GLOSSARY​ ​PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

1. ACCURACY​ ​ORDER:​ ​The​ ​relative​ ​accuracy​ ​of​ ​grammatical​ ​forms​ ​in​ ​learner​ ​language.​ ​For
example:​ ​learners​ ​are​ ​often​ ​more​ ​accurate​ ​in​ ​using​ ​plural​ ​-s​ ​than​ ​in​ ​using​ ​possessive​ ​‘s.​ ​Some
researchers​ ​have​ ​inferred​ ​that​ ​an​ ​accuracy​ ​order​ ​is​ ​equivalent​ ​to​ ​a​ ​developmental​ ​sequence.
2. ACCURACY​ ​vs.​ ​FLUENCY:
a. Accuracy:​ ​T​he​ ​quality​ ​or​ ​state​ ​of​ ​being​ ​correct​ ​or​ ​precise​ ​when​ ​speaking​ ​or​ ​writing​ ​a
language.​ ​If​ ​you​ ​speak​ ​English​ ​with​ ​a​ ​high​ ​level​ ​of​ ​accuracy​ ​it​ ​means​ ​you​ ​speak
correctly,​ ​with​ ​very​ ​few​ ​mistakes​ ​on​ ​form.
b. Fluency:​ ​The​ ​quality​ ​or​ ​condition​ ​of​ ​being​ ​fluent​ ​when​ ​speaking​ ​a​ ​language.​ ​The
ability​ ​to​ ​express​ ​oneself​ ​easily​ ​and​ ​articulately.​ ​If​ ​you​ ​speak​ ​fluently​ ​it​ ​means​ ​you
speak​ ​easily,​ ​quickly​ ​and​ ​with​ ​few​ ​pauses.
3. ADDITIVE​ ​vs.​ ​SUBSTRACTIVE​ ​BILINGUALISM:
a. Additive​ ​Bilingualism:​ ​Learning​ ​a​ ​second​ ​language​ ​without​ ​losing​ ​the​ ​first.
b. Substractive​ ​Bilingualism:​ ​Partially​ ​or​ ​completely​ ​losing​ ​the​ ​first​ ​language​ ​as​ ​a
second​ ​language​ ​is​ ​acquired.
4. AMERICAN​ ​SIGN​ ​LANGUAGE​ ​(ASL):​ ​The​ ​gestural​ ​language​ ​used​ ​by​ ​many​ ​North
Americans​ ​who​ ​are​ ​deaf​ ​or​ ​who​ ​interact​ ​with​ ​deaf​ ​persons.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​a​ ​true​ ​language,​ ​with​ ​complex
rules​ ​of​ ​structure​ ​and​ ​a​ ​rich​ ​vocabulary,​ ​all​ ​expressed​ ​through​ ​motions​ ​of​ ​the​ ​hands​ ​and​ ​body.
5. AUDIOLINGUAL​ ​APPROACH:​ ​An​ ​approach​ ​to​ ​second​ ​or​ ​foreign​ ​language​ ​teaching​ ​that​ ​is
based​ ​on​ ​the​ ​behaviourist​ ​theory​ ​of​ ​learning​ ​and​ ​on​ ​structural​ ​linguistics,​ ​especially​ ​the
contrastive​ ​analysis​ ​hypothesis.​ ​This​ ​instructional​ ​approach​ ​emphasizes​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of
habits​ ​through​ ​the​ ​repetition,​ ​practice,​ ​and​ ​memorization​ ​of​ ​sentence​ ​patterns​ ​in​ ​isolation
from​ ​each​ ​other​ ​and​ ​from​ ​contexts​ ​of​ ​meaningful​ ​use.
6. BACKSLIDING:​ ​The​ ​regular​ ​reappearance​ ​of​ ​features​ ​of​ ​a​ ​learner’s​ ​interlanguage​ ​which
were​ ​thought​ ​to​ ​have​ ​disappeared.
7. BEHAVIOURISM​ ​vs.​ ​COGNITIVISM:
a. Behaviourism:​ ​A​ ​psychological​ ​theory​ ​that​ ​all​ ​learning,​ ​whether​ ​verbal​ ​or​ ​non-verbal,
takes​ ​place​ ​through​ ​the​ ​establishment​ ​of​ ​habits.​ ​According​ ​to​ ​this​ ​view,​ ​when​ ​learners
imitate​ ​and​ ​repeat​ ​the​ ​language​ ​they​ ​hear​ ​in​ ​their​ ​surrounding​ ​environment​ ​and​ ​are
positively​ ​reinforced​ ​for​ ​doing​ ​so,​ ​habit​ ​formation​ ​(or​ ​learning)​ ​occurs.
b. Cognitivism:​ ​A​ ​research​ ​approach​ ​that​ ​emphasizes​ ​how​ ​the​ ​human​ ​mind​ ​receives,
processes,​ ​stores,​ ​and​ ​retrieves​ ​information​ ​in​ ​learning​ ​and​ ​retrieving​ ​information.
The​ ​focus​ ​is​ ​on​ ​internal​ ​learning​ ​mechanisms​ ​that​ ​are​ ​believed​ ​to​ ​be​ ​used​ ​for​ ​learning
in​ ​general,​ ​not​ ​just​ ​language​ ​learning​ ​alone.
8. BILINGUAL​ ​vs.​ ​BICULTURAL:
a. Bilingual​ ​(individual):​ ​Speaker​ ​who​ ​uses​ ​2​ ​languages​ ​at​ ​a​ ​high​ ​degree​ ​of​ ​proficiency.
This​ ​individual​ ​usually​ ​has​ ​a​ ​better​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​one​ ​language​ ​that​ ​the​ ​other​ ​may​ ​not
know​ ​how​ ​to​ ​act​ ​according​ ​to​ ​the​ ​social​ ​patterns​ ​of​ ​the​ ​L2​ ​community.
b. Bicultural​ ​(individual):​ ​Speaker​ ​who​ ​knows​ ​the​ ​social​ ​habits,​ ​beliefs,​ ​customs,​ ​etc.,​ ​of
two​ ​different​ ​social​ ​groups.
9. BILINGUAL​ ​vs.​ ​MONOLINGUAL:
a. Bilingual:​ ​8.a.
b. Monolingual​ ​(individual):​ ​Speaker​ ​who​ ​knows​ ​and​ ​uses​ ​only​ ​one​ ​language,​ ​although
they​ ​may​ ​have​ ​a​ ​passive​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​other​ ​languages.
10. BILINGUAL​ ​(SIMULTANEOUS​ ​vs.​ ​SEQUENTIAL):
 a. Simultaneous:​ ​A​ ​child​ ​who​ ​learns​ ​more​ ​than​ ​one​ ​language​ ​since​ ​early​ ​infancy​ ​or
childhood​ ​ ​at​ ​the​ ​same​ ​time​ ​(as​ ​a​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the​ ​first​ ​language​ ​acquisition).
b. Sequential:An​ ​individual​ ​(older​ ​child​ ​or​ ​adult)​ ​who​ ​learns​ ​his​ ​first​ ​language​ ​since
childhood​ ​and​ ​another​ ​language​ ​some​ ​time​ ​later​ ​on.
11. BILINGUALISM:​ ​The​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​use​ ​more​ ​than​ ​one​ ​language.​ ​The​ ​word​ ​itself​ ​does​ ​not
specify​ ​the​ ​degree​ ​of​ ​proficiency​ ​in​ ​either​ ​language.
12. CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​an​ ​intensive​ ​analysis​ ​of​ ​an​ ​individual​ ​unit​ ​(such​ ​as​ ​a​ ​person​ ​or​ ​community)
stressing​ ​developmental​ ​factors​ ​in​ ​relation​ ​to​ ​environment.
13. CHILD-DIRECTED/CARETAKER​ ​SPEECH:​ ​The​ ​language​ ​that​ ​caretakers​ ​address​ ​to
children.​ ​In​ ​some​ ​cases,​ ​this​ ​language​ ​is​ ​simpler​ ​than​ ​that​ ​which​ ​is​ ​addressed​ ​to​ ​adults.​ ​In
some​ ​cultures,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​also​ ​slower,​ ​higher​ ​pitched,​ ​more​ ​repetitive,​ ​and​ ​includes​ ​a​ ​large​ ​number
of​ ​questions.
14. CHUNK:​ ​A​ ​unit​ ​of​ ​language​ ​that​ ​is​ ​often​ ​perceived​ ​or​ ​used​ ​as​ ​a​ ​single​ ​unit.​ ​Chunks​ ​include
formulaic​ ​expressions​ ​such​ ​as​ ​“thank​ ​you”​ ​or​ ​“Hi,​ ​how​ ​are​ ​you?”,​ ​but​ ​also​ ​bits​ ​of​ ​language
that​ ​frequently​ ​occur​ ​together,​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​“ice​ ​cream​ ​cone”​ ​or​ ​“bread​ ​and​ ​butter”.
15. CLASSROOM​ ​DISCOURSE:​ ​The​ ​type​ ​of​ ​discourse​ ​used​ ​in​ ​classroom​ ​situations,
characterized​ ​by​ ​the​ ​teacher​ ​Initiation​ ​student​ ​Response​ ​-​ ​teacher​ ​Evaluation​ ​pattern.
16. CLASSROOM​ ​OBSERVATION​ ​SCHEME:​ ​A​ ​tool​ ​(often​ ​in​ ​the​ ​form​ ​of​ ​a​ ​grid)​ ​that​ ​consists
of​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​predetermined​ ​categories​ ​used​ ​to​ ​record​ ​and​ ​describe​ ​teaching​ ​and​ ​learning
behaviours.
17. COGNITIVE​ ​MATURITY:​ ​The​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​engage​ ​in​ ​problem-solving,​ ​deduction,​ ​and
complex​ ​memory​ ​tasks.
18. COGNITIVE​ ​vs.​ ​AFFECTIVE​ ​FACTORS:​ ​Acquisition​ ​of​ ​a​ ​foreign​ ​language​ ​represents​ ​an
intensively​ ​studied​ ​issue,​ ​its​ ​psychological​ ​foundation​ ​being​ ​based​ ​on​ ​the​ ​individual
differences​ ​of​ ​various​ ​learners.​ ​The​ ​learning​ ​process​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​a​ ​series​ ​of​ ​factors:
a. Cognitive​ ​factors:​ ​language​ ​aptitude,​ ​learning​ ​strategies.
b. Affective​ ​factors:​ ​attitudes,​ ​motivation,​ ​anxiety.
19. COMMUNICATIVE​ ​COMPETENCE:​ ​The​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​use​ ​language​ ​in​ ​a​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​settings,
taking​ ​into​ ​account​ ​relationships​ ​between​ ​speakers​ ​and​ ​differences​ ​in​ ​situations.​ ​The​ ​term​ ​has
sometimes​ ​been​ ​interpreted​ ​as​ ​the​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​convey​ ​messages​ ​in​ ​spite​ ​of​ ​a​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​grammatical
accuracy.
20. COMMUNICATIVE​ ​FUNCTION/SPEECH​ ​ACT:​ ​ ​Jacobson’s​ ​ ​model​ ​of​ ​the​ ​functions​ ​of
language​ ​distinguishes​ ​following​ ​functions,​ ​in​ ​order:​ ​
a. referential​ ​function​ ​–​ ​oriented​ ​towards​ ​the​ ​context,​ ​
b. ​ ​emotive​ ​function​ ​–​ ​oriented​ ​towards​ ​the​ ​sender/​ ​addresser,​ ​
c. conative​ ​function​ ​–​ ​oriented​ ​towards​ ​the​ ​receiver​ ​/addressee,​ ​
d. phatic​ ​function​ ​–​ ​oriented​ ​towards​ ​the​ ​context,​ ​
e. metalinguistic​ ​–​ ​oriented​ ​towards​ ​mutual​ ​agreement​ ​on​ ​the​ ​code,​ ​
f. poetic​ ​–​ ​oriented​ ​towards​ ​the​ ​message​ ​itself​ ​.
The​ ​J.L.​ ​Austin’s​ ​speech​ ​act​ ​theory​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​describe​ ​the​ ​communication​ ​acts.​ ​It​ ​assumes
that​ ​within​ ​each​ ​speech​ ​act​ ​there​ ​are​ ​levels​ ​of​ ​performing​ ​the​ ​activity.​ ​He​ ​mentions:​ ​
-locutionary​ ​act​ ​–​ ​it​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​meaning​ ​of​ ​the​ ​utterance,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​an​ ​act​ ​of​ ​saying
something,
-illocutionary​ ​act​ ​–​ ​it​ ​is​ ​an​ ​act​ ​of​ ​what​ ​one​ ​does​ ​in​ ​uttering​ ​something.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​related​ ​to
the​ ​usage​ ​of​ ​the​ ​illocutionary​ ​verb​ ​that​ ​includes​ ​intention​ ​of​ ​the​ ​performed​ ​act,​ ​
 -the​ ​perlocutionary​ ​act​ ​–​ ​it​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​effects,​ ​consequences​ ​the​ ​given​ ​utterance
evokes.
21. COMMUNICATIVE​ ​LANGUAGE​ ​TEACHING​ ​(CLT):​ ​CLT​ ​is​ ​based​ ​on​ ​the​ ​premise​ ​that
successful​ ​language​ ​learning​ ​involves​ ​not​ ​only​ ​a​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​structures​ ​and​ ​forms​ ​of​ ​a
language,​ ​but​ ​also​ ​the​ ​functions​ ​and​ ​purposes​ ​that​ ​a​ ​language​ ​serves​ ​in​ ​different
communicative​ ​settings.​ ​This​ ​approach​ ​to​ ​teaching​ ​emphasizes​ ​the​ ​communication​ ​of
meaning​ ​in​ ​interaction​ ​rather​ ​that​ ​the​ ​practice​ ​and​ ​manipulation​ ​of​ ​grammatical​ ​forms​ ​in
isolation.
22. COMPETENCE​ ​vs.​ ​PERFORMANCE:
a. Competence:​ ​Linguist​ ​Noam​ ​Chomsky​ ​used​ ​this​ ​term​ ​to​ ​refer​ ​to​ ​knowledge​ ​of
language.​ ​This​ ​is​ ​contrasted​ ​with​ ​performance,​ ​which​ ​is​ ​the​ ​way​ ​a​ ​person​ ​actually
uses​ ​language-​ ​whether​ ​for​ ​speaking,​ ​listening,​ ​reading,​ ​or​ ​writing.​ ​Because​ ​we
cannot​ ​observe​ ​competence​ ​directly,​ ​we​ ​have​ ​to​ ​infer​ ​its​ ​nature​ ​from​ ​performance.
b. Performance:​ ​The​ ​way​ ​we​ ​use​ ​language​ ​in​ ​listening,​ ​speaking,​ ​reading,​ ​writing.
Performance​ ​is​ ​usually​ ​contrasted​ ​with​ ​competence,​ ​which​ ​is​ ​the​ ​knowledge​ ​that
underlies​ ​our​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​use​ ​language.​ ​Performance​ ​is​ ​subject​ ​to​ ​variations​ ​due​ ​to
inattention​ ​or​ ​fatigue​ ​whereas​ ​competence,​ ​at​ ​least​ ​for​ ​the​ ​mature​ ​native​ ​speaker,​ ​is
more​ ​stable.
23. COMPETITION​ ​MODEL:​ ​The​ ​model​ ​can​ ​be​ ​understood​ ​best​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​commitments​ ​it
makes​ ​to​ ​four​ ​major​ ​theoretical​ ​issues:
a. ​ ​Lexical​ ​Functionalism.​ ​In​ ​the​ ​debate​ ​between​ ​functionalist​ ​and​ ​formalist​ ​accounts​ ​of
language​ ​structure​ ​and​ ​processing,​ ​the​ ​Competition​ ​Model​ ​takes​ ​the​ ​side​ ​of
functionalist​ ​analysis.​ ​The​ ​basic​ ​claim​ ​of​ ​functionalism​ ​is​ ​that​ ​the​ ​forms​ ​of​ ​language
are​ ​determined​ ​and​ ​shaped​ ​by​ ​the​ ​communicative​ ​functions​ ​to​ ​which​ ​they​ ​are​ ​placed.
These​ ​forms​ ​are​ ​understood​ ​to​ ​be​ ​either​ ​standard​ ​lexical​ ​items​ ​(words)​ ​or​ ​more
complex​ ​constructions,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​idioms​ ​or​ ​fixed​ ​phrases.​ ​The​ ​pressure​ ​of
communicative​ ​function​ ​is​ ​considered​ ​to​ ​be​ ​the​ ​primary​ ​determinant​ ​of​ ​language
development,​ ​processing,​ ​and​ ​evolution.​ ​In​ ​contrast,​ ​formalism​ ​looks​ ​at​ ​language
learning​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​system​ ​of​ ​forms​ ​without​ ​reference​ ​to​ ​the​ ​functions​ ​being
expressed​ ​by​ ​these​ ​forms.
b. Connection​ ​ism.​ ​In​ ​order​ ​to​ ​model​ ​the​ ​interactions​ ​between​ ​lexical​ ​mappings,​ ​the
Competition​ ​Model​ ​uses​ ​connectionist​ ​models.​ ​Four​ ​important​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​these
neural​ ​network​ ​systems​ ​are​ ​competition,​ ​gradience,​ ​emergence,​ ​and​ ​transfer
(MacWhinney,​ ​1996b).​ ​Of​ ​these​ ​four​ ​properties,​ ​the​ ​most​ ​important​ ​for​ ​understanding
second​ ​language​ ​acquisition​ ​is​ ​transfer.
c. ​ ​Input-Driven​ ​Learning.​ ​In​ ​the​ ​debate​ ​between​ ​nativism​ ​and​ ​empiricism,​ ​the
Competition​ ​Model​ ​emphasizes​ ​the​ ​role​ ​of​ ​the​ ​input​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​innate​ ​principles​ ​or
parameters.​ ​The​ ​role​ ​of​ ​the​ ​input​ ​is​ ​treated​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​constructs​ ​of​ ​cue​ ​validity
and​ ​cue​ ​strength.
d. Capacity.​ ​The​ ​use​ ​of​ ​language​ ​in​ ​real​ ​time​ ​is​ ​continually​ ​subject​ ​to​ ​potential​ ​capacity
limitations​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​short-term​ ​verbal​ ​memory​ ​(Baddeley,​ ​1986;​ ​Gupta​ ​&
MacWhinney,​ ​1994;​ ​Potter,​ ​1993).​ ​Because​ ​of​ ​its​ ​functionalist​ ​orientation,​ ​the
Competition​ ​Model​ ​focuses​ ​on​ ​the​ ​role​ ​of​ ​underlying​ ​conceptual​ ​interpretation​ ​in
determining​ ​the​ ​utilization​ ​of​ ​processing​ ​capacity.
Together,​ ​these​ ​four​ ​commitments​ ​comprise​ ​an​ ​integrated,​ ​minimalist​ ​approach​ ​that​ ​allows​ ​us
to​ ​interpret​ ​experimental​ ​data​ ​with​ ​the​ ​fewest​ ​possible​ ​theoretical​ ​assumptions​ ​and​ ​without
 reference​ ​to​ ​assumptions​ ​that​ ​can-not​ ​be​ ​directly​ ​related​ ​to​ ​observed​ ​linguistic,​ ​neurological,
and​ ​experimental​ ​facts.

24. COMPONENTS​ ​OF​ ​LANGUAGE:

a. PHONOLOGY:​ ​The​ ​study​ ​of​ ​contrastive​ ​relationships​ ​among​ ​the​ ​speech​ ​sounds​ ​that
constitute​ ​the​ ​fundamental​ ​components​ ​of​ ​a​ ​language.​ ​The​ ​establishment​ ​and
description​ ​of​ ​the​ ​distinctive​ ​sound​ ​units​ ​of​ ​a​ ​language​ ​(phonemes)​ ​by​ ​means​ ​of
distinctive​ ​features.​ ​Each​ ​phoneme​ ​is​ ​considered​ ​as​ ​consisting​ ​of​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​these
features​ ​and​ ​differing​ ​in​ ​at​ ​least​ ​one​ ​feature​ ​from​ ​the​ ​other​ ​phonemes.
b. LEXICON:​ ​The​ ​vocabulary​ ​of​ ​a​ ​person's​ ​language​ ​in​ ​contrast​ ​to​ ​its​ ​grammar.
c. MORPHOLOGY:​ ​The​ ​study​ ​of​ ​morphemes​ ​and​ ​their​ ​different​ ​forms​ ​(allomorphs),
and​ ​the​ ​way​ ​they​ ​combine​ ​in​ ​word​ ​formation.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​the​ ​English​ ​word
unfriendly​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​from​ ​friend,​ ​the​ ​adjective-forming​ ​suffix​ ​-ly​ ​and​ ​the​ ​negative
prefix​ ​un-.
d. SYNTAX:​ ​The​ ​arrangement​ ​of​ ​words​ ​and​ ​phrases​ ​to​ ​create​ ​well-formed​ ​sentences​ ​in
a​ ​language.​ ​ ​A​ ​set​ ​of​ ​rules​ ​which​ ​govern​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of​ ​sentences,​ ​making​ ​some
sentences​ ​possible​ ​and​ ​others​ ​not​ ​possible​ ​within​ ​a​ ​particular​ ​language.
e. SEMANTICS:​ ​The​ ​branch​ ​of​ ​linguistics​ ​and​ ​logic​ ​concerned​ ​with​ ​meaning.​ ​The​ ​two
main​ ​areas​ ​are​ ​logical​ ​semantics,​ ​concerned​ ​with​ ​matters​ ​such​ ​as​ ​sense​ ​and​ ​reference
and​ ​presupposition​ ​and​ ​implication,​ ​and​ ​lexical​ ​semantics,​ ​concerned​ ​with​ ​the
analysis​ ​of​ ​word​ ​meanings​ ​and​ ​relations​ ​between​ ​them.
f. PRAGMATICS:​ ​The​ ​branch​ ​of​ ​linguistics​ ​dealing​ ​with​ ​language​ ​in​ ​use​ ​and​ ​the
contexts​ ​in​ ​which​ ​it​ ​is​ ​used,​ ​including​ ​such​ ​matters​ ​as​ ​deixis,​ ​the​ ​taking​ ​of​ ​turns​ ​in
conversation,​ ​text​ ​organization,​ ​presupposition,​ ​and​ ​implicature.​ ​Pragmatics​ ​ ​is
sometimes​ ​contrasted​ ​with​ ​semantics,​ ​which​ ​deals​ ​with​ ​meaning​ ​without​ ​reference​ ​to
the​ ​users​ ​and​ ​communicative​ ​functions​ ​and​ ​sentences.
25. COMPREHENSIBLE​ ​INPUT:​ ​A​ ​term​ ​introduced​ ​by​ ​Stephen​ ​Krashen​ ​to​ ​refer​ ​to​ ​language
that​ ​a​ ​learner​ ​can​ ​understand.​ ​It​ ​may​ ​be​ ​comprehensible​ ​in​ ​part​ ​because​ ​of​ ​gestures,​ ​situations,
or​ ​prior​ ​information.
26. COMPREHENSIBLE​ ​INPUT​ ​HYPOTHESIS​ ​vs.​ ​COMPREHENSIBLE​ ​OUTPUT
HYPOTHESIS:
a. Comprehensible​ ​Input​ ​Hypothesis​ ​(CIH):​ ​The​ ​hypothesis​ ​that​ ​put​ ​primary​ ​importance
on​ ​the​ ​comprehensible​ ​input​ ​that​ ​a​ ​language​ ​learners​ ​are​ ​exposed​ ​to.​ ​Understanding
spoken​ ​and​ ​written​ ​language​ ​input​ ​is​ ​seen​ ​as​ ​the​ ​only​ ​mechanism​ ​that​ ​results​ ​in​ ​the
increase​ ​of​ ​linguistic​ ​competence,​ ​and​ ​language​ ​output​ ​is​ ​not​ ​seen​ ​as​ ​having​ ​any
effect​ ​on​ ​learner’s​ ​ability.​ ​Furthermore,​ ​Krashen​ ​(1985)​ ​claimed​ ​that​ ​linguistic
competence​ ​is​ ​only​ ​advanced​ ​when​ ​language​ ​is​ ​subconsciously​ ​acquired.​ ​Learning​ ​is
seen​ ​to​ ​be​ ​heavily​ ​dependent​ ​on​ ​the​ ​mood​ ​of​ ​the​ ​learner,​ ​with​ ​learning​ ​being​ ​impaired
if​ ​the​ ​learner​ ​is​ ​under​ ​stress​ ​of​ ​does​ ​not​ ​pant​ ​to​ ​learn​ ​the​ ​language.
b. Comprehensible​ ​Output​ ​Hypothesis​ ​(COH):​ ​The​ ​hypothesis​ ​that​ ​successful​ ​second
language​ ​acquisition​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​learners​ ​producing​ ​language​ ​(oral​ ​or​ ​written).​ ​This
hypothesis​ ​states​ ​that​ ​learning​ ​takes​ ​place​ ​when​ ​a​ ​learner​ ​encounters​ ​a​ ​gap​ ​in​ ​his​ ​or
her​ ​linguistic​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​L2.​ ​By​ ​noticing​ ​this​ ​gap,​ ​the​ ​learner​ ​becomes​ ​aware
of​ ​it​ ​and​ ​may​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to​ ​modify​ ​his​ ​output​ ​so​ ​that​ ​he​ ​learns​ ​something​ ​new​ ​about​ ​the
language.​ ​Swain​ ​(1985)​ ​claim​ ​that​ ​COH​ ​facilitates​ ​L2​ ​learning​ ​in​ ​ways​ ​that​ ​differ
 from​ ​and​ ​enhance​ ​input​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​mental​ ​processes​ ​connected​ ​with​ ​the​ ​production​ ​of
language.
27. COMPREHENSION-BASED​ ​INSTRUCTION:​ ​A​ ​general​ ​term​ ​to​ ​describe​ ​a​ ​variety​ ​of
second​ ​language​ ​programmes​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the​ ​focus​ ​of​ ​instruction​ ​is​ ​on​ ​comprehension​ ​rather
than​ ​production,​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​Total​ ​Physical​ ​Response​ ​(TPR)​ ​(Krashen).
28. CONNECTIONISM:​ ​A​ ​theory​ ​of​ ​knowledge​ ​(including​ ​language)​ ​as​ ​a​ ​complex​ ​system​ ​of
units​ ​that​ ​become​ ​interconnected​ ​in​ ​the​ ​mind​ ​as​ ​they​ ​are​ ​encountered​ ​together.​ ​The​ ​more
often​ ​units​ ​are​ ​heard​ ​or​ ​seen​ ​together,​ ​the​ ​more​ ​likely​ ​it​ ​is​ ​that​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​one​ ​will​ ​lead​ ​to
the​ ​activation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​other.
29. CONTENT-BASED​ ​INSTRUCTION:​ ​Second​ ​language​ ​programmes​ ​in​ ​which​ ​lessons​ ​are
organized​ ​around​ ​subject​ ​matter​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​language​ ​points.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​in​ ​immersion
programmes​ ​students​ ​study​ ​science,​ ​history,​ ​mathematics,​ ​etc.​ ​in​ ​their​ ​second​ ​language.
30. CONTENT​ ​AND​ ​LANGUAGE​ ​INTEGRATED​ ​LEARNING​ ​(CLIL):​ ​Related​ ​with
content-based​ ​instruction.​ ​Learners​ ​acquire​ ​L2​ ​as​ ​they​ ​study​ ​subject​ ​matter​ ​taught​ ​in​ ​that
language.​ ​(Bilingual​ ​education​ ​or​ ​immersion​ ​programmes)
31. CONTRASTIVE​ ​ANALYSIS​ ​HYPOTHESIS​ ​(CAH):​ ​The​ ​expectation​ ​that​ ​learners​ ​will​ ​have
less​ ​difficulty​ ​acquiring​ ​target​ ​language​ ​patterns​ ​that​ ​are​ ​similar​ ​to​ ​those​ ​of​ ​the​ ​first​ ​language
than​ ​those​ ​that​ ​are​ ​different.
32. CONTROL​ ​vs.​ ​EXPERIMENTAL​ ​GROUP:
a. Control​ ​group:​ ​In​ ​experimental​ ​studies,​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​learners​ ​that​ ​differs​ ​from​ ​the
experimental​ ​group​ ​only​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​single​ ​variable​ ​that​ ​the​ ​researcher​ ​is
investigating.​ ​Performance​ ​of​ ​the​ ​control​ ​group​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​show​ ​that​ ​the​ ​variable​ ​in
question​ ​is​ ​the​ ​best​ ​(or​ ​only)​ ​explanation​ ​for​ ​changes​ ​in​ ​the​ ​experimental​ ​group.
b. ​ ​Experimental​ ​group:​ ​In​ ​experimental​ ​studies,​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​learners​ ​that​ ​is​ ​exposed​ ​to
the​ ​changes​ ​in​ ​the​ ​variables.​ ​Also​ ​called​ ​“comparison​ ​group”​ ​as​ ​it​ ​is​ ​normally
compared​ ​with​ ​the​ ​control​ ​group.
33. CORRELATION:​ ​A​ ​statistical​ ​procedure​ ​that​ ​compares​ ​the​ ​relative​ ​frequency​ ​or​ ​size​ ​of
different​ ​variables​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​determine​ ​whether​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​relationship​ ​between​ ​them.​ ​In​ ​a
positive​ ​correlation,​ ​both​ ​variables​ ​tend​ ​to​ ​increase​ ​or​ ​decrease​ ​in​ ​a​ ​similar​ ​pattern.​ ​For
example,​ ​if​ ​the​ ​students​ ​with​ ​the​ ​highest​ ​grades​ ​in​ ​French​ ​also​ ​spend​ ​the​ ​greatest​ ​number​ ​of
hours​ ​doing​ ​their​ ​homework,​ ​this​ ​would​ ​be​ ​a​ ​positive​ ​correlation,​ ​suggesting​ ​that​ ​as​ ​one
variable​ ​increases,​ ​the​ ​other​ ​does​ ​as​ ​well.​ ​However,​ ​it​ ​does​ ​not​ ​prove​ ​that​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​variables
caused​ ​the​ ​other.​ ​In​ ​a​ ​negative​ ​correlation,​ ​one​ ​variable​ ​increases​ ​as​ ​the​ ​other​ ​decreases.​ ​For
example,​ ​lower​ ​scores​ ​in​ ​a​ ​speaking​ ​task​ ​may​ ​be​ ​associated​ ​with​ ​higher​ ​levels​ ​of​ ​anxiety.
34. CREATIVE​ ​CONSTRUCTION:​ ​Proposed​ ​by​ ​Dulay​ ​and​ ​Burt​ ​(1973)​ ​,​ ​it​ ​asserts​ ​that​ ​L2
learners​ ​do​ ​not​ ​merely​ ​imitate​ ​the​ ​language​ ​they​ ​are​ ​exposed​ ​to,​ ​but​ ​subconsciously​ ​construct
mental​ ​grammars​ ​which​ ​allow​ ​them​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​and​ ​understand​ ​words,​ ​phrases​ ​and​ ​sentences
they​ ​have​ ​not​ ​heard​ ​before.
35. CRITICAL​ ​PERIOD​ ​HYPOTHESIS​ ​(CPH):​ ​The​ ​proposal​ ​that​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​limited​ ​period
during​ ​which​ ​language​ ​acquisition​ ​can​ ​occur.​ ​The​ ​strong​ ​version​ ​of​ ​the​ ​CPH​ ​is​ ​that​ ​there​ ​are
biological​ ​mechanisms​ ​specifically​ ​designed​ ​for​ ​language​ ​acquisition​ ​and​ ​that​ ​these​ ​cease​ ​to
be​ ​available​ ​at​ ​or​ ​even​ ​before​ ​puberty.​ ​Thus​ ​an​ ​older​ ​learner​ ​has​ ​to​ ​use​ ​general​ ​learning
mechanisms​ ​that​ ​are​ ​not​ ​designed​ ​for​ ​-​ ​and​ ​thus​ ​not​ ​as​ ​effective​ ​for​ ​-​ ​language​ ​acquisition.
The​ ​weak​ ​version​ ​(sometimes​ ​called​ ​the​ ​“sensitive​ ​period​ ​hypothesis”)​ ​is​ ​that,​ ​even​ ​though
the​ ​same​ ​learning​ ​mechanisms​ ​are​ ​involved,​ ​second​ ​language​ ​learning​ ​will​ ​be​ ​more​ ​difficult
for​ ​older​ ​learners.
36. CROSS-SECTIONAL​ ​STUDY:​ ​A​ ​study​ ​in​ ​which​ ​participants​ ​at​ ​different​ ​ages​ ​and/or​ ​stages
of​ ​development​ ​are​ ​studied.​ ​Inferences​ ​about​ ​sequences​ ​that​ ​would​ ​apply​ ​to​ ​the​ ​development
of​ ​individual​ ​learners​ ​are​ ​sometimes​ ​drawn​ ​from​ ​cross-sectional​ ​studies.​ ​This​ ​contrasts​ ​with
longitudinal​ ​studies.
37. DEDUCTIVE​ ​vs.​ ​INDUCTIVE​ ​LEARNING/TEACHING:
a. Deductive​ ​learning/teaching:
b. Inductive​ ​learning/teaching:
38. DESCRIPTIVE​ ​STUDY:​ ​Research​ ​that​ ​does​ ​not​ ​involve​ ​any​ ​manipulation,​ ​change​ ​or
intervention​ ​in​ ​the​ ​phenomenon​ ​being​ ​studied.​ ​The​ ​researcher’s​ ​goal​ ​is​ ​to​ ​observe​ ​and​ ​record
what​ ​is​ ​happening.​ ​This​ ​contrasts​ ​with​ ​experimental​ ​study.
39. DEVELOPMENTAL​ ​FEATURES:​ ​Those​ ​aspects​ ​of​ ​a​ ​language​ ​which,​ ​according​ ​to
Pienemann​ ​and​ ​his​ ​colleagues,​ ​develop​ ​in​ ​a​ ​particular​ ​sequence,​ ​regardless​ ​of​ ​input​ ​variation,
learner​ ​motivation,​ ​or​ ​instructional​ ​intervention.
40. DEVELOPMENTAL​ ​STAGES/SEQUENCES:​ ​The​ ​order​ ​in​ ​which​ ​certain​ ​features​ ​of​ ​a
language​ ​(for​ ​example,​ ​negation)​ ​are​ ​acquired​ ​in​ ​language​ ​learning.
41. DISPLAY/TEST​ ​vs.​ ​REFERENTIAL/GENUINE​ ​QUESTIONS:
a. Display/test​ ​questions:​ ​Questions​ ​to​ ​which​ ​the​ ​asker​ ​already​ ​knows​ ​the​ ​answer.
Teachers​ ​often​ ​ask​ ​these​ ​questions​ ​(for​ ​example,​ ​“what​ ​colour​ ​is​ ​your​ ​shirt?”)​ ​to​ ​get
the​ ​learner​ ​to​ ​display​ ​his​ ​or​ ​her​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​language.
b. Referential/genuine​ ​questions:​ ​Questions​ ​to​ ​which​ ​the​ ​asker​ ​does​ ​not​ ​know​ ​the
answer​ ​in​ ​advance​ ​(for​ ​example:​ ​“What​ ​did​ ​you​ ​do​ ​last​ ​weekend?”).​ ​Also​ ​called
“information”​ ​questions.
42. DOMINANT​ ​LANGUAGE:​ ​The​ ​language​ ​that​ ​one​ ​uses​ ​most​ ​often​ ​and​ ​is​ ​most​ ​competent​ ​in.
In​ ​translation​ ​and​ ​interpretation,​ ​this​ ​is​ ​often​ ​considered​ ​more​ ​appropriate​ ​as​ ​an​ ​indication​ ​of​ ​a
translator's​ ​or​ ​interpreter’s​ ​ability​ ​that​ ​terms​ ​such​ ​as​ ​first​ ​language​ ​or​ ​mother​ ​tongue.
(Longman)
43. ENHANCED​ ​INPUT:​ ​Input​ ​that​ ​is​ ​altered​ ​in​ ​an​ ​effort​ ​to​ ​make​ ​some​ ​language​ ​features​ ​more
salient​ ​to​ ​learners.​ ​It​ ​can​ ​be​ ​more​ ​or​ ​less​ ​explicit,​ ​ranging​ ​from​ ​explicit​ ​metalinguistic
comments​ ​to​ ​typographical​ ​enhancement​ ​(bold​ ​type​ ​or​ ​underlining)​ ​or​ ​exaggerated​ ​stress​ ​in
speaking.
44. ERROR​ ​vs.​ ​MISTAKE:
a. Error:​ ​the​ ​incorrect​ ​use​ ​of​ ​a​ ​linguistic​ ​item​ ​due​ ​to​ ​incomplete​ ​learning.
b. Mistake:​ ​the​ ​incorrect​ ​use​ ​of​ ​a​ ​linguistic​ ​item​ ​due​ ​to​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​attention,​ ​fatigue,
carelessness,​ ​etc.
45. ERROR​ ​(AMBIGUOUS​ ​vs.​ ​DEVELOPMENTAL​ ​vs.​ ​OVERGENERALIZATION​ ​vs.
TRANSFER):​​ ​(p.​ ​81-82)
a. Ambiguous:
b. Developmental:​ ​Similar​ ​to​ ​those​ ​made​ ​by​ ​any​ ​children​ ​acquiring​ ​their​ ​first​ ​language.
Errors​ ​are​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​low​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​developmental​ ​sequences.For​ ​example:​ ​in
English,​ ​subject-verb​ ​agreement.
c. Overgeneralization:​ ​Errors​ ​caused​ ​by​ ​trying​ ​to​ ​use​ ​a​ ​rule​ ​in​ ​a​ ​context​ ​where​ ​it​ ​does
not​ ​belong,​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​the​ ​-s​ ​ending​ ​on​ ​the​ ​verb​ ​in​ ​“they​ ​plays”.
d. Transfer:​ ​Also​ ​called​ ​interference​ ​errors.​ ​Errors​ ​in​ ​the​ ​L2​ ​that​ ​are​ ​based​ ​and
influenced​ ​by​ ​the​ ​L1.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​a​ ​French​ ​student’s​ ​wrong​ ​use​ ​of​ ​preposition​ ​“in
the​ ​same​ ​time”​ ​instead​ ​of​ ​“at​ ​the​ ​same​ ​time”,​ ​based​ ​on​ ​preposition​ ​“​en​”​ ​on​ ​French.
46. ESL​ ​vs.​ ​EFL:​ ​ESL​ ​is​ ​an​ ​abbreviation​ ​for​ ​English​ ​as​ ​a​ ​Second​ ​Language,​ ​whereas​ ​EFL​ ​stands
for​ ​English​ ​as​ ​a​ ​Foreign​ ​Language.​ ​These​ ​are​ ​two​ ​different​ ​approaches​ ​of​ ​learning​ ​English.
ESL​ ​is​ ​used​ ​in​ ​context​ ​to​ ​teaching​ ​English​ ​in​ ​multilingual​ ​groups​ ​in​ ​a​ ​country​ ​where​ ​English
is​ ​the​ ​official​ ​or​ ​dominant​ ​language​ ​(Canada)​ ​whereas​ ​EFL​ ​is​ ​used​ ​in​ ​context​ ​to​ ​teaching
English​ ​in​ ​monolingual​ ​groups​ ​in​ ​their​ ​own​ ​country​ ​(Spain).
47. EXPERIMENTAL​ ​STUDY:​ ​Research​ ​designed​ ​to​ ​test​ ​a​ ​hypothesis​ ​about​ ​the​ ​impact​ ​of​ ​one
or​ ​more​ ​very​ ​specific​ ​variables​ ​on​ ​another​ ​variable.​ ​A​ ​strictly​ ​experimental​ ​study​ ​would​ ​have
“experimental”​ ​and​ ​“control”​ ​groups​ ​that​ ​differ​ ​from​ ​each​ ​other​ ​only​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of
absence​ ​of​ ​the​ ​variable(s)​ ​of​ ​interest.​ ​In​ ​educational​ ​research,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​often​ ​difficult​ ​to​ ​create​ ​all
of​ ​the​ ​conditions​ ​that​ ​permit​ ​a​ ​study​ ​to​ ​be​ ​termed​ ​as​ ​a​ ​“genuine”​ ​experimental​ ​study.​ ​In​ ​this
book,​ ​the​ ​term​ ​is​ ​used​ ​in​ ​a​ ​non-technical​ ​sense​ ​to​ ​refer​ ​to​ ​research​ ​in​ ​which​ ​an​ ​attempt​ ​has
been​ ​made​ ​to​ ​investigate​ ​a​ ​single​ ​variable​ ​in​ ​an​ ​educational​ ​setting.
48. CORRECTIVE/NEGATIVE​ ​vs.​ ​POSITIVE​ ​FEEDBACK:
a. Corrective/negative​ ​feedback:​ ​An​ ​indication​ ​to​ ​a​ ​learner​ ​that​ ​his​ ​or​ ​her​ ​use​ ​of​ ​the
target​ ​language​ ​is​ ​incorrect.​ ​Corrective​ ​feedback​ ​can​ ​be​ ​explicit​ ​(for​ ​example,​ ​in
response​ ​to​ ​the​ ​learner​ ​error​ ​“He​ ​go”​ ​-​ ​“no,​ ​you​ ​should​ ​say​ ​goes,​ ​not​ ​go”)​ ​or​ ​implicit​ ​(
for​ ​example,​ ​“yes,​ ​he​ ​goes​ ​to​ ​school​ ​every​ ​day”),​ ​and​ ​may​ ​or​ ​may​ ​not​ ​include
metalinguistic​ ​information​ ​(for​ ​example,​ ​“don’t​ ​forget​ ​to​ ​make​ ​the​ ​verb​ ​agree​ ​with
the​ ​subject”).​​ ​(Decir​ ​tipos​ ​de​ ​corrective​ ​feedback???)
b. Positive​ ​feedback:
49. FIELD​ ​INDEPENDENT​ ​vs.​ ​FIELD​ ​DEPENDENT:​ ​This​ ​distinction​ ​has​ ​been​ ​used​ ​to
describe​ ​people​ ​who​ ​differ​ ​in​ ​their​ ​tendency​ ​to​ ​see​ ​the​ ​forest​ ​or​ ​the​ ​trees.​ ​That​ ​is,​ ​some​ ​people
(called​ ​field​ ​independent)​ ​are​ ​very​ ​quick​ ​to​ ​pick​ ​out​ ​the​ ​hidden​ ​figures​ ​in​ ​a​ ​complicated
drawing​ ​(a​ ​learning​ ​style​ ​in​ ​which​ ​a​ ​learner​ ​is​ ​able​ ​to​ ​identify​ ​or​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​particular​ ​items​ ​and
is​ ​not​ ​distracted​ ​by​ ​other​ ​items​ ​in​ ​the​ ​background​ ​or​ ​context).​ ​Others​ ​(called​ ​field​ ​dependent)
are​ ​more​ ​inclined​ ​to​ ​see​ ​the​ ​whole​ ​drawing​ ​and​ ​have​ ​difficulty​ ​separating​ ​it​ ​into​ ​parts​ ​(a
learning​ ​style​ ​in​ ​which​ ​a​ ​learner​ ​tends​ ​to​ ​look​ ​at​ ​the​ ​whole​ ​of​ ​a​ ​learning​ ​task​ ​which​ ​contains
many​ ​items).
50. FIRST​ ​LANGUAGE​ ​ACQUISITION​ ​(FLA)​ ​/​ ​CHILD​ ​LANGUAGE​ ​DEVELOPMENT​:​ ​In
general​ ​linguists​ ​maintain​ ​that​ ​a​ ​first​ ​language​ ​is​ ​acquired,​ ​i.e.​ ​that​ ​knowledge​ ​is​ ​stored
unconsciously.​ ​ ​FLA​ ​(first​ ​language​ ​acquisition)​ ​is​ ​not​ ​learned,​ ​as​ ​no​ ​instruction​ ​is​ ​required.
First​ ​language​ ​acquisition​ ​is​ ​connected​ ​to​ ​cognitive​ ​development​ ​with​ ​the​ ​latter​ ​preceding​ ​the
former​ ​somewhat.​ ​ ​There​ ​are​ ​certain​ ​phases​ ​in​ ​first​ ​language​ ​acquisition:​ ​one-word,​ ​two-word
and​ ​multi-word​ ​stages.​ ​Furthermore,​ ​in​ ​early​ ​childhood​ ​children​ ​make​ ​maximally​ ​simpler
generalisations​ ​about​ ​language,​ ​e.g.​ ​that​ ​all​ ​verbs​ ​are​ ​weak.​ ​After​ ​a​ ​while​ ​they​ ​correct
themselves​ ​(when​ ​they​ ​just​ ​hear​ ​the​ ​adult​ ​forms).​ ​Once​ ​they​ ​have​ ​acquired​ ​the​ ​latter​ ​they
remember​ ​them.​ ​In​ ​FLA​ ​children​ ​make​ ​errors,​ ​systematic​ ​ill-formed​ ​structures​ ​based​ ​on​ ​the
level​ ​of​ ​acquisition​ ​on​ ​which​ ​they​ ​happen​ ​to​ ​be.​ ​In​ ​post-puberty​ ​SLA​ ​individuals​ ​make
mistakes​ ​which​ ​are​ ​often​ ​random​ ​and​ ​erratic,​ ​though​ ​a​ ​degree​ ​of​ ​regularity​ ​can​ ​be​ ​recognised
here.​ ​With​ ​SLA​ ​there​ ​can​ ​be​ ​interference​ ​from​ ​the​ ​first​ ​language,​ ​i.e.​ ​structures​ ​from​ ​L1​ ​are
carried​ ​over​ ​into​ ​L2​ ​where​ ​they​ ​do​ ​not​ ​occur​ ​natively.​ ​Interference​ ​obviously​ ​does​ ​not​ ​occur
in​ ​FLA.
51. FIRST/NATIVE​ ​LANGUAGE/​ ​MOTHER​ ​TONGUE​ ​(L1):​ ​The​ ​language​ ​first​ ​learned.​ ​Many
children​ ​learn​ ​more​ ​that​ ​one​ ​language​ ​from​ ​birth​ ​and​ ​may​ ​be​ ​said​ ​to​ ​have​ ​more​ ​than​ ​one
“first”​ ​language.
52. FOREIGN​ ​LANGUAGE​ ​(FL)​ ​LEARNING​ ​vs.​ ​SECOND​ ​LANGUAGE​ ​(SL)​ ​LEARNING:
 a. Foreign​ ​language​ ​learning:​ ​This​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​learning​ ​of​ ​a​ ​language,​ ​usually​ ​in​ ​a
classroom​ ​setting,​ ​in​ ​a​ ​context​ ​where​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language​ ​is​ ​not​ ​widely​ ​used​ ​in​ ​the
community​ ​(for​ ​example,​ ​learning​ ​French​ ​in​ ​China).
b. Second​ ​language​ ​learning:​ ​This​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​learning​ ​of​ ​a​ ​language​ ​where​ ​the
language​ ​being​ ​learned​ ​is​ ​used​ ​in​ ​the​ ​community​ ​(for​ ​example,​ ​learning​ ​Italian​ ​in
Florence).
53. FOREIGNER​ ​TALK:​ ​The​ ​modified​ ​or​ ​simplified​ ​language​ ​that​ ​some​ ​native​ ​speakers​ ​address
to​ ​second​ ​language​ ​learners.​ ​A​ ​special​ ​category​ ​of​ ​foreigner​ ​talk​ ​is​ ​teacher​ ​talk.
54. FORM-FOCUSED​ ​INSTRUCTION​ ​/​ ​FOCUS​ ​ON​ ​FORM​ ​TEACHING:​ ​Instruction​ ​that
draws​ ​attention​ ​to​ ​the​ ​forms​ ​and​ ​structures​ ​of​ ​the​ ​language​ ​within​ ​the​ ​context​ ​of
communicative​ ​interaction.​ ​This​ ​may​ ​be​ ​done​ ​by​ ​giving​ ​metalinguistic​ ​information,​ ​simply
highlighting​ ​the​ ​form​ ​in​ ​question,​ ​or​ ​by​ ​providing​ ​corrective​ ​feedback.
55. FORMAL​ ​vs.​ ​INFORMAL​ ​LANGUAGE​ ​LEARNING​ ​SETTING:
a. Formal:​ ​a​ ​careful,​ ​impersonal​ ​and​ ​often​ ​public​ ​mode​ ​of​ ​speaking​ ​used​ ​to​ ​express​ ​a
polite​ ​distance​ ​between​ ​participants,​ ​and​ ​which​ ​may​ ​influence​ ​pronunciation,​ ​choice
of​ ​words,​ ​and​ ​sentence​ ​structure.
b. Informal:​ ​an​ ​informal​ ​type​ ​of​ ​speech​ ​used​ ​among​ ​friends​ ​and​ ​others​ ​in​ ​situations
where​ ​empathy,​ ​rapport​ ​or​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​social​ ​barriers​ ​are​ ​important.​ ​Colloquial​ ​speech​ ​is
often​ ​marked​ ​by​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​slang​ ​or​ ​idioms​ ​and​ ​by​ ​other​ ​linguistic​ ​characteristics​ ​such
as​ ​deletion​ ​of​ ​subject​ ​or​ ​auxiliaries.
56. FORMULAIC​ ​PATTERNS​ ​/​ ​ROUTINES:​ ​Expressions​ ​or​ ​phrases​ ​that​ ​are​ ​often​ ​perceived
and​ ​learned​ ​as​ ​unanalysed​ ​wholes.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​a​ ​child​ ​or​ ​second​ ​language​ ​learner​ ​may​ ​first
hear​ ​“What’s​ ​that?”​ ​as​ ​a​ ​single​ ​unit​ ​of​ ​language​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​as​ ​three​ ​units.
57. FOSSILIZATION​ ​vs.​ ​MASTERY:
a. Fossilization:​ ​This​ ​term​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​describe​ ​a​ ​persistent​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​change​ ​in
interlanguage​ ​patterns,​ ​even​ ​after​ ​extended​ ​exposure​ ​to​ ​or​ ​instruction​ ​in​ ​the​ ​target
language.
b. Mastery:​ ​(=​ ​as​ ​stabilization??)
58. GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION​ ​APPROACH/METHOD:​ ​An​ ​approach​ ​to​ ​second​ ​language
teaching​ ​characterized​ ​by​ ​the​ ​explicit​ ​teaching​ ​of​ ​grammar​ ​rules​ ​and​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​translation
exercises.
59. GRAMMATICAL​ ​MORPHEME:​ ​Morphemes​ ​are​ ​the​ ​smallest​ ​units​ ​of​ ​language​ ​that​ ​carry
meaning.​ ​A​ ​simple​ ​word​ ​is​ ​a​ ​morpheme​ ​(for​ ​example,​ ​book),​ ​but​ ​when​ ​we​ ​talk​ ​about
“grammatical​ ​morphemes”​ ​we​ ​are​ ​usually​ ​referring​ ​to​ ​smaller​ ​units​ ​that​ ​are​ ​added​ ​to​ ​words​ ​to
alter​ ​their​ ​meaning​ ​(for​ ​example,​ ​the​ ​-s​ ​in​ ​books​ ​indicates​ ​plural)​ ​or​ ​function​ ​words​ ​(for
example,​ ​the)​ ​which​ ​are​ ​ordinarily​ ​attached​ ​to​ ​another​ ​word.
60. IMMERSION​ ​PROGRAMMES​ ​(TOTAL​ ​vs.​ ​PARTIAL):​ ​An​ ​educational​ ​programme​ ​in
which​ ​a​ ​second​ ​language​ ​is​ ​taught​ ​via​ ​content-​ ​based​ ​instruction.​ ​that​ ​is,​ ​students​ ​study
subjects​ ​such​ ​as​ ​mathematics​ ​and​ ​social​ ​studies​ ​in​ ​their​ ​second​ ​language.​ ​Typically,​ ​students
in​ ​immersion​ ​programmes​ ​share​ ​the​ ​same​ ​first​ ​language.​ ​It​ ​can​ ​be​ ​total​ ​(in​ ​the​ ​students​ ​are
taught​ ​in​ ​the​ ​L2​ ​for​ ​the​ ​whole​ ​day)​ ​or​ ​partial​ ​(in​ ​they​ ​are​ ​taught​ ​in​ ​the​ ​L2​ ​for​ ​only​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the
day).
61. INFORMATION​ ​PROCESSING:​ ​A​ ​psychological​ ​theory​ ​that​ ​uses​ ​a​ ​computer​ ​metaphor​ ​for
the​ ​human​ ​brain.​ ​It​ ​includes​ ​the​ ​idea​ ​that​ ​the​ ​brain​ ​has​ ​a​ ​very​ ​large​ ​capacity​ ​to​ ​store
information​ ​for​ ​the​ ​long​ ​term,​ ​but​ ​a​ ​more​ ​limited​ ​capacity​ ​for​ ​information​ ​that​ ​requires​ ​our
 attention.​ ​With​ ​repeated​ ​experience​ ​and​ ​practice,​ ​things​ ​which​ ​at​ ​first​ ​required​ ​attention
become​ ​automatic,​ ​leaving​ ​more​ ​attention​ ​available​ ​for​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​something​ ​else.
62. INNATISM:​ ​A​ ​theory​ ​that​ ​human​ ​beings​ ​are​ ​born​ ​with​ ​mental​ ​structures​ ​that​ ​are​ ​designed
specifically​ ​for​ ​the​ ​acquisition​ ​of​ ​language.
63. INPUT:​ ​The​ ​language​ ​that​ ​the​ ​learner​ ​is​ ​exposed​ ​to​ ​(either​ ​written​ ​or​ ​spoken)​ ​in​ ​the
environment.
64. INTAKE:​ ​The​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the​ ​input​ ​that​ ​has​ ​been​ ​attended​ ​to​ ​and​ ​noticed​ ​by​ ​L2​ ​learners​ ​and​ ​that
actually​ ​plays​ ​a​ ​role​ ​in​ ​language​ ​learning.
65. OUTPUT:​ ​The​ ​language​ ​that​ ​the​ ​learner​ ​produce​ ​(either​ ​written​ ​or​ ​spoken).
66. INTERACTIONISM​ ​(​ ​=​ ​INTERACTIONIST​ ​HYPOTHESIS???)​:​ ​The​ ​hypothesis​ ​that
language​ ​acquisition​ ​is​ ​based​ ​both​ ​on​ ​learners’​ ​innate​ ​abilities​ ​and​ ​on​ ​opportunities​ ​to​ ​engage
in​ ​conversations,​ ​often​ ​those​ ​in​ ​which​ ​other​ ​speakers​ ​modify​ ​their​ ​speech​ ​and​ ​their​ ​interaction
patterns​ ​to​ ​match​ ​the​ ​learners’​ ​communication​ ​requirements.​ ​The​ ​innate​ ​abilities​ ​are​ ​not​ ​seen
as​ ​a​ ​being​ ​specific​ ​to​ ​language​ ​or​ ​language​ ​acquisition.
67. INPUT​ ​PROCESSING​ ​THEORY:​ ​VanPatten​ ​observed​ ​many​ ​cases​ ​of​ ​students
misinterpreting​ ​sentences.​ ​(misunderstanding​ ​“La​ ​sigue​ ​el​ ​doctor”​ ​and​ ​She​ ​follows​ ​the
doctor).​ ​VanPattern​ ​argued​ ​that​ ​the​ ​problem​ ​arose​ ​in​ ​part​ ​from​ ​the​ ​fact​ ​that​ ​learners​ ​have
limited​ ​processing​ ​capacity​ ​and​ ​cannot​ ​pay​ ​attention​ ​to​ ​form​ ​and​ ​meaning​ ​at​ ​the​ ​same​ ​time.
They​ ​tend​ ​to​ ​give​ ​priority​ ​to​ ​meaning.
68. INTERFERENCE:​ ​Also​ ​known​ ​as​ ​negative​ ​transfer????​ ​It​ ​is​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​a​ ​native-language
pattern​ ​or​ ​rule​ ​which​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​an​ ​error​ ​or​ ​inappropriate​ ​form​ ​in​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language.
69. INTERLANGUAGE:​ ​A​ ​learner’s​ ​developing​ ​second​ ​language​ ​knowledge.​ ​It​ ​may​ ​have
characteristics​ ​of​ ​the​ ​learner’s​ ​first​ ​language,​ ​characteristics​ ​of​ ​the​ ​second​ ​language,​ ​and​ ​some
characteristics​ ​that​ ​seem​ ​to​ ​be​ ​very​ ​general​ ​and​ ​tend​ ​to​ ​occur​ ​in​ ​all​ ​or​ ​most​ ​interlanguage
systems.​ ​Interlanguages​ ​are​ ​systematic,​ ​but​ ​they​ ​are​ ​also​ ​dynamic.​ ​They​ ​change​ ​as​ ​learners
receive​ ​more​ ​input​ ​and​ ​revise​ ​their​ ​hypotheses​ ​about​ ​the​ ​second​ ​language.
70. INTERLANGUAGE​ ​TALK:​ ​Conversation​ ​between​ ​two​ ​non-native​ ​speakers.???
71. JUDGEMENTS​ ​OF​ ​GRAMMATICALITY:​ ​A​ ​test​ ​or​ ​task​ ​in​ ​which​ ​participants​ ​are​ ​asked​ ​to
make​ ​a​ ​decision​ ​about​ ​whether​ ​a​ ​sentence​ ​is​ ​correct​ ​(or​ ​appropriate)​ ​or​ ​not.​ ​By​ ​using​ ​this,
investigators​ ​hope​ ​to​ ​gain​ ​insight​ ​into​ ​what​ ​learners​ ​actually​ ​know​ ​about​ ​the​ ​language​ ​rather
than​ ​how​ ​they​ ​happen​ ​to​ ​use​ ​it​ ​in​ ​a​ ​given​ ​situation.
72. L1​ ​vs.​ ​L2​ ​vs.​ ​L3:
a. L1:​ ​First​ ​language,​ ​it’s​ ​a​ ​person’s​ ​mother​ ​tongue​ ​or​ ​the​ ​language​ ​acquired​ ​first.​ ​In
multilingual​ ​communities,​ ​where​ ​a​ ​child​ ​may​ ​gradually​ ​shift​ ​from​ ​the​ ​main​ ​use​ ​of​ ​one
language​ ​to​ ​the​ ​main​ ​use​ ​of​ ​another,​ ​first​ ​language​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​language​ ​the​ ​child
feels​ ​most​ ​comfortable​ ​using.
b. L​2:​ ​Second​ ​language,​ ​any​ ​language​ ​learned​ ​after​ ​one​ ​has​ ​learnt​ ​one’s​ ​native
language.​ ​Also​ ​called​ ​non-native​ ​language/additional​ ​language
c. L3:
73. L2​ ​ACQUISITION​ ​PROCESS​?????​:​ ​(In​ ​Krashen’s​ ​“monitor​ ​model”)​ ​It​ ​is​ ​an​ ​automatic
process​ ​that​ ​develops​ ​at​ ​the​ ​level​ ​of​ ​the​ ​subconscious.​ ​There​ ​is​ ​no​ ​conscious​ ​effort​ ​on​ ​the​ ​part
of​ ​the​ ​individual​ ​nor​ ​an​ ​emphasis​ ​on​ ​the​ ​formal​ ​aspect​ ​of​ ​the​ ​language.​ ​Attention​ ​is​ ​focused
on​ ​meaning​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​in​ ​language​ ​form.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​contrasted​ ​with​ ​L2​ ​learning​ ​by​ ​Krashen,​ ​which
is​ ​a​ ​conscious​ ​process​ ​which​ ​pays​ ​attention​ ​to​ ​the​ ​language​ ​itself​ ​(form)​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​meaning.
74. L2​ ​LEARNER​ ​vs.​ ​L2​ ​STUDENT:
75. L2​ ​LEARNER​ ​(INSTRUCTION​ ​ONLY​ ​vs.​ ​MIXED​ ​vs.​ ​NATURALISTIC​ ​ONLY):
 a. Instruction​ ​only:​ ​In​ ​structure-based​ ​instructional​ ​environments,​ ​the​ ​language​ ​is​ ​taught
to​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​second​ ​or​ ​foreign​ ​language​ ​learners.​ ​The​ ​focus​ ​is​ ​on​ ​the​ ​language​ ​itself,
rather​ ​than​ ​on​ ​the​ ​messages​ ​carried​ ​by​ ​the​ ​language.​ ​The​ ​teacher’s​ ​goal​ ​is​ ​to​ ​see​ ​to​ ​it
that​ ​students​ ​learn​ ​the​ ​vocabulary​ ​and​ ​grammatical​ ​rules​ ​of​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language.
b. Mixed:​ ​Communicative,​ ​content-based,​ ​and​ ​task-based​ ​instructional​ ​environments
also​ ​involve​ ​learners​ ​whose​ ​goal​ ​is​ ​learning​ ​the​ ​language​ ​itself,​ ​but​ ​the​ ​style​ ​of
instruction​ ​places​ ​emphasis​ ​on​ ​interaction,​ ​conversation,​ ​and​ ​language​ ​use,​ ​rather
than​ ​on​ ​learning​ ​about​ ​the​ ​language.
c. Naturalistic​ ​only:​ ​Methods​ ​or​ ​context​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the​ ​learner​ ​is​ ​exposed​ ​to​ ​the​ ​language
at​ ​work​ ​or​ ​in​ ​social​ ​interaction​ ​or,​ ​if​ ​the​ ​learner​ ​is​ ​a​ ​child,​ ​in​ ​a​ ​school​ ​situation​ ​where
most​ ​of​ ​the​ ​other​ ​children​ ​are​ ​native​ ​speakers​ ​of​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language​ ​and​ ​where​ ​the
instruction​ ​is​ ​directed​ ​toward​ ​native​ ​speakers​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​toward​ ​learners​ ​of​ ​the
language.
76. LANGUAGE​ ​ERROR​ ​vs​ ​PRAGMATIC​ ​FAILURE:
a. Language​ ​error:​ ​an​ ​error​ ​in​ ​the​ ​language​ ​use​ ​of​ ​a​ ​first​ ​or​ ​second​ ​language​ ​learner
which​ ​is​ ​the​ ​result​ ​of​ ​a​ ​normal​ ​pattern​ ​of​ ​development,​ ​and​ ​which​ ​is​ ​common​ ​among
language​ ​learners.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​in​ ​learning​ ​English,​ ​first​ ​and​ ​second​ ​language
learners​ ​often​ ​produce​ ​verb​ ​forms​ ​such​ ​as​ ​comed,​ ​goed​ ​and​ ​breaked​ ​instead​ ​of​ ​came,
went​ ​and​ ​broke.​ ​this​ ​is​ ​thought​ ​to​ ​be​ ​because​ ​they​ ​have​ ​learned​ ​the​ ​rule​ ​for​ ​regular
past​ ​tense​ ​formation​ ​and​ ​then​ ​apply​ ​it​ ​to​ ​all​ ​verbs.​ ​Later​ ​such​ ​errors​ ​disappear​ ​as​ ​the
learners’​ ​language​ ​ability​ ​increases.​ ​These​ ​overgeneralizations​ ​are​ ​a​ ​natural​ ​or
developmental​ ​stage​ ​in​ ​language​ ​learning.
b. Pragmatic​ ​failure:​ ​a​ ​communicative​ ​failure​ ​that​ ​occurs​ ​when​ ​the​ ​pragmatic​ ​force​ ​of​ ​a
message​ ​is​ ​misunderstood,​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​if​ ​an​ ​intended​ ​apology​ ​is​ ​interpreted​ ​as​ ​an
excuse.
77. LANGUAGE​ ​ACQUISITION​ ​vs.​ ​LANGUAGE​ ​LEARNING:
a. Language​ ​acquisition:​ ​This​ ​term​ ​is​ ​most​ ​often​ ​used​ ​interchangeably​ ​with​ ​language
learning.​ ​However,​ ​for​ ​some​ ​researchers,​ ​most​ ​notably​ ​Stephen​ ​Krashen,​ ​acquisition
is​ ​contrasted​ ​with​ ​learning.​ ​According​ ​to​ ​Krashen,​ ​acquisition​ ​represents
“unconscious”​ ​learning,​ ​which​ ​takes​ ​place​ ​when​ ​attention​ ​is​ ​focused​ ​on​ ​meaning
rather​ ​than​ ​language​ ​form.
b. Language​ ​learning:​ ​This​ ​term​ ​can​ ​be​ ​a​ ​general​ ​one,​ ​referring​ ​simply​ ​to​ ​an​ ​individual’s
developing​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language.​ ​In​ ​Stephen​ ​Krashen’s​ ​terms,​ ​however,
learning​ ​is​ ​described​ ​as​ ​a​ ​conscious​ ​process​ ​that​ ​occurs​ ​when​ ​the​ ​learner’s​ ​objective
is​ ​to​ ​learn​ ​about​ ​the​ ​language​ ​itself,​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​to​ ​understand​ ​messages​ ​conveyed
through​ ​the​ ​language.
78. LANGUAGE​ ​ACQUISITION​ ​DEVICE​ ​(LAD):​ ​In​ ​generative​ ​theory,​ ​the​ ​view​ ​is​ ​widely​ ​held
that​ ​humans​ ​are​ ​innately​ ​endowed​ ​with​ ​a​ ​specific​ ​faculty​ ​or​ ​mental​ ​module​ ​which​ ​provides
them​ ​with​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​procedures​ ​for​ ​developing​ ​the​ ​grammar​ ​of​ ​their​ ​native​ ​language.
79. LANGUAGE​ ​ATTRITION/LOSS:​ ​Gradual​ ​loss​ ​of​ ​language​ ​of​ ​an​ ​individual,​ ​either​ ​of​ ​a
second​ ​or​ ​foreign​ ​language​ ​after​ ​instruction​ ​(L2​ ​attrition)​ ​or​ ​of​ ​the​ ​first​ ​language​ ​(L1​ ​attrition)
in​ ​situations​ ​where​ ​the​ ​community​ ​speaks​ ​a​ ​different​ ​language,​ ​as​ ​ ​language​ ​loos​ ​among
immigrants.
80. LANGUAGE​ ​DOMINANCE:​ ​(In​ ​individual​ ​bilingualism/multilingualism).​ ​Greater​ ​ability​ ​in,
or​ ​greater​ ​importance​ ​of,​ ​one​ ​language​ ​than​ ​another.​ ​For​ ​an​ ​individual,​ ​this​ ​means​ ​that​ ​a
person​ ​who​ ​speaks​ ​more​ ​than​ ​one​ ​language​ ​or​ ​dialect​ ​considers​ ​that​ ​he​ ​or​ ​she​ ​knows​ ​one​ ​of
 the​ ​languages​ ​better​ ​than​ ​the​ ​other(s)​ ​and​ ​/or​ ​uses​ ​it​ ​more​ ​frequently​ ​and​ ​with​ ​greater​ ​ease.
The​ ​dominant​ ​language​ ​may​ ​be​ ​his​ ​or​ ​her​ ​native​ ​language​ ​or​ ​may​ ​have​ ​been​ ​acquired​ ​later​ ​in
life​ ​at​ ​school​ ​or​ ​a​ ​place​ ​of​ ​employment.
81. LONGITUDINAL​ ​STUDY:​ ​A​ ​study​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the​ ​same​ ​learners​ ​are​ ​studied​ ​over​ ​a​ ​period​ ​of
time.​ ​This​ ​contrasts​ ​with​ ​a​ ​cross-sectional​ ​study.
82. MAJORITY​ ​vs.​ ​MINORITY​ ​LANGUAGES:
a. Majority​ ​languages:​ ​languages​ ​spoken​ ​by​ ​the​ ​majority​ ​of​ ​the​ ​population​ ​of​ ​a​ ​country.
b. Minority​ ​languages:​ ​languages​ ​spoken​ ​by​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​people​ ​who​ ​form​ ​a​ ​minority
within​ ​the​ ​country.
83. METALANGUAGE:​ ​Language​ ​used​ ​to​ ​describe​ ​or​ ​analyze​ ​language​.?????
84. METALINGUISTIC​ ​AWARENESS/KNOWLEDGE:​ ​Knowledge​ ​of​ ​form,​ ​structure​ ​and
other​ ​aspects​ ​of​ ​a​ ​language​ ​that​ ​a​ ​learner​ ​gets​ ​by​ ​analyzing​ ​that​ ​language.
85. MODIFIED​ ​INPUT​ ​vs.​ ​MODIFIED​ ​INTERACTION:
a. Modified​ ​input:​ ​Adapted​ ​speech​ ​that​ ​adults​ ​use​ ​to​ ​address​ ​children​ ​and​ ​native
speakers​ ​use​ ​to​ ​address​ ​language​ ​learners​ ​so​ ​that​ ​they​ ​will​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to​ ​understand.
Examples​ ​of​ ​modified​ ​input​ ​include​ ​shorter,​ ​simpler​ ​sentences,​ ​and​ ​basic​ ​vocabulary.
b. Modified​ ​interaction:​ ​Adapted​ ​conversation​ ​patterns​ ​that​ ​proficient​ ​speakers​ ​use​ ​in
addressing​ ​language​ ​learners​ ​so​ ​that​ ​the​ ​learner​ ​will​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to​ ​understand.​ ​Examples
of​ ​interactional​ ​modifications​ ​include​ ​comprehension​ ​checks,​ ​clarification​ ​requests,
and​ ​self-repetitions.
86. MOTIVATION​ ​(ASSIMILATE​ ​vs.​ ​INTEGRATIVE​ ​vs.​ ​INSTRUMENTAL)​ ​:​ T ​ he​ ​driving
force​ ​in​ ​any​ ​situation​ ​that​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​action.​ ​In​ ​language​ ​learning,​ ​it’s​ ​the​ ​combination​ ​of​ ​the
learner’s​ ​attitudes,​ ​desires​ ​and​ ​willingness​ ​to​ ​expend​ ​effort​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​learn​ ​the​ ​L2
87. NATIVE​ ​SPEAKER​ ​vs.​ ​NON-NATIVE​ ​SPEAKER:
a. Native​ ​speaker:​ ​A​ ​person​ ​who​ ​has​ ​learned​ ​a​ ​language​ ​from​ ​an​ ​early​ ​age​ ​and​ ​who​ ​has
full​ ​mastery​ ​of​ ​that​ ​language.​ ​Native​ ​speakers​ ​may​ ​differ​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​vocabulary​ ​and
stylistic​ ​aspects​ ​of​ ​language​ ​use,​ ​but​ ​they​ ​tend​ ​to​ ​agree​ ​on​ ​the​ ​basic​ ​grammar​ ​of​ ​the
language.​ ​The​ ​notion​ ​“native​ ​speaker”​ ​must​ ​always​ ​be​ ​understood​ ​within​ ​a​ ​specific
geographic​ ​region​ ​or​ ​socio-economic​ ​group​ ​because​ ​there​ ​is​ ​wide​ ​variation​ ​among
“native​ ​speakers”​ ​of​ ​most​ ​languages.
b. Non-native​ ​speaker:​ ​A​ ​language​ ​user​ ​for​ ​whom​ ​a​ ​language​ ​is​ ​not​ ​their​ ​L1.​ ​The
language​ ​use​ ​of​ ​non-native​ ​speakers​ ​has​ ​been​ ​a​ ​focus​ ​of​ ​attention​ ​to​ ​determine​ ​such
things​ ​as​ ​the​ ​effects​ ​of​ ​non-native​ ​accents​ ​of​ ​intelligibility,​ ​attitudes​ ​towards
non-native​ ​speakers​ ​accents,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​role​ ​of​ ​non-native​ ​speaker​ ​accents​ ​as​ ​a​ ​marker​ ​of
the​ ​speaker’s​ ​identity.
88. NATURAL​ ​APPROACH:​ ​The​ ​hypothesis​ ​-developed​ ​by​ ​Krashen-​ ​that​ ​children​ ​acquiring
their​ ​first​ ​language​ ​acquire​ ​linguistic​ ​forms,​ ​rules,​ ​and​ ​items​ ​in​ ​a​ ​similar​ ​order.​ ​For​ ​example,
in​ ​English​ ​children​ ​acquire​ ​progressive​ ​-ing,​ ​plural​ ​-s,​ ​and​ ​active​ ​sentences​ ​before​ ​they
acquire​ ​third​ ​person​ ​-s,​ ​or​ ​passive​ ​sentences.​ ​This​ ​is​ ​said​ ​to​ ​show​ ​a​ ​natural​ ​order​ ​of
development.​ ​In​ ​L2​ ​learning​ ​grammatical​ ​forms​ ​may​ ​also​ ​appear​ ​in​ ​a​ ​natural​ ​order.
89. NEGOTIATION​ ​OF​ ​MEANING:​ ​Interaction​ ​between​ ​speakers​ ​who​ ​make​ ​adjustments​ ​to
their​ ​speech​ ​and​ ​use​ ​other​ ​techniques​ ​to​ ​repair​ ​a​ ​breakdown​ ​in​ ​communication.
90. NOTICING​ ​HYPOTHESIS:​ ​The​ ​hypothesis​ ​that​ ​input​ ​does​ ​not​ ​become​ ​intake​ ​for​ ​language
learning​ ​unless​ ​it​ ​is​ ​noticed,​ ​that​ ​is,​ ​consciously​ ​registered.​ ​Schmidt​ ​proposed​ ​the​ ​noticing
hypothesis​ ​suggesting​ ​that​ ​“Nothing​ ​is​ ​learned​ ​until​ ​it​ ​has​ ​been​ ​noticed”​ ​therefore,​ ​he
 hypothesized​ ​second​ ​language​ ​learners​ ​could​ ​not​ ​begin​ ​to​ ​acquire​ ​a​ ​language​ ​feature​ ​until
they​ ​have​ ​become​ ​aware​ ​of​ ​it​ ​in​ ​the​ ​input.
91. OVERGENERALIZATION​ ​(ERROR)​ ​:​ ​This​ ​type​ ​of​ ​error​ ​is​ ​the​ ​result​ ​of​ ​trying​ ​to​ ​use​ ​a​ ​rule
in​ ​a​ ​context​ ​where​ ​it​ ​does​ ​not​ ​belong,​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​putting​ ​a​ ​regular​ ​-ed​ ​ending​ ​on​ ​a​ ​irregular
verb,​ ​as​ ​in​ ​“buyed”​ ​instead​ ​of​ ​“bought”.
92. PATTERN​ ​PRACTICE​ ​DRILL:​ ​A​ ​teaching​ ​technique​ ​in​ ​which​ ​learners​ ​are​ ​asked​ ​to​ ​practise
sentences​ ​chosen​ ​to​ ​represent​ ​particular​ ​linguistic​ ​forms.​ ​Typical​ ​of​ ​the​ ​audiolingual
approach.
93. PROCEDURAL​ ​vs.​ ​DECLARATIVE​ ​KNOWLEDGE:
a. Procedural​ ​knowledge:​ ​knowledge​ ​that​ ​underlies​ ​fluent​ ​or​ ​automatic​ ​performance.
Also​ ​referred​ ​to​ ​as​ ​“knowledge​ ​how”,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​contrasted​ ​with​ ​declarative​ ​knowledge.
b. Declarative​ ​knowledge:​ ​information​ ​that​ ​we​ ​have​ ​and​ ​know​ ​we​ ​have.​ ​An​ ​example
would​ ​be​ ​a​ ​rule​ ​such​ ​as​ ​“the​ ​verb​ ​must​ ​agree​ ​with​ ​the​ ​subject​ ​to​ ​form​ ​a​ ​correct
sentence”.​ ​In​ ​some​ ​skill​ ​learning​ ​theories,​ ​it​ ​has​ ​been​ ​hypothesized​ ​that​ ​all​ ​learning
begins​ ​with​ ​declarative​ ​knowledge.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​sometimes​ ​referred​ ​to​ ​a​ ​s​ ​“knowledge​ ​that”.
Contrast​ ​with​ ​procedural​ ​knowledge.
94. PROCESSABILITY​ ​THEORY:​ ​Pienemann​ ​developed​ ​his​ ​processability​ ​theory​ ​on​ ​the​ ​basis
of​ ​his​ ​continued​ ​research​ ​with​ ​learners​ ​of​ ​different​ ​languages​ ​in​ ​a​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​settings,​ ​both
instructional​ ​and​ ​informal.​ ​One​ ​important​ ​aspect​ ​of​ ​his​ ​theory​ ​is​ ​the​ ​integration​ ​of
developmental​ ​sequences​ ​with​ ​L1​ ​influence.​ ​He​ ​argues​ ​that​ ​his​ ​theory​ ​explains​ ​a​ ​widely
reported​ ​phenomenon​ ​in​ ​L2​ ​acquisition:​ ​learners​ ​do​ ​not​ ​simply​ ​transfer​ ​features​ ​from​ ​their​ ​L1
at​ ​early​ ​stages​ ​of​ ​acquisition.​ ​Instead,​ ​they​ ​have​ ​to​ ​develop​ ​a​ ​certain​ ​level​ ​of​ ​processing
capacity​ ​in​ ​the​ ​second​ ​language​ ​before​ ​they​ ​can​ ​use​ ​their​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​features​ ​that
already​ ​exist​ ​in​ ​their​ ​first​ ​language.
95. QUALITATIVE​ ​vs.​ ​QUANTITATIVE​ ​STUDY:
a. Qualitative​ ​study:​ ​An​ ​approach​ ​that​ ​uses​ ​detailed​ ​descriptions​ ​of​ ​the​ ​phenomena
being​ ​studied​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​counting​ ​or​ ​measuring​ ​the​ ​exact​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​some​ ​specific
variable​ ​or​ ​variables.​ ​Qualitative​ ​research​ ​requires​ ​extensive​ ​observation​ ​and
insightful​ ​interpretation.
b. Quantitative​ ​study:​ ​An​ ​approach​ ​that​ ​requires​ ​precise​ ​counts​ ​or​ ​numeric
measurements​ ​of​ ​variables.​ ​In​ ​a​ ​quantitative​ ​study,​ ​both​ ​the​ ​variable​ ​that​ ​is​ ​believed
to​ ​affect​ ​learning​ ​and​ ​the​ ​learning​ ​itself​ ​are​ ​measured​ ​or​ ​“quantified”.​ ​Quantitative
research​ ​requires​ ​careful​ ​selection​ ​of​ ​the​ ​measurements​ ​that​ ​will​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to​ ​represent
the​ ​variables​ ​being​ ​studied.
96. RATE​ ​OF​ ​DEVELOPMENT/ACQUISITION:​ ​The​ ​speed​ ​at​ ​which​ ​learners​ ​progress​ ​in​ ​their
language​ ​development.
97. RECAST:​ ​To​ ​repeat​ ​a​ ​learner’s​ ​incorrect​ ​utterance,​ ​making​ ​changes​ ​that​ ​convert​ ​it​ ​to​ ​a
correct​ ​phrase​ ​or​ ​sentence.​ ​“Recast”​ ​is​ ​also​ ​used​ ​as​ ​a​ ​noun,​ ​that​ ​is,​ ​a​ ​recast​ ​is​ ​the
modified/corrected​ ​form​ ​of​ ​the​ ​learner’s​ ​utterance.
98. RIGHT​ ​vs.​ ​LEFT​ ​HEMISPHERE:
99. L2​ ​ACQUISITION​ ​vs.​ ​L1​ ​ACQUISITION:
a. L2​ ​acquisition:​ ​(SLA)​ ​The​ ​process​ ​of​ ​acquiring​ ​a​ ​second​ ​or​ ​foreign​ ​language.
b. L1​ ​acquisition:​ ​The​ ​process​ ​of​ ​learning​ ​a​ ​native​ ​language.​ ​First​ ​language​ ​acquisition
has​ ​been​ ​studied​ ​primarily​ ​by​ ​linguists,​ ​developmental​ ​psychologists,​ ​and
psycholinguists.​ ​Most​ ​explanations​ ​of​ ​how​ ​children​ ​learn​ ​to​ ​speak​ ​and​ ​understand
language​ ​involve​ ​the​ ​influence​ ​of​ ​both​ ​the​ ​linguistic​ ​input​ ​to​ ​which​ ​children​ ​are
 exposed​ ​in​ ​social​ ​interaction​ ​with​ ​their​ ​parents​ ​and​ ​other​ ​caregivers​ ​and​ ​a​ ​natural
aptitude​ ​for​ ​grammar​ ​that​ ​is​ ​unique​ ​to​ ​humans.
100. SIGNIFICANT​ ​DIFFERENCE:​ ​This​ ​is​ ​a​ ​technical​ ​term​ ​that​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​differences​ ​between
groups​ ​which,​ ​according​ ​to​ ​a​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​statistical​ ​tests,​ ​are​ ​unlikely​ ​to​ ​have​ ​happened​ ​by
chance.​ ​Such​ ​differences​ ​can​ ​be​ ​small​ ​or​ ​large.​ ​Their​ ​“significance”​ ​is​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​consistency
of​ ​the​ ​differences​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​their​ ​size.
101. SIMPLIFICATION:​ ​Leaving​ ​out​ ​elements​ ​of​ ​a​ ​sentence,​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​using​ ​the​ ​same
form​ ​of​ ​a​ ​verb​ ​regardless​ ​of​ ​person,​ ​number,​ ​tense​ ​(“I​ ​go​ ​today.​ ​He​ ​go​ ​yesterday”).
102. SKILLS​ ​(RECEPTIVE​ ​vs.​ ​PRODUCTIVE):​ ​Skills​ ​are​ ​individual​ ​language​ ​abilities​ ​that
show​ ​and​ ​activation​ ​of​ ​language​ ​knowledge.​ ​Receptive​ ​skills​ ​are​ ​the​ ​ones​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the
speaker​ ​receives​ ​language​ ​(listening,​ ​reading,​ ​interpreting,​ ​translating).​ ​Productive​ ​skills​ ​are
the​ ​ones​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the​ ​speaker​ ​produces​ ​language​ ​(speaking,​ ​writing,​ ​interpreting,​ ​translating).
103. SOCIOCULTURAL​ ​THEORY:​ ​An​ ​explanation​ ​for​ ​knowledge​ ​and​ ​learning​ ​that​ ​is​ ​based
on​ ​the​ ​assumption​ ​that​ ​all​ ​learning​ ​is​ ​first​ ​social​ ​then​ ​individual.​ ​Learning​ ​is​ ​viewed​ ​as​ ​a
process​ ​that​ ​is​ ​socially​ ​mediated,​ ​that​ ​is,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​dependent​ ​on​ ​dialogue​ ​in​ ​face-to-face
interaction.​ ​The​ ​claim​ ​is​ ​that​ ​during​ ​communication,​ ​learners​ ​jointly​ ​construct​ ​knowledge
which​ ​is​ ​internalized​ ​by​ ​the​ ​individual.
104. STABILIZATION​ ​vs.​ ​FOSSILIZATION:
a. Stabilization:
b. Fossilization:​ ​This​ ​term​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​describe​ ​a​ ​persistent​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​change​ ​in
interlanguage​ ​patterns,​ ​even​ ​after​ ​extended​ ​exposure​ ​to​ ​or​ ​instruction​ ​in​ ​the​ ​target
language.
105. STRUCTURAL​ ​GRADING:​ ​A​ ​technique​ ​for​ ​organizing​ ​or​ ​sequencing​ ​material​ ​in​ ​a
textbook​ ​or​ ​lessons.​ ​The​ ​basis​ ​for​ ​the​ ​organization​ ​is​ ​a​ ​gradual​ ​increase​ ​in​ ​complexity​ ​of
grammatical​ ​features.
106. STUDENT​ ​TALK:​ ​ ​Refers​ ​to​ ​how​ ​much​ ​the​ ​student​ ​talks​ ​during​ ​a​ ​lesson.​ ​It​ ​should​ ​be
around​ ​80%​ ​during​ ​the​ ​course​ ​of​ ​the​ ​lesson.​ ​Their​ ​use​ ​of​ ​the​ ​language​ ​should​ ​further​ ​promote
qualitative​ ​thought.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​this​ ​means​ ​that​ ​choral​ ​drills,​ ​substitution​ ​drills,​ ​and​ ​other
exercises​ ​remain​ ​important​ ​because​ ​students​ ​need​ ​these​ ​activities​ ​to​ ​become​ ​familiar​ ​with​ ​and
absorb​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language.​ ​However,​ ​too​ ​many​ ​drills​ ​or​ ​other,​ ​similar​ ​activities​ ​result​ ​in
students​ ​who​ ​switch​ ​off​ ​their​ ​brains.​ ​The​ ​fail​ ​to​ ​critically​ ​observe,​ ​analyze,​ ​and​ ​practice​ ​with
the​ ​new​ ​language.
107. SUBSTITUTION​ ​DRILL:​ ​A​ ​teaching​ ​technique​ ​in​ ​which​ ​learners​ ​practise​ ​sentences,
changing​ ​one​ ​element​ ​at​ ​a​ ​time,​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​“I​ ​read​ ​a​ ​book”;​ ​“I​ ​read​ ​a​ ​newspaper”;​ ​“I​ ​read​ ​a
story”.​ ​Typical​ ​of​ ​the​ ​audiolingual​ ​approach.
108. TARGET​ ​LANGUAGE:​ ​The​ ​language​ ​being​ ​learned,​ ​whether​ ​it​ ​is​ ​the​ ​first​ ​language​ ​or​ ​a
second​ ​(or​ ​third​ ​or​ ​fourth)​ ​language.
109. TARGET-LIKE​ ​INPUT​ ​vs.​ ​NON-TARGET-LIKE​ ​INPUT:
a. Target-like​ ​input:​ ​Input​ ​is​ ​the​ ​same​ ​to​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language.​ ​Example:​ ​in​ ​a​ ​class​ ​of
English​ ​in​ ​a​ ​Spanish​ ​school,​ ​when​ ​English​ ​is​ ​being​ ​spoken.
b. Non-target-like​ ​input:​ ​Input​ ​that​ ​is​ ​not​ ​the​ ​same​ ​to​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language,​ ​it​ ​can​ ​be​ ​the
native​ ​language.​ ​Example:​ ​in​ ​a​ ​class​ ​of​ ​English​ ​in​ ​a​ ​Spanish​ ​school,​ ​when​ ​Spanish​ ​is
being​ ​spoken.
110. TASK-BASED​ ​INSTRUCTION:​ ​Instruction​ ​in​ ​which​ ​classroom​ ​activities​ ​are​ ​“tasks”
similar​ ​to​ ​those​ ​learners​ ​might​ ​engage​ ​in​ ​outside​ ​the​ ​L2​ ​classroom.​ ​Tasks​ ​may​ ​be​ ​complex,
 for​ ​example,​ ​creating​ ​a​ ​school​ ​newspaper,​ ​or​ ​more​ ​limited,​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​making​ ​a​ ​phone​ ​call
to​ ​reserve​ ​a​ ​train​ ​ticket.
111. TEACHER​ ​TALK:​​ ​Refers​ ​to​ ​how​ ​much​ ​the​ ​teacher​ ​talks​ ​during​ ​a​ ​lesson.​ ​However,​ ​this
will​ ​vary​ ​according​ ​to​ ​the​ ​stage​ ​of​ ​the​ ​lesson.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​the​ ​teacher​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​speak​ ​more
when​ ​providing​ ​explanations​ ​of​ ​and​ ​examples​ ​for​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language​ ​early​ ​in​ ​the​ ​lesson.
Elsewhere​ ​he​ ​may​ ​speak​ ​less​ ​as​ ​students​ ​need​ ​ample​ ​opportunity​ ​to​ ​practice​ ​the​ ​new​ ​material.
Overall,​ ​however,​ ​the​ ​teacher​ ​should​ ​roughly​ ​limit​ ​his​ ​speaking​ ​to​ ​20%​ ​to​ ​30%​ ​of​ ​the​ ​class
time,​ ​with​ ​the​ ​remainder​ ​devoted​ ​to​ ​speaking/use​ ​of​ ​the​ ​language​ ​by​ ​the​ ​students.
112. TOTAL​ ​PHYSICAL​ ​RESPONSE​ ​(TPR):​ ​A​ ​teaching​ ​method​ ​developed​ ​by​ ​Asher​ ​(1972)
in​ ​which​ ​students​ ​(children​ ​or​ ​adults)​ ​participate​ ​in​ ​activities​ ​in​ ​which​ ​they​ ​hear​ ​a​ ​series​ ​of
commands​ ​in​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language,​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​“stand​ ​up”.​ ​Then,​ ​they​ ​have​ ​to​ ​act​ ​with​ ​their
body.​ ​In​ ​TPR​ ​instruction,​ ​the​ ​vocabulary​ ​and​ ​structures​ ​learners​ ​are​ ​exposed​ ​to​ ​are​ ​carefully
graded​ ​and​ ​organized.​ ​The​ ​material​ ​gradually​ ​increases​ ​in​ ​complexity​ ​so​ ​that​ ​each​ ​new​ ​lesson
builds​ ​on​ ​the​ ​ones​ ​before.​ ​TPR​ ​is​ ​quite​ ​useful​ ​in​ ​the​ ​early​ ​stages​ ​of​ ​learning.
113. TRANSFER:​ ​The​ ​influence​ ​of​ ​a​ ​learner’s​ ​first​ ​language​ ​knowledge​ ​in​ ​the​ ​L2.​ ​Also​ ​called
“interference”.​ ​The​ ​term​ ​“first​ ​language​ ​influence”​ ​is​ ​now​ ​preferred​ ​by​ ​many​ ​researchers.​ ​It
better​ ​reflects​ ​the​ ​complex​ ​ways​ ​in​ ​which​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​L1​ ​may​ ​affect​ ​learners’
knowledge​ ​and​ ​use​ ​of​ ​L2.
114. UNIVERSAL​ ​GRAMMAR​ ​(UG):​ ​Innate​ ​linguistic​ ​knowledge​ ​which,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​hypothesized,
consist​ ​of​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​principles​ ​common​ ​to​ ​all​ ​languages.​ ​This​ ​term​ ​is​ ​associated​ ​with
Chomsky’s​ ​theory​ ​of​ ​language​ ​acquisition.
115. U-SHAPED​ ​DEVELOPMENT:​ ​The​ ​pattern​ ​of​ ​course​ ​of​ ​learning​ ​that​ ​can​ ​be​ ​observed
when​ ​learners​ ​use​ ​a​ ​correct​ ​form​ ​of​ ​the​ ​target-language​ ​at​ ​one​ ​stage,​ ​replace​ ​it​ ​with​ ​an
ungrammatical​ ​interlanguage​ ​form​ ​later​ ​on,​ ​and​ ​then​ ​finally​ ​return​ ​to​ ​the​ ​correct
target-language​ ​form-
116. VARIATIONAL​ ​FEATURES:​ ​In​ ​contrast​ ​to​ ​the​ ​developmental​ ​features​ ​in​ ​the​ ​framework
developed​ ​by​ ​Pienemann​ ​and​ ​his​ ​colleagues,​ ​variational​ ​features​ ​(for​ ​example,​ ​vocabulary,
some​ ​grammatical​ ​morphemes)​ ​can​ ​be​ ​learned​ ​at​ ​any​ ​point​ ​in​ ​the​ ​learner’s​ ​development.
117. WORKING​ ​MEMORY​ ​vs.​ ​LONG-TERM​ ​MEMORY:
a. Working​ ​memory:​ ​The​ ​cognitive​ ​“space”​ ​in​ ​which​ ​we​ ​actively​ ​process​ ​new
information​ ​or​ ​information​ ​that​ ​is​ ​currently​ ​in​ ​focus.​ ​Also​ ​called​ ​“short-term
memory”.
b. Long-term​ ​memory:​ ​The​ ​cognitive​ ​“space”​ ​in​ ​which​ ​we​ ​store​ ​the​ ​information​ ​learned.
118. ZONE​ ​OF​ ​PROXIMAL​ ​DEVELOPMENT​ ​(ZPD):​ ​The​ ​metaphorical​ ​“place”​ ​in​ ​which​ ​a
learner​ ​is​ ​capable​ ​of​ ​a​ ​higher​ ​level​ ​of​ ​performance​ ​because​ ​there​ ​is​ ​support​ ​from​ ​interaction
with​ ​an​ ​interlocutor.​ ​In​ ​Vygotsky’s​ ​theory,​ ​learning​ ​takes​ ​place​ ​through​ ​and​ ​during​ ​interaction
in​ ​the​ ​learner’s​ ​ZPD.​ ​(the​ ​distance​ ​between​ ​what​ ​a​ ​learner​ ​can​ ​do​ ​by​ ​himself​ ​and​ ​what​ ​he​ ​can
do​ ​with​ ​guidance​ ​from​ ​a​ ​more​ ​proficient​ ​speaker).