RDMN 1 Hydraulic Principles

Reticulation Design and
Management IV
Module I
Hydraulic Principles
Lecturer:
Mr. Shanley Hay Pr Tech Eng,
MSAICE, MWISA
Fundamental concepts relating to fluids
The characteristics of fluids:
• A fluid can be defined as a substance
capable of flowing under it’s own weight
and which will conform to the shape of a
containing vessel;
• The particles within a fluid may
continuously change their positions
relative to one another;
• It offers no resistance to the displacement,
however great, of one layer over another;
• As a result, if a fluid is at rest, no shear
force can exist in it.
Molecular structure:
• The different characteristics of solids,
liquids and gases result from differences in
their molecular structure;
• In solids and liquids the molecules are
much closer together than in a gas.
The continuum:
• In most engineering applications interest
centres on the average conditions of
velocity, pressure, temperature, density
and so on;
The continuum:
• Therefore, we suppose that the fluid is in
continuum, that is a continuous
distribution of matter with no empty space.
The development of “Mechanics of Fluids”:

• Relates to the mechanics applied to liquids
and gases;
• Examples include (1) conservation of
matter, (2) conservation of energy, (3)
Newton’s law of motion;
Properties of fluids
• A fluid at rest or in equilibrium cannot
resist shear forces causing it to change
shape;
• Shear forces acting in a fluid cause it to
flow thus change shape;
• Fluids are divided into liquids and gases;
• 1) Liquids are normally said not to be
compressible whereas gasses can be;
• (2) fluids occupy a given volume and have
a free surface whereas a gas will expand to
fill a given container.
Units of measure
• Mass (kg);
• Length (l) m;
• Time (t) s;
• Force (F) N;
• Acceleration (a) m/s2;
• Pressure (P) N/m2.
• The density of fluids can be represented in
three forms, namely:
1) Mass density (p – Rho) and is defined as
the mass per unit volume, and is
expressed in kg/m3.
p = M/ Vol. = kg/m3.
2) Specific Weight (w) and is defined as the

weight per unit volume, and is expressed
in N/m3.
Weight = mass * gravitational acceleration
Hence w = pg
3) Specific Gravity (s) or relative density, is

defined as the ratio of the weight of any
given substance to an equal volume of
water at 4˚C.
s = mass substance / mass of equal vol. water
Or
Density of substance / density of water.
Pressure
• Pressure is that force exerted by a fluid on
a surface;
• The intensity of pressure at a point is the
force exerted on a unit area at that point
(N/m2);
• The pressure at any point in a fluid can be
expressed in terms of the height (H) of a
column of fluid above that point causing
the pressure;
• From P = wH
• H = P/w
Compressibility
• Is the relationship between the change of
pressure and change of volume, and is
known as the bulk modulus (K).
• K = change in pressure intensity/

volumetric strain
• or = change in pressure intensity/ (change

in volume/ original volume)
Viscosity
• Viscosity can be defined as that property
of a fluid that causes it to resist motion;
• When a fluid is at rest it cannot resist
shearing forces, but when in motion it
experiences shearing forces due to the
various layers within the fluid having
different velocities;
• Viscosity of liquids decreases with an
increase in temperature but is not affected
by pressure.
Fluids in equilibrium
• Fluid statics deals directly with fluids at
rest;
• Problems associated with fluids at rest are
much simpler than with fluids in motion;
• With no relative motion of particles the
viscosity of a fluid is of no concern.
Variation of pressure with position in a fluid
• Since for all practical purposes, the
gravitational force with depth is negligible;
• The equation p + pgz = constant is true for
all fluids; For equilibrium of a surface the
pressure immediately above it must equal
the pressure below it;
• Therefore the pressure of a liquid at its
surface in contact with the atmosphere
must be pa. Then for a depth h below the
surface, h = -z and therefore: p = pa + pgh;
• Therefore the pressure of a liquid varies
linearly with depth.
Hydraulic Principles
Continuity
• The equation of continuity is really a
mathematical expression of the principle of
conservation of mass;
• In the absence of nuclear reaction, matter
is neither created nor destroyed within a
region;
• The rate at which mass enters a region is
equal to the rate at which mass leaves the
region plus any accumulation within the
region.
Bernoulli’s equation
• For a fluid of constant density:
• At any two points along a streamline, the
Bernoulli equation can be applied and,
using a set of engineering assumptions,
unknown flows and pressures can easily be
solved for;
• The total energy per unit weight in a body
of fluid entering a system remains constant
from point to point provided that no energy
enters or leaves the system (i.e. total
energy in equals total energy out);
• However, the division of energy between
the three forms may vary;
Bernoulli’s equation
At any two points on a streamline:
Z1 + V12/2g + P1/pg = Z2 + V22/2g + P2/pg + HL
• This applies if the fluid is frictionless and of

constant density;
• The fluid must be steady and the relation
hold in general for a single streamline.
The momentum equation
• It is often important to determine the force
produced on a solid body by fluid flowing
steadily over it;
• For example, the force on a pipe bend
caused by the fluid flowing within it;
• The magnitude of such a force is
determined essentially be Newton’s 2nd law;
• Fx = m (v2 – v1)
Two kinds of flow
• Laminar – particles of fluid flow in a
straight line (in layers) at lower velocities;
• Turbulent – higher velocities. The paths of
individual particles are no longer straight
but are sinuous, intertwining and crossing
each other in a disorderly manner.
• In both scenarios, the velocity of a fluid is

seen to be the average velocity of the fluid
in the pipe.
Laminar and Turbulent flow in pipes
• Under normal engineering conditions
where disturbances are always present,
transition occurs at values between 2000
and 4000;
• The value of Re for pipes is normally taken
to be 2000;
• Flow in pipes is usually turbulent and
therefore highly complex.
Head lost to friction in a pipe
• The dissipation of energy by fluid friction
results in a uniform fall of piezometric head
in the direction of flow;
• The friction losses in pipes depends on the
diameter, mean flow velocity, wall
roughness, the density and viscosity of the
fluid;
• The Darcy Weisbach formula enables the
effects of these factors to be examined:-
• Hf = 4fLv2 / 2g
• f is a function of the Reynold’s number (Re)
and the relative roughness k/d;
• The friction factor (f) is directly related to
the Re, therefore it will vary with the
velocity of a fluid in a pipe.
Types of flow in open channels
• Different Types of Flow that may occur:
• Steady Uniform Flow – will occur in long
channels of constant cross-section and
slope, this type of flow occurs if the
conditions do not vary with time. Under
these conditions the depth is constant and
is known as the normal depth;
• Steady Non-Uniform Flow – will occur
under varying depth and changing cross-
section, generally found in most natural
rivers and channels, occurs if conditions
do not change with time;
• Different Types of Flow that may occur:
• Unsteady Non-Uniform Flow – will occur
when the conditions of depth and velocity
change with time relative to a fixed point on
the bed of the channel. Gravity waves are
an example of this.
• Laminar and Turbulent flow will occur

depending on the value of Reynolds
number (Re).
• (1) Manning’s: v = (m2/3 * S1/2) / n
• m = A/P (hydraulic radius)
• A: Area (e.g. b*d)
• P: Perimeter (e.g. b + 2d)
• S: Slope or Gradient
• n: co-efficient of friction (Refer to table
on page 7 and 8 of notes)
• (2) Chezy’s Formula: v = C√(ms)

• C = Co-efficient of friction
Specific energy
• (The total energy per unit weight measured
above bed level (y + V2/2g) is termed
Specific Energy:
• E = y + V2/2g
Hydraulic jump
• Flow can pass from super-critical to sub-
critical conditions through a feature known
as the hydraulic jump;
• This change is accompanied by
considerable turbulence and energy loss;
• The hydraulic jump is an important
example of local non-uniform flow;
• Used to reduce the total energy flowing
from one section to another e.g. dam
spillway;
• The occurrence of hydraulic jumps in
pipelines is not desirable.
End of lecture 1!

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Reticulation Design and

The development of “Mechanics of Fluids”:

2) Specific Weight (w) and is defined as the

3) Specific Gravity (s) or relative density, is

• K = change in pressure intensity/

• or = change in pressure intensity/ (change

• This applies if the fluid is frictionless and of

• In both scenarios, the velocity of a fluid is

• Laminar and Turbulent flow will occur

• (2) Chezy’s Formula: v = C√(ms)

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