A Candidacy Examination

A Candidacy Examination
by
C.J. Mundy
Scale Dependent Forcing on Ice Algae Dynamics: Observations

and Modeling
Submitted to my Ph.D. Examining Committee in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Centre for Earth Observation Science

Department of Environment and Geography
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba
February 2nd, 2004
PhD Candidacy Exam 1

Candidacy Question:
“Review and evaluate physical processes which control the spatial

and temporal distribution of sub-ice algae production in the Arctic
marine cryosphere. Examine how climate change may influence
these processes using a framework of all salient time and space
scales”

Table of Contents
CANDIDACY QUESTION: ......................................................................................................... 2
1.0 Introduction............................................................................................................... 5
2.0 Sea Ice Algae ............................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Habitat................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Physical Controls .................................................................................................. 8
3.0 Physical Processes .................................................................................................. 10
3.1 Sea ice growth and decay.................................................................................... 10
Sea ice formation and structure......................................................................... 10
Heat Budget and Ice growth ............................................................................. 13
Sea Ice Salinity and Phase Relationships.......................................................... 16
Snow Physical and Thermal Properties ............................................................ 17
Melt of Snow-Covered Sea Ice ......................................................................... 20
Effects of Clouds............................................................................................... 23
3.2 Radiative Transfer............................................................................................... 23
Theory ............................................................................................................... 23
Radiative Transfer in Snow-covered Sea Ice.................................................... 24
3.3 Snow as a Spatial Variable ................................................................................. 29
Accumulation Processes ................................................................................... 30
3.4 Section Remarks ................................................................................................. 32
4.0 Climate Change Scenario........................................................................................ 33
5.0 Summary ................................................................................................................. 35
Literature Cited ............................................................................................................. 37

Table of Figures
Figure 2.1. Diagrammatic representation of ice algae habitats (After Horner et al., 1992).
.................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.2. The salinity-dependent growth coefficient as a function of salinity
(calculated from the polynomial given in Arrigo et al., 1993). .................................. 9
Figure 3.1. Temperature of the density maximum (tρmax) and of the freezing point (tg)
for seawater of different salinities (After Weeks and Ackley 1986). ....................... 11
Figure 3.2. Diagrammatic representation of the lamellar ice-water interface (skeletal
layer) with corresponding salinity (S) and temperature (T) gradients. The salinity-
dependent freezing temperature profile is shown as a dashed line (Tf), with the
constitutionally supercooled layer bounded by T(z) and Tf(z) (After Eiken, 2003). 12
Figure 3.3. Evolution of first-year ice salinity profiles from formation through advanced
melt (After Eiken, 2003). .......................................................................................... 13
Figure 3.4. Phase diagram of sea ice demonstrating the mass fractions of solid ice, brine
(water and dissolved salts) and solid salts (After Assur, 1958)................................ 17
Figure 3.5. Typical vertical profiles of snow density (a), salinity (b) and grain area (c) (a
and b are after Papakyriakou, 1999; c is after Barber et al., 1995)........................... 20
Figure 3.6. Diagrammatic representation of sea ice radiative processes (After Eiken,
2003). ........................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 3.7. Spectral extinction coefficients for nine medium types: 1) dry snow, 2)
melting snow, 3) ice colder than -23°C, 4) surface scattering layer of white ice, 5)
interior portion of white ice, 6) cold blue ice, 7) melting blue ice, 8) bubble-free
fresh ice and 9) clear arctic water (After Perovich 1990)......................................... 26
Figure 3.8. Spectral absorption coefficients for pure ice and clear Arctic water (After
Light, 2000)............................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3.9. Effects of sediment, carbon soot and chlorophyll a on (a) the spectral
particulate absorption coefficient (κp) and (b) the spectral albedo of particle laden
sea ice. The absorption coefficient and albedo for pure ice are also shown (After
Light et al., 2003). ..................................................................................................... 28
Figure 3.10. A schematic representation of blowing snow processes. NOTE: the layers
are not to scale. ......................................................................................................... 31

1.0 Introduction
The Earth’s climate – a complex interaction between incoming solar radiation,

emitted Earth radiation and the characteristics of the planet’s surface and atmosphere –
has been dynamic throughout its history. However, increased atmospheric CO2 levels and
a climate warming over the past century have raised public concern. A question of
whether this change has an anthropogenic origin or is simply the natural variability of the
Earth’s climate has been posed (World Climate Research Program (WCRP) objective – in
McBean, 1992). In order to answer this question we must first be able to detect and
understand change in relation to the physical interactions causing the change. Throughout
the last three decades, climate change research has largely focused on polar regions
where important feedback mechanisms associated with sea ice and clouds will likely
cause change to be amplified relative to temperate and tropical regions of the planet (e.g.,
Boer et al., 2000; Barry et al. 1993).
Due to its vast extent and seasonal variation, snow-covered sea ice influences the
global climate system by increasing the global albedo and dictating the exchange of
energy and mass between the ocean and atmosphere. Spatial and temporal variations in
ice extent are largely accounted for by first-year (seasonal) sea ice. Currently, half the
Arctic Ocean is covered by multi-year (perennial) sea ice. However, global climate
models under an anthropogenic-forcing scenario of increased green house gases (GHG;
predominately CO2) and aerosols forecast this to change dramatically with predictions of
a seasonal Arctic ice cover within the next century (Boer et al., 2000). The warming
atmosphere and exposed ocean have also been simulated to cause an increase in the
global hydrological cycle with increases in both evaporation and precipitation. Further,
these predicted increases demonstrate a global pattern with increased precipitation
occurring predominately over the ocean and at polar latitudes (Boer et al., 2000).
However, this is only the prediction of one model. Other models demonstrate significant
variation, particularly at polar latitudes due largely to the way they deal with processes
affecting the snow and sea ice cover (Flato, In Press).
Although many uncertainties surround these predictions, it is apparent that the
Arctic ice cover is currently changing in extent and thickness (Parkinson et al, 1999;
Rothrock et al., 1999) and at an increasing rate (e.g., Comiso, 2002). However, these
results were derived from datasets that span 30 years at most. Century long time series of
temperature have suggested that these current changes may be part of a longer 65-70 year
oscillation (Comiso, 2003). Further, long term observations of snow cover in the Arctic
have demonstrated a decreasing trend (Warren et al., 1999), whereas increased levels of
precipitation have been observed (e.g., Colony et al., 1998). The discrepancy in snow
depth versus snowfall has been partially accounted for through an interaction of increased
lead concentrations and blowing snow processes (e.g., Eiken et al., 1994, Déry and
Tremblay, 2004). The result of all this uncertainty warrants the need to further study and
understand the physical processes surrounding snow-covered sea ice.
Sea ice also provides an important colonization surface for a highly adapted ice
algal community (Horner et al., 1992), which predominantly occur within the bottom
centimetres of first-year sea ice (Cota et al., 1991). The fact that ice algae constitute the
majority of primary production while oceans are ice covered (e.g., Gosselin et al., 1997)

encapsulates their importance to the Arctic marine ecosystem. Further, their link to sea
ice suggests a strong sensitivity to the potential change in climate. However, observations
of ice algae distribution remain limited both temporally and spatially (Arrigo, 2003).
Through previous studies, knowledge has been gained of the physical controls driving
variability in biomass and production. These physical controls include access to light,
nutrients and space as well as temperature and salinity as influencing factors. In order to
better understand the sensitivity of algae to potential climate change, we must first
understand the physical processes driving these controls over various time and space
scales.
In this report, current knowledge on the physical processes which control the
temporal and spatial distribution of ice algae biomass and production is reviewed. In
Section 2, I provide a short review on the habitats and physical controls of ice algae
growth and accumulation. Section 3 provides an in depth review of the physical processes
that influence the distribution of ice algae through access to light, nutrients, and substrata
as well as exposure to temperature and salinity variability. In Section 4, I speculate on
how climate change may influence these processes. I conclude the report with a short
summary and statement of my PhD objectives.
2.0 Sea Ice Algae
In both the Arctic and Antarctic, sea ice algae can be found to grow at a time when
no other primary production occurs (e.g., Legendre et al., 1992). This fact encapsulates
the critical role ice algae play in cryospheric marine ecosystems. In the Arctic they
provide an initial food source for higher trophic levels by extending the period of primary
production in spring by up to 3 months (Cota et al., 1991) and providing the majority of
annual production throughout the growth season in perennial sea ice oceans (Gosselin et
al., 1997). Overall, ice algae account for approximately one-third of the total annual
primary production in the Arctic (Legendre et al., 1992).
Physical controls related to light, nutrient, space, temperature and salinity have been
found to govern the distribution of algae growth and accumulation (e.g., Cota et al., 1991;
Ackley and Sulivan, 1994; Arrigo, 2003). The physical processes that drive these controls
are the main focus of this report. This section is meant to provide a short review of sea
ice algae habitats and the physical controls affecting ice algae growth and accumulation
as a precursor for Section 3.0.
2.1 Habitat
The various sea ice algae habitats have been summarised in response for a need to
standardize terminology among the research community (Horner et al., 1988; Cota et al.,
1991; Horner et al., 1992; Arrigo, 2003). A schematic representation of the habitats is
depicted in Figure 2.1. Generally, there are three different habitats based on vertical
location in the ice: surface, interior or internal and bottom. These habitats are associated
with specific ice structure as will be discussed in Section 3.0.

Pressure Deformation Pond
Ridge SURFACE
Infiltration (Snow Ice)
Sea Surface Melt Pond
Freeboard
Diffuse
INTERIOR
Band
Channel
Interstitial (Bottom ice)

Platelet Layer
SUB ICE
Suspended
Figure 2.1. Diagrammatic representation of ice algae habitats (After Horner et al., 1992).
Surface and internal habitats are mostly constrained to periods of melt and warmer
ice temperatures, while access to nutrients is the main limit on algal growth. These
habitats include surface meltponds (low salinity meltwater), surface deformation ponds
(infiltrated seawater pond), internal brine inclusions and channels, and internal layers of
consolidated frazil or previous years’ sea ice growth. One exception to the restriction of
warmer temperatures is a surface infiltration habitat. This habitat occurs when sufficient
snow loading forces the sea ice below the sea surface resulting in surface flooding. Algal
growth in these habitats can take place throughout the growth season (i.e., sufficient light
and presence of sea ice) and significantly contribute to annual primary production (Arrigo
et al., 1997); however, the occurrence of surface flooding is largely restricted to the
Antarctic (Wadhams et al., 1987). The seeding of the surface communities and other
internal frazil layers is thought to occur during sea ice formation as algae are scavenged
from the water column by frazil crystals floating to the surface (Garrison et al., 1989).
The seeding of other internal habitats may be due to algae being overgrown by a faster
sea ice growth rate or through the introduction of cells by convective mechanisms within
the sea ice.
The majority of biomass accumulation resides within bottom habitats, particularly
within the bottom few centimetres of an ice cover. This layer is characterized by
protruding lamellar crystals (see Section 3.1), which provide a large colonization surface.
The advantage of this habitat is that it suspends algae where access to light is maximized
while providing direct contact with seawater and therefore relatively stable temperature
and salinity as well as access to nutrients via molecular diffusion or turbulent mixing.
The upper limit of algal growth into the ice cover appears to be limited by temperature
and salinity (Arrigo and Sulivan, 1992), however, nutrient access (Cota et al., 1991) and
space (Krembs et al., 2001) may also be limiting factors. Ice algae growing in this habitat
are usually governed by light in early spring and by nutrients in late spring (Gosselin et
al., 1990). Further, accumulation may be affected by: the process of ice melt causing their

habitat to degrade, ice melt through their own heat absorption (Zeebe et al., 1996) or
bottom ice topography that may cause preferential erosion and accumulation of algae due
to under ice turbulent currents (e.g., Krembs et al., 2002).
Other habitats include the sub ice environment where algae can suspend themselves
off the sea ice bottom and the platelet layer where frazil accumulates at the ice bottom as
it forms through contact with cold ice shelf waters. Although the former habitat is
restricted to periods of melt due to light shading by the bottom ice algae, it may contain
some of the most productive ice algal blooms in the Arctic (Gosselin et al., 1997). These
algal communities were thought to be restricted to multiyear pack ice where they had
been sporadically, yet exclusively observed (Syvertsen, 1991). More recently, the highest
production and biomass observations of these communities have been demonstrated to be
associated with first-year ice covers in the central Arctic pack (e.g., Gosselin et al., 1997).
The latter habitat, platelet layer, is largely restricted to the Antarctic and supports some of
the highest known concentrations of algal biomass on earth (Arrigo, 2003). The low
salinity melt layer formed under the sea ice late in the season may also form a habitat for
algae sloughed off from the ice bottom, however, only a few observations of this
phenomenon appear to exist (e.g., Cota and Horne, 1989).
2.2 Physical Controls
Through numerous field studies, ice algal accumulation and growth have been
found to be: controlled by light (Gosselin et al., 1986; Smith et al., 1988; Welch and
Bergmann, 1989; Gradinger et al., 1991), nutrients (Gosselin et al., 1985; Cota and
Horne, 1989; Gosselin et al., 1990) and possibly substrata (Legendre et al., 1991; Krembs
et al., 2000; Krembs et al., 2001); and influenced by temperature and salinity (Legendre
et al., 1991; Arrigo and Sulivan, 1992). The effect of these physical factors on ice algal
growth is multiplicative as demonstrated by the calculation used for the specific algal
growth rate, µ (d-1) (Arrigo et al., 1993; Arrigo and Sulivan, 1994):
µ = µmax r lim S max [2.1]
where: µmax (d-1) is the temperature dependent maximum specific growth rate, r lim is
the dimensionless resource limitation coefficient and S max is the fractional growth rate
allowed by salinity. The specific calculations for each component in equation 2.1 are
summarized in Arrigo et al. (1993) and Arrigo and Sulivan (1994). Within upper and
lower temperature limits µmax generally increases exponentially with temperature
according to a sensitivity rate coefficient. S max denotes a polynomial relationship with
salinity (Fig. 2.2). It should be noted that these data have been derived from a single
study (Arrigo and Sullivan, 1992). r lim is determined through the fractional growth rate
induced by the single most limiting resource, which may be either light or nutrient.
Further, light as a resource to algal growth is important in both its intensity and spectral
quality. Therefore, Arrigo et al. (1991) used the value of photosynthetically usable
radiation (PUR) in their model calculations, which is dependent on the absorption
properties of the algal community as well as the spectral distribution of downwelling
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR; 400 to 700nm). It is also noted that substrata

were not included in equation 2.1. This is because the effect of available substrate space
on ice algae is just beginning to be studied (e.g., Krembs et al., 2001). Further, space
would perhaps only affect algal accumulation and not growth.
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
Smax
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Salinity (PSU)
Figure 2.2. The salinity-dependent growth coefficient as a function of salinity
(calculated from the polynomial given in Arrigo et al., 1993).
The previous point has brought to attention the need to distinguish between biomass
and primary production. Biomass is a measure of the amount of algae accumulated at one
point in time and for ice algae is usually expressed in units of mg·Chl a·m-2 or mg·C·m-2
(Horner et al., 1992). Primary production on the other hand is a growth rate of the total
carbon fixed by an algal community over time and is usually expressed in units of
mg·C·m-2·d-1 or Tg·C·y-1 for a region (e.g., Legendre et al., 1992). Calculating changes in
biomass over time could be used as a conservative estimate of primary production;
however, the value would represent net and not gross production. This is because losses
of material due to respiration, exudation and grazing would not be accounted for (Arrigo,
2003). Further, algae biomass losses and gains due to sloughing off and incorporation
into the ice, respectively, would not be included.
The above-mentioned physical controls on ice algal biomass and production have
overlapping scales of temporal and spatial variability, which operate multiplicatively to
determine the distribution of ice algal biomass and production. I focus the next section on
the physical processes driving the physical controls mentioned above, however it should
be noted that I leave out a discussion on the oceanography of the system. This is not to
say oceanography does not play an important role in determining ice algae distribution. In
fact, tidal influences on the ice algae nutrient supply have been found to be a very
important mechanism for algal growth, particularly in areas of strong density
stratification of the water column due to freshwater inputs by streams (e.g., Gosselin et al,
1985; Cota and Horne, 1989; Gosselin et al., 1990). This is particularly relevant to the
Arctic due to the large influx of freshwater by surrounding rivers (Aagaard and Carmack,
1989). These oceanographic considerations are excluded simply because they are too

immense and cannot be completely encapsulated in the framework of this report. Instead,
I focus on processes relating to the snow-covered sea ice volume.
3.0 Physical Processes
The need to look at different scales is prompted by a need to understand the various
interdependent and cross-scale physical processes of the system. Remote sensing from
satellites, airplanes, or even meteorological stations can give estimates of bulk properties
of snow-covered ice such as albedo, ice thickness, etc. However, the physical processes
resulting in these bulk observations are only revealed at microscales (Eiken, 2003).
Processes may be defined as a series of actions or steps that bring about an end
point or result. Within an earth system such as the marine cryosphere, processes are
interdependent and the boundaries separating each process and their respective temporal
and spatial scales are arbitrary. In this report I review and evaluate physical processes
that influence the distribution of ice algae through access to light, nutrients, and substrata
as well as exposure to temperature and salinity variability. My arbitrary separation will be
to first examine the temporal dimension through the processes behind sea ice formation
and melt and the result of these processes on radiative transfer through the snow-covered
sea ice. I then examine the spatial dimension through the processes behind snow
accumulation. I end this section with a short remark on processes and scales.
3.1 Sea ice growth and decay
Sea ice is defined as any form of ice found within the ocean that has originated
from the freezing of seawater (WMO 1970). Seawater is a combination of pure water and
various dissolved solids (salts) and gases with an approximate salinity of 32 to 34
practical salinity units (PSU). It is noted that ocean salinity varies greatly between water
masses, particularly at polar latitudes (Carmack, 1990). The formation of ice from
seawater is a complex process where the salt and gas components are squeezed out and
trapped within as the pure water component creates hydrogen bonds forming crystals of
ice. The result is a mixture of ice, brine (a concentrated salt-water mixture), solid salts (if
temperatures are cold enough) and gas (Weeks and Ackley 1986). The interdependence
of this system is such that the thermal properties of the forming sea ice influence the
relative volume and physical structure of each component within the sea ice, which in
turn determines its thermal properties.
Sea ice formation and structure
Ice crystals begin to form when seawater is supercooled (i.e., cooled below its
freezing point of approximately –1.8°C). Unlike freshwater, the freezing point of
seawater is generally higher than its temperature of maximum density (Fig. 3.1).
However, like freshwater, the solid state of seawater is less dense than its liquid.
Therefore, surface cooling of seawater induces thermohaline convection, creating a
surface mixed layer up to several meters thick. This mixed layer may also deepen by
wave and wind stress on the ocean surface. Disc shaped, highly saline ice crystals, termed

frazil, rapidly form around nuclei in this supercooled mixed layer and rise. Congealed
frazil form the surface layer of all first-year sea ice (Weeks and Ackley, 1986). As
described in Section 3.1, formation of frazil may also be an important mechanism for
scavenging micro-algae from the water column into the newly forming sea ice cover
(Garrison et al., 1989).
2 tρmax.
Temperature (°C)
0
tg
-1.33
-2
24.695
-4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Salinity (PSU)
Figure 3.1. Temperature of the density maximum (tρmax) and of the freezing point (tg)
for seawater of different salinities (After Weeks and Ackley 1986).
In calm, cold conditions, frazil accumulates at the surface and quickly congeals into
ice sheets. These conditions can occur anywhere but are usually restricted to bays and
wind-protected coastlines where ice forms into landfast ice. In areas of higher wind and
wave turbulence, the frazil layer can be up to a meter thick and much less uniform,
however, these conditions are usually restricted to the Antarctic (Weeks and Ackley
1986). Wave action on accumulating surface frazil favours production of circular ice
formations with upturned edges, termed pancake ice (up to 3 m in diameter and < 10 cm
thick; Wadhams et al., 1987). The repeated contacts due to convergence and divergence
between neighbouring pieces of ice create the circular form and push frazil onto the edge
of the pancakes (Weeks and Ackley 1986). Eventually, pancakes consolidate into
continuous ice sheets.
Once an ice surface has been produced, ice will begin to form as a result of heat
conduction upward along a temperature gradient through the ice volume. Consequently,
ice crystals grow on the lower surface of the ice sheet as opposed to frazil formation
(Weeks and Ackley 1986). Salt segregation occurs at this point, where salt ions are
rejected out of the sea ice forming a dense layer at the ice-water interface. The difference
in diffusion rates of salt (flux of ions) and heat (transfer of momentum) creates an
unstable constitutionally supercooled layer at the ice-water interface, which essentially
provides a heat sink (Fig. 3.2). Crystal protrusions into this layer are at a growth
advantage as they can access the heat sink in addition to heat conduction through the ice.
Thus, throughout a thin layer (approximately 5-10 cm), growth selection is made on
crystal orientation. Vertical growth predominates creating a characteristic and fairly

uniform ice structure termed columnar or congelation ice, which constitute the dominant
ice structure of ice in the Arctic. Congelation ice crystals consist of vertical ice platelets
with a horizontal c- (crystal) axis and are typically greater than 5 cm in length and 0.4 to
1.0mm in width (Nakawo and Sinha, 1984). The width of these crystals also determines
the spacing of vertical brine and gas inclusions, which are trapped between adjacent
platelets due to formation of small ice bridges. Spacing also increases with ice thickness
as growth rates slow (Nakawo and Sinha, 1984). Additional to vertical growth selection,
the constitutionally supercooled layer results in a lamellar ice-water interface that can be
1-3 cm deep where platelets grow into the layer creating grooves between adjacent
platelets (Fig. 3.2). This actively growing layer has been termed the skeletal or interstitial
layer and is where ice algae are typically found in the Arctic (e.g., Fig. 2.1).
Figure 3.2. Diagrammatic representation of the lamellar ice-water interface (skeletal

layer) with corresponding salinity (S) and temperature (T) gradients. The salinity-
dependent freezing temperature profile is shown as a dashed line (Tf), with the
constitutionally supercooled layer bounded by T(z) and Tf(z) (After Eiken, 2003).
During the initial growth of the ice sheet, wave and wind stress may cause rafting of
floes onto one another. With further ice growth, the vertical crystal structure and
formation processes lend themselves to desalination processes (see Physical and Thermal
Properties), decreasing bulk ice salinity with age (Fig. 3.3; Nakawo and Sinha, 1984;
Weeks and Ackley 1986). The decreased salinity reduces the ice sheet’s elasticity. As a
consequence, rafting becomes much less common with ice deformation processes
(rubbling) dominating. Rubbling occurs due to compressive failures within an ice sheet
as wind and current action cause converging horizontal pressures (Mellor, 1986). This
results in the forcing of one portion of the ice sheet upward and the other downward,
forming a sail and keel, respectively. Common results of rubbling are the formation of

extensive linear features termed pressure ridges (Mellor 1986) or extensive rubble fields,
which both act to thicken the average ice sheet thickness (Thorndike et al., 1975).
Further, it may form an additional habitat for ice algae (see Section 2.1).
Figure 3.3. Evolution of first-year ice salinity profiles from formation through advanced
melt (After Eiken, 2003).
When first-year sea ice remains intact after one melt season (accumulation >
ablation), the ice is then termed old or multiyear ice. The vast majority of the Arctic
Basin is covered by multiyear ice. This ice type is much less saline than first year ice due
to preferential melt of brine pockets and subsequent brine drainage that occurs during
ablation. Thickness of a multiyear ice sheet increases through successive winters. This is
due to annual growth layer additions to the bottom of the sheet, which can be used (in a
similar fashion to tree rings) to tell the minimum age of an ice sheet (Weeks and Ackley
1986). Similar to first-year ice, multiyear ice can form pressure ridges and rubble ice due
to wind and current stresses. This deformation can also act to increase the average
thickness of an ice sheet. For example, the hummocks of very old ice can be well over 5
m, whereas the equilibrium ice thickness due to annual heat budgets of the Arctic is
limited to approximately 3 m (Maykut, 1986).
Heat Budget and Ice growth

Sea ice growth occurs as heat is extracted from the ocean into the atmosphere. The
energy balance at the atmosphere-ice and ice-ocean interfaces as well as the thermal
properties of the snow and sea ice govern the rate of this heat extraction and therefore the
sea ice growth. At thermal equilibrium with the atmosphere, sea ice thermodynamic
processes adhere to the law of energy conservation in that fluxes entering or leaving the
sea ice surface must be balanced. This is demonstrated with the following vertical flow
surface heat balance equation for the atmosphere-ice interface:
(1-α)KS – KT + L↓ – L↑ + QH + QE +QC + QM = 0 [3.1]
where: (1-α)KS – KT represents the shortwave flux with albedo (α; ratio of upwelling to
downwelling shortwave energy), incoming shortwave energy at the surface (KS) and
transmitted shortwave flux through the sea ice (KT); L↓ – L↑ represents the incoming
minus outgoing longwave flux; the turbulent sensible and latent heat fluxes are QH and
QE, respectively; QC is the conductive heat flux; and QM is the flux associated with any
phase transition at the ice surface (Maykut, 1986).
In the Arctic, the net radiation balance (shortwave and longwave fluxes) drives the
surface heat budget with other fluxes up to a factor of magnitude less on average
(Maykut, 1986). In winter, when shortwave fluxes are negligible or nonexistent, outgoing
longwave fluxes dominate, however, turbulent heat fluxes can play an important role in
initial sea ice formation (Steffen and DeMaria, 1996), particularly in polynya
environments (Roberts et al., 2001). At the sea ice surface, the majority of these fluxes
are balanced by QC (Steffen and DeMaria, 1996).
The conductive flux indicates the vertical heat transfer rate and is governed by the
temperature gradient and the physical/thermal properties of the transfer medium, as
demonstrated in Fourier’s law (Oke, 1987):
QC = – γsi (δT/δz) [3.2]
where: (δT/δz) is the linear temperature gradient with depth and γsi (W·m-1·K-1) is the
effective thermal conductivity of the ice. γsi is a function of salinity and temperature in
the ice (Schwerdtfeger, 1963; Yen et al., 1991). Generally, sea ice is less conductive than
freshwater ice as the thermal conductivity of brine is lower than that of pure ice by at
least a factor of 4 with the discrepancy increasing at lower temperatures (Yen et al.,
1991). It is further noted that sea ice is a complex material where the vertical transport of
heat may occur due to a number of processes, including conductive, convective and
advective processes. As the relative magnitude each process is difficult to isolate, they
have been incorporated into γsi (Yen et al., 1991).
A useful term directly proportional to the thermal conductivity, but inversely
proportional to the amount of heat required to induce a temperature change is the thermal
diffusivity, νi (m2·s-1). The thermal diffusivity of ice is its ability to diffuse thermal
influences (Oke, 1987). The relationship ofνsi is such that a medium can have a higher
thermal conductivity, but lower diffusivity than another. This is clearly demonstrated in
the comparison of these thermal properties between air and ice. For example, the thermal
conductivity of air is two orders of magnitude less than that of ice, however its thermal

diffusivity is an order of magnitude larger due mainly to its very low density as
demonstrated in the following equation (Oke, 1987):
νsi = γsi/(ρsi Cpsi) [3.3]
where: ρsi is the ice density (kg·m-3) and Cpsi is the specific heat of the ice volume (J·kg-
1 -1
·K ). Opposite to the thermal conductivity of sea ice versus freshwater ice, the specific
heat of sea ice is much larger. This is so because a phase change occurs with any change
in temperature of the sea ice (see Sea Ice Salinity and Phase Relationships), resulting in a
latent heat requirement in addition to changing the solid and brine temperatures
(Schwerdtfeger, 1963). The cumulative result of the quotient in equation 3.3 is a much
smaller thermal diffusivity for sea ice relative to freshwater ice. Therefore, sea ice is
essentially able to thermally insulate the ocean to a greater degree than would freshwater
ice.
Mentioned previously, ice growth is dependent on the heat balance at both the
upper and lower interfaces. Given equation 3.2, for a homogeneous volume of ice with a
linear temperature gradient from a cold atmosphere to warm ocean, the conductive flux
would be equal throughout. Therefore, at the ice-ocean interface, the conductive heat flux
is balanced with the oceanic heat flux, Qw, by the latent heat of fusion, L (J·kg-1), for an
ice thickness change (δH/δt) and an ice density:
QC + Qw + ρiL(δH/δt) = 0 [3.4]
Therefore, incorporating equations 3.2 and 3.4, we can formulate a very simplistic
model for congelation ice growth (melt) rate:
(δH/δt) = ((–γsi(T0 – Tf)/H) + Qw)/ρsiL [3.5]
where: (T0 – Tf) is the linear temperature gradient from the surface, T0, to the bottom, Tf,
over an initial ice thickness, H. Through this simplistic model, the process of ice growth
becomes apparent. The model demonstrates the key role thermodynamic processes play
in the process of sea ice formation. Further, the importance of the oceanic flux is made
clear. It is worth noting that in the Arctic, the oceanic flux is only 2 W·m-2 (Wadhams,
2000) as compared to 5-30 W·m-2 in the Antarctic (Lytle et al., 2000). The oceanic heat
flux is due to a residue of heat stored from solar warming of the mixed layer during
summer and/or the transfer of heat from warmer water masses residing in deeper or
lateral waters. The difference between the two polar regions is the latter heat source. In
the Arctic, the advection of heat is negligible due to strong stratification and a
surrounding landmass providing protection from the open ocean (Maykut and McPhee,
1995), whereas the opposite applies to the Antarctic. The result of the differing heat flux
is a mean annual growth of first-year ice to be 1.5-2 m and 0.5-0.7 m in the Arctic and
Antarctic, respectively (Maykut, 1986; Wadhams, 2000). Another significant aspect of
the model is that as the ice thickens, its growth rate slows. The growth rate of sea ice and
its seasonal thickness has important consequences on its salinity profile which I will
examine next.

Sea Ice Salinity and Phase Relationships
Mentioned previously, sea ice is a mixture of ice, brine, solid salts (if temperatures
are cold enough) and gas (Weeks and Ackley 1986). Salt ions are unable to be
incorporated within the ice crystal lattice, thus the mixture of each component is initially
determined by the growth rate of sea ice as impurities are squeezed out and trapped
between ice crystals through a process called segregation (Nakawo and Sinha, 1981).
Generally, slower ice growth rates allow more time for the diffusive and convective
removal of salt ions from the unstable constitutionally supercooled layer prior to
entrapment between ice crystals. Given that the growth rate of ice decreases with
thickness, the application of salt segregation alone would result in a decrease in salinity
with depth, however typical ice salinity profiles have a characteristic C-shape (Fig. 3.3).
The C-shape results through the processes of gravity drainage and brine expulsion
(Weeks and Ackley, 1986). Gravity drainage occurs due to the temperature gradient in
sea ice. The gradient creates an unstable brine density gradient resulting in convective
exchange with underlying brine or seawater that is warmer and less saline. This process
can contribute greatly to the transfer of heat within the ice (Lytle and Ackley, 1996) and
may be an important biological factor in the convective transport of nutrients (Arrigo et
al, 1993). However, Cota et al. (1991) suggested that this mechanism alone would not
equal the demand by a growing ice bottom algal community. Instead, turbulent exchange
at the ice water interface due to ocean currents is thought to be a much more important
mechanism supplying nutrients to the bottom ice community (Cota et al., 1991). Brine
expulsion, the third factor contributing to desalination of a growing ice sheet, occurs
when pressure is built up within a brine pocket due to a decrease in the pocket’s volume
from surrounding ice growth, resulting in an ejection of brine. This process is not as
important to desalination of the ice sheet as are the other two (Weeks and Ackley, 1986),
however it may play an important role in the formation of surface frost flowers (Martin et
al., 1995; see Snow Physical and Thermal Properties).
Once the sea ice cover has formed with internal brine inclusions, changes in the
fractional volumes of ice, brine and solid salts become a function of temperature. Figure
3.4 depicts the temperature-phase relationships between ice, water, and dissolved and
solid salts for a closed system of initial sea water salinity 34 PSU. It shows that as ice
forms past the freezing point of –1.86°C, the dissolved salt fraction in brine (water and
dissolved salts) increases, which acts to suppress the freezing point, slowing the
formation of ice with decreasing temperature. At –8.2°C, salt concentrations in the brine
are supersaturated with respect to sodium sulphate, and begin to precipitate out. Past –
22.9°C salt precipitation greatly increases until approximately –60 °C. Although this
temperature may be reached in the snowpack, it is rarely reached in the sea ice due to the
insulating effects of snow (Maykut, 1986).

Figure 3.4. Phase diagram of sea ice demonstrating the mass fractions of solid ice, brine
(water and dissolved salts) and solid salts (After Assur, 1958).
Useful equations derived from these phase relationships have been used to estimate
the fractional volumes of brine, gas and solid salts as a function of ice temperature and
salinity (Cox and Weeks, 1983), however their specific formulations are beyond the
scope of this discussion. Models also exist that incorporate fractional volumes of pure
end points of freshwater ice, brine and gas, to calculate the thermal properties of sea ice
(Schwerdtfeger, 1963; Yen et al., 1991). Generally, as discussed in the previous section,
brine acts to depress the conductive flux in sea ice. It is interesting to note that as
fractional brine volumes rise above 5%, a point that is reached around -5°C for an ice
salinity of 5 PSU, brine on average becomes freely motile throughout the ice (Golden et
al., 1998). This piece of evidence may be very important for the transfer of heat as well as
nutrients within the ice. It also breaks down the application of phase relationships through
‘opening’ of the system.
Snow Physical and Thermal Properties
Snow can be defined as a meteoric deposition of freshwater ice crystals. Its average
depth over Arctic sea ice is at least a factor of magnitude less than the thickness of sea
ice. However, its importance to the system is perhaps a factor of magnitude greater owing

to its unique physical, thermal and optical properties (see Section 3.2 for optical
properties). Snow over sea ice is a mixture of ice, brine, solid salts (if cold enough), water
vapour and air. One of the main contributing factors to the differences between snow and
sea ice is its density, which is attributable to the amount of air trapped within a snow
volume. Typically, snow density can range from 100 to 450 kg·m-3 (Mellor, 1977),
whereas sea ice densities range between 850 to 900 kg·m-3 with the exception of the
active layer of multiyear ice that can be much less dense (Weeks and Ackley, 1986).
During fall/winter freeze-up, the first snow accumulation on sea ice usually occurs
through the formation of hoar frost at the ice surface (Drinkwater and Crocker, 1988).
This may also be the prime mechanism for incorporation of salinity deeper into the
snowpack. As the ice cover initially freezes, brine and salts are expelled both below and
onto the surface of the forming ice cover (Weeks and Ackley, 1986). Under very cold
temperatures and high relative humidity, hoar frost can form with upward brine
expulsions, resulting in highly saline crystal formations called frost flowers (Martin et al.,
1995). Capillary suction can also act to draw additional quantities of brine from the
surface (Drinkwater and Crocker, 1988). Drinkwater and Crocker (1988) further that over
a short period of time, frost flowers can grow in size and numbers creating a continuous
snow cover prior to any atmospheric snowfall or blowing snow event.
After the first major snowfall or blowing snow event, surface brine may be further
wicked up into the new snow cover through capillary suction (Drinkwater and Crocker,
1988). Barber et al. (1995) also found salinity to move up through a stable snowpack with
time suggesting a complex interaction of capillary suction and vapour gradient mass
transfer. It is logical that wind redistribution of frost flowers and saline snow may also act
to mechanically incorporate the salinity deeper into the snow cover and preferentially
deposit the saline snow in newly forming drifts. However, it is apparent from literature
that the relative contribution of each mechanism on the incorporation of brine into the
snowpack is not well understood and requires further study.
Once deposited, the snowpack undergoes substantial metamorphism and wind
densification creating a distinct vertical structure in its physical properties, particularly
over first-year sea ice. Fig. 3.5 demonstrates typical vertical profiles of density, salinity
and grain size for a cold first-year sea ice snowpack. Snowpacks have been found to
conform to 2-3 statistically distinct layers based on density (Papakyriakou, 1999) or snow
grain morphology (Barber et al., 1995). Generally, density is low and highly variable at
surface and bottom layers due to new snow deposition events and highly faceted crystal
development (see below), respectively. Salinity decreases dramatically with distance
from the ice surface due to mechanisms described in the previous paragraphs. And snow
grain morphology demonstrates large grains with high variability in bottom layers and
relatively homogeneous small grain sizes in upper layers. One exception is that surface
layers may experience faceted crystal growth (see below).
Cold or dry metamorphism of snow grains is the main process leading to the
distinct groupings described above. Metamorphism of dry snow has been categorized
based on crystal shape into an equilibrium form and a kinetic growth form (Colbeck,
1982). The tendency for equilibrium forms (spherical or rounded) occur at very slow
metamorphic rates, typically associated with small temperature gradients and warmer
temperatures. Mass flow vapour diffusion among particles occurs because of larger
vapour pressures over smaller particles. Therefore, preferential vapour diffusion results in

the sublimation of dendritic branches of snowflakes, termed destructive metamorphism,
or through the growth of large grains at the expense of small grains, termed constructive
metamorphism (Colbeck, 1982). The overall effect is for snow grains to tend toward a
roughly spherical shape and gradually increase in size with time. Temperature gradients
speed this process until gradients of 10–20 K·m-1 are experienced, at which point kinetic
growth occurs. Kinetic growth involves the growth of faceted (flat surface) crystals at the
expense of rounded crystals. It is associated with large growth rates due to the
temperature gradient, which induces a strong vapour pressure gradient. Mass flow occurs
in the direction of heat conduction as rounded grains are sublimated, causing
supersaturation of the air and subsequent recrystallization further along the gradient
forming large, highly faceted crystals. Kinetic growth occurs predominantly at the ice-
snow interface where warmer temperatures are experienced. This process leads to the
formation of the snowpack hoar layer (approx. bottom 20 - 40% of the snowpack;
Papkyriakou, 1999; Sturm et al., 2002), where it acts to decrease the density and
dramatically increase grain size more than an order of magnitude larger than grains in the
upper snowpack (Colbeck, 1982).
The thermal properties of the snow cover are a function of salinity, temperature, air
and water vapour. As with sea ice, salinity reduces the thermal conductivity of snow due
to the phase relationships with temperature and the subsequent presence of brine at
temperatures above approximately – 60°C (Fig. 3.4). However, it is the large volume of
air trapped within the snow that acts to decrease the thermal conductivity of the
snowpack by an order of magnitude relative to that of sea ice. Therefore, snow acts as a
powerful insulator between the atmosphere and sea ice, limiting ice growth as can be
demonstrated through its incorporation in equation 3.5. Its insulating effects may also
play an important role in keeping the ice volume relatively warmer, which may result in:
a greater sensitivity to the oceanic flux on the ice bottom (see equation 3.5) and an
influence on biological production as the 5% percolation threshold could be met at higher
levels in the ice volume in colder atmospheric conditions (Golden et al., 1998).
Alternatively, snow will insulate the sea ice from a warming atmosphere, causing a
decrease in the warming rate of sea ice during melt (see Melt of Snow-Covered Sea Ice).
A competing effect caused by the volume of trapped air in the snow is a low
specific heat and density. These properties greatly lower the snow’s heat capacity (the
product of specific heat and density), causing it to cool, warm and melt more easily than
sea ice (Ledley, 1991). However, salinity at the base of the snow can dramatically
increase the snow’s heat capacity, thus complicating this process (Papakyriakou, 1999).
Snow loading can also have a dramatic effect on the thermal properties of snow and
sea ice through the formation of snow ice. If sufficient snowfall occurs, the weight of the
snow cover can act to push an ice cover below its freeboard (floating height), eventually
causing flooding of the sea ice surface. Seawater at the surface changes thermal gradients
within the snow-sea ice volume, essentially displacing ice growth to the ice surface/snow
bottom. A subsequent result is an increase in ice growth rate as the insulating effects of
the ice cover and the snow bottom where seawater has penetrated are nil (Flato and
Brown, 1996). However, snow ice formation is usually associated with a relatively thin
ice cover where sufficient snow loading can actually occur. Therefore, snow ice is only
widespread in the Antarctic due to the influence of the oceanic heat flux on annual sea ice
growth (Wadhams et al, 1987). Snow ice is also an important biological habitat (see

Section 2.1) and, due to its extensive formation in the Antarctic, can result in a significant
proportion of annual Antarctic primary production (Arrigo et al., 1997).
Proportional Distance from Ice Surface
a b c
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
100 200 300 400 500 0 10 20 30 10 20 30

Density (kg•m-3) Salinity (PSU) Snow Grain Area (mm2)
Figure 3.5. Typical vertical profiles of snow density (a), salinity (b) and grain area (c) (a
and b are after Papakyriakou, 1999; c is after Barber et al., 1995).
Melt of Snow-Covered Sea Ice
Much of the above discussion has been dedicated to a description of the physical
and thermal development of snow and sea ice from fall freeze-up through winter. This
was largely accomplished as a prerequisite to better evaluate the process of melt. Melt in
snow-covered sea ice is a complex process involving an initial warming of the snow and
ice volumes resulting in snow metamorphism, sea ice desalination and microstructural
changes and finally actual thinning of snow, then ice. Melt initially occurs through
warming and subsequent metamorphism of the snowpack and a release of cooling on the
ice volume as temperatures increase and the net radiation becomes slightly positive (heat
flux into the surface; see Equation 3.1).
As solar radiation increases in early spring, the high albedo of the snow cover
(approx. 85%; see Section 3.2) dominates shortwave radiative exchange. During this
period, dry snow metamorphism continues within the middle layers of the snowpack
(Barber et al., 1995). Diurnal cycling of solar radiation induces temporal variations in
temperature at the sub-surface of the snowpack where slight amounts of radiation are
absorbed. Some of this absorbed energy is conducted down in the form of a temperature
wave, however most of the energy is transferred back to the colder, convective
atmosphere at night, which acts to cool the surface (Papakyriakou, 1999). The prior

mentioned temperature wave is actually propagated through the snow cover loosing
amplitude exponentially with depth according to the snow’s thermal diffusivity. The
wave is also time-lagged within the diurnal cycle, not reaching depth until night.
Penetration depth is also limited by the saline basal layer of the snow where the wave is
essentially cancelled out by phase changes of the brine (Papakyriakou, 1999). As the
surface cools at night and the temperature wave reaches depth, the result is a potentially
strong temperature gradient in the middle to surface layers, which can result in overnight
kinetic grain growth at these layers (Birkeland, 1998). Alternatively, when surface snow
temperatures warm during the day, a positive temperature gradient is created causing a
flip in the direction of faceted crystal growth (Birkeland, 1998). Although not extensively
documented, diurnal recrystallization of snow layers appears to be widespread over
Arctic sea ice (Sturm et al., 2002; Barber, personal communication, 2004). Its occurrence
warrants further investigation as to its impact on snowpack grain growth and the initial
stages of snowmelt.
It is not until atmospheric temperatures rise that significant snow metamorphism
occurs. As the season progresses, the lower atmosphere and snow surface absorb
radiation resulting in temperature increases in the snow volume. The majority of the
subsequent heat is conducted down into the snow and ice volume where temperatures
increase more gradually and linearly with depth according to the respective material’s
thermal diffusivity. The result is for the snowpack to warm first, creating a C-shape in the
snow-ice temperature profile. The C-shape is augmented by the very low thermal
diffusivity of the saline basal layer that acts to decouple atmospheric influence on sea ice
thermodynamics (Papakyriakou, 1999).
The warming snowpack results in a mixture of dry and wet snow metamorphism.
Distinction between these two processes is based on liquid water content in the snow.
Further, wet snow has been separated into pendular and funicular regimes. The pendular
regime occurs as liquid water contents range between approximately 2% to 7%, where
capillary forces act to limit water to a thin film around grains and contacts between grains
(Colbeck, 1982). In this instance air occupies a continuous path between pore spaces.
During the pendular regime, a large increase in grain growth is experienced relative to
dry snow under a small temperature gradient. This is due to liquid contacts between
grains, which act to increase mass flow between growing and shrinking particles. Further,
particles tend to cluster into two to four crystal aggregates thereby increasing the
effective size of the grain (Colbeck, 1982). The funicular regime occurs when liquid
water occupies a continuous path between pore spaces and can therefore freely drain.
This regime is experienced at a liquid content range of 7% to 14% (Colbeck, 1982).
Under the funicular regime, grain growth is even more pronounced compared to the
pendular regime, as mass flow is not limited by air spaces. However, once the funicular
regime is met, water begins to drain out of the snowpack. The effect of draining has been
the suggested reason for the nonlinear decrease of melt rates observed over thicker snow
covers (Iacozza and Barber, 2001). Past liquid water contents of about 15% the snow
becomes slush where the water-snow mixture is completely flooded and contains
relatively small volumes of air (Papakyriakou, 1999).
As with early melt, snowpack temperature fluctuations are experienced as diurnal
temperature waves propagate downward. These fluctuations induce melt-freeze cycles in
the snowpack. The effect is to further increase grain size through the formation of very

large polycrystalline aggregates (Colbeck, 1982; Barber et al., 1995). For example, as
temperatures warm and the pendular and funicular regimes are experienced, relatively
small crystal clusters form and then re-freeze as temperatures drop. When temperatures
rise again, the already present clusters form further clusters, thus increasing in size.
Prolonged exposure to solar radiation can break down bonds between crystals (Colbeck,
1982), perhaps limiting this process to depth within a snowpack.
The saline basal layer can experience high liquid water contents at temperatures
well below 0°C. Therefore, melt is experienced much earlier than higher in the snowpack.
Again, it is worth noting that metamorphic processes in the basal layer are limited by
phase changes in the brine. However, the funicular regime eventually occurs resulting in
gravity drainage of brine from the snowpack (Barber et al, 1995). Ablation continues as
the funicular regime is experienced throughout the snowpack, draining water onto the
surface of the ice until the snowpack disappears and melt ponds form (Holt and Digby,
1985).
Concurrent with snowmelt are melt-induced structural changes of the ice cover as
ice temperatures increase, inducing an increase in brine volume. Increases in brine
volume are associated with changes in the morphology, size and connectivity of brine
inclusions (Eiken et al, 2000). At approximately –6°C (depending on salinity) brine
inclusions have been observed to start linking up (Eiken et al., 2000), until a potential 5%
brine fraction percolation threshold is met and brine is free to move throughout the ice
cover (Golden et al., 1998). Although the potential percolation threshold has been
relatively accepted in literature (e.g., Light, 2000), its value was determined through
indirect evidence and a simple microstructural model. This fact lead Eiken (2003) to note
that field observations of ice permeability provided evidence of a more complex
microstructural evolution that requires further investigation.
When brine inclusions do fully connect, they form continuous brine channel
networks that open to the surface. Snow meltwater begins to percolate into the ice cover,
displacing brine and essentially draining the surface (Untersteiner, 1968). At the same
time, melt can occur at the bottom of the ice cover if sufficient oceanic heat is supplied,
which may result in convective mixing as lower salinity melt water displaces cooler high
salinity brine. Similar to freezing processes, brine displacement and convective mixing
result in a rapid warming of the ice cover (Papakyriakou, 1999). It is noted that bottom
melt is limited in the Arctic due to a relatively small oceanic heat reservoir (Maykut and
McPhee, 1995; see Heat Budget and Ice Growth).
Meltwater flushing and warming eventually result in a low salinity ice cover
(Weeks and Ackley, 1986) with a nearly isothermal ice volume where temperatures are
within a degree of freezing (Perovich and Elder, 2001). With time, brine channels form
and grow in diameter as meltwater preferentially drains; however, processes involved in
ice deterioration are not well understood nor studied due to logistical difficulties of late
season data collection. One important mechanism recognised in advanced stages of melt
is the formation of melt ponds at the ice surface, which act to significantly drop the
surface albedo and increase transmission (e.g., Perovich et al., 1998; Hanesiak et al.,
2001; see Section 3.2).
Melt ponds form as long as surface meltwater contributions do not fully drain (Holt
and Digby, 1985). Their surface coverage is dependent on the nonlinear rates of
snowmelt with snow thickness (Iacozza and Barber, 2001) and can be as high as 80%

with strong spatial variability depending on their interconnectivity (Yackel et al., 2000).
Drainage into the ice can cause a reduction and variability in the areal coverage, however
melt ponds appear to persist late into the summer and even into the next freeze-up
(Perovich et al., 2002). As the sea ice surface continues to melt and drain, a new
formation termed white ice results (Grenfell and Maykut, 1977). White ice formations are
remnant ice crystals left after draining that act to substantially increase surface albedo at a
time when rain is the dominant precipitation. Referred to earlier, the active layer in
multiyear ice is white ice. It is noted that there does not appear to be much literature on
the mechanisms causing melt pond variability once brine channels are formed. Perovich
et al (2002) documented a relationship between melt pond coverage and synoptic
systems. One can speculate that complex interactions of atmospheric forcing, surface
melt, drainage, ice buoyancy and tides influence melt pond coverage; however, this
requires further investigation and is beyond the scope of this paper. Another understudied
process is the formation of a meltwater lens at the ice bottom. This lens has been studied
in terms of its contribution to stratification of the water column at ice edges and after ice
break-up (e.g., Niebauer and Smith, 1989), but its importance to physical and biological
processes at the ice bottom appears to be understudied.
Effects of Clouds
Clouds play a critical role in the surface energy balance influencing both freeze-up
and melt processes and therefore justifying the following short discussion in this paper.
Clouds induce a cloud-radiative feedback mechanism with opposite effects on the
shortwave and longwave portions of the spectrum, respectively (Papakyriakou, 1999).
The cloud-albedo feedback mechanism acts to reflect solar wavelengths causing a
cooling effect (negative effect). The subsequent attenuation of light will result in a
decrease in surface irradiance, which may have an effect on ice algal growth. However,
the clouds also absorb and emit longwave radiation. The net effect is to warm the surface
(positive feedback). This feedback appears to be important in early spring where a cloud
cover can limit refreezing within the snow, and therefore induce earlier melt
(Papakyriakou, 1999). In late spring, the importance of clouds is limited to the evening
where they may further act to reduce freezing. As further noted in Papakyriakou (1999),
clouds may cause precipitation in late spring in which case it would either delay melt in
the form of snow or accelerate melt in the form of rain.
3.2 Radiative Transfer

Theory
Due to the speed of light, the transfer of light through the atmosphere, snow and sea
ice is essentially instantaneous. In the following discussion, radiative transfer is
considered an instantaneous process dependent on the physical and subsequent optical
properties of the materials it is transferring through and between (Thomas and Stamnes,
1999). My discussion will be limited to a qualitative review of the theory. I will also
focus the discussion on optical wavelengths.

Radiation interacts with materials through reflection (IR; or scattering), absorption
(IA) and transmission (IT) as demonstrated through the energy balance equation:
I0(λ) = IR(λ) + IA(λ) + IT(λ) [3.6]
where λ represents the wavelength dependence of this interaction. In radiative transfer,

we are concerned with calculating the amount of light penetrating to depth (i.e.,
transmission). Given a homogeneous or pure material that is optically thick (i.e., albedo
(α) is independent of the underlying surface), transmission can be calculated with the
extinction law or more commonly referred to as some combination of the Beer-Lambert-
Bouguer law (Thomas and Stamnes, 1999):
z κλ
IT (z, λ) = I (0, λ)e – [3.7]
where: IT (z, λ) is the transmitted irradiative flux, I (0, λ) is the incident irradiative flux
entering the material (i.e., (1 – α)I0), z is depth of transmission (m) and κλ is the spectral
extinction coefficient (m-1). κλ can be further broken down into the sum of the absorption
and scattering coefficients. Through the use of these coefficients, a mixture material can
be broken down into the optical properties of its components and their relative
contribution to bulk optical properties of the material.
The absorption coefficient is directly proportional to the imaginary part of the
complex index of refraction for a pure medium (Wiscombe and Warren, 1980). In a
mixture medium such as snow-covered sea ice, the absorption coefficient can be
calculated by summing the products of each pure end component coefficient with its
respective fractional volume (e.g., Grenfell, 1991). Scattering on the other hand is
generally determined through discontinuity between two mediums of the real part of the
refractive index. In optical wavelengths, scattering in snow and sea ice is generally
assumed independent of wavelength as inclusions are significantly larger than the
wavelength. Based on Mie theory, scattering within a host medium is dependent on the
scattering efficiency (approx. 2 for radius >> wavelength; Grenfell, 1991), radius and
number density of inclusions demonstrating discontinuity in its refractive index with that
of the host medium. Further, Mie theory scattering has a directional component in the
form of a phase function that describes the angular redistribution of light during a single
scattering event. Generally, as the refractive index contrast between host medium and
inclusion decreases and inclusion size increases, a stronger forward-peaked phase
function results (e.g., Light, 2000), essentially decreasing scattering into the medium. In
contrast, as inclusion sizes decrease, more diffuse scattering results. The incorporation of
directional scattering into radiative transfer highlights the importance of direct versus
diffuse radiation and specular reflection at the boundaries between mediums (Wiscombe
and Warren, 1980; Grenfell, 1991). However, I will not go into more detail here.
Radiative Transfer in Snow-covered Sea Ice
The complexity of radiative transfer in snow-covered sea ice is nicely depicted in

Figure 3.6. As with thermal properties, bulk optical properties for snow and sea ice are a

function of the fractional volume and structural arrangement of each component. It is
worth noting at this point that thermal properties largely determine the fractional and
structural components of snow-covered sea ice, therefore allowing the possibility to link
snow and sea ice thermodynamic processes with radiative transfer processes.
Figure 3.6. Diagrammatic representation of sea ice radiative processes (After Eiken,
2003).
Peak spectral transmission through snow-covered sea ice ranges between 450 to 550
nm. Past approximately 600 nm, extinction coefficients rapidly increase (Fig. 3.7;
Grenfell and Maykut, 1977). This trend in spectral extinction is largely the result of the
spectral absorption coefficients for pure ice and seawater (Fig. 3.8). The contribution of
air and water vapour to the bulk absorption coefficient are usually assumed zero (e.g.,
Light, 2000). Therefore, given an incident radiative flux spectrum, absorption properties
of ice and water and their volume fractions control the spectral distribution of transmitted
radiation. The result is to narrow the spectral distribution toward green (500 nm)
wavelengths. However, significant amounts of particulate matter may act to further shift
the spectral distribution toward a red peak at 600 nm (Fig. 3.9; Warren and Wiscombe,
1980; Perovich et al., 1998; Light et al., 1998). These spectral shifts have resulted in
specific acclimation mechanisms and adaptation of ice algae photosystems (Barlow et al.,
1988; Robinson et al., 1995; Aguilera et al., 2002). Further, ice algae can significantly
alter the spectral distribution of penetrating light (Perovich et al., 1998; Perovich et al.,
1993), such that they may shade algae growing lower in the ice (Arrigo et al., 1991).
Given that Light et al. (2003) have modelled brine channels as cylindrical conduits for

light transmission, it could be logical that the lamellar ice crystals in the skeletal layer
could also act as ‘transmission conduits’, essentially acting as fibre optic cables to limit
the effects of self-shading in bottom algae communities. However, this is just speculation
that would need testing.
Figure 3.7. Spectral extinction coefficients for nine medium types: 1) dry snow, 2)
melting snow, 3) ice colder than -23°C, 4) surface scattering layer of white ice, 5)
interior portion of white ice, 6) cold blue ice, 7) melting blue ice, 8) bubble-free
fresh ice and 9) clear arctic water (After Perovich 1990).

Absorption Coefficient (m-1)
10
0.1
0.01
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 3.8. Spectral absorption coefficients for pure ice and clear Arctic water (After
Light, 2000).
Although absorption properties are important to the spectral distribution of

transmitted radiation, it is scattering that dominates the extinction of light with depth
(Warren, 1982), with the exception of particulate laden ice (Light et al., 1998) and pure
end components (e.g., bubble free ice in Fig. 3.7). Scattering is largely dependent on the
radius and number density of inclusions within a host medium. For example, in snow
optical models the host medium is air and the inclusions are snow grains, snow clusters
and particulates (Wiscombe and Warren, 1980; Warren and Wiscombe, 1980; Zhou and
Li, 2002). Whereas in sea ice optical models, ice generally acts as the host medium and
the inclusions are brine, gas, precipitated salts and particulate matter (e.g., Grenfell, 1991;
Light, 2000; Light et al., 2003). However, white ice and the active layer in multiyear ice
would act more like a snow cover with respect to its scattering. An apparently overlooked
portion of the snowpack in many, if not all investigations on radiative transfer is the basal
layer, although observations show basal layers to vary interannually and spatially
(Papakyriakou, 1999). Clearly more investigation of snowpack optical properties and
modelling is warranted.
The following discussion of the evolution of optical properties during sea ice melt
pulls from both observation and modelling studies. During winter, low density, dry snow
results in a high surface albedo due to highly diffuse scattering caused by small grains.
Under low snow depths, surface albedo is influenced by the albedo of the underlying ice
surface (Wiscombe and Warren, 1980). It is not until a depth of 2 to 10 cm – with snow
grain radii of 50 to 200 µm, respectively – that the effect of the ice surface on surface
albedo becomes eliminated. A snowpack of these depths is referred to as optically deep
or semi-infinite (Wiscombe and Warren, 1980). As dry grains grow with age, the

tendency is for decreased albedo and increased absorption, particularly at infrared
wavelengths, with less change at visible wavelengths. The increase in infrared absorption
plays an important role in snowmelt (Wiscombe and Warren, 1980) and the ice-albedo
feedback mechanism (Curry et al., 1995). Snowmelt and the rapid growth of grain
clusters can significantly increase transmission over a short period of time (Grenfell and
Maykut, 1977; Papakyriakou, 1999; Zhou and Li, 2002). However, details on the
temporal evolution of this process is lacking in literature.
Figure 3.9. Effects of sediment, carbon soot and chlorophyll a on (a) the spectral
particulate absorption coefficient (κp) and (b) the spectral albedo of particle laden
sea ice. The absorption coefficient and albedo for pure ice are also shown (After
Light et al., 2003).
Demonstrated in Figure 3.7, the extinction coefficient of sea ice jumps from a high
integrated value when below – 23°C (type 3) to a relatively constant lower value with
increasing temperature from cold blue ice to melting blue ice to saturated white ice (types
6 to 7 to 5). Further, drained white ice formation results in a scattering increase and

therefore a jump in the extinction coefficient (type 4, Fig. 3.7). Therefore, sea ice melt
results in a much different transition in transmission with respect to snowmelt due to the
difference in host medium and scattering inclusions.
Knowledge on radiative transfer and structural-optical relationships in sea ice has
increased greatly over the last few years (e.g., Light, 2000; Light et al, 2003). Light
(2000) developed an innovative technique to measure optical properties of ice cores
concurrent with microstructural observations in a temperature-controlled laboratory. Her
experiments provided insight into structural-optical processes that take place in sea ice as
it cools and warms. The following is a summary of her results, which were tested against
a structural-optical model she developed. At temperatures below – 23°C, solid salts
governed scattering with ice bulk extinction coefficients much higher than at warmer
temperatures. As temperatures warmed between – 23 and – 8°C, no significant changes
were observed in scattering coefficients. This was due to a competing effect where
enlarging brine inclusions, connecting brine tubes (increasing structural anisotropy) and
dissolving salts increased forward scattering, but the dilution and warming of brine
increased the refractive index contrast between brine and solid crystals in the brine,
causing an increase in backscatter. At temperatures greater than – 8°C, scattering was
again fairly constant with anisotropic brine channel forward scattering balanced against
structural changes that caused an increase in backscatter (Light, 2000). Therefore, bulk
sea ice optical properties lacked temperature dependence above – 23°C due to competing
structural changes. It was concluded that more work needs to be accomplished in order to
understand the specific mechanisms responsible for the observed and modelled changes,
particularly at warmer temperatures (Light, 2000; Light et al., 2003).
As melt ponds form on the surface, their effect is to significantly decrease aerially
averaged scattering with regional albedo estimates of 0.4 to 0.55 (Perovich et al., 2002;
Hanesiak et al., 2001). Depth of melt ponds and the variably draining surface can result in
significant variation of cover type albedos. Hanesiak et al. (2001) found albedo to range
from 0.21 for deep melt ponds, 0.32-0.36 for shallow ponds, 0.52-0.65 for shallow wet
and saturated snow to 0.75 for deep moist snow. Perovich et al. (2002) completed a more
detailed temporal observation of pond coverage, however, it is suffice to say that melt
ponds appear to persist as long as an ice cover is present. More important to biology,
transmission of visible wavelengths into the ice volume also increase under ponds
(Perovich et al., 1998). Although not noted yet in this report, leads and cracks may also
form. In the central Arctic pack, these can account for 3-5% of the surface during early
melt and 20% during advanced stages of melt (Perovich et al., 2002) and can significantly
increase transmission along the lateral sides of ice floes as well as influence the surface
heat budget through solar heating of the ocean (Perovich and Maykut, 1990). It is worth
noting that the formation of leads and cracks as well as floe edges in pack ice could
contribute to increasing habitat space for ice algae.
3.3 Snow as a Spatial Variable
The effects of snow depth on the various processes discussed thus far have been
highly nonlinear. This has led some researchers to observe that the importance of snow

depth distribution outweighs the importance of its areal average on light transmission
(Perovich, 1990; Iacozza and Barber 1999) and heat transfer (Sturm et al., 2002).
Surprisingly, the study of snow distribution and redistribution has not been extensively
examined over sea ice (Iacozza and Barber, 1999). Most studies on this subject have been
limited to terrestrial environments where mass balance inquiries for flood and drought
predictions, avalanche predictions or glacier contributions drive the research.
Accumulation Processes
Snow accumulation occurs as a result of precipitation and blowing snow processes

that act to redistribute snow. Blowing snow is ubiquitous in regions where fetch distances
are large. Further, low surface roughness results in the occurrence of blowing snow at
slower wind speeds. Therefore, snow-covered sea ice encounters widespread blowing
snow events with occurrences of up to 100 days per year over the Arctic Ocean (Déry and
Yau, 1999).
Blowing snow is a dynamic mechanism during which snow particles undergo creep,
saltation, suspension and sublimation due largely to interacting forces of wind and
gravity (Fig. 3.10). Creep occurs when wind pushes particles causing them to roll along
the snow cover. The process of creep is very slow and accounts for very little transport of
snow (Schmidt, 1986). Saltation takes place when strong threshold winds eject particles
from the surface, which then either bounce along the snow surface or collide with other
particles on the surface, forcing them into the air. This mechanism occurs within a
shallow layer above the snow surface termed the saltation layer (typically < 10 cm;
Schmidt, 1986). Saltation also results in a slow rate of snow transport; however, it
controls snow erosion and is therefore needed for suspension and sublimation of snow to
occur (e.g., Pomeroy and Li, 2000). An interesting observation is that electrostatic
charges, built up by friction between moving snow and the surface, may significantly
contribute to the trajectory of particles within the saltation layer (Schmidt and Dent,
1993). Suspension occurs when sufficient turbulent airflow acts to lift particles above the
layer of saltation. A balance between downward gravitational forces and upward
turbulent diffusion is met (e.g., Déry and Tremblay, 2004). The final mechanism
mentioned above for blowing snow processes is sublimation, which is the loss of snow
back to the atmosphere. Sublimation during blowing snow events is a significant factor
for snow accumulation processes and greatly exceeds in situ sublimation of the snow
cover (Schmidt, 1982) and can therefore have a significant effect on cooling the
atmospheric boundary layer (Déry and Yau, 2002). Within a sea ice environment, leads
and cracks may also have a significant effect on decreasing snow accumulation (Eiken et
al., 1994; Déry and Tremblay, 2004).

1000
Suspension Layer
Suspension
Sublimation
100
WIND
10m
10cm
Saltation Saltation Layer
Creep
0
Figure 3.10. A schematic representation of blowing snow processes. NOTE: the layers
are not to scale.
Field investigations and models used to estimate snow transport and accumulation
usually involve the calculation of a snow cover mass balance. Snow mass balance
equations calculate a snow accumulation rate (δS/δt) over a point or grid location as the
following:
δS/δt = P – ∇F – EB – E – M [3.8]
where: P is precipitation, ∇F is the downwind transport rate of blowing snow, EB is

blowing snow sublimation, E is snow surface sublimation and M is melt (Pomeroy and
Li, 2000). ∇F is a balance of an outflow minus inflow of mass through contributions by
saltation and suspension. A further flux parameter has been added in a recent modeling
study to equation 3.8 in order to represent loss of blowing snow to leads and cracks
within a sea ice environment (Déry and Tremblay, 2004). Through field observation and
model sensitivity studies, snow mass balance has been found to be dependent on wind
speed, surface roughness/topography and fetch, relative humidity and snow temperature
and age/density (e.g., Pomeroy and Li, 2000).
The redistribution of blowing snow results in the formation of characteristic snow
drifts over the sea ice. Their initial formation occurs as a result of some irregularity over
the surface that causes a disruption in the boundary layer flow of blowing snow and

therefore results in preferential erosion and deposition (Déry and Tremblay, 2004). After
initial drifts form, aeolian processes result in particles eroded from the windward side of
a drift and deposited on the leeward side forming long gradual and short steep slopes,
respectively. Over relatively smooth surfaces, snowdrifts take aeolian transport shapes of
barchan (crescent-shaped), sastrugi (wind sculpted), or longitudinal dunes (Sturm et al.,
2002), dependent on the amount of snow available for transport. Similarly, over rough
surfaces such as multiyear hummocks and pressure ridges, snow accumulates on the
leeward side of surface roughness elements. However, the process of snowdrift formation
via aeolian processes is complicated by sublimation and inter-particle cohesion forces
(e.g., sintering; Schmidt, 1986). Further, small-scale surface variations in snow cover
properties and boundary layer flow result in spatial intermittency of blowing snow events
(Pomeroy and Li, 2000; Sturm et al., 2002). It is noted that most blowing snow models
have been developed for medium (100 m to 1 km) to large-scale (1 km to 100 km)
applications of snow transport and accumulation (e.g., Pomeroy et al., 1993; Liston and
Sturm, 1998). Only one model (Déry and Tremblay, 2004) appears to exist that attempts
to model small-scale (1 m) formation of drifts. Further, this model has been developed for
Arctic sea ice and therefore may provide interesting contributions to future knowledge of
blowing snow processes over sea ice.
The limited knowledge existing on drift formation and snow catchment over sea ice
has led to studies investigating distribution over different sea ice types. Iacozza and
Barber (1999) found that geostatistical techniques could be used to model the spatial
distribution of snow within various sea ice catchment types (e.g., first-year, rubble,
multiyear). They found typical cross drift sizes of 10 to 20 meters. Similar results were
observed by Sturm et al. (2002). Generally, the greater the surface variability, the greater
the depth and variability in snow depth. Sturm et al. (2002) also found 10 separate storm
events to result in 10 distinct layers within the various snowpacks, therefore, noting the
importance of these events on shaping the snowpack vertical structure. However, these
events occurred over 240 days, suggesting the low frequency of such events in the Arctic.
It should be noted that small-scale temporal variability of snowdrifts associated
with blowing snow processes remains largely unknown. The spatially variable nature of
blowing snow over a surface can theoretically lead to a temporally dynamic snow cover
over any particular location. This would result in unique temporally integrated light and
thermal regimes under an ice cover and therefore affect algal growth on spatial scales
larger than simply the snowdrift size. This was perhaps indirectly observed by Gosselin et
al. (1986) who found algae patchiness at a scale of approximately 100 m during early
spring. There is thus an apparent and important relationship, however it requires further
investigation.
3.4 Section Remarks
Throughout the discussion in this section of the report, although not explicitly
stated, various scales of variability exist when considering the effects of the physical
processes on the physical controls of ice algae biomass and production. For example,

light as a physical control on algae can temporally vary with the annual solar cycle and
sea ice formation and melt processes (months), synoptic activity (days to weeks), and
snow depth (hours to days). Whereas spatially light can vary horizontally over regional
scales associated with ice concentration and synoptic activity (100 km to 1000 km), ice
type and thickness (1km to 100km) and snow distribution (10 m to 100 m) and vertically
with ice and snow microstructure and bulk properties (µm to 1 m). It is further noted that
spatial and temporal variability are interdependent and continuous. Therefore, the scales
outlined above only represent arbitrary separations.
In the above discussion, I have examined the effect that particular processes may
have on the physical controls of algae. However, I by no means encapsulated all possible
effects, nor did I intend to, as my focus in this section was to describe the physical
processes. In the next section, I will incorporate an interpretation of the processes with
respect to a climate change scenario and their potential effects on the distribution of ice
algal biomass and production.
4.0 Climate Change Scenario
In this last part of the report I speculate as to how a climate change scenario may
influence the physical processes controlling the distribution ice algae biomass and
production. Climate change has been interpreted for the purposes of this discussion as a
directional perturbation of year round increases in atmospheric temperature, storminess,
cloudiness and precipitation. This may not represent reality, but it provides a starting
point for discussion.
Over the seasonal progression of sea ice formation and melt, various competing
effects in the physical processes would result in both negative and positive effects on ice
algae biomass and production. The first process examined in this report was ice
formation, a process that largely determines the habitat conditions for ice algae. Under a
climate change scenario, increased air and ocean temperatures would result in a slower
ice growth rate. A deeper snow cover associated with increased precipitation would
augment this decline. The result would be an increase in crystal width and a decrease in
convective processes at the ice water interface. Both effects would be negative on algae.
The increase in crystal width would reduce available habitat area by decreasing inclusion
spaces between crystals. In addition, the decreased convection of the supercooled layer
would reduce access to nutrients during early spring algal growth. However, as noted
earlier, access to nutrients may be more dependent on turbulent convection induced by
ocean currents (Cota et al., 1991). Ultimately, the decreased growth rate would result in a
decreased ice thickness. Thinner ice would act to increase PAR transmission resulting in
a positive effect on algal growth, although the coincidental deeper snow cover would
have an opposite effect. If deep enough, snow cover could actually decrease the growing
season of algae through light limitation. The thin ice cover would also result in a stronger
vertical temperature gradient between the cold atmosphere and warm ocean that may act
to decrease the thickness and overall biomass accumulation of the bottom ice algae
bloom, however, snow would insulate the ice cover causing a decrease in the ice
temperature gradient. Further, sufficient snowfall would result in the potential for snow
ice formation to occur in the Arctic. The benefit would be to create a new surface habitat

for algal production, however, this would be at the expense of the bottom ice habitat due
to degradation of the lamellar ice-water interface through a disappearance of the ice
temperature gradient, as well as a strong decrease in PUR reaching the ice bottom.
Melt processes would undergo competing effects due to air temperature,
cloudiness and snow depth increases. Warmer winter temperatures would have resulted in
less grain growth within the snowpack and new snowfalls would keep the surface albedo
high, both of which would act to decrease solar absorption by the snow surface causing a
delay in melt onset. Further, the thick snow cover would act to delay sea ice melt due
both to its insulating properties and mass. This may have both negative and positive
effects on algae. The deep and highly reflective snow cover would keep PAR
transmission low at the beginning of melt, causing algae growth to be limited. However,
the delayed melt could act to increase the algal growth season later into spring. Warmer
air temperature and increased cloud cover would cause the competing effect on melt
onset acting to induce earlier melt. Once water appears in the snowpack, melt would
proceed quickly with warmer temperatures. Opposite to early melt, during advanced melt
increased cloudiness and the subsequent cloud-albedo feedback could act to decrease the
snowmelt rate in daylight relative to sunny conditions (Papkyriakou, 1999). Underneath
the snowpack, the thin ice would warm more quickly, resulting in an earlier seasonal
increase in habitat space through structural changes in the ice cover. However, the
warming ice cover may also result in rapid desalination by the surface meltwater causing
the active removal of biomass from the cover as well as strong under ice meltwater
stratification which could act to limit nutrient access at the ice. Therefore, suspended sub
ice algae communities could be favoured for growth. Once exposed, the thin ice cover
would ultimately ablate quickly resulting in a potential decrease in ice duration,
depending on the magnitude and distribution of the snow cover.
On a much shorter time scale (days to weeks), the increase in storm frequency
associated with the climate change scenario would result in an increase in blowing snow
events. The increased blowing snow frequency would increase variability of a snow
cover and therefore variability of transmitted PAR. More blowing snow episodes would
also result in greater snow erosion and therefore increased snow losses due to sublimation
as well as snow loss into leads and between ice floes. Therefore, this would have a
positive overall effect on ice algae through increased light access. Although later in the
season, the decreased snow cover would act to speed up snowmelt, reducing the algal
growth season.
Over large spatial scales, the effect of climate change would be to decrease ice
thickness and potentially ice duration creating a shift towards a predominant first-year ice
cover in the Arctic. This would have potential negative and positive effects on ice algae
growth and accumulation. The negative effect would be to decrease the growth season of
ice algae. This would have the most deleterious effect on latitudinal extremities of ice
algae annual production where decreases in sea ice extent may eliminate their occurrence.
However, at higher latitudes, a more positive effect may be observed as first-year ice
habitats have been found to be the most productive (Gosselin et al., 1997), due possibly
to ice structure and thickness. The structure of first-year ice relative to multiyear has
potential for greater habitat area through thinner bottom lamellar crystals and larger brine
inclusions due to a faster growth rate. Further, PAR transmission is greater through first-
year ice due to its thickness, low snow cover (smaller catchment than multiyear ice) and

absence of a light scattering active layer. Decreased ice duration and thickness may also
lead to a decrease in ice concentration and therefore an increase in leads and cracks. As
noted previously, this could greatly increase the loss of snow mass through blowing snow
processes, resulting in a positive effect on ice algae.
It is difficult to suggest what might occur from climate change on blowing snow
processes acting at spatial scales of snowdrifts and distribution. It is not expected that
increased blowing snow events will change the spatial size of drifts nor distribution, as
these appear to be mostly dependent on the type of catchment surface. It is noted that
increased amounts of snow would favour the formation of deeper drifts, however,
increased erosion and losses through sublimation and open water catchment would
decrease the snow cover. The most likely result of increased blowing snow events will be
an increase in the temporal variability of a snow cover as discussed earlier. This would
result in a spatially variable vertical snowpack structure that could feedback causing
further variability in blowing snow processes over a surface.
The effects of climate change on the physical processes discussed in this paper are
speculative. There does not appear to be a definitive conclusion as to the effects climate
change may have on the distribution of algae biomass and production because of the
competing effects resultant from the interaction of physical processes associated with
snow and ice. For example, a transition towards a seasonal ice cover may favour
increases in algae production, however, the annual disappearance of the ice cover would
decrease the algal growth period. Further, a decrease in ice concentration may decrease
ice algae habitat, however, open water may act to decrease the snow cover through
blowing snow processes and therefore increase light transmission favouring algal growth.
These scenarios would be best explored through the use of models and sensitivity studies,
however, no model currently exists that encapsulates all processes discussed in this
document.
5.0 Summary
This report focussed on the examination of physical processes that drive physical
controls of ice algae biomass and production. To accomplish this, I first reviewed the
various habitats of ice algae, which helped to demonstrate the variation algae experience
in their natural environment. Ice algae accumulation and growth are controlled through
access to light, nutrients, and substrata as well as exposure to temperature and salinity
variability. These physical controls can act multiplicatively on algal growth (i.e.,
temperature, light, nutrients and salinity) or may be more important to accumulation of
algae (e.g., habitat space and suitability).
In the next section I reviewed the physical processes that determine the temporal
and spatial variability of the physical controls on ice algae. I focussed my discussion on
processes relating to snow-covered sea ice. More specifically, I reviewed and evaluated
snow-covered sea ice formation and melt, radiative transfer and blowing snow processes.
The discussion made clear the interdependence of these processes both within and
between each process. There were apparent areas lacking in research, particularly with
respect to the temporal evolution of radiative transfer through snow and the influence of
blowing snow processes on spatial variability of the system.

Finally, I provided a speculative discussion on how climate change may influence
the physical processes and subsequently ice algae accumulation and growth. It was
evident that there is no definitive answer as to the effects of climate change based on
potential response of the physical processes. It appeared that any physical perturbation to
the system might have both positive and negative effects on ice algae. Our current
understanding of the system does not allow us to predict the extent of these effects
making the need to further study this system and its interdependent processes clear.
My thesis work will attempt to push this type of research forward. The fundamental
foci of my PhD research will be the processes involved in the coupling between an ice
algal bloom and the thermo-physical properties of snow covered sea ice and the
subsequent adaptation of an existing bio-physical model to inputs from remotely sensed
data. More specifically, the objectives of my thesis work will be:
1.) To relate spatio-temporal variability of ice algae to optical and thermo-physical

properties of the atmosphere, snow and sea ice
2.) To adapt a biophysical model with a detailed optical model of the snowpack and
use sensitivity experiments to test conclusions from objective 1
3.) To use microwave remote sensing inversion techniques to derive selected thermo-
physical characteristics of the snow/sea ice system
4.) To further develop the bio-physical model using parameterizations derived from
microwave remote sensing data (objective 3)
5.) To test the sensitivity and validity of the model against distributed field-based
observations.

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A Candidacy Examination

Scale Dependent Forcing on Ice Algae Dynamics: Observations

Submitted to my Ph.D. Examining Committee in partial fulfillment of the

Centre for Earth Observation Science

PhD Candidacy Exam 1

“Review and evaluate physical processes which control the spatial

PhD Candidacy Exam 2

CANDIDACY QUESTION: ......................................................................................................... 2

PhD Candidacy Exam 3

PhD Candidacy Exam 4

The Earth’s climate – a complex interaction between incoming solar radiation,

PhD Candidacy Exam 5

2.0 Sea Ice Algae

PhD Candidacy Exam 6

Interstitial (Bottom ice)

PhD Candidacy Exam 7

2.2 Physical Controls

µ = µmax r lim S max [2.1]

PhD Candidacy Exam 8

PhD Candidacy Exam 9

3.0 Physical Processes

3.1 Sea ice growth and decay

Sea ice formation and structure

PhD Candidacy Exam 10

PhD Candidacy Exam 11

Figure 3.2. Diagrammatic representation of the lamellar ice-water interface (skeletal

PhD Candidacy Exam 12

Heat Budget and Ice growth

PhD Candidacy Exam 13

(1-α)KS – KT + L↓ – L↑ + QH + QE +QC + QM = 0 [3.1]

QC = – γsi (δT/δz) [3.2]

PhD Candidacy Exam 14

νsi = γsi/(ρsi Cpsi) [3.3]

(δH/δt) = ((–γsi(T0 – Tf)/H) + Qw)/ρsiL [3.5]

PhD Candidacy Exam 15

PhD Candidacy Exam 16

Snow Physical and Thermal Properties

PhD Candidacy Exam 17

PhD Candidacy Exam 18

PhD Candidacy Exam 19

100 200 300 400 500 0 10 20 30 10 20 30

Melt of Snow-Covered Sea Ice

PhD Candidacy Exam 20

PhD Candidacy Exam 21

PhD Candidacy Exam 22

3.2 Radiative Transfer

PhD Candidacy Exam 23

I0(λ) = IR(λ) + IA(λ) + IT(λ) [3.6]

where λ represents the wavelength dependence of this interaction. In radiative transfer,

Radiative Transfer in Snow-covered Sea Ice

The complexity of radiative transfer in snow-covered sea ice is nicely depicted in

PhD Candidacy Exam 24

PhD Candidacy Exam 25

PhD Candidacy Exam 26

Although absorption properties are important to the spectral distribution of

PhD Candidacy Exam 27

PhD Candidacy Exam 28

3.3 Snow as a Spatial Variable