by discovering the abilities they possess. The employers can
use interest assessment for selecting persons for different jobs.
• Counselling (Educational counselling) – Interest assessment is used for counselling
individuals who are looking for occupation or who want assistance in the choice of
vocational training. It also helps to determine vocational abilities of a person and
interpret test scare in terms of a wide range of occupations. Counsellors use interest

15
 assessment for score scientific vocational guidance, with respect to future success
showing areas where improvements required.
• Identifying special interest: Assessing interest helps to identify special talents in
different fields like art, music, sports, etc. and can help to train for future success
knowing one’s strengths and weakness as abilities.
• Prediction: Interest tests are used to predict success in various specific professions.
• It helps in the admission for professional or special courses (any four)

Question 3
(a) Explain the personality theory put forward by Carl Rogers. [5]
(b) Describe in detail the Thematic Apperception Test used to assess personality. [5]

Comments of Examiners
(a) Some candidates gave a detailed explanation of the Suggestions for teachers
concept of fully functional individual without writing
the key terms like conditional positive regard, − Use the relevant terminology when
explaining the theories. Clearly
unconditional positive regard, distortion.
explain the difference between self-
(b) Some candidates did not write terms such as,
actualization and fully functional.
unstructured test, technique, no right or wrong
− Insist that the students write all the
answers. points while writing a long answers,
especially the test materials,
procedure, scoring, interpretation and
the purpose of the test.

MARKING SCHEME
Question 3
(a) Personality theory put forward by Carl Rogers:
Human beings show many positive characteristics and move, over the course of their lives
toward becoming fully functioning persons. What are such persons like? Rogers suggested
that they are people who strive to experience life to the fullest, who live in the here and now,
and who trust their own feelings. They are sensitive to the needs and rights of others, but they
do not allow society’s standards to shape their feelings or actions to an excessive degree. Fully
functioning people aren’t saints; they can and do act in ways they later regret. But throughout
life, their actions are dominated by constructive impulses. They are in close touch with their
own values and feelings and experience life more deeply than most other persons.
Roger contents, lies in the anxiety generated when life experiences are consistent with our
ideas about ourselves – in short, when a gap develops between our self-concept (our beliefs
and knowledge about ourselves) and reality or our perceptions of it. The most common of
these defences is distortion – changing our perceptions of reality so that they are consistent
with our self-concept. For example, the girl may come to believe that her parents aren’t being
overprotective; they are just showing normal concern for her safety. Another defense process

16
 is denial; she may refuse to admit to herself that as a result of being babied, she is indeed
losing her independence.
In the short run, such tactics can be successful; they help reduce anxiety. Ultimately, however,
they produce sizable gaps between an individual’s self-concept and reality. For instance, the
girl may cling to the belief that she is independent when in fact as a result of her parents’
treatment, she is becoming increasingly helpless.
The larger such gaps, Rogers contents, the greater an individual’s maladjustment – and
personal unhappiness. Rogers suggested that distortions in the self-concept are common,
because most people grow up in an atmosphere of conditional positive regard. That is, they
learn that others, such as their parents, will approve of them only when they behave in certain
ways and express certain feelings. As a result, many people are forced to deny the existence
of various impulses and feelings, and their self-concepts become badly distorted.
Rogers suggests that therapists can help accomplish this goal by placing individuals in an
atmosphere of unconditional positive regard – a setting in which they will be accepted by the
therapist, no matter what they say or do. Such conditions are provided by client-centered
therapy, a form of therapy.
(b) Thematic Apperception Test used to assess personality:
The test consisting of perception of a certain picture in a Thematic manner (revealing
imaginative themes) is called TAT or Thematic appreciation Test. This test was developed
by Murray and Morgan.
Test material and administration: It consists of 30 pictures (1 blank card) which portray
human beings in a variety of actual life situations. Ten of these cards are meant for males, 10
for females and 10 for both. In this way, the maximum number of pictures used with any
subject is 20. The test is usually administered in two sessions, using 10 pictures in each
session.
The pictures are presented one at a time. They are vague and indefinite. The subject is told
clearly that this is a test of creative imagination and that there is no right and wrong response.
He has to make up a story for each of the pictures presented to him, within a fixed time period.
He has to take care of the following aspects while knitting the story:
1) What is going on in the picture?
2) What has led to this scene?
3) What would happen in such a situation?
In making up the stories, the subject unconsciously projects so many characteristics of his
personality. There is no time to think. Therefore, the stories express his own life – natural
desires, likes and dislikes, ambitions, emotions, sentiments, etc. Its special value resides in
its power of exploring the underlying hidden drives, complexes and conflicts of the
personality. An expert examiner can know much about the personality of his subject by
carefully interpreting the given responses.
Scoring and interpretation: Originally, Murray analysed the contents of the stories according
to need and presses/obstacles (the need of the hero and the environmental forces to which he
is exposed). Today, this way of interpretation is not generally followed. Nowadays, the
system of scoring and interpretation takes account of the following:
1) Hero of the story – what type of personality he has?
2) Theme of the story – What is the nature of the theme or plot used in making the story?

17
 3) The style of the story – Length of the story, language used, direct or indirect
expression, forced or poor expression, organisation of the contents, originality and
creativity, etc.
4) The content of the story –What interests, sentiments, attitudes they depict. In which
manner (reality or fantasy) the behaviour has been expressed. What inner-state of the
mind, the story reveals.
5) Test situation as a whole – The subject’s reaction to be listed as a whole.
6) Particular emphasis or omissions – The omission, addition, distortion and attention to
particular details.
7) Subject’s attitude towards authority and sex.
8) Outcome. Conclusion of the story – happy, unhappy, comedy, etc.
As a whole, the recurring themes and features contribute more than a single response towards
interpretation. Moreover, the global view of one’s personality should be based on the
responses of all the 20 pictures shown to the subject. There are so many chances of
misinterpreting the stories contents by an immature examiner. Therefore, the future of TAT
hangs on the possibility of perfecting the interpreter more than in perfecting the material. He
should be given full opportunity for acquiring essential knowledge and training for this
purpose.

Question 4
(a) Explain the measurement of aptitude with the help of GATB. [5]
(b) Describe the first five stages of Erik Erikson’s Theory of personality. [5]

Comments of Examiners
(a) Majority of the candidates were able to answer this
question. Suggestions for teachers
(b) Many candidates did not write the age and virtue of
the stages. Some candidates only wrote the headings − Tell the students to learn all the nine
factors with their correct names and
while in a few answer scripts, the headings were
explanations.
accompanied with incorrect explanations. Some
− Insist that students learn each stage with
candidates wrote stages beyond identity vs role both dimensions- age and virtue.
confusion which was irrelevant to the requirement of
the question.

MARKING SCHEME
Question 4
(a) Measurement of aptitude with the help of GATB:
The aptitudes that are measured by the General Aptitude Test Battery are as follows:
• G – General Learning Ability: The ability to catch on or understand instructions and
underlying principles, the ability to reason and make judgements. Closely related to
doing well in school.
18
 • V – Verbal aptitude: The ability to understand the meaning of words and to use them
effectively. The ability to understand relationships between words and to understand
the meaning of whole sentences and paragraphs.
• N- Numerical Aptitude: The ability to perform arithmetic operations quickly and
accurately.
• S- Spatial Aptitude: The ability to think visually of geometric forms and to comprehend
the two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional objects. The ability to
recognize the relationships, resulting from the movement of objects in space.
• P-Form Perception: The ability to perceive pertinent details in objects or in pictorial or
graphic material. Ability to make visual comparisons and discriminations and see sight
differences in shapes and shading of figures and widths and lengths of lines.
• Q-Clerical Perception: The ability to perceive detail in verbal or tabular material.
Ability to observe differences in copy, to proofread words and numbers and to avoid
perceptual errors in arithmetic computation.
• K- Motor Co-ordination: The ability to coordinate eyes and hands or fingers rapidly and
accurately in making precise movements with speed. Ability to make movement
response accurately and swiftly.
• F- Finger Dexterity: The ability to move fingers and manipulate smaller objects with
fingers, rapidly or accurately.
• M- Manual Dexterity: The ability to move hands easily and skilfully. Ability to work
with hands in placing and turning motions.
First five stages of Erik Erikson’s Theory of personality:
(b)
Erik Erikson’s theory deals with development across the entire life span. Erikson believes that
each stage of life is marked by a specific crisis or conflict between competing tendencies only
if individuals negotiate each of these hurdles successfully can they continue to develop in a
normal healthy manner.
Stage 1: Basic trust vs basic mistrust (birth to about one year)
• corresponds to the oral psychosexual stage.
• Trust shown by ease of feeding, depth of sleep, bowel relaxation
• Depends on consistence and sameness of experiences provided by caretaker or outer
provider.
• Second six months: teething and biting move infant from getting to taking
• Weaning leads to nostalgia for lost paradise
• If basic trust is strong, child maintains hopeful attitude, develops self-confidence
• Oral zone associated with mode of being satisfied.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (about 1 to 3 years)
• Corresponds to the muscular-anal stage
• Biologically includes learning to walk, feed, self talk
• Need for outer control, firmness of caretaker before development of autonomy
• Shame occurs when child is overtly self-conscious through negative exposure and
punishment.
• Self-doubt can evolve if parents overly shame child, e.g. about elimination
• Anal zone associated with mode of holding on and letting go.

19
 Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt (3 to 5 years)
• Corresponds to the phallic psychosexual stage.
• Initiative arises in relation to tasks for the sake of activity, both motor and intellectual.
• Guilt may arise over goals contemplated (especially aggressive goals)
• Desire to mimic adult world; involvement in oedipal struggle leads to resolution through
social role identification
• Sibling rivalry frequent
• Phallic zone associated with mode of competition and aggression
Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority (6 to 11 years)
• Corresponds to the latency psychosexual stage
• Child is busy building, creating, accomplishing
• Receives systematic instruction and fundamentals of technology
• Danger of sense of inadequacy and inferiority if child despairs of tools, skills, and status
among peers.
• Socially decisive age
• No dominant zone or mode
Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion (11 years through end of adolescence)
• Struggle to develop ego identity (sense of inner sameness and continuity)
• Preoccupation with appearance, hero worship, ideology
• Group identity (with peers) develops
• Danger of role confusion, doubts about sexual and vocational identity
• Psychosexual moratorium, stage between morality learned by the child and the ethics
developed by the adult.
• No dominant zone or mode

SECTION B
Answer any three questions.

Question 5
(a) Give an account of Piaget’s pre-operational stage of Cognitive Development. [5]
(b) Discuss in detail how alcohol can be a major concern during adolescence. [5]

20
Comments of Examiners
(a) Majority of the candidates, instead of explaining the Suggestions for teachers
pre-operational stage, either explained sensorimotor
period or the concrete operational period. Some − With the help of flow charts, mind
candidates did not write terms such as conservation. maps and examples, teach the
students the difference between the
(b) Some candidates stressed only on the characteristics
different stages. Tell students to learn
and symptoms of alcoholism, while a few others the content with correct terms and
wrote either its causes or effects. A few candidates explanations e.g. egocentrism,
wrote the treatment of alcoholism too. symbolic play, decentration,
decontextualization, conservation,
logic and reversibility.
− Explain to the students that a perfect
answer for alcoholism being a major
concern during adolescence, includes
the characteristics, causes and effects
of alcoholism.

MARKING SCHEME
Question 5
(a) Piaget’s pre-operational stage of Cognitive Development:
Piaget suggested toddlers acquire the ability to form mental images of objects and events.
At the same time, language develops to the point at which they begin to think in terms of
verbal symbols – words. These developments mark the transition to Piaget’s second stage,
the preoperational stage. This term reflects Piaget’s view that at this stage children don’t yet
show much ability to use logic and mental operations.
During the preoperational stage, which lasts up to about 7 years, children are capable of many
actions they could not perform earlier. For e.g. they demonstrate symbolic play in which
they pretend that one object is another – that a pencil is a rocket for e.g. such play is marked
by three shifts that afford unique insights into how children’s cognitive abilities change
during this period. One is decentration in which children gradually begin to make others
rather than themselves the recipients of their playful actions – for instances, they begin to
feed their dolls or dress them. The second shift is decontextualization. Objects are made to
substitute for each other, as when a child pretends that a twig is a spoon. The third change
involves integration –combining play actions into increasingly complex sequences. For
instance, when I was a little boy, I had a collection of toy cars and I now realize that as I
grew older I played with them in even more intricate ways.
The thought process of pre-operational children is more advanced than those in the preceding
stage. Piaget emphasised that these children are still immature in several respects. They can
use mental symbols but their thinking remains somewhat inflexible, illogical, fragmented
and tied to specific contexts. One way in which they think of preoperational children is
immature involves what Piaget termed egocentrism - children’s inability to understand that
others may perceive the world differently than they do.
Children in the preoperational stage seem to lack understanding of relational terms such as
lighter, larger, softer. Further, they lack seriation, the ability to arrange object order along
21
 some dimensions. Finally, and most importantly they lack a grasp of what Piaget termed as
the Principle of conservation – knowledge that certain physical attributes of an object
remains unchanged even though the outward appearance of the object is altered.
(b) Adolescent age is from 13 to 18 years / teenagers. Adolescence is attained when children
are in the high school and peer influence is very strong.
Causes and effects:
They like to try out various things such as alcohol which is harmful for health. This can be
by observing adults or trying to escape from stress. If they are too much into alcoholism,
they may give up studies and also lose jobs, if employed. The Society and Educational
institutions may also refuse to accept them.
• More alcohol seeking or excess consumption of alcohol is defined by American
Psychiatric association (APA) as “alcoholism” or alcohol dependence. It is a complex
disorder that includes social and inter-personal issues. Long term and uncontrollable
harmful consumption can cause alcohol related disorders. It is contained in beer, wine
and hard liquor and is a chemical compound known as ethyl alcohol or ethanol.
• Alcohol acts on the central nervous system as a blocker of messages transmitted from
one nerve cell to the next. The APA recognizes alcohol disorder as alcohol abuse. It
is similar to dependence in that the use of alcohol impairs the affected person’s ability
to achieve goals and fulfills his personal and social responsibilities. It also affects his
or her interpersonal relationship to a great extent. This disorder affects the person’s
metabolism, gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, bone marrow and endocrine
system.
• Symptoms of alcohol addiction: the various symptoms manifested by the person who
is addicted to alcohol include the following: Tolerance / Withdrawal / Disorientation
to time, place and person / Hallucinations, visual, auditory and tactile / Delusions of
suspicion, paranoid feelings, delusions of grandeur reoccupation with obtaining
alcohol by any means / Disordered perception / Overnight abstinence / Irritability /
Nausea and vomiting. This disorder occurs twice as often in males than in females.
It develops in people of all races and socio-economic classes. The alcohol abuse
depends upon the following causes. Behaviourally it relates to internal and external
motivation.
• Biologically repeated or continued use of alcohol can impair brain levels of a pleasure
neurotransmitter called dopamine. Neurotransmitters are the chemicals in the brain
which pass impulses from one nerve cell to the next.
According to Erik Erikson, adolescence go through a phase of role confusion. So they
experience confusion even during social relationship. Adolescents need to be monitored well
and if addiction develops, they need to be counselled and rehabilitated.

Question 6
(a) Explain how stress can affect the performance of an individual. [5]
(b) Enumerate any five defence mechanisms. [5]

22
Comments of Examiners
(a) Several candidates did not write how stress, Suggestions for teachers
whether it is mild or prolonged, repeated or − Explain how stress, when it is mild/
moderate or depending on the complexity of prolonged/ repeated/ moderate or
task, affects performance. Some candidates depending on the complexity of the
wrote very general answers. task, affects performance in a
(b) Most candidates, though, being able to write the positive and negative way.
correct names of the defence mechanisms were − Discuss case studies while teaching
unable to write their correct explanations or defence mechanisms so that the
examples. Several candidates were confused students understand the difference
amongst them. The interactive
between projection and displacement or
sessions will enable students to
between reaction formation and sublimation.
understand the concepts better.

MARKING SCHEME
Question 6
(a) Stress and Task Performance: Psychologists once believed that stress actually improves
performance on a wide range of tasks. They held that the relationship between stress and task
performance takes the form of an upside-down U: at first, performance improves as stress
increases, presumably because the stress is arousing or energizing. Beyond some point, though,
stress becomes distracting, and performance actually drops.
While this relationship may hold true under some conditions, growing evidence suggests that
even low or moderate levels of stress can interfere with task performance. There are several
reasons why this is so. First, even relatively mild stress can be distracting. People experiencing
stress may focus on the unpleasant feelings and emotions it involves, rather than on the task at
hand. Second, prolonged or repeated exposure to even mild levels of stress may exert harmful
effects on health, and health problems may interfere with effective performance. Finally, a large
body of research indicates that as arousal increases, task performance may rise at first, but that
at some point it falls. The precise location of this turning, or inflection, point seems to depend
to an important extent on the complexity of the task performed. The greater complexity, the
lower the level of arousal at which the downturn in performance occurs. Many observers believe
that the tasks performed by today’s working people are more complex than those in the past. For
this reason, even relatively low levels of stress may interfere with performance in today’s
complex work world.
Together, these factors help explain why even moderate levels of stress may interfere with many
types of performance. However, stress does not always produce adverse effects. For example,
people sometimes do seem to rise to the occasion and turn in sterling performances at times when
stress is intense. Perhaps, the most reasonable conclusion, then, is that although stress can
interfere with task performance in many situations, its precise effects depend on many different
factors, such as the complexity of the task being performed and personal characteristics of the
individuals involved. As a result, generalizations about the impact of stress on work
effectiveness should be made with considerable caution.

23
(b) Defence mechanism is the technique used by the ego to keep threatening and unacceptable
material out of consciousness and so to reduce anxiety.
Repression: it is forgetting or pushing from consciousness into unconsciousness- un acceptable
thoughts or impulses. When people repress a feeling of desire they become totally unaware of
that wish or desire. Thus, when a person says, “I do not know why I did that” some repressed
feelings or desire is expressing itself.
Projection: transferring unacceptable motives or impulses to others. People attribute their own
traits to others. Thus, a person who has strong aggressive tendencies may see other people as
acting in an excessively aggressive way towards her/him. E.g. a man who feels strong hostility
towards a neighbour perceives the neighbour as being hostile to him.
Reaction formation: a person depends on anxiety by adopting behaviour opposite to her/his true
feelings. A person with strong sexual urges, who channelize his or her energy fervor, presents a
classical example of reaction formation.
Rationalization: conjuring up socially acceptable reasons for thoughts or actions based on
unacceptable motives. That is a young woman explains that she ate an entire chocolate cake so
that it wouldn’t spoil in the summer heat.
Sublimation: a defence mechanism in which threatening unconscious impulses are channelized
into socially acceptable form of behaviour, e.g. a writer may divert some of his/her libido from
sexual activity to the creation of a poem or novel, thus indirectly satisfying the same drives.
Regression: responding to a threatening situation in a way appropriate to an earlier age or level
of development. E.g., a student asks his professor to raise his grade; when she refuses, the student
throws a temper tantrum.
Displacement: redirecting an emotional response from a dangerous object to a safe one. e.g., a
man redirects anger from his boss to his children.
People who use defence mechanism are often unaware of doing so. Each defence mechanism is
a way for the ego to deal with the uncomfortable feelings produced by anxiety.
(any five with examples)

Question 7
(a) Give two symptoms for each of the following: [4]
(i) Bipolar disorder
(ii) Avoidant personality disorder
(b) Describe any six behavioural therapy techniques. [6]

24
Comments of Examiners
(a) (i) Some candidates wrote the symptoms of only one Suggestions for teachers
dimension of Bipolar disorder, for example,
− Teach the characteristic feature of
depression/mania. bipolar disorder - the mania phase and
(ii) Most candidates wrote general symptoms like depression phase.
anxiety, fear, etc. − Lay emphasis on the characteristic
(b)Majority of the candidates described four to five symptoms of each disorder.
techniques. The common response of most of the − Teach specific techniques under each
candidates were token economy and systematic type of learning, classical
conditioning, operant conditioning
desensitization.
and observational learning.
− Teach concepts such as functional
analysis of behaviour, differential
reinforcement, shaping, behavioural
rehearsal, behavioural contracting,
flooding, assertiveness training.

MARKING SCHEME
Question 7
(a) (i) Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder:
• Shift in mood between two states (poles) - Depression to mania
• Mania is characterized by high energy, impulsiveness, euphoria
• It is a distinct period of abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting at
least one week.
• Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
• Decreased need for sleep (rested after three hours a night)
• More talkative / Pressured speech
• Racing thoughts for “Flight of ideas”
• Distractibility
• Increased goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation
• Excessive involvement in pleasurable activities with high chance of painful
consequences
• Major depression shown extreme sadness (dysphoria)
• Extreme apathy (loss of interest in activities)
• Loss of sense of humour
• Lack of drive
• Suicidal thoughts
• Anxiety
• Staying in bed,
• Easily distracted. (any two)
(ii) Symptoms of Avoidant personality disorder:
• Extreme shyness
25
 • Sensitivity to criticism and rejection
• Low self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy
• A desire for closeness with others but difficulty in forming relationships with people
outside of immediate family
• Avoidance of social situations, including those related to school or work.
• Person avoids occupational activities
• Person is reluctant to participate in any social involvement.
• Person is preoccupied with criticized or rejected. (any two)
(b) Behavioural therapy techniques:
In classical conditioning:
• Flooding – a type of behaviour therapy, behaviour modification which tries to eliminate
fear by exposing the patient over and over again to the stimuli which arouse the fear
based on the principle of extinction.
• Systematic desensitization – a form of behaviour therapy for phobias in which
individuals first learn how to induce a relaxed state in their own bodies. Then, while on
a relaxed state, they are exposed to stimuli that elicit fear.
• Aversion Therapy – This technique involves unpleasant stimulation in aversion
therapy. Its objective is not to undo fear or revulsion but to induce such feelings,
specifically in relation to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviour.
Modelling Techniques:
• Modelling is based on the type of cognitive learning known as observational learning.
Modelling is also a valuable Technique tool, especially in the phobias.
Instrumental conditioning:
• Extinction – time out from reinforcement or simply time out, it is also called omission
training.
• Token economies: the use of conditioned or secondary reinforces money like tokens to
strengthen desired behaviours in mental hospitals, prisons, and other similar
institutions. By the use of these tokens desirable behaviours which aid therapy can be
shaped.
• Shaping – In instrumental conditioning, teaching a desired response through a series of
successive steps which lead the learner to the final response. Each small step leading to
the final response is reinforced. Also, called the method of successive approximations.
• Covert Sensitizations – A useful alternative to physical punishment is covert
sensitization. In this technique, the unwanted behaviour is imagined together with its
imaginary punishing consequences, e.g. an alcoholic is trained to imagine drilling and
its consequences such as vomiting or being fired.
• Relaxation training
• Functional analysis of behaviour
• Identifying positive and negative reinforcers
• Differential reinforcement
• Assertive training
(explain any six)
26
Question 8
(a) Explain any five ways of changing an individual’s attitude by persuasion. [5]
(b) With reference to Milgram’s experiment, discuss why and when people obey others. [5]

Comments of Examiners
(a) Majority of the candidates were able to answer this Suggestions for teachers
question. Some candidates, however, did not write
− Clearly explain each persuasion
specific points such as attractiveness of source, expert
technique. Specify to the students, the
opinion, vulnerability, rapid speech, etc. source target and message
(b) Majority of the candidates explained Milgram’s characteristics.
experiment, instead of its factors. Some candidates − Teach the students how to identify the
did not write adequate details. A few candidates did factors leading to obedience from
not explain the factors influencing obedience in the Milgram’s experiment. Mention
transfer of responsibilities, visible
context of Milgram’s experiment.
signs of authority, fast paced events,
etc.

MARKING SCHEME
Question 8
(a) In the early twenty-first century, the business of changing attitudes – or at least trying to change
them – seems to grow bigger and more intense through television commercials, magazine ads,
billboards, warning labels on products, etc. – The goal remains the same; to change people’s
attitudes and so, ultimately, their behaviour. Psychologists have the following observations
about these issues:
1. Experts are more persuasive than non-experts (Hovland and Weiss, 1951). The arguments
carry more weight when delivered by people who seem to know what they are talking about
than, when they are made by people lacking expertise.
2. Messages that do not appear to be designed to change our attitudes are often more
successful in this respect than ones that seem intended to reach this goal (Walster and
Festinger, 1962). In other words, we generally don’t trust – and generally refuse to be
influenced by persons who deliberately set out to persuade us. This is one reason why the
soft sell is so popular in advertising – and in politics.
3. Attractive sources are more effective in changing attitudes than unattractive ones (Kiesler
and Kiesler, 1969). This is one reason why the models featured in many ads are highly
attractive and why advertisers engage in a perpetual search for appealing new faces.
4. People are sometimes more susceptible to persuasion when they are distracted by some
extraneous event than when they are paying full attention to what is being said (Allyn and
Festinger, 1961).
5. When an audience hold attitudes contrary to those of a would-be persuader, it is often more
effective for the communicator to adopt a two-sided approach, in which both sides of the
argument are presented, than one-side of an issue, acknowledging that the other side has a
few good points in its favour serves to disarm the audience and makes it harder for them to
resist the source’s major conclusions.

27
 6. People who speak rapidly are often more persuasive than persons who speak more slowly
(Miller et al., 1976). So, contrary to popular belief, we do not always distrust fast-talking
politicians and salespersons.
7. Persuasion can be enhanced by messages that arouse strong emotions (especially fear) in
the audience particularly, when the message provides specific recommendations about
how a change in attitudes or behaviour will prevent the negative consequences described
in the fear-provoking message (Leventhal, Singer & Jones, 1965).
8. Cognitive approach to pervasive and L.E. Model
9. Message source – credibility of source, attractive source, delivery of message
10. Content of the message, suggestion appeal to emotion – one side vs two sided
11. Characteristics of the target.
(any five)
(b) • First, in many situations, the persons in authority relieve those who obey of the
responsibility for their own actions. “I was only carrying out orders” is the defines many
offer after obeying harsh or cruel commands. In life situations, this transfer of
responsibility may be implicit, the person in charge (e.g. the mainly or police officer)
is assumed to have the responsibility for what happens. In Milgram’s experiments, thus
transfer of responsibility was explicit.
• Second, persons in authority often possess visible badges or signs of their status. They
wear special uniforms or insignia, have special titles, and so on. These serve to remind
many persons of the social norm “Obey the persons in charge.” This is a powerful norm
and when confronted with it, most people find it difficult to disobey. / person of
authority.
• A third reason for obedience in many situations in which the targets of such influence
might otherwise resist involves the gradual escalation of the authority figure’s orders.
Initial commands may call for relatively mild actions, such as merely arresting people.
Only later do orders come to require behaviour that is dangerous or objectionable. /
Consistency.
• Finally, there come many situations involving destructive obedience move very quickly
demonstrations quite suddenly turn into riots, arrests into mass beatings or mass
murder. / Group influence.
• In sum, the high levels of obedience generated in Milgram’s studies are not as
mysterious as they may seem. A social psychological analysis of the conditions existing
both there and in many real situations identifies several factors that together may make
it very difficult for individuals to resist the commands they receive. The consequences
of course, can be truly tragic or innocent and often defenceless victims.
• Again individuals exposed to commands from authority figures can be reminded that
they, not the authorities – are responsible for any harm produced. Under these
conditions, sharp reductions in the tendency to obey have been observed. E.g. Hamilton
1978, Kitham and Mann, 1974).
• Individuals can be provided with a clear indication that beyond some point, total
submission to destructive commands is inappropriate. One procedure that is highly
effective in this regard involves exposing individuals to the actions of disobedient
models – persons who refuse an authority figures commands. Research findings
indicate that such models can greatly reduce unquestioning obedience (e.g. Rochat and
Modigliani 1995). When we see one or more persons refuse to obey the commands of
an authority then we may be strongly encouraged to do the same – with the ultimate

28
 result that the power of those in authority is severely weakened. / victim emotional
distance.
• Individuals may find it easier to resist influence from authority figures if they question
the expertise and motives of those figures.
• Simply knowing the power of authority figures to command blind obedience may be
helpful in itself. Some research findings, e.g. Shyerman, 1980 suggest that when
individuals learn about the results of social psychological research, they often recognize
these as important (Richard Bond and Stokes-Zoota, 2001) and sometimes change their
behaviour in light of this knowledge. With respect to destructive obedience, there is
some hope that knowing about this process can enhance individuals resolve to resist.
To the extent this is so, then even exposure to findings as disturbing as those reported
by Milgram can have positive social value.
• Social norms (at least five points)

Question 9
Write short notes on any two of the following: [5 × 2]
(a) Attitude and its components.
(b) Role of Psychology in understanding the criminals and in preventing crime.
(c) Career counselling.

Comments of Examiners
(a) Majority of the candidates were able to answer this Suggestions for teachers
question.
− Teach examples for each component of
(b) Majority of the candidates either wrote the first part of
attitude.
the question while ignoring the second part. Several − Explain to the students, that
candidates answered only the latter part of the understanding the criminal means
question on prevention of crime. Many candidates ascertaining the causes of criminal
wrote on criminal rehabilitation and ignored the social behaviour.
causes. − Tell the students that specific points on
(c) Majority of the candidates were unable to answer this the application of psychology in career
question. A few candidates gave the steps of the counselling such as Psychological
process. Some candidates emphasized on the testing, Interviewing, Counselling,
usefulness of career counselling. Profile building should be highlighted
in their answers.

29
 MARKING SCHEME
Question 9
(a) Attitude: G.W. Allport who introduced this term, defined attitude as a preparation or
readiness for response. Attitude can be defined as lasting evaluations of virtually any and
every aspect of the social world- issues, ideas, persons, social groups, objects (Fazio and
Roskos Ewoldsen, 1994; Tesser and Martin,1996). Attitude is also defined as a learnt
predisposition to respond to a person or an object in either a favourable or unfavourable way.

Components of Attitude:
Three components which are found to be common to all attitudes are:
1. Cognitive: Cognitive or belief component refers to the sets of beliefs and opinions
through which the attitude is expressed e.g., the cognitive component of the attitude
towards a political party may refer to the beliefs whether or not the party has honest,
unselfish and capable persons as leaders. The cognitive component also refers to how this
party should be assessed by the masses. Specifically, a positive attitude towards a
political party implies a belief that after coming to the power this party would provide a
better government to the country than any other political party.
2. Affective: Affective or feeling component refers to the emotions associated with a person
or an object. These emotions include pleasant or unpleasant feelings, liking or disliking
for the object, good or bad mood, attraction or aversion. Feeling component serves as a
motivating factor and intensity of positive or negative feeling would determine the
motivational force behind the resulting behaviour. E.g. the affective component of your
attitude towards a political party would be whether you feel good or bad when this party
wins or loses an election.
3. Behavioural: Behavioural or action component refers to the actual behaviour which
occurs in relation to a person or an object. If a person holds a positive attitude towards
another person, he will show a tendency to help or support that person. If his attitude is
negative, the tendency would be to discourage or ignore that person. A favourable attitude
towards a particular party would prompt you to campaign for that party in an election or
to actually join the party as a member.
(b) Role of Psychology in understanding the criminals and in preventing crime:
In a legal sense, person of 21 years and above convicted by the court of law for violating the
provisions of IPC and CPC is labelled a criminal in our country and the illegal act for which
he is convicted is known as crime. Any behaviour like pick-pocketing, gambling, burglary,
robbery, theft, dacoity, rape, kidnapping and abduction attempts at suicide, murder, riots,
destroying another’s property, sexual assault, prostitution, cheating, counterfeiting, failure to
deposit taxes and revenue, etc. are termed as criminal behaviour.
Understanding of Criminals:
To account for criminal motivation in people criminologists have used psychological theories.
These theories can be divided into three categories.
(i) Moral development theories
(ii) Social learning theories
(iii) Personality theories.

30
 It is said that criminal behaviour is a mental disease and a criminal is a mental patient. In
view of this, the role of psychology is of great importance in understanding criminals.
Usually, society looks at criminals with raised eye brows, and hatred. People of the society
condemn them as they are law breakers and do great harm to the society. But why does a
person becomes a criminal? Is he responsible for his antisocial behaviour or his parental
training? Faulty childhood, early frustration and rejecting parents all combined are
responsible for this. Should we, thus blame him or blame the society and try to change the
factors leading to criminal act.
Prevention and treatments:
The remedy for criminal behaviour demands preventive and curative measures.
Prevention: The preventive measures involve improvement of social factors and
environmental conditions that are responsible for the germination and perpetuation of criminal
behaviour. The problem is a gigantic one and needs the cooperation of parents, members of
the family, neighbourhood, community, school or college authorities, religious heads, police
and government officials responsible for the social and psychological environment of the
inhabitants of a society. The following measures may be fruitful in the prevention task:
1) Since today’s delinquents are tomorrow’s criminals, maximum efforts should be made
for the prevention, control and treatment of the identified delinquents.
2) There is a great need for social reforms and breaking social and caste barriers.
3) The task narrowing the gulf between the rich and the poor, linguistic groups and
religious sects should be given priority.
4) The importance of moral values should be inculcated. There should be an end to the
crisis of character threatening the existence of the moral base and legal codes of our
society.
5) The system of education and national planning need rethinking and re-modification
for minimising economic difficulties of our youth and adults.
6) The problem of unemployment has to be checked and the professional dissatisfaction
as well as frustration affecting the vast population of the younger generation should
be curbed.
7) Attempts should be made to minimise undesirable influence of literature, films and
other mass media.
8) The parents, elders, government authorities, social, religious, educational and political
leaders should be such that they become ideals of socially desirable behaviour.
The society should feel the necessity of providing social and legal justice to its citizens. In
case of environmental deprivations and hazards of life, the affected individual should be
helped, protected and rehabilitated. Thus, there is a need for modifying the environmental
conditions so that one does not fall victim to social and emotional maladjustment or lured by
the criminals and drifted by instinctive behaviour to commit crimes.
(explain any five points for each)
(c) Career counselling:
Career counselling is the process of helping the candidates to select a course of study that may
help them to get into job or make them employable. A career counsellor helps candidates to
get into a career that is suited to their aptitude, personality, interest and skills. So it is the
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process of making an effective correlation between the internal psychology of a candidate
with the external factors of employability and other courses.
Career counsellors work with people from various walks of life, such as adolescents seeking
to explore career options, or experienced professionals contemplating a career change. Career
counsellors typically have a background in vocational psychology or industrial/organizational
psychology.
Career Testing:
An objective form of career counselling is through an aptitude test, or a career test. Career
testing is now usually done online and provides insightful and objective information about
which jobs may be suitable for the test taker based on combination of their interests, values
and skills. Career tests usually provide a list of recommended jobs that match the test takers
attributes with host of people with similar personalities who enjoy / are successful at their
jobs. There are various ways to test an individual for which field he is suitable psychometric
testing being one among them.
Psychometric Testing:
Different test companies have their own methods of testing. Usually, there are multiple sets
of questions relating to personality type, how the test taker would handle aspects of work and
home life, what his or her goals are for the future and his or her strengths and weaknesses.
Currently more than 500 tests of personality of different types are in use. These tests have
now become very scientific, refined and comprehensive compared to earlier tests.
Intelligence Tests: Various intelligence tests are applied to detect one’s intelligence. While,
average intelligent and intelligent persons can be selected for any common job, below average
intelligent persons are advised to take up repetitive and jobs requiring less skills.
Besides these main tests there are other tests like achievement tests, general aptitude tests,
special aptitude tests and various types of special ability tests. Tests are essential for any
selection, recruitment, counselling, training and even at the time of promotion.
A general answer tracing the testing of a student (aptitude, personality, intelligence, ability
and achievement); Explaining test results and achievability of goals; handling the admission
process to courses (prerequisites for a course, presentation at interviews etc.) and finally
finding the right fit for the student. (any five points)

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 • Question 1 (ii): Definition as given by Allport.
Topics • Question 1 (iv): Information processing theory of intelligence
• Question 1(vii): Explanations of discrimination and prejudice.
found
• Question 1(xiii): Full name and correct spelling of Lawrence
difficult by Kohlberg.
candidates • Question1(xvi): Meaning of psychoanalysis
• Question 1(xvii): Gender stereotypes.
• Question 1(xix): Explanation of belief.
• Question 2(b): Reasons for assessing interest.
• Question 8(b): Factors of Milgram’s experiment.

Concepts in • Central trait and cardinal trait.

which • Counter transference and transference.
candidates • Superego and Ego.
got • Interest and Achievement.
confused • Role of psychology in understanding criminals and in preventing crimes.
• Piaget’s pre-operational stage of Cognitive Development was confused
with sensorimotor stage.

• Read text books thoroughly.

• Write answers to the point and give proper examples.
Suggestions
• Learn the spellings of the names of psychologist and always write their
for full name.
candidates • Flow charts, tables of various topics can help in making learning easier.
• Make use of mnemonics while learning the subtests.
• Wherever possible, draw diagrams and give examples.
• Any experiment must be explained in terms of materials, uses, finding
and procedure.
• Scoring and interpretation must be written clearly.
• Avoid selective study.
• Choose questions from Part II judiciously.
• Budget your time.

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