Fluid Mechanics Hydraulics Machine

SCTE & VT, ODISA [FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES]
LEARNING MATERIAL
STATE COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION &

VOCATIONAL TRAINING, ODISHA, BHUBANESWAR
FLUID MECHANICS AND

HYDRAULIC MACHINES
(For Diploma and Polytechnic students)
4TH SEMESTER
1
CONTENTS
Sl.No. Chapter Pages
1 Properties of fluid 3-12

2 Fluid Pressure and its 13-27
measurements
3 Hydrostatics 28-39
4 Fluid Flow 40-75
5 Flow through pipe 76-79
6 Impact of jet 80-91
7 Hydraulic turbines 92-112
8 Hydraulic pumps 113-128
2
Chapter-1
Properties of Fluid
Syllabus:
1.1 Definitions and Units of Density, Specific weight,

specific gravity, specific volume 5
1.2 Definitions and Units of Dynamic viscosity,
kinematic viscosity, surface tension, Capillary
phenomenon
Fluid
Definition:
A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing or a substance
which deforms continuously when subjected to external shearing force.
Characteristics:
 It has no definite shape of its own but will take the shape of the
container in which it is stored.
 A small amount of shear force will cause a deformation.
3
Classification:
A fluid can be classified as follows:
 Liquid
 Gas
Liquid:
It is a fluid which possesses a definite volume and assumed as
incompressible
GAS:
It possesses no definite volume and is compressible.
Fluids are broadly classified into two types.

 Ideal fluids
 Real fluids
Ideal fluid:
An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity and surface tension and
is incompressible actually no ideal fluid exists.
Real fluids:
A real fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension and
compressibility in addition to the density.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS:
1. density or mass density : (S)

Density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid
to its vacuum. It is denoted by The density of liquids are
considered as constant while that of gases changes with pressure &
temperature variations.
Mathematically
=
Unit =
4
= 1000
or
2. Specific weight or weight density((W):

Specific weight of a fluid is defined as the ratio between the
weights of a fluid to its valume. It is denoted by W.
Mathematically W =
= mg/v
W=
Unit -
3. Specific volume:
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid
occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called
specific volume.
Mathematically
Unit:
4. Specific gravity:
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density of
a fluid to the density or when density standard fluid.
For liquids the standard fluid is water.
5
For gases the standard fluid is air.
It is denoted by the symbol S
6
Simple Problems:
Problem: - 1
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre
of a liquid which weighs 7N.
Problem: - 2
Calculate the density, specific weight and specific gravity of one litre
of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7
7
Viscosity:
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance
to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the
fluid.
Let two layers of a fluid at a distance dy apart, move one over the
other at different velocities u and u + du.
The viscosity together with the with the relative velocity between the
two layers while causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers, the
top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower
layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer.
This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with

respect to y. It is denoted by .
.
Mathematically
Where = co-efficient of dynamic viscosity or constant of

proportionality or viscosity
8
= rate of shear strain or velocity gradient
If = 1,
then =
Viscosity is defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate

of shear strain.
Unit of viscosity in S.I system -
in C.G.S –
in M.K.S. -
= 1 Poise
1 = 10 poise
1 Centipoise = poise
9
Kinematic Viscocity:
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density
of fluid.
It is denoted by ϑ.
Mathematically
Newton’s law of viscosity:

It states that the shear stress on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear stear strain. The constant of proportionality
is called the co-efficient of viscosity.
Mathematically =
Fluids which obey the above equation or law are known as
Newtonian fluids & the fluids which do not obey the law are called Non-
Newtonian fluids.
10
Surface tension:
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of
a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible
liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a stretched membrane
under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free will
has the same value as the surface energy per unit area.
It is denoted by
Mathematically =
Unit in si system is N/m
CGS system is Dyne/cm
MKS system is kgf/m
Capillarity:
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid
surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when
the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is is
known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is known as
capillary depression.
It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid
11
Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of
the tube and surface tension of the liquid.
12
Chapter-2
Fluid Pressure
And
It’s Measurements
Syllabus:
2.1 Definitions and units of fluid pressure, pressure intensity and
pressure head
2.2 Concept of atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure, vacuum
pressure and absolute pressure
2.3 Pressure measuring instruments Manometers: Simple and
differential Bourdon tube pressure gauge (Simple Numerical)
Pressure of a Fluid:
When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force at all points on the sides &
bottoms of the container. The force exerted per unit area is called pressure.
If P = Pressure at any point
F = Total force uniformly distributed over an area
A = unit area
P = F/A
13
Unit of pressure - in M.K.S.
- in S.I.
1pascal = 1N/m2
1 kpa = 1000 N/m2
Pressure head of a liquid:
A liquid is subjected to pressure due to pressure due to its own

weight, this pressure increases as the depth of the liquid increases.
Let a bottomless cylinder stand in the liquid
Let w = specific weight of the liquid.
H = height of the liquid in the cylinder.
A = Area of the cylinder.
P= =
×
=
= Wh
= gh
So intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid is proportional to its

depth.
14
ABSOLUTE, GAGUE, ATOMOSPHERIC, AND VACCUME PRESSURES:
Atmospheric Pressure:
The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with
which It is in contact & known as atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure:
It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to

absolute vacuum pressure or absolute zero pressure.
Gauge pressure:
It is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a

pressure measuring instrument in which the atmospheric pressure is taken
as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
Vacuum pressure:
It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.
Mathematically:
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
Or P abs = P atm + P gauge
Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Absolute pressure
P vacuum = P atm - P abs
15
Pressure Measuring Instruments:
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices :
1. Manometers
2. Mechanical Gauges.
Manometers:
Manometers are defined as the device used for measuring the

pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the collomn of fluid by the same
another column of the fluid. They are classified as:
(a) Simple manometers.

(b) Differential Manometers.
Mechanical Gauges:
Mechanical gauges are defined as the device used for measuring the
pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight.
Commonly used mechanical pressure gauges are :
 Diaphragm pressure gauge

 Bourdon tube pressure gauge
 Dead –weight pressure gauge
 Bellow pressure gauge
Simple Manometres:
A simple manometer of a glass tube having one of its ends connected

to a point where pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to
atmosphere. Common types of simple manometers are :
 Piezometer
 U- tube Manometer
 Single Column Manometer
16
Piezometer:
It is the simple form of manometer used for measuring gauge

pressures. One end of this manometer is connected to the point where
pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere as
shown in Figure. The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point A.
Then pressure at A
PA = gh
U – tube Manometer:
It consist of glass tube bent in U- shape , one end of which is

connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other end
remains open to the atmosphere as shown in figure. The tube generally
contains mercury.
17
(a) For Gauge Pressure:
Let be is the point which is to be measured, whose value is p. The

datum line is A-A.
Let h1= Height of light liquid above the datum line
h2= Height of heavy liquid above the datum line
S1 = Sp. gr. of light liquid
1 = Density of light liquid = 1000× S1
S2 = Sp. Gr. Of heavy weight
2 = density of heavy weight = 1000×S2
Pressure is same in a horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the

horizontal datum surface line A-A in the left column and in the right
column of U-tube manometer should be same pressure above A-A in the
left column
= pA + 1× g × h1
18
Pressure above A-A in the right column
= 2× g × h2
Hence equating the two pressures
pA + 1gh1 = 2gh2
pA = ( 2gh2 - 1gh1).
(b) For Vacuum Pressure:
For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid

in the manometer will be as shown in figure. Then Pressure above A-
A in the left column
= 2gh2+ 1gh1+ pA
Pressure head in the right column above A - A = 0
2gh2 + 1gh1 + pA = 0
pA = - ( 2gh2 + 1gh1)
Single Column Manometer:
Single column Manometer is modified form of a U- tube manometer

in which a reservoir, having a large cross- sectional area (about 100 times
as compared to the area of the tube) is connected to one of the limbs (say
left limb)of the manometer as shown in figure. Due to large cross- sectional
area of the reservoir, for any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid
level in the reservoir will be very small which may be neglected and hence
the pressure is given by the height of liquid in the other limb. The other
limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there are two types of single column
manometer as:
19
 Vertical Single Column Manometer

 Inclined Single Column Manometer
1. Vertical Single Column Manometer:
Let X-X be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right limb of
the manometer, when it is not connected to the pipe. When the manometer
is connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the
reservoir will be pushed downward and will rise in the right limb.
Let ∆h = Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir
H2 = rise of heavy liquid in right limb
H1 = height of center of pipe above X-X
PA = Pressure at A, which is to be measured
A = Cross – sectional area of the reservoir
a = Cross sectional area of the right limb
S1 = Sp.gr.of liquid in pipe
S2 = Sp.gr. of heavy weight liquid in reservoir and right limb
P1 = Density in liquid in pipe
P2 = Density of liquid in the reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in the reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid
level in the right limb.
∴ A × ∆ℎ = a × h2
×
∴ ∆ℎ = .......................... (i)
20
Now consider the datum line Y-Y as shown in Fig 2.15.Then

pressure in the right limb above Y-Y.
= 2× × (∆ℎ + h2)
Pressure in left limb above Y-Y = 1 × × (∆ℎ + h1) + pA
Equating the pressure, we have
2 × × (∆ℎ + h2) = 1 × × (∆ℎ + h1) + PA
PA = 2g (∆ℎ + h1) – 1g (∆ℎ + h1)
= ∆ℎ [ 2g - 1g] + h2 2g - h1 1g
×
But from equation (i), ∆ℎ =
×
So, PA = [ 2g - 1g] + h2 2g - h1 1g
As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio becomes

very small and can be neglected.
Then PA = h2 2g - h1 1g
21
2. Inclined Single Column Manometer:
The given figure shows the inclined single column manometer

which is more sensitive. Due to inclination the distance moved by the
heavy liquid in the right limb will be more.
Let L = length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from X-X
= Inclination of right limb with horizontal
h2 = Vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb from X-X
= L × sin
From the above equation for the pressure in the single column
manometer the pressure at A is
PA = h2 2g - h1 1g .
Substituting the value of h2, we get
PA= sin 2gL - h1 1g .
22
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS:
Differential manometers are the device use for measuring the

difference of pressures between two points in a pipe or in two different
pipes. A differential manometer consists of a U- tube, containing a heavy
liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of
pressure is to be measured. Most commonly used differential manometers
are :
1. U-tube differential manometer

2. Inverted U-tube differential manometer
U-tube differential manometer:
Two points A and B are at different level
The given figure shows the differential manometers of U-tube type.
Let the two points A and B are at different level also contains liquids
of different sp.gr. These points are connected to the U-tube differential
manometer. Let the pressure at A and B are PA and PB.
Let h = Difference of mercury level in the U- tube.
y = Distance of the center of B, from the mercury level in the

right limb.
23
1 = Density of liquid at A.
2 = Density of liquid at B.
g = Density of heavy liquid or mercury.
Taking datum line at X-X .
Pressure above X-X in the limb
= 1g(h + x) + PA
Where pressure PA = Pressure at A.
Pressure above X-X in the right limb
= g×g× h+ 2× g × y + pB
Where pressure pB = pressure at B.
Equating the two pressure, we have
P1g(h+ x) + PA = pg× g× h+p2 g y + p B
∴ PA - p B = g× g× h + 2g y- 1g (h+ x)
= h× g( g - 1 )+ 2g y- 1gx
∴ Different of pressure at A and B
= h× g( g- 1 )+ 2g y- 1gx
Two points A and B are at same level
In the given figure A and B are the same level and contains the same
liquid of density 1, then
Pressure above X-X in right limb
= g× g× h + 1 × g× X + pB
Pressure above X-X in left limb
= P1 × g×(h+ x) + PA
24
Equating the two pressure
pg× g× h+P1 × g× X+ p B = P1 × g×(h+ x) + PA
∴ PA - p B =Pg × g× h+P1gx -P1g×(h+ x)
= g× h (P g-P1)
Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer:

It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two
ends of the U-tube are connected to the points whose difference of pressure
is to be measured. It is used for measuring difference of low pressures. Fig
2.21 shows an inverted U-tube differential manometer connected to the
points A and B. Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B.
25
Let h1=Height of liquid in the left limb bellow the datum line X-X
h2= Height of liquid in the right limb
h= Difference of light liquid
p1=Density of liquid at A
p2=Density of liquid at B
ps= Density of light liquid
pA=Pressure at A
pB= Pressure at B.
Taking X-X datum line.
Then pressure in the left limb below X-X

= P A - 1 × g × h1 .
Pressures in the right limb below X-X
= PB - 2 ×g× h2 - S ×g× h
Equating the two pressure
PA - 1 × g × h1 = PB - 2 × g × h2 - S × g × h
PA - PB = 1× g × h1 - 2 × g × h2 - S × g × h
Bourdon’s Tube Pressure Gauge:
 The pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure may be easily

measured with the help of Burdon tube pressure gauge.
 It consists of an elliptical tube ABC bent into an arc of a circle. This
bent up tube is called Burdon tube.
 When the gauge tube is connected to the C, the fluid under pressure
flows into the tube the bourdon tube as a result of the increased
pressure tends to straighten itself.
 Since the tube is encased in a circular cover therefore.it tends to
become circular instrad of straight.
 The elastic beforemation of the bourdon rotates the pointer.
 The pointer moves over a calibrates which directly gives the
pressure.
26
Numerical problems:
Q.1 The right limb of asimple U-tube manometer containing mercury is

open to the atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a
fluid of sp gravity 0.9 isflowing. The centre of the pipe is 12cm below the
level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if
the deference of mercury level inthe two limbs is 20 cm.
Q.2 A single column manometer is connected to a pipe containing a

liquied of sp. Gravity 0.9 find the pressure in the pipe if the area of the
reservoir is 100 times the area of the tube for manometer reading. The sp.
Gravity of mercury is 13.6 .
Q.3 a deferential manometer is connected at the two points A and B of two

pipes. The pipe A contains aliquis of sp. Gravity =1.5 wile pipe B contains
a liquid of sp. Gravity 0.9 the pressure at A and B are 1kg/ cm2 and 1.80
kg/cm2 respectively. Find the deference in mercury level in the deferential
manometer.
Q.4water is flowing through two deference pipes to which an inverted

deferential manometer having an oil of sp. Gravity 0.8 is connected. The
pressure head in the pipe A is 2m of water, find the pressure in the pipe B
for the manometer readings.
27
Chapter-3
Hydrostatics
Syllabus:
3.1 Definition of hydrostatic pressure

3.2 Total pressure and centre of pressure on immersed
bodies (Simple Numericals)
3.3 Archimedis’ principle, concept of buoyancy,
metacentre and metacentric height
3.4 Concept of floatation
Hydrostatics:
Hydrostatics means the study of pressure exerted by thye liquid at

rest & the direction of such a pressure is always right angle to the surface
on which it acts.
Total pressure and center of pressure:
Total pressure
Total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a

surface either plane or curved when the fluid comes in contact with
surfaces. This force always acts normal to the surface.
28
Center of pressure:
Center of pressure is defined as the point of application of the total

pressure on the surface.
There are four cases of submerged surfaces on which the total

pressure force and center of pressure is to be determined. The submerged
surfaces may be:
1. Vertical plane surface

2. Horizontal plane surface
3. Inclined plane surface
4. Curved surface.
Vertical plane surface submerged in liquid
Consider a plane vertical surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a

liquid as shown in figure
Let A = total area of the surface
H = distanced of C.G. of the area from free surface of liquid
G = center of gravity ofplane surface
P = center of pressure
h* = distance of center of pressure from free surface of liquid.
Total pressure(F):
The total pressure on the surface may be determined by dividing the

entire surface into a number of small parallel strips. The force on surface is
then calculated by integrating the force on small strip.
Consider a strip of thickness dh & width b at a depth of h form free

surface of liquid.
Pressure intensity on the strip
p = gh
Area of the strip, dA = b × dh
29
Total pressure forceon strip, dF = dA
= gh × b × dh
Total pressure force on thge whole surface
F=∫ = ∫ gh × b × dh
= g ∫ h × b × dh
∫ h × dA = moment of surface area about the free surface of liquid
= Area of surface × distance of C.G. from the free surface
=A×ℎ
So, F = gAℎ
Centre of the pressure:( h*)
Centre of pressure is calculated by using the principle of moments

which states that the moment of resultant force about an axis is equal to the
sum of moments of the components about the same axis.
The resultant force F is acting at P, at a distance h* from the free

surface of liquid.
Hence moment of force F about free surface of liquid = F × h*
30
But moment force dF acting on a strip about the free surface of

liquid = dF × h
Sum of moments of all such forces about free surface of liquid
= ∫ gh × b × dh × h
= g ∫ h × b × dh × h
= g ∫ bh dh
= g ∫ h dA
∫ h dA = moment of inertia of the surface area about the free

surface of liquid = Io
Sum of the moments about free surface
= g Io
F × h* = g Io
gAℎ × h* = g Io
h* =
By the parallel axis theorem, we have
Io = IG + A × ℎ
31
32
Horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid:
Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid as

every point of the surface is at the same depth from the free surface of the
liquid, the pressure intensity will be equal on the entire surface.
P = gℎ
A = total area
F=P× A
= gAℎ
Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid:
33
Let A = total area of the inclned surface
H = depth of C.G. of inclined area from free surface.
h* = distance of center of pressure from free surface of liquid.
= made by the plane of surface with free liquid

surface.
Let the plane of the surface if produced meet the free liquid surface
at 0. Then 0-0 is the axis parallel to the plane of the surface
= distance of C.G of the inclined surface from 0-0.
y* = distance of the centre of pressure from 0-0.
Consider a small strip of area dA at a depth ‘h’ from free surface &
at a distance y from axis 0-0.
P = gh
dF = pdA
= gh dA
Total pressure force
F = ∫ dF = ∫ gh dA
h = ysin
F = ∫ gysin dA
= gsin ∫ ydA
= gsin Io
= gsin A
= gA sin
= gAℎ
34
Centre of pressure:
Pressure force on the strip dF = gh dA
= gysin dA
Moment of the force dF about 0 – 0
= dF × y = gy sin dA
Sum of moments of all such forces about 0 – 0
= gsin y dA
∫ y dA = moment of inertia of the surface about 0 - 0 = Io
= gsin Io
Moment of total force about 0 – 0
= F y*
F y* = gsin Io
∗
gAℎ × = gsin Io
h∗ = Io
Aℎ
= [IG + A × ( )2 ]
Aℎ
Here = sin
ℎ
=
2
∗ ℎ
h = IG + A ×
Aℎ
h∗ = +ℎ
35
Archimedes principle:
When a body is immersed in a fluid either wholly or partially,

it is buoyed or lifted up by a force, which is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced by the body.
Buoyancy:
Whenever a body is immersed wholly or partially in a fluid it is

subjected to an upword force which tends to lift itup. This tendency for an
immersed body to be lifted up in the fluid due to an upward force opposite
to action of gravity is known as buoyancy this upward force is known as
force of buoyancy.
Centre of Buoyancy:
It is defined as the point through which the forced of buoyancy is

supposed to act. The force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Canter of buoyancy will be the centre of gravity of the fluid

displaced.
Problem-1:
Find the volume of the water displaced & position of centre of

duoyancy for a wooden block of width 2.5m & of depth 1.5m when it flats
horizontally in water. The density of wooden block is 6540 kg/m3.& its
length 6.0m.
Solution:
Width = 2.5 m
Density of wooden block = 650kg/m3
Depth = 1.5m
Length = 6m
36
Volume of the block
= 2.5× 1.5 × 6
=22.50m3
Volume of the block = Wt of water displaced
= W×
= ×
= 650× 9.81 × 6
=143471 N
Volume of water displaced
=
×
=
× .
= 14.625 m3
Position of centre of buoyancy
Volume of wooden block in water = volume of water displaced
2.5× 6 × ℎ = 14.625
.
⇒h=
. ×
= 0.975m
.
Centre of buoyancy =
= 0.4875 m from base.
37
Meta-centre;
It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when

the body is tilted by a small angle. The mate centre may also be defined as
the point at which the lme of action of the force of buoyancy will melt the
normal axis. Of the body when the body is given a small angular
displacement.
Mate centre height:
The distance between the meta centre of a floating body and the
centre of gravity of the body is called meta-centric height i.e the distance
MG.
Concept of flotation:
Flotation:
When a body is immersed in any fluid, it experiences two forces.

First one is the weight of body W acting vertically downwards, second is
the buoyancy force acting vertically upwards in case W is greater than
, the weight will cause the body to sink in the fluid. In case W = the
body will remain in equilibrium at any level. In case W is small than the
body will move upwards in fluid. The body moving up will come to rest or
top moving up in fluid when the fluid displaced by it’s submerged part is
equal to its weight W, the body in this situation is said to be floating and
this phenomenon is known as flotation.
38
Principle of flotation:
The principle of flotation states that the weight of the floating body
isequal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Consider a body floating at the free surface of the liwuid. The shaded
part of the body is inside the fluid and it has volume V1 The other part of
the body is in air and it has volume V2. Now the body can be considered to
be in two fluids viz. air and liquid. Hence buoyant force
= + =W
Since ≪
= =W
Buoyancy force is equal to weight of the liquid displaced
The ways to make the body float:
The body can be made to float:
1. Decreasing the weight of the body while keeping the volume same.
For example, making body hollow.
2. Increasing the volume of the body while keeping the body same. For
example, attaching live jacket to a person fixed the person floating.
39
Chapter-4
Fluid Flow
Syllabus:
4.1 Types of fluid flow
4.2 Continuity equation (Statement and proof for one
dimensional flow)
4.3 Bernoulli’s theorem (Statement and proof)
Applications and limitations of Bernoulli’s theorem
(Venturimeter, pitot tube)
(Simple Numerical)
4.4 Definition of orifices, Orifice coefficients (Cc, Cv, Cd
and relation among them)
Introduction:-
This chapter includes the study of forces causing fluid flow. The
dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with the forces causing
flow. The dynamic behaviour of the fluid flow is analysed by the Newton
second law of motion, which relates the acceleration with the forces. The
fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous.
40
TYPES OF FLOW:-
The fluid flow is classified as follows:
 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
 UNIFORM AND NON- UNIFORM FLOWS
 LAMINAR AND TURBULANT FLOWS
 COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
 ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOWS
 ONE, TWO, THREE DIMENSIONAL FLOW
 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW:-
1. Steady flow:-
Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid
characteristics like velocity, pressure, density at a point do not change with
time.
Thus, mathematically
( ) , ,
=0
( ) , ,
=0
ρ
( ) , , =0
Where , , is a point in fluid flow .
2. Unsteady flow:-
Unsteady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity,
pressure, and density at a point changes w.r.t time.
Thus, mathematically
( ) , ≠ 0,
41
( ) , ≠ 0,
ρ
( ) , ≠0
 UNIFORM AND NON- UNIFORM FLOWS:-
1. Uniform flow:-
It is defined as the flow in which velocity of flow at any given time
does not change w.r.t length of flow or space.
Mathematically,
( ) =0
where = velocity of flow ,
= length of flow ,
T = time
2. Non- uniform flows:-
It is defined as the flow in which velocity of flow at any given time

changes w.r.t length of flow.
Mathematically,
( ) ≠0
42
 LAMINAR AND TURBULANT FLOWS:-
1. Laminar flow:-
Laminar flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles are
moved in a well defined path called streamlines. The paths are parallel and
straight to each other.
2. Turbulent flow:-
Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles are
moved in a zig-zag manner.
For a pipe flow the type of flow is determined by Reynolds number

( )
Mathematically
=
Where V = mean velocity of flow
D = diameter of pipe
V = kinematic viscosity
If < 2000, then flow is laminar flow.
If > 4000, then flow is turbulent flow.
If lies in between 2000 and 4000, the flow may be laminar or
turbulent.
 COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOWS :-
1. Compressible flow:-
Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of fluid
changes from point to point.
So, ≠ constant.
2. Incompressible flow:-
Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is
constant for the fluid flow.
So, =constant
43
 ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOWS:-

1. Rotational flow:-
Rotational flow is that of flow in which the fluid particles while
flowing along stream lines also rotate about their own axis.
2. Ir-rotational flow:-
Irrotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles
while flowing along streamlines do not rotate about their own axis.
 ONE, TWO, THREE DIMENSIONAL FLOW:-
1. One dimensional flow:-

One dimension flow is defined as that type of flow in which velocity
is a function of time and one space co-ordinate only.
For a steady one dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of one
space co-ordinate only.
So, U = f(x),
V = 0,
W=0
U, V, W are velocity components in x, y, z direction respectively.
2. Two-dimensional flow:-
Two-dimensional flow is the flow in which velocity is a function of
time and 2- space co- ordinates only. For a steady 2- dimensional flow the
velocity is a function of two – space co-ordinate only.
So, U = f1(x,y) ,
V = f2(x,y) ,
W=0
3. Three-dimensional flow:-
Three – dimensional flow is the flow in which velocity is a function
of time and 3- space co-ordinates only. For steady three- dimensional flow,
the velocity is a function of three space co-ordinates only.
44
So U = f1(x, y, z)
V = f2(x, y, z)
W = f3(x, y, z)
RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE
It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a

section of pipe.
For an incompressible fluid the rate of flow or discharge is
expressed as the volume of fluid flowing across the section per second.
For compressible fluids, the rate of flow is usually expressed as the
weight of fluid flowing across the section.
Q = A .V
Where A = cross sectional area of the pipe

V = velocity of fluid across the section
Unit:-
1. For incompressible fluid
or
2. For compressible fluid:
(S.I units), (M.K.S units)
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY:-
It is based on the principle of conservation of mass. For a fluid
flowing through the pipe at all the cross-section, the quantity of fluid per
second is constant.
45
Let V1= average velocity at cross-section 1-1.

1 = density at cross-section 1-1
A1 = area of pipe at section 1-1
V2= average velocity at cross-section 2-2
2= density at cross-section 2-2
A2 = area of pipe at section 2-2
The rate of flow at section 1-1 = 1 A1 V1
The rate of flow at section 2-2 = 2 A2 V2
According to laws of conservation of mass rate of flow at section 1-
1 is equal to the rate of flow at section 2-2 ,
1 A1 V1 = 2 A2 V2
This is called continuity equation.
If the fluid is compressible, then 1= 2,
so A1 V1 = A2 V2
“If no fluid is added removed from the pipe in any length then the
mass passing across different sections shall be same”
46
Simple Problems
Problem:-1
The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10cm and 15cm
respectively. Find the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of the water
flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5m/s. Determine also the velocity at
section 2.
47
Problem:-2
A 30m diameter pipe conveying water branches into two pipes of
diameter 20cm and 15cm respectively. If the average velocity in the 340cm
diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe. Also determine the
velocity in 15cm pipe if the average velocity in 20cm diameter pipe is 2m/s
Solution:
Given Data:
D1 = 30cm = 0.30m
A1 = D12 = (0.3) 2 = 0.07068 m2
V1 = 2.5 m/s
D2 = 20cm = 0.2m
A2 = 0.22 = 0.0314 m2
V2 = 2m/s
D3 = 15cm = 0.15m
A3 = 0.152 = 0.01767 m2
Let Q1, Q2, Q3 are discharges in pipe 1, 2, 3 respsctively

Q1 = Q 2 + Q 3
The discharge Q1 in pipe 1 is given as
Q1 = A1 V1
= 0.07068 ×2.5 m3/s
Q2 = A2V2
= 0.0314 × 2.0 0.0628 m3/s
48
Substituting the values of Q1 and Q2 on the above equation we

get
0.1767 = 0.0628 + Q3
Q3 = 0.1767 – 0.0628
= 0.1139 m3/s
Again Q3 = A3 V3
= 0.01767 × V3
Or 0.1139 = 0.01767 × V3
.
V3 =
.
= 6.44m/s
Problem:-3
Water through a pipe AB 1.2 m diameter at 3 m/s and then
passes through a pipe BC 1.5 m diameter. At C, the pipe branches.
Branch CD is 0.8 m in diameter and carrier one third of the flow in
AB. The flow velocity in branch` CE is 2.5 m/s. Find the volume rate
of flow in AB, the velocity in BC, the velocity in CD and the diameter
of CE.
Solution:
Given Data:
Diameter of pipe AB, DAB = 1.2m
Velocity of flow through AB, VAB = 3.0m/s
49
Dia, of pipe BC DBC = 1.5m
Dia of branched pipe CD = VCD = 0.8m
Velocity of flow in pipe CE, VCE = 2.5m/s
Let flow rate in pipe AB = Qm3/s
Velocity of flow in pipe BC = VBC m/s
Velocity of flow in pipe CD = VCD
= 3.394m3/s
50
51
Problem:-4
A 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil of sp. Gr. 0.9 at a velocity of
3m/s. At another section the diameter is 20cm. Find the velocity at this
section and also mass rater of flow of oil.
52
Bernoulli’s equation:
Statement: It states that in a steady ideal flow of an in compressible
fluid, the total energy at any point of flow is constant.
The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy &
potential energy or datum energy. These energies per unit weight are
Pressure energy =
Kinetic energy =
Datum energy = z
Mathematically
+ + z = Constant
Derivation:
Consider a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing through a non

uniform pipe the pipe is running full & there
Let us consider two sections AA& BB of the pipe
Now assume that the pipe is running full & there is a continuity of flow
between the two sections
Let Z1 = Height of AA
P1 = Pressure of AA
V1 = Velocity of liquid of AA
Q1 = Cross sectional area of the pipe of AA
& Z2, P2 , V2 , Q2 are the corresponding values at BB.
53
Let the liquid between the two sections AA & BB move to AA’ &
BB’ through very small lenth dl1 & dl2
Let W is the weight of the liquid between AA & A1A1 & BB & B1B1
as the flow is continuous
W = wa1dl1 = wa2dl2
= a1dl1 = = a2dl2
The work done by pressure of AA in moving the liquid A/A/

= Force X distance
= P1Q1dl1
Similarly
Work done by pressure at BB
= - P2Q2dl2
Total work done by pressure
= P1A1dl1 - P2Q2dl2
= P1A1dl1 - P2Q1dl1
= a1dl1(P1 – P2)
= (P1 – P2)
Loss of Potential energy

= w(Z1 – Z2)
Gain in Kinetic energy
= (V22- V12)
Loss of potenteial energy + work done by pressure
= Gain in kinetic energy
54
w(Z1 – Z2) + (P1 – P2) = (V22- V12)
Z1 – Z2 + - = -
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
Limitations:
1. the velocity of the liquid particle at the center of cross
section is maximum. And the velocity gradually decreases
towards the periphery of the pipe due to friction offered by
the walls of the pipe line but in Bernoulli’s equation it has
been assumed that the velocity of liquid particle at any point
across section is uniform.
2. Lass of energy due to pipe friction during flow of liquid,
from one section to another are neglected in Bernoulli’s
equation.
3. Bernoulli’s equation does not take into consideration loss of
energy due to turbulent flow.
4. Bernoulli’s equation does not take into consideration the loss
of energy due to change of direction.
55
Problem:- 5
Water is flowing through a pipe of 5cm diameter under a
pressure of 29.43 N/cm2 (gauge) and with mean velocity of 2.0 m/s.
Find the total head or total energy per unit weight of the water at a
cross-section, which is 5m above the datum line.
Problem:- 6
A pipe, through which water is flowing, is having diameters,
20cm and 10cm at the cross sections 1 and 2 respectively. The
velocity of water at section 1 is given 4.0 m/s. Find thevelocity head at
sections 1 and 2 and also rate of discharge.
56
57
Application of Bernoulli’s equation:

Bernoulli’s equation is applied in all problems of
incompressible fluid flow where energy consideration are involved.
It is also applied to following measuring devices
1. Venturimeter
2. Orifice meter
3. Pitot tube
Venturimeter:
A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow
of a fluid flowing through a pipe it consists of three parts.
I. Short converging part
II. Throat
III. Diverging part
Expression for rate of flow through venturimeter:

Consider a venturimeter is fitted in a horizontal pipe through which
a fluid flowing
58
Let d1 = diameter at inlet or at section (i)-(ii)
P1 = pressure at section (1)-(1)
V1 = velocity of fluid at section (1) – (1)
A1= area at section (1) – (1) =
D2, p2 , v2 , a2 are corresponding values at section 2 applying

Bernouli’s equation at sections 1 and 2 we get
But is the difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2
and it is equal to h
So, h = -
Now applying continuity equation at sections 1 & 2 a1v1 = a2v2
Or v1 =
Substituting this value
59
Where Q = Theoretical discharge
Actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge
Where Cd = co-efficient of venturimetre and value is less than 1
Value of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer:

Case-i:
Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier
than the liquid flowing through the pipe
Let Sh = Sp. Gravity of the heavier liquid
S0 = Sp. Gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe
x = difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube
PA – PB = gx( − )
=x − 1
h=x − 1
60
Case-ii
If the differential manometer contains a liquid lighter than the liquid
flowing through the pipe
Where Sl = Specific gravity of lighter liquid in U-tube nanometre

So = Specific gravity of fluid flowing through in U-tube nanometre
x = Difference of lighter liquid columns in U- tube
The value of h is given by
h=x 1−
Case-iii:
Inclined venturimetre with differential U-tube manometre
Let the differential manometer contains heavier liquid
Then h is given as
h= + - +
=x − 1
Case-iv:
Similarly for inclined venturimetre in which differential manometer
contaoins a liquid which is kighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe.
Then
h= + - +
h=x −
61
Limitations:
 Bernoulli’s equation has been derived underthe assumption that no
external force except the gravity force is acting on the liquid. But in
actual practice some external forces always acting on the liquid
when effect the flow of liquid
 If the liquid is flowing in a curved path the energy due to centrifugal
force should also be taken into account.
Pitot-tube:
It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any
point in a pipe or a channel.
It is based on the principle that if the velocity flow at a point
becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due to conversion of the
kinetic energy into pressure energy.
The pitot-tube consists of a glass tube, bent an right angles
Consider two points 1 and 2 at te same level. Such a ay that 2 is
at he inlet of pitot tube and one is the far away from the tube
Let P1 = pressure at point 1

V1 = velocity of fluid at point 1
P2 = pressure at 2
V2 = velocity of fluid at point 2
H = Depth of tube in the liquid
h = Rise of the liquid in the tube above the free surface
Applying Bernoulli’s theorm
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
=H = (h + H)
62
H+ =h+H
V1 = 2 ℎ
Actual velocity, Vact = Cv 2 ℎ
Cv = co-efficient of Pitot-tube
Different Arrangement of Pitot tubes
63
Numerical Problems:
Problem:- 7
Water is flowing through a pipe of 5cm diameter under a pressure of
29.43 N/cm2 (gauge) and with mean velocity of 2.0 m/s. Find the total head
or total energy per unit weight of the water at a cross-section, which is 5m
above the datum line.
Problem:- 8
The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10
cm at sections 1 and 2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35lit/s.
The section 1 is 6m above datum and sedction 2 is 4m aboved datum. If the
pressure at section 1 is 39.24 N/cm2. Find the intensity of pressure at
section 2
64
Solution:
Given
65
Problem:- 9
Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300mm and 200
mm at the buttom and upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at
the bottom end is 9.81N/m2. Determine the difference in datum head if the
rate of flow through pipe is 40 lit/s
66
Problem:- 10
A horizontal venturimetre with inlet and throat diameters 10cm and
15 cm respectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of
differential manometer connected to the inlet and throat is 20cm of
mercury. Determine the rate of flow. Take Cd = 0.98
67
Problem:- 11
An oil of Sp.gr. 0.8 is flowing through a horizontal venturimrtre
having inlet diameter 20cm and throaty diameter 10 cm. The oil mercury
differential manometer shows a reading of 25cm. Calculate the discharge of
oil through the horizontal venturimetre. Take Cd = 0.98
68
Problem:- 12
A horizontal venturimrtre with inlet and throat diameters 20cm
and 10 cm respectively is used to measure the flow of oil of Sp. gr.
0.8. The discharge of oil through venturimetre is 60lit/s . Find the
reading of oil-mercury differential manometer. Take Cd = 0.98
69
Problem:-13
A static pitot-tube placed in the centre of a 300 mm pipe line has
one orifice pointing upstream and is perpendicular to it. The mean velocity
in the pipe is 0.80 of the central velocity. Find the discharge through the
pipe if the pressure difference between the two orifices is 60mm of water.
Take Cv = 0.98
70
Orifice:
Orifice is a small opening of any Cross-section (such as triangular,
rectangular etc) on the side or at the bottom of a tank, though which a fluid
is flowing. Orifices are used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid.
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at 1 and 2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
H+0=0+
V2 = 2 ℎ
Orifice Co-efficients:
The Orifice co-efficients are
 Co-efficient of velocity Cv
 Co-efficient of contraction Cc
 Co-efficient of discharge Cd
Co-efficient of velocity Cv:

It is defined as the ratio between the actual velocity of a
jet of liquid at vena-contra and the theoretical velocity of jet. It is denoted
by Cv and Mathematically Cv is given as
Cv =
71
Where V = actual velocity
2 ℎ = theoretical velocity
The value of Cv varies from o.95 to 0.99 for dofferent

orificial depending on the shape, size of the orifice.
Co-efficient of contraction:
It is defined as the ratio of the area of the jet at vena-contra to the
area of the orifice.
It is denoted by Cc
a = area of orifice
ac = area of jet at vena-contra
Cc =
The value of cc varies from 0.61 to 0.69 depending on shape and

size of the orifice.
Co-efficient of Discharge:
It is the ratio of the actual discharge from an orifice to the theoretical
discharge from the orifice. It is denoted by Cd
If Q is the actual discharge and Qth is the theoretical discharge then
Cd =
×
=
×
= Cc × Cv
The value of Cd arries from 0.61 0.65

For general purpose Cd is 0.62
72
Classification
Oriffices are classified on the basis of their size, shape and nature of
discharge
According to size
 Small orifice (If the head of liquid above the centre of orifice is more
than 5 times the depth of orifice)
 Large orifice (If head is less than 5 times the depth of oriffice)
According to shape
1. Circular
2. Triangular
3. Rectangular
4. Square
According to the shape of upstream edge:

 Sharp edged orifice
 Bell mouthed orifice
According to nature of discharge:

 Free discharge orifices
 Drowned or submerged orifices
o Partially submerged orifices
o Fully submerged orifices
Orofice Meter or Orifice Plate:

It is advice used for measuring the rate flow of a fluid through a
pipe. It is a cheaper device as compare to venturimetre. It also works on the
same principle as that of venturimetre . It consists iof a flat circular plate
which has a circular sharp edge hole called orifice, which is concentric with
the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept gene rally 0.5 times the diameter of
the pipe, through it may vary 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.
A differential manometer is connected at section 1which is at a
distance of about 1.5 to 2.0 times time pipe diameter of upstream of the
orifice plate and at section 2., which at a distance about half the diameter of
the orifice on the down stream side from the orifice plate
73
74
75
Chapter-5
Flow through pipe
Syllabus:
5.1 Definition of pipe, laws of fluid friction

5.2 Head loss due to friction: Darcy’s and Chezy’s
formula)
5.3 Hydraulic gradient and total gradient line
Pipe:
A pipe is a closed conduit , generally of circular cross-section used

to carry watter or any other flui.
When the pipe is running full, the flow is under pressure but if the
pipe is not running full the flow is nit unsder pressure (culverts, sewer
pipes)
76
Loss of fluid friction:
The frictional resisytance of a pipe depends upon the roughness of

the inside surface of the pipe more the roughness more is the resistance.
This friction is known as fluid friction and the resistance is known as
frictional resistance
According Froude
The frictional resistance varies with the square of the velocity.
The friction resistance varies with the natural of the surface.
Among varies laws, the Darcy-weisbatch formula & Chezy’s formula.
Loss of energy in pipes:
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some,

resistance due to which some if energy is loss.
Energy losses:
major energy losses minor energy losses
due to friction due to
it is calculated by 1-subben expansion of pipe
a-darcy-weisbatch formula 2-sudden contraction of

pipe
b-chezy’s formula 3-bend in pipe
4-pipe fittings etc
5-an obstruction in pipe.
Darcy- weisbatch formula:
The loss of head in pipes due to friction calculated from darcy-

weisbath equation.
hf =
77
hf = loss of head due to friction
F = coefficient of friction (function of reylond’s number)
= for Re <2000(viscous flow)
.
= for Re varying from 4000 to 106
L = length of the pipe
V = mean velocity of flow
D = diameter of the pipe.
Chezy’s formula:
′
hf = × × ×
hf = loss of head due to friction.
P = wetted perimeter of pipe
A = C.S area of pipe
L = length of pipe
V = m mean velocity of flow.
M= =
= hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius
⇨ = = =
Substituting =
hf = × × ×
v2 = hf × × ×
78
v= × ×
= C where C is constant known as chezy’s constant
= i loss of head per unit length
Substituting V = c√ value of M is always .
Hydraulic gradient line:
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head P/W &
datum head (Z) if a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to the reference line
or it is the line which is obtained by joining of the top of all vertical
ordinates showing pressure head (P/W)of a flowing fluid in a pipe from the
centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as H.G.L .
Total energy line:
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, dutum
head & kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some
reference line or it is the line which is obtained by joining the tops of all
vertical orbinates showing the sum of pressure head & kinetic head from
the centre of the pipe. It is also written as T.E.L
79
CHAPTER -6
Impact of jets
Syllabus:
6.1 Impact of jet on fixed and moving vertical flat plates,
derivation of work done on series of vanes and condition
for maximum efficiency
6.2 Impact of jet on moving curved vanes, illustration
using velocity triangles, derivation of work done,
efficiency
(Simple Numericals)
Introduction:
Impact of jet means the force exerted by the jet on a plate which may
be stationary or moving
The various cases of impact of jet are:
1. force exerted by the jet on a staticnary plate when
1)plate is vertical to the jet
2)plate is inclined to the jet
3)plate is curved
2. force exerted by the jet on a moving plate when-
1.plate is vertical to jet
2.plate is inclined to the jet
3.plate is curved
80
Impact of jet flat surface :
Force exerted by jet on fixed vertical plate
Consider a jet of water coming out from the noiile strikes a flat
vertical plate
Let v = velocity of the jet

d = diameter of jet
a = area of cross –section of the jet
=
As the plate is fixed, the jet after striking will get deflected through
900
Hence the component of the velocity of jet ,in the direction of jet,
after striking will be zero.
The force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of jet
Fx = rate of change of momentum in the direction of force
–
=
81
× – ×
=
= (Initial velocity – Final velocity)
= (velocity of jet before striking – Final velocity of jet after
striking)
= av [v - 0]
= a
NOTE: In the above equation initial velocity minus final velocity is taken
as because force exerted by the jet on the plate is is calculated if
force exerted on the jet is to be calculated then final velocity is
taken.
82
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Problem-1
Find the force exerted by a jet of water of diameter 75mm on a
stationary flat plate when the jet strikes the plate normally with a velocity of
20m/s.
Solution .
Given:
Diameter of jet = d = 75mm
= 0.075m
Velocity of jet = 20m/s
Area = a =
= (0.075)
= 0.004417 m2
The force exerted by the jet of water on a stationary vertical plate is

given by
F= a
= 1000× 0.004417 × 20
= 1766.8 N
Problem-2
Water is flowing through a pipe at the end of which a nozzle is fitted
. the diameter of the nozzle is 100m and the head of water at the centre of
nozzle 100m . find the force exerted by the jet of water on a fined vertical
plate . the co-efficient of velocity is given as 0.95
SOLUTION:
Ggiven:
Diameter of nozzle = d = 100mm = 0.1m
Head of water , H = 100m
83
Co- efficient of velocity ,Cv = 0.95
Area of nozzle a = = (0.1) = 0.007854 m2
Theoretical velocity of jet of water is given as
Vth = 2
=√2 × 9.81 × 100 =44.294 M/S
But , Cv =
∴Actual velocity of jet of water (v) = cv× th
V = 0.95× 44.294
= 42.08 M/S
Force exerted on a field vertical plate is given by
F=
= 1000× 0.07854 × (42.08) ( = 1000 kg/m)
=13907.2 N = 13.9 KN ans
Impact of jet on moving flat plate:
84
Jet striking a flat vertical moving plate

Consider a jet of water striking a flat vertical plate moving with a
uniform velocity away from the jet ..
Let V = velocity of the jet (absolute )
A = area of cross –section of the jet
U = velocity of flat plate
In this case the jet strikes the plate with a relative velocity , which is
equal to the absolute velocity of jet of water minus the velocity of the plate .
Hence relative velocity of the jet with respect to plate =v-u
Mass of water striking the plate per sec
= × × ( )
= × [ − ]
Force exerted by the jet on the moving flat plate in the direction of
motion of jet
Fx = mass of water striking /sec × [ − ]
= ( − )[( − ) − 0]
= ( − ) (final velocity in the direction of jet is zero)
In this case ,the work will be done by the jet on plate as the plate is moving
Work done per second by the jet on the plate
= force ×
= fx ×
= ( − ) ×
NOTE in case of stationary or filed flat plate work done is zero.
85
Jet striking a series of plates

In this case, a large number of flat platus are mounted on the rim of
a wheel fixed distance apart. The jet strikes a plate and due to the force
exerted by the jet on the plate, the wheel starts moving and the 2nd plate
mounted on the wheel appears before the jet, which again exerts the force
on the 2nd plate.
Thus each plate appears successively be for the jet s the jet exerts
force on each plate. The wheel states moving at a constant speed
Late V = velocity of jet
D = diameter of jet
A = cross – sectional area of jet
u = velocity of plate
In this case the mass of water coming out from the nozzle per
second is always in connect with the plates when all the plate are
considered
Hence mass of water/sec = av
The jet strikes the plkate with velocity = v – u
86
The Force exeted by the jet in the direction of the motion of plate
Fx = (Initial velocity – Final velocity)
= av[(v – u) – 0]
= av(v – u)
Work done per second by the jet on the series of the plate per sec
= Fx u
= av(v – u) u
Kinetic energy of the jet per second
=
= ( av)
= a
/
Efficiency, =
/
( – )
=
( – )
=
Condition for maximum Efficiency
For a given jet velocity v, the efficiency will be maximum when
=0
( – )
⇒ =0
– )
⇒ =0
87
–
⇒ =0
⇒ 2v – 4u = 0
⇒u=
Maximum Efficiency:
Substituting the value of v =2u
We get maximum efficiency as
( – )
=
( )
= ½ = 50%
IMPACT OF JET ON A MOVING CURVED PLATE WHEN JET

STRIKES TANGENTISLY AT ONE OF THE TIPS:
Consider a jet of water striking a moving cuirved vane tangentialy at

one of its tips. In this case as plate is moving, the velocity with which jet of
aater is equal to the relative velocity of the jeyt withrerspectg to the plate
Let v1 = velocity of the jet at inlet
u1 = velocity of the plate at inlet
Vr1 = Relative velocity of the jet & plate at inlet
= guide blade angle
= vane angle made by relative velocity Vr1 with the direction of
motion of inlet
Vw1 & vf1` = Components of V1 in the direction of motion &
perpendicular to the direction of motion of vane respectively
Vw1 = Whirl veloicity at inlet
Vf1 = velocity at inletr
V2 = velocity of the jet at outlet
88
u2 = velocity of vane at out let

Vr2 = relative of the jet at out let
= Angle made by the velocity v2 with the direction of the motion
of vane at outlet
∅ = vane angle at outlet
Vw2 = velocity of whirl at oputlet
Vf2 = velocity of whirl at oputlet
The triangles ABD & EGH are called the velocity triangle at inlet &
outlet
If the vane is smooth & having velocity in the direction of motion at
inlet & outlet equal then we have
u1 = u2 = u
Vr1 = vr2
Now
Mass of water striking vane per sec =
Where a = area of jet
Vr1 = relative velocity at inlet
Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion
Fx = (Initial velocity – Final velocity)
But initial velocity with which jet strikes thge vane = vr1
The component of this velocity inthe direction of motion

= vr1cos
= (Vw1 – u1)
Similarly the component of relative velocity vr2 at outlet in the
direction of motion = - vr2cos∅
= - [u2 + vw2]
(- ve sign is taken as the component of vr2 is in opposite direction)
89
Substituting these values in the above equation
Fx = aVr1 [(vw1 – u1) – { - (u2 + vw2)}]
= aVr1 [vw1 – u1 + u2 – vw2]
= avr1(vw1+ vw2)
This equation is ture only when B is actue when
= 900
Vw2 = 0
Fx = avr1(vw1)
When > 900 (obtuse)
Fx = avr1(vw1 - vw2)
In equation fx is written as
Fx = avr1(vw1 ± vw2)
Work down/ sec on the vane by the jet
= Fx ×
= avr1(vw1 ± vw2) ×
Work done/sec/ unit weight of fluid striking/sec
[ ± ]×
=
×
[ ± ]×
=
90
Work done/sec/unit mass of water striking/ sec
[ ± ]×
=
=[ ± ] ×
Efficiency of jet:
=
/
[ ± ]×
=
[ ± ]×
=
×
91
Chapter - 7
Hydraulic turbines
Syllabus:
7.1 Layout and features of hydroelectric power plant

7.2 Definition and classification of hydraulic turbines
7.3 Construction and working principle of Impulse
turbine (Pelton wheel) Velocity triangle of a single
bucket, work done and efficiency in Pelton wheel
(Numerical Problems)
7.4 Construction and working principle of Reaction
turbine (Francis turbine) Velocity triangle, work done
and efficiency (Numerical Problems) Construction and
working principle of Kaplan turbine
Introduction:
Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert

either hydraulic energy into mechanical energy (whgich is further converted
to electrical energy ) or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Hydraulic machines are of two types
Turbines
Pumps
92
Turbines:
Turbines are defined as the hydraulic machines which convert
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used in
running an electric generator which is directly coupled top the shaft of tghe
turbine. Thus mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. The
electrical power which is obtained from the hydraulic energy is known as
Hydro-electric power.
Classification of Hydraulic turbine

Hydraulic Turbines are classified
1. According to the type of energy at inlet

a. Impulse turbine – The energy available at inlet is only kinetic
energy
b. Reaction turbine – The water posses kinetic energy as well as
pressure energy at the inlet of the turbine.
2. According to the direction of flow through runner

a. Tangential Flow Turbine – Watert flows along the tangent of
the runner
b. Radial flolw turbine – Water flows in the radial direction
through the runner
c. Axial flow turbine – Water flows through the runner along the
direction parwallel to the axis of rotation of the runner
d. Mixed flow turbine – Water flows through the runner inthe
radial direction but leaves in the direction parallel to axis of
rotation of runner.
3. According to the head at the inlet of turbine

a. High head turbine
b. Medium head turbine
c. Low head turbine
4. According to the specified speed of turbine
a. Low specific speed turbine
b. Medium specific speed turbine
c. High specific speed turbine
93
Definitions of heads & Efficiencies of a turbine

1. Gross Head
The difference between the head race level & tail race level
when no water is flowing is known as gross head (Hg)
2. Net Head
It is also called effective head & is defined as the head
available at the ionmlet of the turbine. When water is flowing, a loss
of head due to friction between the water & penstocks occurs.
So net head = Hg – hf
Hg = gross head
hf = head loss due to friction
Where v = velocity of flow in penstock

L = Length of penstock
D = Diametre of penstock
3. Efficiencies of a turbine
The important efficiencies of a turbine are
a. Hydraulic efficiency
b. Mechanical efficiency
c. Volumetric efficiency
d. Overfal Efficiency
(a) Hydraulic efficiency
=
.
W.P. = Water Power
×
= kW
94
W = weight of water striking the vanes of the turbine per second
= ∅
∅×
W.P. = kW
for water = 1000 kg/m3
(b) Mechanical efficiency
. .
=
. .
(c) Volumetric efficiency
(d) Overal Efficiency
. .
=
. .
. . . .
= ×
. . . .
= ×
95
PELTRON WHEEL (OR TURBINE)

 The peltron wheel or peltron turbine is a tangential flow impulse
turbine. The water strikes the runner along the tangent of the runner.
 The energy available at tghe inlet of the turbine is only kinetic
energy.
 The pressure at the inlet & outlet of the turbine is atmosphere.
 This turbine is used for high heads
Constructions
The main parts of the peltron turbine are
 Nozzle & Flow Regulating Arrangement
 Runner and Buckets
 Casing
 Breaking jet
1. Nozzle & Flow Regulating Arrangement:

The amount of water striking the buckets of the runner can be
controlled by providing a spear in the nozzle. The spear is conical and
operated by hand wheel
96
When spear is pushed Forward, the amount of water striking is

reduced and when spear is pushed back, the amount of water striking the
runner is increased
97
2. Runner and Buckets :

 The runner of the peltron wheel consists of a circular disc on
the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly spaced
are fixed
 The shape of the bucket is of a double hemispherical cup and
bowl
 Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical parts by a
dividing wall which is known as splitter
 The buckets are made of cast iron, cast steel bronze or stain
less steel depending upon the head at inlet.
 The splitter divides the jet into two equal parts and the jet
gets deflected through 1600 or 1700
3. Casing:
 The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the
water and to discharge water to tail race.
 It is made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates
4. Breaking jet :
When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in
forward direction, the amount of water striking the runner reduces to zero.
But due to inertia the runner goes on revolving for a long time. To stop the
runner in short time a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of water
on the back of the vanes. This jet is called breaking jet.
98
VELOCITY TRIANGLES & WORK DONE FOR PELTRON

WHEEL:
The jet of water strikes the bucket at the spitter. Which splits up the
jet into two parts. The splitter is the splits up the jet into two parts. The
splitter is the inlet tip & outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the
bucket.
The inlet & outlet velocity triangles are shown in the above figure.
Let H = net head outing on the pelton wheel
= H g - hf
Where Hg = Gross head hf = ∗
∗
= Diametre of penstock
D = Diametre of wwheel
N = Speed of the wheel in r.p.m.
d = diameter of the jet
V1 = Velocity of jet = 2 ℎ
u = u 1 = u2 =
Velocity triangle at inlet is straight line where
99
Vr1 V1 – u1 = V1 - u
Vw1 = V1
=0 & =0
For velocity triangle at out let, we have
Vr2 Vr1& Vw2 = Vr2cos – u2
The force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion is
Fx = av1(vw1 + vw2)
( + ve sign is taken as is acute)
Mass of water striking = av1 [as series of vanes are there]
Area of jet =
Work done by the jet on the runner per second
= Fx ×
= av1(vw1 + vw2) ×
Power given to the runner by the jet
[ ]×
kw
Work done/sec/ unit weight of fluid striking/sec
[ ]×
=
×
[ ]×
=
Energy supplied to the jet at inlet is the form of kinetic energy and is equal
to
K.E = ( av )
= a
100
Hydraulic Efficiency:
/
=
/
[ ]×
=
Vw1 = V1 ,
Vr1 = V1 –u1 = V1 – u Vr2
Vw2 = Vr2cos∅ - u2
= (V1 - u) cos∅ - u (Vr2 == V1 - u, u2 = u1 = u)
Substituting the values of Vw1 & Vw2
[ ( ) ∅ ]×
=
( )[ ∅] ×
=
Condition for maximum Efficiency

the efficiency will be maximum when
ℎ
=0
( )[ ∅] ×
⇒ =0
By solving
⇒u=
Maximum Efficiency:
[ ∅]
=
101
Points to be remembered for pelton wheel:

1. The velocity of the jet at inlet is given by
V1=Cv 2 ℎ Where Cv = co-efficiency of velocity = 0.098 or 0.99

H = Net head on turbine.
2. the velocity of wheel (u)is given by u= ∅ 2 ℎ where ∅ =speed
ratio. The value of speed ratio varies from 0.43 to 0.48
3. thye angle of deflection of the jet through buckets is taken at 1650 if
on angle of deflection is given.
4. the mean diameter or the pitch diameter D of thye platon wheel is
given by
u= =
5. jet Ratio. It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter (D) of the
pilton wheel to the diameter of the jet(d). It is denoted by ‘m’ and is
given as
m= (= 12 for most cases)
6. number of buckets on a unner is given by
Z = 15+ = 15+0.5 m
Where m = jet ratio.
7. Number of jets. It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow
through the turbine by the rate of flow of water through a single jet.
102
FRANCIS TURBINE
Francis turbine is a inward flow reaction turbine having radial
discharge aty out let
Radial flow reaction turbine:-
Radial flow turbines are those turbines in which the water flows in
the radial direction. The water may flow radialy from outward to inward or
from inward to outward
Reaction turbines means that thwe water of the inlet of the turbine
poses kinetic energy as wellas pressure energy
Construction
Ain parts of a radial flow reaction turbine:

The main parts of a radial flow reaction turbine are
1. Casing
2. Guide mechanism
3. Runner
4. Draft Tube
103
Casing:
In cse oif reaction turbine casing and rrunner are always full of
watyer the waqter from the penstocks enter the casing which is of spherical
shaspe inm which are of cross section of the casing goies on decreasing
gradually. The caing is made of concrete, cast steel ot pklate steel
Guide Mechanism
It consists of stationary ciorcular wheel all roumnd of the turbine. The
stationary guoide bench are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes
allow the water to strike tyhe vanes fixed on the runner without shock at
inlet., by watering the sdjacent vanes of guide mechaniusm. The amount of
water striking the runner can be varied
Runner
It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curve vanes are
fixed. The radial curve vanes are so shaped that the water enters and leaves
the runner without shock. The runners are made up of cast steel cast iron or
stain less steel. They are kid to the shaft.
Drft tube:
The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is
generally less than the atmospheric pressure. The water at exist cannot be
directly discharge to the tail race. A tube or pip[e of gradually increasing
area is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail
race. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube.
Inward flow reaction turbine:-

 In this case the water flows from outward to inward through the
runner.
 In this case the water from the co song enters the stationary guide
wheel
 The guiding wheel consists of guide vanes which direct the water to
enter the runner which direct the water to enter the runner which
consists of moving vans.
 The water flows over the moving vanes in the inward radical
direction and is discharged at the inner diameter of the runner.
 The outer diameter of the runner is the incept and the inner diameter
of the runner is the outlet.
104
Velocity triangle and work done :-

The work done per second on the runner by water for radially
curved vanes is
V1 [ ± ]
= [ ± ]
The above equation also represents the energy transfer per second
to the runners. where
=velocity of whirl at inlet
= velocity of whirl at outlet
U1 = tangential velocity of wheel at inlet
=
U2 = tangential velocity of wheel at outlet

=
D1 = diameter of wheel at inlet

D2 = diameter of wheel at outlet
105
The work done per second per unit weight of water per second
[ ± ]
=
×
= [ ± ]
The equation is known as Euler’s equation of hydro dynamic
machine
Special cases:-
If is an obtuse angle , > 90°
Work done per second = [ − ]
 If = 90°, =0
 Work done per second = [ ]
Hydraulic efficiency:-
. [ ± ]
= = ×
.
[ ± ]
=
Where R.P = runner power

W.P = water power
If discharge is radial at outlet , then =0
106
Important point to be remembered :-

(i) speed ratio:-
The speed ratio is defined as =
where u1 = triangular velocity of wheel at inlet.

(ii) Flow ratio :-
The ratio of the velocity of flow at inlet Vf1 to the velocity given 2 , it
is known as flow ratio.
Where H = Head on turbine
(iii) Discharge of the turbine:-
The discharge through a reaction turbine is given by
Q= =
Where
D1=Diameter of runner at inlet
D2=Diameter of runner at outlet
B1,B2=Width of runner at inlet & outlet respectively
vf1,vf2=Velocity of flow at inlet & outlet respectively
If thickness of vanes are taken into consideration then discharge will be
( D1-nt)B1vf1 where
N=number of vanes
T=thickness of each vane
(iv) The head(H) on the turbine is given by
H= +
Where p1= pressure at inlet

(v) Radial Discharge:-
Radial discharge at outlet means B=90◦,Vw2=0
Radial discharge at inlet means
α = 90, VW1 = 0
107
If there is no loss of energy when wafe flows through the vanes

then we have
= [ ± ]
Out word radial flows reaction turbine:-
If the water flows from inward to outward through the runner, then
that turbine is known as outward flow reaction turbine.
In this case at inlet of the runner is at the inner diameter of the
runner, the tangential velocity at inlet will be less then that of at outlet .
U1<U2 as D1>D2
The velocity triangles at inlet of outlet, work done by water on
runner per second, the horse power developed, the hydraulic efficiency is
similar as inward flow reaction turbine.
108
Francis turbine :-
The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is
known as Francis turbine the bwater enter the runner of the turbine in
radial direction at outlet and leaves in the axial direction at inlet of the
runner. So the modern Francis turbine is a mixed flow type turbine.
Axial flow reaction turbine :-

 It the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of the shaft, the
turbine is known as axial flow turbin.
 For axial flow reaction turbin, the staft of the turbine is vertical.
 The lower end of the shaft is made larger which is known as ‘hub’ or
‘boss’
 The vanes are fixed on the hub act as a runner for axial flow reaction
turbine.
Types of axial flow reaction turbine
1) Propeller turbine: when the vanes fixed on the hub are not
adjustable, the turbine is known as propeller turbine.
2) Kaplan turbine: when the vanes fixed on the hub are adjustable,
the turbine is known as Kaplan turbine.
Kaplan turbine:
109
1) when the vanes fixed on the hub are adjustable, the turbine is known
as Kaplan turbine.
2) This turbine is suitable. Where lager quantity of water at low hade of
available.
3) Kaplan turbine consist of a hub fixed to the shaft.
4) On the hub the adjustable vanes are fixed.
Main parts of a Kaplan turbine :
1) Scrall casing
2) Guide vanes mechanism
3) Hub with vanes or runner of the turbine
4) Draft tube
Work mg
1) The water from penstock enters the scroll casmg and then moves to
the guide vanes.
2) From the guide vanes, the water turns through 900 and flows axially
through the runner.
3) The discharge through the runner is given by
4) The outlet and inlet velocity triangles are drawn at the extreme edge
of the runner and similar as reaction turbines.
110
Important points for Kaplan turbine

1) The peripheral velocity at inlet and out let are equal
2) Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal
3) Area of flow at inlet = area of flow at outlet
Governing of turbines :
1) The governing of a turbine is defind as the operation by which the
speed of the turbine is kept constant under all condition of working
2) By means of a governor the rate of flow thorough the turbine is
automatically regulated according to the changing loud conditions on
the turbine.
3) Governing is necessary as a turbine is directly coupled to an electric
generator, which is required to run at constant speed under all
fluctuating loads condition.
4) This is only possible when the speed of the generator under all
changing load condition is constant and for that the speed of the
turbine should be constant.
5) If the turbine or the generator is to run at constant speed, the rate of
flow of water to the turbine should be decreased till the speed
becomes normal.
6) This process by which the speed of the turbine or kept constant
under varying condition of loud is called governing.
Draft tube:
1) Draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area which connect the
outlet of the runner to the tail race.
2) It is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail
race. This pipe of gradually increasing area is called draft tube.
3) One end of the draft tube has the following two purposes.
4) It permits a negative head to be established at the outlet of the
runner and there by increase the net head on the turbine. The
turbine may be placed above of the tail race without any loss of net
head and hence turbine may be inspected properly.
5) It converts a large proportion of the kinetic energy (v2/2g) rejected
at the outlet of the turbine. Into useful pressure energy. Without the
draft tube the K.E rejected at the outlet of the turbine will go waste
to the tail race.
111
Types of draft tube :

1) The flowing are the important types of draft tubes which are
commonly used.
I. Conical draft tubes
II. Simple elbow tubes
III. Moody spreading tubes
IV. Elbow draft tubes with circular inlet and rectangular outlet.
Criteria for selection of hydraulic turbine

The main selection criteria of hydraulic turbine is specific speed also the
performance
Of a turbine can be predicted by knowing specific speed .
Types of turbine for different specific speed .
Type of turbine specific speed

M.K.S S.I
Pelton wheel with single jet 10 to 35 85 to 3o
Pelten wheel with 2or more jet 35 to 60 30 to 51
Francis turbine 60 to 300 51 to 225
Kaplan or propeller turbine 300 to 1000 255 to 860
Specific speed
It is define as the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape ,
geometrical dimensions ,
Blade angles gate openmgs etc, with the actual turbine but of such a
size that it will develop
Unit power when working under unit head .
It is denoted by the symbol Ns
The specific speed is sued in omparing the different types of turbine
as every type of turnine has different specific speed
112
Numerical problems
Q.1. A platen wheel has a mean backet speed of 10mt . the buckets deflect
the jet through an angel of 1600. Calculate the power given by water to the
runner and the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine. Assume co-efficient of
velocity as 0.98.
Q.2. An inward flow reaction turbine has external and internal diameters as
0.9m and 0.45m respectively. The turbine is running at 200rpm ands width
of turbine at inlet is 200mm. The velocity of flow throughthe runner is
constant and is equal to 1.8m/s. The guide bladesmake an angel of 100 to
the tangent of the wheel and determine.
I. The absolute velocity of water of inlet of runner.
II. The velocity of whirl at inlet
III. Relative velocity at inlet
IV. The runner blade angle
V. Width of the runner at outlet
VI. Mass of water flowing through the runner/sec.
VII. Head at the inlet of the turbine
VIII. Power developed and hydranlr efficiency of the turn.
113
Chapter - 8
Hydraulic Pumps
Syllabus:
8.1 Definition and classification of pumps

8.2 Centrifugal Pumps
Construction and working principles, velocity diagram
of a single impeller, work done and efficiency
(Numerical Problems)
Concept of multistage centrifugal pumps
Cavitation-Causes and its effect
8.3 Reciprocating Pumps
Construction and working principle of single acting and
double acting reciprocating pumps
8.4 Concept of slip and negative slip
The hydraulic machine which converts mechanical energy into

hydraulic energy are called pumps. The hydraulic energy is in the form of
pressure energy
The pumps are of two types
1. Centrifugal pump
2. Reciprocating pump
114
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:-
The centrifugal machine which converts mechanical energy into
pressure energy by means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid is known
as centrifugal pump.
 The centrifugal pump acts as a reversed of an inward radial flow
reaction turbine.
 The centrifugal pump works on the principle of forced vortex flow
which means that when a certain mass of liquid is rotated by an
external torque, the rise in pressure head of the rotating liquid takes
place. The rise in pressure head at any point is proportional to the
square of tangential velocity of the liquid at that point i.e, V2/2g or
W2R2/2g
MAIN PARTS:-
The main parts of a centrifugal pump are ;
1. Impeller
2. Casing
3. Suction pipe with a foot valve and strainer
4. Delivery pipe
115
1. Impeller:-
The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is called impeller. It consists of
series of backward curved vanes . The impeller is mounted on a shaft
which is connected to the shaft of an electric motor.
2. Casing:-
The casing of a centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of a reaction
turbine. It is an air tight passage surrounding the impeller. It is designed in
such a way that the kinetic energy of the water discharged at the outlet of
the impeller is converted into pressure energy before the water leaves the
casing and enters the delivery pipe
 There are three types of casing are commonly used.;
(i) Volute casing
(ii) Vortex casing
(iii) Casing with guide blades
Volute casing:-
 It is a spiral type in which area of flow increases gradually.
 The increase in area of flow decrease velocity of flow and decrease
in velocity
 Increases the pressure of the water flowing through the casing.
Vortex casing:-
 If a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and impeller ,
the casing is called vortex casing.
 By introducing the circular chamber , the loss of energy due to the
formation of eddies is reduced to a considerable extent. Thus the
efficiency of the pump is more than the efficiency when only volute
casing is provided.
116
Casing with guide blades:-

The casing in which the impeller is surrounded by a series of guide
blades mounted on a ring which is known as diffuser.
The guide vanes are designed in such a way that the water from the impeller
enters the guide vanes without shock. Also the area of the guide vanes
increases thus reducing the velocity flow through guide vanes and
consequently increasing the pressure through the surroundings casing which
is in most of the cases concentric with the impeller.
117
3. Suction pipe with a foot valve and a strainer:-

 A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of the impeller and
other end dips into the water in a sump is known as suction pipe.
 A foot valve which is a non return valve or one way type of valve is
fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe. It will open only upward
direction.
 A strainer is also fitted to filter the water.
4. Delivery pipe:-
The pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and
other end delivers water at a required height is known as delivery pipe.
WORK DONE BY THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP ON WATER:-
In case of centrifugal pump work is done by the impeller on the
water. The water enters the impeller radially at inlet for best efficiency of
the pump which means the absolute velocity of water at inlet makes an
angle of 90 with the direction of motion at inlet.
Hence ∝= 90° , Vw1 = 0
118
Let N = speed of impeller in r.p.m

D1 = diameter of impeller at inlet.
U1 = tangential velocity of impeller at
=
D2 = diameter of impeller at outlet

U2 = tangential velocity of impeller at outlet
=
A centrifugal pump is the reverse of a radially inward flow reaction

turbine.
But, in case of a radially inward flow reaction turbine, the work
done by the water on the runner per second unit weight of the water striking
per second
= [ − ]
Work done by the impeller on the water per second per unit weight
of the water striking per second.
= - (work done in case of turbine)
=- [ − ]
Work done by the impeller on water per second

= ( )
= ( )
Q = volume of water flowing per second
= =
,B2 are width of impeller at inlet and outlet
, are velocities of flow at inlet and outlet.
119
DEFINITIONS OF HEADS AND EFFICIENCIES OF A

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:-
1. Suction head(hs):-
It is the vertical height of the centre line of the centrifugal pump
above the water surface in the tank or sump from which water is to be
lifted. This height is also called suction lift.
2. Delivery head(hd):-
The vertical distance between the centre line of the pump and the
water surface in the tank to which water is delivered is known as delivery
head.
3. Static head(Hs):-
The sum of section head and delivery head is called static head. It is
written as Hs = hs+hd
4. Manometric head(Hm):-
The manometric head is defined as the head against which a
centrifugal pump has to work.
(a) Hm = Head imparted by the impeller to the water – loss of head in

the pump
= - loss of head in impeller casing
= if loss of pump is zero
(b) Hm = total head at outlet of the pump – total head at the inlet of the
pump
= + + - + +
= pressure head at outlet of the pump = hd
= velocity head at outlet of the pump
= velocity head in delivery pipe =
120
Z0 = vertical height of the outlet of the pump from datum line.
, , are the corresponding values of pressure head, velocity
head and datum head at the inlet of the pump
(c) Hm = hs + hd + hfs + hfd +
hs = suction head
hd = delivery head
hfs = frictional loss in suction pipe
hfd = frictional head loss in delivering pipe
Vd = velocity of water in delivering pipe
EFFICIENCIES OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:-

In case of centrifugal pump the power is transmitted from the shaft
of the electric motor to the shaft of pump and then to the impeller. From the
impeller power is given to the water. Thus, power is decreasing from trhe
shaft of the pump to the impeller and then to the water.
 Manometric efficiency
 Mechanical efficiency
 Overall efficiency
Manometric efficiency:-
The ratio of the manometric head to the head imparted by the
impeller to the water is called manometric efficiency.
=
.
=
The power is given to water at outlet of the pump

.
= kw
121
∅
= kw
∅ ( )
Power at impeller = kw
∅
=
∅ ( )
.
=
Mechanical efficiency:-
The power at shaft of the centrifugal pump is more than the power
available at the impeller of the pump. The ratio of the power available at the
impeller to the power at the shaft of the pump is called mechanical
efficiency
=
Overall efficiency:-
It is defined as ratio of power output of the pump to the power input
to the pump.
.
=
.
. .
= ×
. .
= ×
MINIMUM SPEED FOR STARTING A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:-

If the pressure rise in the impeller is more than or equal to
manometric head the centrifugal pump will start delivering water.
Otherwise the pump will not discharged any water, though the impeller is
rotating , the water is contact with the impeller is also rotating. This is the
case of forced vortex.
122
The centrifugal head or head due to presence rise in the impeller.
= −
Wr2 = tangential velocity of impeller at outlet = u2

Wr1 = tangential velocity of impeller at outlet = u1
Head due to pressure rise = −
The flow of water will commence only of head due to pressure rise
≥ Hm
For minimum speed − = Hm

.
=
Hm =
− =
U2 = , U1 =
⇨ ( ) − ( ) = .
⇨ − = .
⇨ ( − )=
⇨ N=
( )
123
MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:-

If a centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is
called a multistage centrifugal pump. The impeller may be mounted on the
same shaft or on different shaft.
A multi stage pump is having 2 functions;-
i. To produce a high head
ii. To discharge a large quantity of liquid.
If a high head is to be developed , the impellers are connected in
series while for discharging large quantity of liquid, the impellers are
connected in parallel.
MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP FOR HIGH HEADS:-

 For developing a high head, a number of impellers are mounted in
series or on the same shaft.
 The water from suction pipe enters the first impeller at inlet and it
discharges at outlet with increased pressure.
 The water with increased pressure from the outlet of the first
impeller is taken to the inlet of the 2nd impeller with the help of
connecting pipe.
 At the outlet of the 2nd impeller the presence of water will be more
than the pressure of water at the outlet of the 1st impeller . thus, if
more impellers are mounted on the same shaft, the pressure will be
increased further.
n = No. Of impeller mounted on the same shaft.
Hm= head developed by each impeller.
Total head developed = n × Hm
124
MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP FOR HIGH DISCHARGE:-

 For obtaining high discharge the pumps should be connected in
parallel.
 Each of the pumps lifts the water from a common sump and
discharges water to a common pipe to which delivery pipe of each
pump are connected.
 Each pumps is working against the same head.

N = number of identical pumps are in parallel
Q = discharge through each pump
Total discharge = n.Q
125
PRIMING:-
 Priming is a centrifugal pump is defined as the operation in which
the suction pipe, casing of the pump and a portion of the delivery
pipe to the delivery value is completely filled up from outside
source with the liquid to be raised by the pump before starting the
pump.
 Thus air from these parts of the pump is removed and these parts are
filled with theliquid to be pumped.
 The work done by the impeller =
 The head generated by the pump = . It is independent of the
density . so when the pump is running in air the heat generated is in

terms of metre of air.
 If the pump is primed with water , the head generated is same meter
of water. But as the density of air is very low. The generated head of
air in terms of equivalent metre of water head is negligible. And
hence the water may not be sucked from the pump. To avoid this
difficulty, priming is necessary.
126
COMPARISION BETWEEN CENTRIFUGAL PUMP AND

RECIPROCATING PUMP:-
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP RECIPROCATING PUMP
 The hydraulic machine which  The hydraulic machine which
converts mechanical energy converts hydraulic energy
into pressure energy by into pressure energy by
means of centrifugal force sucking liquid in a cylinder in
acting on the fluid is called which piston is reciprocating
centrifugal pump. known as reciprocating
pump.
 It occupies less floor space  It occupies 6 to 8 times more

floor space area than
centrifugal pump.
 Installation is easy  Installation is difficult
 Maintenance cost is less  Maintenance cost is high.
 It requires priming  It does not require priming.
 It is suitable for large  It is suitable for low

discharge and small head. discharge and high head
127

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SCTE & VT, ODISA [FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES]

STATE COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION &

FLUID MECHANICS AND

Sl.No. Chapter Pages

1 Properties of fluid 3-12

1.1 Definitions and Units of Density, Specific weight,

Fluids are broadly classified into two types.

1. density or mass density : (S)

2. Specific weight or weight density((W):

For liquids the standard fluid is water.

For gases the standard fluid is air.

It is denoted by the symbol S

This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with

Where = co-efficient of dynamic viscosity or constant of

= rate of shear strain or velocity gradient

Viscosity is defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate

Unit of viscosity in S.I system -

Newton’s law of viscosity:

It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid

If P = Pressure at any point

F = Total force uniformly distributed over an area

Unit of pressure - in M.K.S.

1 kpa = 1000 N/m2

Pressure head of a liquid:

A liquid is subjected to pressure due to pressure due to its own

Let a bottomless cylinder stand in the liquid

Let w = specific weight of the liquid.

H = height of the liquid in the cylinder.

A = Area of the cylinder.

So intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid is proportional to its

ABSOLUTE, GAGUE, ATOMOSPHERIC, AND VACCUME PRESSURES:

It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to

It is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a

It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure

Or P abs = P atm + P gauge

Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Absolute pressure

P vacuum = P atm - P abs

Pressure Measuring Instruments:

The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices :

Manometers are defined as the device used for measuring the

(a) Simple manometers.

 Diaphragm pressure gauge

A simple manometer of a glass tube having one of its ends connected

It is the simple form of manometer used for measuring gauge

It consist of glass tube bent in U- shape , one end of which is

(a) For Gauge Pressure:

Let be is the point which is to be measured, whose value is p. The

Let h1= Height of light liquid above the datum line

h2= Height of heavy liquid above the datum line

S1 = Sp. gr. of light liquid

1 = Density of light liquid = 1000× S1

S2 = Sp. Gr. Of heavy weight

2 = density of heavy weight = 1000×S2

Pressure is same in a horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the

Pressure above A-A in the right column

Hence equating the two pressures

(b) For Vacuum Pressure:

For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid