Hindawi Publishing Corporation

International Journal of Food Science

Volume 2016, Article ID 2037029, 10 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/2037029

Research Article
Kinetics and Quality of Microwave-Assisted Drying of
Mango (Mangifera indica)

Ernest Ekow Abano

Department of Agricultural Engineering, School of Agriculture, College of Agricultural and Natural Sciences,
University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Ernest Ekow Abano; ekowabano@yahoo.com

Received 10 September 2015; Accepted 7 December 2015

Academic Editor: Qingrong Huang

Copyright © 2016 Ernest Ekow Abano. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The effect of microwave-assisted convective air-drying on the drying kinetics and quality of mango was evaluated. Both microwave
power and pretreatment time were significant factors but the effect of power was more profound. Increase in microwave power and
pretreatment time had a positive effect on drying time. The nonenzymatic browning index of the fresh samples increased from 0.29
to 0.60 while the ascorbic acid content decreased with increase in microwave power and time from 3.84 mg/100g to 1.67 mg/100g.
The effective moisture diffusivity varied from 1.45 × 10−9 to 2.13 × 10−9 m2 /s for microwave power range of 300-600 W for 2 to 4
minutes of pretreatment. The Arrhenius type power-dependent activation energy was found to be in the range of 8.58–17.48 W/mm.
The fitting of commonly used drying models to the drying data showed the Midilli et al. model as the best. Microwave power of
300 W and pretreatment time of 4 minutes emerged as the optimum conditions prior to air-drying at 7∘ C. At this ideal condition,
the energy savings as a result of microwave application was approximately 30%. Therefore, microwave-assisted drying should be
considered for improved heat and mass transfer processes during drying to produce dried mangoes with better quality.

1. Introduction and omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids [5].

Fresh ripe mango contains more than 80 g/100 g water within
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most popular fruits a soft-pulpy cell wall structure, which is responsible for
among millions of people in many countries worldwide. In the fast decay after harvest. Therefore, the right postharvest
Ghana, mango is grown in savannah and transitional areas processing intervention is required to prolong the shelf-life
by smallholder farmers and continues to remain a seasonal of mangoes.
crop. Statistics point to annual production of 95,460 tonnes in Drying is among the methods for the purpose to produce
2013 [1]. In the diet of humans, mango plays important role; it high quality dried products, which can be consumed directly
provides the diet with colour, phytochemicals, and nutrients. or used as ingredient for the preparation of chutneys, cakes,
The average mango composition is water (83 g/100 g), carbo- muesli, and oat granola. Conventional air-drying has been
hydrate (15.2 g/100 g), sugar (13.7 g/100 g), fibre (1.8 g/100 g), widely used in industrial drying of food products but this
fats (0.38 g/100 g), proteins (0.510 g/100 g), vitamins (mainly method is energy-intensive and time-consuming and often
vitamin A, 389 mg/100 g, and vitamin C, 36 mg/100 g), and produces poor quality products. Many authors have reported
minerals (mainly potassium 168 mg/100 g and phosphorous that this method leads to degradation of products flavour,
14 mg/100 g) [2]. The fruit is an excellent source of antioxi- colour, nutrients, and case hardening, due to their long
dants including ascorbic acid. It provides about 50% of the drying times and high temperatures employed in practice
recommended daily intake of vitamin C [3] and contains high [6, 7]. Hence, combination of advanced drying methods
amounts of beta-carotene, which is responsible for the typical with the conventional hot air is often recommended to
yellow colour of the mangoes. Beta-carotene is very beneficial reduce long drying times and poor product quality associated
for humans as it is a provitamin A and antioxidant [4]. The with conventional hot air-drying. Combination of osmotic
pulp is found to contain pigment carotenoids, polyphenols, dehydration preceded by microwave-assisted hot air-drying
2 International Journal of Food Science

of mango has been studied [8]. The effect of gluten coating an accuracy of ±0.001 g. For measuring the weight of the
on osmotic dehydration of mango cubes has similarly been sample during experimentation, the tray with sample was
investigated [9]. Application of microwave prior to conven- taken out of the drying chamber, weighed on the digital top
tional drying of mango (Mangifera indica L.) is uncommon pan balance, and placed back into the chamber within 10
in scientific literature. seconds.
Microwave offers advantages that have been employed
prior to or with conventional drying in food processing 2.5. Determination of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C). Ascorbic
technologies. Several researchers have provided strong evi- acid content of the samples before and after drying was
dence that microwave-assisted drying is ideal for fruits and assayed colorimetrically following Roe and Kuether [19]. Two
vegetables [10–14], which speed up drying process, increase grams of dried mango slices was ground finely using a mortar
mass transfer, and produce good quality products. Therefore, and a pestle and placed in a 25 mL volumetric flask with
in this present work, the effect of microwave power and time 4% oxalic acid solution. The mixture was centrifuged and
as pretreatment to convective air-drying of mango slices was 10 mL of the supernatant was transferred into a conical flask
investigated. after which bromine water was added in drops with constant
mixing until the extract turns orange yellow. The solution was
2. Materials and Method made up to 25 mL with 4% oxalic acid solution. Similarly,
10 mL of the stock ascorbic acid solution was converted
2.1. Sample Preparation. Fresh Kent mango fruits were into dehydroform by bromination. Again, 10 mL of standard
obtained from the Abura Market, Cape Coast, Ghana. Selec- dehydroascorbic acid solution was pipetted into a series of
tion of mango samples was based on visual assessment of tubes. Aliquot (2 mL) of brominated sample extract was
uniform colour and geometry. The mangoes were washed similarly pipetted out differently. The volume in each tube
under running tap water, peeled, and sliced into sizes of was made up to 3 mL by adding distilled water. One millilitre
50 mm × 25 mm × 10 mm using a stainless steel knife and of DNPH (2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine) reagent was added,
immediately kept at −24∘ C to slow down physiological and followed by 1-2 drops of thiourea to each tube. A blank was
chemical changes. Prior to the test, the samples were allowed set with water instead of ascorbic acid solution. The content
to warm up to room temperature conditions. The initial of the tubes was placed on a shaker to mix and incubated at
moisture content of the mangoes was obtained from drying 37∘ C for 3 hours in a water bath. After incubation, the orange
5 g samples in an oven at 105∘ C for 24 hours according to red osazone crystals formed were dissolved by adding 7 mL
the AOAC (1990) method. The initial total soluble solids were of 80% sulphuric acid. A graph of ascorbic acid concentration
determined to be 16.7% with a refractometer (ABBE 98 490, versus absorbance at 540 nm was plotted (𝑅2 = 0.9973) and
Holland). used to calculate the ascorbic acid content in the sample.

2.2. Experimental Design. A two-factor, 3-level factorial 2.6. Nonenzymatic Browning Determination. A method pre-
design was used for the experiment. The effect of two inde- viously reported by [14] was used to evaluate the nonen-
pendent variables, microwave power 𝑋1 (300–600 W) and zymatic browning of the dried mango slices. The extent of
pretreatment time 𝑋2 (2–4 min), on three response variables, browning was measured as absorbance at 440 nm. Brown
drying time, ascorbic acid, and nonenzymatic browning, was pigment formed was extracted from the test portions of
evaluated (Table 2). the dried mango slices. Two-gram sample was ground into
fine powder, after which 50 mL of ethanol (60%, v/v) was
2.3. Microwave Pretreatment. A domestic Samsung micro- added and allowed to stand for 12 hours. The mixture
wave machine with varied powers was used to predry 100 g of was stirred slowly and filtered through 0.45 𝜇m nylon filter
mango slices at power intensities of 300 W, 450 W, and 600 W membrane. Browning index of filtrates was estimated by a
for 2, 3, and 4 minutes prior to convective hot air-drying. spectrophotometer against 60% ethanol as blank. All samples
After the microwave pretreatment, the slices were removed, were extracted in triplicate.
weighed, and immediately subjected to convective air-drying.
100 g of mango slices without microwave pretreatment was 2.7. Drying Kinetics. The drying kinetics of mango slices
used to serve as the control. were expressed in terms of empirical models, where the
experimental data obtained were plotted in the form of a
2.4. Drying Equipment and Drying Procedure. Microwave dimensionless moisture ratio (MR) against drying time in
pretreated samples were transferred to a hot air cabinet dryer minutes. The MR of the mango slices was determined using
(GENLAB Oven, Model SDO225, 240 AC 1PH, 540 × 920 ×
440 mm, 2 kW) set at temperature of 70∘ C and air circulation 𝑀 − 𝑀𝑒
MR = , (1)
of 0.5 m/s. This temperature was chosen based on previous 𝑀𝑜 − 𝑀𝑒
optimization studies [14]. The dryer was run idle for 1 hr
earlier to the drying experiment. During drying, the masses where MR is the moisture ratio, 𝑀𝑜 is the initial moisture
of the samples were monitored every 30 min at the initial content (g water/g dry matter), 𝑀 is the moisture content at
stages and later changed to 1 hr at the later stages of drying any time (g water/g dry matter), and 𝑀𝑒 is the equilibrium
until constant mass was reached by a digital balance with moisture content (g water/g dry matter) [20].
International Journal of Food Science 3

Table 1: Mathematical models that were applied to the experimental effective moisture diffusivity, considering a constant moisture
data. diffusivity, infinite slab geometry, and uniform initial mois-
Model name Model expression Reference ture distribution [23]:
Page MR = exp(−𝑘𝑡𝑛 ) [15]
8 ∞ 1 (2𝑛 + 1) 𝜋2
Henderson and Pabis MR = 𝑎 exp(−𝑘𝑡) [16] MR = ∑ exp (− 𝐷eff 𝑡) , (5)
Logarithmic MR = 𝑎 exp(−𝑘𝑡) + 𝑐 [17] 𝜋2 𝑛=0 (2𝑛 + 1) 4𝐿2
Midilli et al. MR = 𝑎 exp(−𝑘𝑡𝑛 ) + 𝑏𝑡 [18]
where 𝐷eff is the effective moisture diffusivity (m2 /s) and 𝐿 is
Table 2: Three-level factorial design for two factors and results of half the thickness of slice of the sample (m). Equation (5) can
DT, BI, and AA. be simplified to the following for long drying times:

MP (W) MT (min) DT (min) BI (Abs) AA (mg/g) 8 𝜋2 𝐷eff 𝑡

450 3 690 0.45265 1.98316 MR = exp (− ). (6)
𝜋2 4𝐿2
300 4 690 0.4375 2.04337
300 3 810 0.42425 2.05638 𝐷eff of the mango slices was obtained from the slope (𝐾)
600 3 570 0.5293 1.793878 of the graph of ln MR against the drying time. ln MR versus
300 2 870 0.3875 2.13061 drying time (𝑡) results in a straight line with a negative slope
450 2 750 0.44065 2.028827 and 𝐾 is related to 𝐷eff by
600 2 630 0.52375 1.904337
600 4 570 0.6033 1.660969 𝜋2 𝐷eff 𝑡
𝐾= . (7)
450 4 630 0.48565 1.91352 4𝐿2
450 3 730 0.4518 1.933673
450 3 730 0.4304 2.032653 2.9. Calculation of Activation Energy. According to Pillai et al.
Control 990 0.28645 2.203570 [24], for the standard microwave oven drying procedure, the
MP is microwave power; MT is microwave pretreatment time. internal temperature of sample is not an assessable variable.
Therefore, the use of Arrhenius-type equation is considered
for illustrating the relationship between the diffusivity coeffi-
Three empirical drying models widely used in scientific cient and the ratio of the microwave power output to sample
literature, Page, Henderson and Pabis, and Logarithmic, were thickness instead of temperature for the calculation of the
fitted to the experimental data set (MR, 𝑡) shown in Table 1 activation energy. The activation energy is found as modified
to describe the drying kinetics of mango slices. A nonlinear from the revised Arrhenius. The equation as suggested by [25]
regression procedure of SPSS 20.0 [21] was used to determine is represented as
the drying rate constant, 𝑘, and coefficients (𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑛) in the
empirical models. The modelling was characterized by the 𝐸𝑎 𝑞
𝐷eff = 𝐷𝑜 exp [ ], (8)
reduced chi-square (𝜒2 ), root mean square error (RMSE), and 𝑃
the determination coefficient (𝑅2 ) [22] displayed in (2), (3),
and (4), respectively. Consider where 𝐷𝑜 is the constant in the Arrhenius equation (m2 /s), 𝐸𝑎
is the activation energy (W/mm), 𝑃 is the microwave power
∑𝑁 2 (W), and 𝑞 is the sample thickness (mm). Equation (8) can be
𝑖=1 (MRexp,𝑖 − MRpred,𝑖 )
𝜒2 = , (2) rearranged as
𝑁−𝑧
𝐸𝑎 𝑞
1 𝑁 ln (𝐷eff ) = ln (𝐷𝑜 ) − . (9)
RMSE = √ ∑ (MRexp,𝑖 − MRpred,𝑖 ) 2 , (3) 𝑃
𝑁 𝑖=1
The activation energy for moisture diffusion was obtained
2
∑𝑁 from the graph of ln(𝐷eff ) against 𝑞/𝑃.
𝑖=1 (MRpred,𝑖 − MRexp,𝑖 )
𝑅2 = 1 − [ 2
], (4)
𝑁
∑
[ 𝑖=1 (MR pred,𝑖 − MR )
pred,𝑖 ] 2.10. Energy Consumption during Drying. The energy con-
sumption in kWh of the microwave and the hot air dryer was
where MRexp,𝑖 and MRpred,𝑖 are the experimental and pre- calculated using
dicted moisture ratio, respectively, 𝑁 is the number of
observations, and 𝑧 is the number of constants in the drying 𝑃×𝑡
model. 𝐸𝑐 = , (10)
1000

2.8. Determination of Moisture Diffusivity. Fick’s second law where 𝐸𝑐 is the energy consumption in kWh, 𝑃 is the power
of diffusion, which characterizes moisture migration during rating of either the microwave equipment or the convective
thin layer drying of food materials, was used to calculate the air dryer in W, and 𝑡 is the drying time in hours.
4 International Journal of Food Science

2.11. Optimization of the Drying Process. The optimization 1.2

of the drying process was performed using a multivariate
response method [26] with 1

3 1/3 0.8
DI = [∏𝑑𝑖 (𝑌𝑖 )] . (11)

MR
𝑖=1
0.6

𝑑𝑖 represents the desirability for the various responses: drying 0.4

time, ascorbic acid content, and nonenzymatic browning (𝑌𝑖 ).
The DI ranges between 0 and 1. Zero is the least preferred 0.2
value while 1 is the most desired. Maximizing DI is the goal of
0
optimization analysis. The optimization process incorporates 0 200 400 600 800 1000
goals and priorities for the factors and the responses. For Drying time (min)
this present study, the goal for the factors was at any level
within the range of the design values, but, in the case PT 2 PT 4
PT 3 Control
of the responses, minimum values of drying time (DT),
nonenzymatic browning index (BI), and maximum values of Figure 1: Variation of MR versus drying time at microwave power
ascorbic acid (AA) were desired. 300 W.

2.12. Statistical Analysis. A quadratic model was fitted to the

average values of the responses to get the regression equations 1.2
with design expert software [27]. The statistical significance
1
of the model term was evaluated at 95% probability. The 3D
plots for the factors were generated for the various responses. 0.8
The accuracy of the model to describe the response variables
MR

was diagnosed by the determination coefficients (𝑅2 ) values 0.6

and the nonsignificance of the lack of fit test. 0.4

0.2
3. Results and Discussion
0
3.1. Effect of Microwave Power and Pretreatment Time on 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Drying Kinetics of Mango Slices. Microwave power and pre- Drying time (min)
treatment time increment had a positive effect on drying time PT 2 PT 4
for the 70∘ C dried samples as shown in Figures 1, 2, and 3. The PT 3 Control
initial average moisture content of the mangoes (Mangifera
indica) was found to be 4.65 g moisture/g dry matter, which Figure 2: Variation of MR versus drying time at microwave power
decreased to 0.03 g moisture/g dry matter (d.b.) after drying. 450 W.
The drying process generally followed a falling rate regime
and the increase in microwave power and pretreatment time
significantly (𝑃 ≤ 0.05) accelerated the drying process 1.2
and increased energy efficiency. The estimated effect for
each factor and the interaction between the variables were 1
estimated (Table 3). Variation in the estimated coefficients
shows that there were different contributions of the factors 0.8
to drying time. Microwave power contributed 1.67 times
MR

higher than pretreatment time. As microwave power and 0.6

pretreatment time increased, more moisture was removed
and in the end resulted in the reduction in drying time 0.4
(Figure 4). Drying time reduced from 870 min to 570 min as
0.2
the microwave power and pretreatment time increased from
300 to 600 W and 2 to 5 min, respectively. This means that
0
there was significant savings in time as microwave power 0 200 400 600 800 1000
pretreatment time increased. Drying time (min)
The results corroborate what was reported by Rayaguru
and Routray [28], Bai-Ngew et al. [29], and Karaaslan and PT 2 PT 4
PT 3 Control
Tunçer [30] for microwave-drying of Pandanus amaryllifolius
leaves, durian chips, and spinach, respectively. Formation Figure 3: Variation of MR versus drying time at microwave power
of porous structure in the tissues of mango as a result of 600 W.
International Journal of Food Science 5

Table 3: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effects of microwave power and time on drying time.

Source Coefficient estimates Sum of squares Degree of freedom Mean square 𝐹 value 𝑃 value, Pro > 𝐹
Intercept 711.05 — 1 — — —
Model — 86302.39 5 17260.48 31.78 0.0009∗
𝑋1 −100.00 60000.00 1 60000.00 110.47 0.0001∗
𝑋2 −60.00 21600.00 1 21600.00 39.77 0.0015∗
𝑋1 𝑋2 30.00 3600.00 1 3600.00 6.63 0.0498∗
𝑋1 2 −12.63 404.21 1 404.21 0.74 0.4278∗∗
𝑋2 2 −12.63 404.21 1 404.21 0.74 0.4278∗∗
Lack of fit — 1649.12 3 549.71 1.03 0.5268∗∗
𝑅2 0.9695 — — — — —
∗
Significant (<0.0500); ∗∗ not significant. Lack of fit is not significant at 𝑃 value >0.0500.

Moisture diffusivity ∗ 10−9 (m2 /s)

2.13
2.01

1.99
1.85
1.84

1.79
900

1.55
1.49
1.45
800
700
DT (min)

600
500

4.00 300 450 600

3.50 600.00
525.00 Microwave power (W)
3.00
450.00
X 2.50 2 min
2 375.00 X1 3 min
Figure 4: Effect of microwave power (𝑋1 ) and microwave time (𝑋2 ) 4 min
on drying time. Figure 5: Effect of microwave power and time on moisture diffusiv-
ity of mango slices.

electromagnetic waves application has been noted to be the

plausible reason for the accelerated drying with microwave.
materials [17]. Increased heat energy as a result of increase
In comparison with the control, microwave pretreatment
in microwave power is reported to enhance the activity of
enhanced heat and mass transfer within the mango tissues
the water molecules leading to higher moisture diffusivity
resulting in increased drying rates and energy utilization. The
[35]. Microstructure observation with scanning electron
decrease in drying time with an increase in the microwave
microscope (SEM) for microwave-assisted drying revealed
power density has been reported for other food materials,
creation of microchannel on the surface of the test samples.
including tomato pomace [31], onions [32], apple pomace
This shows that the higher the microwave power is and the
[33], and potatoes slices [34].
longer the samples were treated, the higher the formation of
porous structure is within the tissue of the mango slices to
3.2. Effect of Microwave Power and Pretreatment Time on enhance heat and mass transfer, leading to higher moisture
Moisture Diffusivity. The variation of ln(MR) against drying diffusivity rates.
time plot for the various microwave power and pretreatment The values of the moisture diffusivity were used to
time used to calculate the various effective moisture diffusiv- estimate the activation energy for moisture diffusion, 𝐸𝑎 .
ity, 𝐷eff , had determination coefficient greater than 0.98. The Figure 6 shows the variation of ln(𝐷eff ) against 𝑞/𝑃 for
effect on microwave power and pretreatment time on 𝐷eff is various pretreated mango slices dried at 70∘ C. The activation
evident (Figure 5). Effective moisture diffusivity coefficient energy, which is the energy needed to initiate internal
increased with microwave power and pretreatment time. moisture diffusion, is an indication of the temperature sen-
At a microwave power of 300 W, the 𝐷eff values increased sitivity of 𝐷eff . The activation energy obtained for drying
from 1.45 × 10−9 m2 s−1 to 1.84 × 10−9 m2 s−1 for samples process was 13.52 W/mm for 2 min, 17.48 W/mm for 3 min,
pretreated for 2 to 4 min and dried at 70∘ C. A similar increase and 8.58 W/mm for 4 min pretreated samples. The activa-
was observed for the 𝐷eff values of the various microwave tion energy values obtained in this study were lower than
pretreatment conditions (Figure 5). The 𝐷eff values obtained the 46.91 W/mm reported for microwave-vacuum-drying of
for microwave-assisted drying of mango slices lie within tomato slices [36] and 21.6 W/g for microwave-drying of
the general range of 10−12 –10−8 m2 s−1 for drying of food mango ginger [37] but generally higher than the 5.54 W/mm
6 International Journal of Food Science

Table 4: Parameters and statistical results for the various drying models for microwave pretreated samples at 300 W.

Model name PT Model constants 𝑅2 RMSE 𝜒2

2 k = 0.006, n = 1.031 0.9971 0.0167 0.0003
Page 3 k = 0.011, n = 0.947 0.9946 0.0217 0.0005
4 k = 0.014, n = 0.928 0.9940 0.0231 0.0006
2 k = 0.007, a = 0.994 0.997 0.0183 0.0004
Henderson and Pabis 3 k = 0.008, a = 0.973 0.995 0.0217 0.0005
4 k = 0.009, a = 0.970 0.994 0.0231 0.0006
2 k = 0.007, a = 1.000, and c = −0.010 0.9971 0.0167 0.0003
Logarithmic 3 k = 0.008, a = 0.974, and c = −0.002 0.9946 0.0217 0.0005
4 k = 0.009, a = 0.973, and c = −0.005 0.9940 0.0231 0.0006
2 k = 0.005, n = 1.056, a = 0.979, and 𝑏 = −4.2 × 10−6 0.9971 0.0167 0.0003
Midilli et al. 3 k = 0.010, n = 0.963, a = 0.981, and 𝑏 = −5.76 × 10−6 0.9953 0.0203 0.0005
4 k = 0.013, n = 0.926, a = 0.984, and 𝑏 = −17.96 × 10−6 0.9947 0.0216 0.0006

Table 5: Parameters and statistical results for the various drying models for microwave pretreated samples at 450 W.

Model name PT Model constants 𝑅2 RMSE 𝜒2

2 k = 0.003, n = 1.095 0.996 0.0209 0.0005
Page 3 k = 0.008, n = 0.960 0.990 0.0306 0.0011
4 k = 0.016, n = 0.868 0.981 0.0405 0.0019
2 k = 0.006, a = 1.009 0.994 0.0250 0.0007
Henderson and Pabis 3 k = 0.007, a = 0.967 0.991 0.0294 0.0010
4 k = 0.008, a = 0.938 0.981 0.0414 0.0020
2 k = 0.005, a = 1.036, and c = −0.042 0.997 0.0177 0.0004
Logarithmic 3 k = 0.006, a = 0.985, and c = −0.029 0.993 0.0258 0.0008
4 k = 0.007, a = 0.951, and c = −0.021 0.982 0.0396 0.0018
2 k = 0.003, 𝑛 = 1.106, a = 0.975, and 𝑏 = −2.237 × 10−5 0.9972 0.01715 0.0003
Midilli et al. 3 k = 0.010, 𝑛 = 0.917, a = 0.977, and 𝑏 = −6.329 × 10−5 0.9938 0.02449 0.0008
4 k = 0.019, 𝑛 = 0.820, a = 0.977, and 𝑏 = −6.734 × 10−5 0.9865 0.03464 0.0016

q/P the Page, Henderson and Pabis, Logarithmic, and Midilli et al.
0.014 0.019 0.024 0.029 0.034 0.039 models available in the literature. The results of such a fitting
−19.9
−19.95 of the experimental data for microwave-assisted drying at
−20 70∘ C are displayed in Tables 4, 5, and 6, which show the values
−20.05 of the estimated constants with their corresponding statistical
−20.1
𝑅2 , RMSE, and 𝜒2 values characterizing each fitting. From the
ln(Deff )

4 min
−20.15
−20.2 results obtained, it is evident that the experimental data fitted
−20.25 adequately to the models used in this study. The correlation
−20.3 coefficients obtained are in the range of 0.995–0.9972. This
−20.35 3 min
2 min means that the three models could satisfactorily describe the
−20.4
microwave-assisted convective air-drying of mango slices.
Figure 6: Variation of ln(𝐷eff ) against 𝑞/𝑃 for the various The relatively high values of correlation coefficients, low root
microwave pretreatment time. mean square errors, and low reduced chi-square indicate a
good predicting capacity for the temperature tested over the
entire duration of the drying process. Among the models
examined, the Midilli et al. model was observed to be the
for okra [25]. The values were however within activation most appropriate one for all the experimental data with the
energy values of 13.6 W/mm and 14.945 W/mm reported for highest value for the coefficient of determination (𝑅2 ) and
Pandanus leaves [28] and potatoes [34], respectively.
lowest reduced chi-square (𝜒2 ) and RMSE. The estimated
parameters and statistical analysis of the models examined
3.3. Modelling of the Drying Curves. The dimensionless mois- for the microwave powers at different times are illustrated in
ture ratio against drying time for the experimental data at Tables 4, 5, and 6. It was observed that the value of drying
various pretreatment times and air temperatures was fitted to rate constant (𝑘) for all the models tested increased with
International Journal of Food Science 7

Table 6: Parameters and statistical results for the various drying models for microwave pretreated samples at 600 W.

Model name PT Model constants 𝑅2 RMSE 𝜒2

2 k = 0.015, n = 0.865 0.988 0.0327 0.0013
Page 3 k = 0.039, n = 0.717 0.985 0.0340 0.0014
4 k = 0.109, n = 0.576 0.993 0.0215 0.0005
2 k = 0.007, a = 0.940 0.987 0.0348 0.0014
Henderson and Pabis 3 k = 0.009, a = 0.904 0.969 0.0504 0.0030
4 k = 0.016, a = 0.919 0.949 0.0601 0.0042
2 k = 0.007, a = 0.949, and c = −0.015 0.987 0.0338 0.0013
Logarithmic 3 k = 0.009, a = 0.898, and c = −0.011 0.969 0.0496 0.0008
4 k = 0.018, a = 0.904, and c = −0.035 0.956 0.0562 0.0018
2 k = 0.021, 𝑛 = 0.780, a = 0.984, and 𝑏 = 7.6 × 10−6 0.99202 0.02672 0.0010
Midilli et al. 3 k = 0.066, 𝑛 = 0.585, a = 0.994, and 𝑏 = −8.19 × 10−6 0.9933 0.023204 0.00078
4 k = 0.15, 𝑛 = 0.493, a = 0.999, and 𝑏 = −9.11 × 10−5 0.9968 0.01519 0.00033

Table 7: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effects of microwave power and microwave time on AA.

Source Coefficient estimates Sum of squares Degree of freedom Mean square 𝐹 value 𝑃 value, Pro > 𝐹
Intercept 1.98 — 1 — — —
Model — 0.17 5 0.034 25.97 0.0014∗
𝑋1 −0.15 0.13 1 0.13 95.65 0.0002∗
𝑋2 −0.074 0.033 1 0.033 25.06 0.0041∗
𝑋1 𝑋2 −0.039 0.006094 1 0.006094 4.61 0.0846∗∗
𝑋1 2 −0.047 0.005506 1 0.005506 4.16 0.0968∗∗
𝑋2 2 −0.0005774 0.0000008 1 0.0000008 0.000638 0.9808∗∗
Lack of fit — 0.001714 3 0.00005712 0.23 0.6224∗∗
𝑅2 0.9287 — — — — —
∗
Significant (<0.0500); ∗∗ not significant. Lack of fit is not significant at 𝑃 value >0.0500.

microwave pretreatment time. This implies that drying rate

potential increased with increase in microwave pretreatment
time. Murthy and Manohar [37] found the Midilli et al.
model to best explain the thin layer drying behaviour of stone 2.2
2.1
apple slices pretreated with microwave prior to hot air-drying
100 g)

2
at different temperatures (40–70∘ C) in a forced convection 1.9
1.8
g/

dryer. Our findings are consistent with microwave-assisted 1.7

AA (m

drying of yam cubes [14]. 1.6

600.00
4.00
525.00
3.4. Effect of Microwave Power and Pretreatment Time on 3.50
450.00
3.00
Ascorbic Acid. The effect of microwave power and pretreat- 375.00 X1
X 2.50
ment time on ascorbic acid (AA) of mangoes dried at 70∘ C 2
2.00 300.00
is shown in Figure 7. Both power and time were significant
model terms on the ascorbic acid (AA) content (Table 7). Figure 7: Effect of microwave power (𝑋1 ) and pretreatment time
Increment in microwave power and longer pretreatment (𝑋2 ) on AA.
time resulted in more reduction of the AA content. The AA
content of the fresh mango decreased from 3.84 mg/100 g
dry matter to 1.794 mg/100 g dry matter after drying the be due to the destruction of vitamin C by the electromagnetic
various pretreated samples, representing 53% loss in vitamin waves. The thermal effect of the microwave power coupled
C. In comparison with the control (2.204 mg/100 g), the AA with the irreversible oxidative reactions due to longer drying
content of the respective microwave pretreated sample was times during hot air-drying may have contributed to the
lower (2.056, 1.983, and 1.794) for 300 W, 450 W, and 600 W damage of about half of the AA content.
powers, respectively. The power of the microwave had about Losses of ascorbic acid during microwave-drying have
twice negative effect on AA degradation compared to the been reported [38]. The degradation of AA in this present
treatment time (Table 7). The reduction of ascorbic acid study is in agreement with results obtained by Zheng and
content observed for the microwave pretreated samples may Lu for microwave pretreatment of different parts of green
8 International Journal of Food Science

Table 8: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effects of microwave power and microwave time on BI.

Source Coefficient estimates Sum of squares Degree of freedom Mean square 𝐹 value 𝑃 value, Pro > 𝐹
Intercept 0.45 — 1
Model — 0.035 3 0.012 42.76 0.0001∗
𝑋1 0.068 0.028 1 0.028 99.82 0.0001∗
𝑋2 0.029 0.005078 1 0.005078 18.35 0.0036∗
𝑋1 𝑋2 0.007387 — 1 0.0002336 — —
𝑋1 2 0.032 0.002799 1 0.002799 10.12 0.0155∗
𝑋2 2 0.015 — 1 0.0002767 — —
Lack of fit — 0.001619 5 0.0003238 2.04 0.3612∗∗
𝑅2 0.9483
∗
Significant (<0.0500); ∗∗ not significant. Lack of fit is not significant at 𝑃 value >0.0500.

asparagus [39]. Ascorbic acid losses between 10% and 50%

are reported for drying food stuff [40]. In a related study 0.65
involving microwave-drying of okra fruit, AA reduction 0.6
between 43% and 63% was stated [41]. 0.55

BI (Abs unit)
0.5
0.45
3.5. Effect of Microwave Power and Pretreatment Time 0.4
on Nonenzymatic Browning. Nonenzymatic browning is 0.35
another quality indicator in drying. Whereas browning is
desirable in some processing food, excessive browning is
4.00 600.00
undesirable in dried mangoes. The effect of microwave power 3.50 525.00
and pretreatment time on nonenzymatic browning is clear 3.00 450.00
(Figure 8). Brown pigment formation significantly increased X 2.50 375.00
2 2.00 300.00 X1
with both microwave power and pretreatment time from
0.39 to 0.60 at the various condition studied. As expected, Figure 8: Effect of microwave power (𝑋1 ) and pretreatment time
microwave power had a negative profound effect compared (𝑋2 ) on BI.
to pretreatment time on BI (Table 8). The control however
had less browning (0.29) than all the microwave-assisted
dried mangoes. This agrees with a study by [42] for dried 0.701
tomato quarters at 50∘ C to 90∘ C, where the author observed 0.800
that brown pigment formation increased with temperature 0.600
y

from 0.58 to 0.68. Browning index equal to 0.60 was con-

Desirabilit

0.400
sidered critical based on visual assessment by consumers.
0.200
This increasing trend of nonenzymatic browning as a result
of microwave power and treatment time is attributed to the 0.000
occurrence and reaction between nitrogenous constituents 4.00
and reducing sugars, nitrogenous constituents and organic 3.50 600.00
acids, and sugars and organic acids [42, 43]. 525.00
3.00 450.00
X
2 2.50 375.00
2.00 300.00 X1
3.6. Optimization of the Drying Parameters. The optimal
microwave-assisted drying condition for mango slices was Figure 9: Effect of drying temperature and frying time on 3D plot
established using overall desirability index explained earlier. of the desirability index for the optimal frying time.
The maximum predicted DT, BI, and AA were 695.79 min,
0.45 Abs units, and 2.04 mg/100 g, respectively. These pre-
dicted values are closer to their corresponding experimental 3.7. Energy Consumption during Microwave-Assisted Drying.
values of 870 min, 0.60 Abs units, and 2.13 mg/100 g. The The control samples took about 990 min to dry from 4.64 g
overall desirability of 0.701 shown in Figure 9 was obtained water/g dry matter to 0.04 g water/g dry matter and con-
for the microwave effect, the kinetics, and the quality of dried sumed 33 kWh of energy in the process. This value was
mango slices. In the range of the factors used, 95% confidence compared with the energy consumption from the opti-
prediction gave optimal microwave power of 300 W and mized microwave pretreatment conditions of 300 W/4 min
pretreatment time of 4 min. At this best condition, the DT to make the energy savings known as a result of microwave
was 695.80 min, the BI was 0.45 Abs units, and the AA was application. A reduction of 29.70% energy requirement was
2.04 mg/100 g dry matter. achieved because of microwave application at 300 W for
International Journal of Food Science 9

4 min. Reduction in energy consumption due to microwave [4] I. Pott, M. Marx, S. Neidhart, W. Mühlbauer, and R. Carle,
application may be due to the energy efficiency advantage “Quantitative determination of 𝛽-carotene stereoisomers in
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moisture migration from within rather than from the surface Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 51, no. 16, pp.
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[6] C. Contreras, M. E. Martı́n-Esparza, A. Chiralt, and N.
Martı́nez-Navarrete, “Influence of microwave application on
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occurs in the falling rate regime. drying technologies for development of high-quality shelf-
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