NCC Pediatrics Continuity Clinic Curriculum:

Asthma

Pre-Meeting Preparation:
Please read/review the following enclosures:
• Summary of VA/DOD Asthma Clinical Practice Guidelines (rev: 2012)
• Sample Asthma Action Plan
• Sample Asthma Symptom Checker
• Sample Inhaler/Spacer Teaching Sheet

Conference Agenda:
• Review Asthma Quiz
• Complete Asthma Cases
• Round table: Hands-on demo of different inhalers, disks, masks, and
spacers. Residents should practice “asthma teaching” with each other.

Post-Conference: Board Review Q&A

Extra-Credit:
• National Asthma Education and Prevention Program Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines
for Diagnosis and Management of Asthma (2007)—74 pgs.
• Tucson Children’s Respiratory Study (large, prospective cohort study delineating risk
factors for asthma)—(2003)
• The Childhood Asthma Management Program (CAMP) Research Group (large, multicenter
study evaluating long term effects of asthma treatment)—(2000)
 Summary & Cases for CAMP Study
• NHLBI Online Asthma Guide (parent resource- w/videos)
• Pediatric Asthma in a Nutshell (PIR, 2014)
• Indoor Environmental Control Practices and Asthma Management (AAP Clinical Report, 2016)

© Developed by MAJ Michael McCown and CPT Jennifer Hepps. Update C. Carr, 2017
 Summary of Asthma Clinical Practice Guidelines
Developed by MAJ Michael McCown (Peds Pulmonologist)
The majority of this summary was pulled directly out of the VA/DOD Asthma Clinical Practice
Guideline. The VA/DOD guidelines were based on a combination of the NHLBI and GINA (Global
Initiative for Asthma) guidelines. The medication data at the end was pulled from a variety of resources.

Establishing the Diagnosis of Asthma

The diagnosis of asthma primarily rests on obtaining a solid clinical history suggestive of airway
hyper-reactivity that includes symptoms such as shortness of breath (SOB), cough, wheezing,
or chest tightness and objective evidence of reversible airway obstruction by either spirometry
or broncho-provocation testing. Since many disease processes share similar clinical symptoms,
the clinician should not rely solely on symptoms for diagnosing asthma and should always
consider alternative diagnoses that mimic asthma. Additional imaging, pulmonary function
testing, or biomarkers of inflammation are often required to rule out other causes. It is
imperative that the clinician carefully examine the history, spirometric findings, and response to
treatment to reach the correct diagnosis and provide proper long-term care.

A. History and Physical Exam:

A complete history and physical exam is the first step in establishing the diagnosis of asthma.
Characteristic symptoms of SOB, wheezing, cough, chest tightness, or nocturnal awakenings
may suggest the diagnosis. The history should emphasize recurrence of symptoms with
associated factors such as exercise, viral infections, or environmental exposures. Physical
exam may demonstrate wheezing or suggest other diagnoses. For children too young to perform
spirometry, the diagnosis of asthma is often solely based on the H&P w/o the benefit of objective
evidence. Waiting to diagnose asthma until the child is old enough to perform spirometry or
other objective measures is inappropriate and unnecessarily delays treatment.

1. A thorough history should be performed to include focus on the following elements:

• Characterization of symptoms related to airway obstruction or airway hyper-
responsiveness to include cough, wheezing, SOB, chest tightness, & sputum production.
• In children, cough may be the only presenting symptoms, while wheezing may not be
present in some patients with asthma.
• The pattern of symptoms should be characterized to include onset, duration, frequency,
diurnal variation, and seasonality
• Precipitating and aggravating factors
• Prior diagnosis, prior symptoms, prior exacerbations, and prior therapies
• Review all current medications (include OTC)
• Family and social history
2. A thorough birth history must also be obtained, to include evidence of maternal smoking,
prematurity, chronic lung disease, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and postnatal smoke exposure
3. Careful review of systems for any condition which can mimic asthma
4. A thorough PE should be performed emphasizing findings in the following areas:
• Upper respiratory tract: secretions, mucosal swelling, and/or nasal polyps.
• Chest: wheezing during normal breathing or prolonged forced exhalation, hyper-
expansion of the thorax, use of accessory muscles, or chest deformity.
• Skin: eczema/dermatitis
• Absence of the above findings does not exclude the diagnosis of asthma and the
examination should include findings that may support alternative diagnoses.

B. Chest Radiographs:

The chest X-ray may be an invaluable tool for excluding other diagnose that masquerade or
complicate the diagnosis and/or treatment of asthma. Key information provided includes
information about: heart size, lung parenchyma, lung vasculature, presence of hyperinflation,
and mediastinal structures that are not readily detectable on exam. Every patient diagnosed
with asthma should have at least 1 chest x ray during the initial evaluation to help exclude
other conditions, though it is less useful in the pediatric population vs. adults.

C. Exclude Alternative Diagnoses:

A fundamental tenet of the diagnosis of asthma is a thorough evaluation and exclusion of

alternative diagnoses that may masquerade as or co-exist with asthma and complicate the
evaluation and treatment. Exclusion/inclusion of alternative diagnoses starts with a thorough
H&P from which a differential diagnosis and approach to additional testing can be developed.

1. Alternative diagnoses should be considered in all patients, in particular those over the age of
30 and under the age of 2 with new symptoms suggestive of asthma
2. When there is no clear response to initial therapy, other significant causes of the patient’s
symptoms and/or airway obstruction must be considered.

D. Pulmonary Function Testing:

Pulmonary function testing includes spirometry, lung volumes, and measurement of diffusion
capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO). Children can reliably perform spirometry around by
age 6, though some kids can complete the maneuvers as young as age 4. Since asthma is an
obstructive lung disease, spirometry alone is most commonly performed when assessing patients’
lung function. Abnormalities in lung volume and diffusion capacity do not occur from asthma,
and are more commonly found in interstitial lung disease, autoimmune lung disease, or other
conditions that are rarely seen in children.

1. Spirometry should be performed in patients suspected to have asthma.

2. If there is obstruction present, post-bronchodilator testing should be completed.
3. Broncho-provocation testing assesses airway hyperresponsiveness by exposing patients to a
known trigger. This may be methacholine, cold air, mannitol, or exercise. These tests are
primarily done in adolescents and adults.
4. Consideration of full pulmonary function testing should occur on any patient with an
atypical course, poor response to therapy, or symmetric reductions of FVC and FEV1.

Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 sec

(FEV1): Amount of air exhaled
with max effort in the first second.

Forced Vital Capacity (FVC):

Total volume of air exhaled with
maximal effort.

Forced Expiratory Flow at 25% &

75% of FVC (FEF25-75): The flow
rate at the 25% & 75% points of
the total volume exhaled. Less
dependent on patient effort, and
indicative of small airway obstr’n.
E. Indication for Specialty Consultation:

The majority of patients with asthma should be diagnosed and treated at the primary care level.
Some patients with more severe asthma or those whose symptoms present a diagnostic dilemma
may benefit from an evaluation by a pulmonologist, allergist, or other specialist.

Findings NOT consistent with typical asthma diagnosis that should prompt referral:
• Poor growth/FTT
• Cyanosis at feeding
• Vomiting at feeding
• Clubbing
• Stridor
• Fixed, persistent wheezing
• Hemoptysis
• Any significant chest x ray abnormality that does not resolve
• Lymphadenopathy (persistent)
• Chronic oxygen requirement
• Recurrent pneumonia
• Unilateral wheezing
• Chronic productive cough or irreversible airway obstruction

Assessment and Determination of Initial Asthma Severity

Asthma severity is classified using standardized, widely accepted terminology. This allows clear
communication amongst medical providers and gives a uniform framework for the assessment of
asthma. The system for assess severity has been refined from previous guidelines. It now
includes the domains of risk as well as current impairment from asthma.

1. A history of asthma symptoms, nighttime awakenings, need for SABA for relief of symptoms
and interference with activities should be used to assess current impairment.
2. The frequency and severity of asthma exacerbations should be used in assessing the domain
of risk. Lung function and psychosocial factors may also help predict risk.
3. Spirometry should be used in the initial assessment of all patients who are capable of
performing an adequate expiratory maneuver. Lung function is a measure of impairment, but
may also predict risk.
4. Classification of severity of the disease should be based on initial assessment of the patient
who is not on long-term control therapy.
Initial Treatment
A. Overall Goals of Therapy:

The goals of therapy are to prevent or reduce the frequency and intensity of symptoms, prevent
recurrent exacerbations, prevent decline in lung function, and improve quality of life.

1. Reduce impairment:
• Prevent chronic and troublesome symptoms (e.g. coughing or SOB during the day, at
night, or with exertion).
• Require infrequent use (<2 days/week) of SABA for quick relief of symptoms, not
including prevention of exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB).
• Maintain normal lung function.
• Maintain normal activity levels (including exercise and other physical activity and
attendance at work or school).
• Meet patient and family expectations of and satisfaction with asthma care.
2. Reduce Risk:
• Prevent recurrent exacerbations of asthma and minimize the need for emergency
department visits or hospitalizations.
• Prevent progressive loss of lung function; for children, prevent reduced lung growth.
• Provide optimal pharmacotherapy with minimal or no adverse effects.

B. Medications:

Medications to treat asthma are categorized into long-term control medications and quick
relief medications. The initial medication regimen is based on asthma severity, optimal delivery
devices, and safety. See Pharmacotherapy Section for more detailed information.

1. Patients diagnosed with persistent asthma require treatment with an inhaled corticosteroid
to reduce inflammation. Additional long-term control medications such as long-acting beta
agonists (LABAs) or leukotriene inhibitors may be added based on initial asthma severity and
subsequent assessment of control. Patients must never be treated solely with LABAs.
2. Short-Acting Beta Agonists (SABAs) should be used for relief of acute asthma symptoms.
An asthma action plan is needed to guide home use of SABAs. 2-6 puffs of SABA may be used
in accordance with the asthma action plan. Patients who do not experience relief after 3 doses in
1 hour OR who need a dose more frequently than every 4 hours should seek medical care.
3. To ensure adequate medication delivery, an appropriate inhaler device should be used.
Device selection must include consideration of the patient’s developmental age and ability to
perform proper technique.
4. A large volume spacer such as the Aerochamber should be used in patients who have
difficulty using metered-dose inhalers (This will be all children)

C. Additional Management Factors:

1. Establishing a patient-provider partnership. Continuity of care will improve patient

communication, education, and comfort with disease management.
2. Reduce exposure to triggers. In particular, allergic and environmental triggers should be
identified and management. Patients with exercise triggers should NOT be instructed to reduce
activities, they should have their treatment adjusted or increased to allow full participation.
3. Manage co-morbid conditions such as GERD, rhinitis, sinusitis, obesity, or depression.
Monitoring for Control and Follow-Up
A stepwise approach to therapy is recommended, in which medications are increased and
decreased based on degree of symptom control. Assess both impairment and risk. Impairment
refers to asthma’s effects on quality of life and functional capacity. Risk refers frequency and
future likelihood of exacerbations, and reduction of lung growth that occurs in asthma.

A. Assessment of Control:

1. Patients with a new diagnosis should be seen frequently enough to ensure they are on an
effective regimen and demonstrate sufficient understanding of their disease management.
2. After, patients with intermittent and mild persistent asthma should be seen at least every 6
mo. Those with more labile or persistent symptoms should have more frequent follow up.
2. Every patient should be taught to recognize their symptoms and a written asthma action
plan should detail the daily management and how to recognize and handle worsening asthma.
The plan is particularly recommended for patients who have moderate or severe asthma, a
history of severe exacerbations, or poorly controlled asthma.
3. Spirometry should be obtained:
• At diagnosis • If symptoms worsen
• After treatment & symptoms stabilize • If medication change is considered
4. Peak flow devices can be considered, especially in patients with moderate-severe asthma,
poor perceivers of symptoms, and those with frequent exacerbations.
B. Step-Up or Step-Down Therapy:

1. Patient adherence and inhaler technique should be evaluated at every asthma visit.
2. Adherent patients with poorly controlled asthma or intolerance of medications should be
referred to a specialist.
3. If asthma is not controlled on current regimen, a “step up” in therapy is indicated, after
assuring that the patient has good adherence and technique with medication.
4. If the asthma is partially controlled, the provider should consider “stepping up” the
patient’s medication until control is achieved.
5. If the patient is able to maintain control of symptoms for at least 3-6 months on their
medication regimen, a “step down” or decrease in their control medication may be considered.
Pharmacotherapy
A. Quick Relief (Rescue): Short Acting β2-adrenergic Agonists (SABAs) — e.g. Albuterol

• Relax smooth muscle and are the treatment of choice for relief of acute symptoms,
exacerbations of asthma, and prevention of EIB.
• SABAs should only be used on an as-needed (PRN) basis at the lowest dose and
frequency required. Regular, scheduled use is not recommended.
• Increasing use of SABA treatment OR the use of SABAs > 2 days/week for symptom
relief indicates inadequate asthma control and the need for initiating or increasing anti-
inflammatory therapy.
• Efficacy and safety are comparable between racemic and non-racemic agents (e.g.
Levalbuterol), therefore use the least costly agent.

B. Long Term (Controller):

1. Inhaled Corticosteroids (ICS): See Table on next page for examples.

• Reduce airway hyper-responsiveness, inhibit inflammatory cell migration and

activation, and block late-phase reaction to an allergen.
• Do not appear to alter progression of underlying asthma severity, but do reduce
impairment and risk of exacerbations.
• Currently, ICS are the most effective anti-inflammatory medications for long-term
control of persistent asthma across all age groups and in all therapy care steps.
• ICS should be used as first-line therapy to control persistent asthma. Initial dosing
should be based on severity.
• Treatment should be monitored for adverse effects, and the patient should be counseled
regarding management and risk of adverse effects.
• ICS delivery via nebulization should be administered correctly
2. Long Acting β2-Agonists (LABA) + ICS (only available in US as combo therapy):
e.g. Advair (Fluticasone + Salmeterol MDI + DPI); Symbicort (Budesonide + Formoterol
DPI); Dulera (Mometasone + Formoterol MDI)—See Table for dose combinations.

• Long-acting bronchodilators that have no anti-inflammatory effect. They are used always in
combination with ICS for maintenance therapy. LABA dosing varies with the formulation.
• All preparations have a “black box” warning regarding elevated risk of sudden death.
You should always counsel families about this at time of prescribing.
o Initial studies evaluating LABA alone for asthma control found several deaths of
unclear etiology. Potential reasons include down regulation of beta receptors,
confusion over rescue vs. chronic medication, or other unknown effect. Deaths
occurred in primarily in African-American patients.
o No increase in adverse events when used in combination with ICS.
• Integration into Step-Up Therapy:
o Patients on low-dose ICS: increase dose of ICS or add LABA
o Patients on moderate to high-dose ICS: add LABA
o Combining LABA to ICS is preferred to adding Leukotriene Inhibitor (see below)
• Rarely/never used as initial therapy (i.e. should always be used as a “step-up).
3. Leukotriene Modifiers: Singulair (Montelukast= leukotriene receptor antagonist = LTRA)

• Interfere with pathway of leukotriene mediators released from mast cells, eosinophis,
and basophils. Small, variable bronchodilator effect and reduce airway inflammation.
• Monotherapy for well-controlled asthma can be considered, but is not preferred for mild-
persistent asthma.
• Can be added as a “step-up” in place of adding a LABA, but not preferred

4. Other Agents: Use in conjunction with specialist-evaluation

• Cromolyn: Mast-cell stabilizer with a weak anti-inflammatory effect. Shown to be less
effective as compared to ICS. No longer available as metered-dose inhaler.
• Theophyline: Methylxanthine, relaxes bronchial sm. muscle. Narrow therapeutic index.
• Xolair: Monoclonal anti-IgE (injections). Requires Allergy-Immunology consult.
• Chronic Prednisone: Short courses (3-5 d) can be used for exacerbations.

Comparison of Inhaler Devices

 Asthma Action Plan
General Information:
■ Name
■ Emergency contact Phone numbers
■ Physician/Health Care Provider Phone numbers

■ Physician Signature Date

Severity Classification Triggers Exercise

❍ Mild Intermittent ❍ Moderate Persistent ❍ Colds ❍ Smoke ❍ Weather 1. Pre-medication (how much and when) ______________
❍ Mild Persistent ❍ Severe Persistent ❍ Exercise ❍ Dust ❍ Air pollution ___________________________________________
❍ Animals ❍ Food 2. Exercise modifications _________________________
❍ Other ___________________________________________

Green Zone: Doing Well Peak Flow Meter Personal Best =

Symptoms Control Medications
■ Breathing is good Medicine How Much to Take When To Take It
■ No cough or wheeze
■ Can work and play
■ Sleeps all night

Peak Flow Meter

More than 80% of personal best or ________

Yellow Zone: Getting Worse Contact Physician if using quick relief more than 2 times per week.
Symptoms Continue control medicines and add:
■ Some problems breathing Medicine How Much to Take When To Take It
■ Cough, wheeze or chest tight
■ Problems working or playing
■ Wake at night

Peak Flow Meter IF your symptoms (and peak flow, if used) IF your symptoms (and peak flow, if used)
Between 50 to 80% of personal best or return to Green Zone after one hour of the DO NOT return to the GREEN ZONE after
quick relief treatment, THEN 1 hour of the quick relief treatment, THEN
________ to ________
❍ Take quick-relief medication every ❍ Take quick-relief treatment again
4 hours for 1 to 2 days ❍ Change your long-term control medicines by
❍ Change your long-term control medicines by
____________________________
____________________________
❍ Call your physician/Health Care Provider
❍ Contact your physician for follow-up care within _____ hours of modifying your
medication routine

Red Zone: Medical Alert Ambulance/Emergency Phone Number:

Symptoms Continue control medicines and add:
■ Lots of problems breathing Medicine How Much to Take When To Take It
■ Cannot work or play
■ Getting worse instead of better
■ Medicine is not helping

Peak Flow Meter Go to the hospital or call for an ambulance if Call an ambulance immediately if the following
Between 0 to 50% of personal best or ❍ Still in the red zone after 15 minutes danger signs are present
_______ to ________ ❍ If you have not been able to reach your ❍ Trouble walking/talking due to shortness
physician/health care provider for help of breath
❍ ______________________________ ❍ Lips or fingernails are blue
 Asthma Quiz

1. A great pulmonologist once said, “All that wheezes is not asthma”. So what else is it?

2. At what age should you obtain a chest X-ray when considering a diagnosis of asthma?
______________________________________. At what age should you obtain spirometry
when considering a diagnosis of asthma? ___________________________________.

3. Please complete the following asthma severity table:

Symptoms/Day Symptoms/Night FEV1
Intermittent
Mild Persistent
Moderate Persistent
Severe Persistent

4. Please complete the following step-wise approach to asthma management, by age range
(include preferred options only):

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Step 6
 Asthma Mega-Case
Initial Presentation:
Wheezy Knight is a 7 y.o. female who presents with a chief complaint of “PICU follow-up”.
Wheezy was admitted from Malcolm Grow 3 days ago with respiratory distress and wheezing.
She was treated with 3 “stacked nebs” in the ED and 1 dose of PO steroids with minimal
improvement. In the PICU, Wheezy was started on IV Solumedrol and continuous Albuterol,
and was weaned by HD3 to q4h Nebs. She was discharged home on HD4 to complete a 5-day
course of PO steroids and a tapering course of Albuterol.
Wheezy’s mother reports that she’s doing well, now 2 days post-discharge, but asks,
“The nurses gave me some sheet of paper—which we lost—with stop-lights, and they said
something about my Wheezy having asthma. Do you think she has asthma?”
How will you address Mrs. Knight’s question? What else do you want to know?

Mrs. Knight reports that Wheezy “coughs all the time”. When you probe further, you learn
that she wakes up coughing at least 2-3 nights per week “ever since we PCS’d 1 year ago . . .
because of the air quality”. She also usually has 1-2 “coughing spells” each day, often on her
walk to the bus-stop or when playing Dance Dance Revolution with her step-brother. She has
been prescribed “breathing treatments” in the past for colds, but more recently, her mother has
been giving cough syrup at night.
Wheezy was a term infant, with no other PMHx. She lives with her mother and step-father.
Her mother has no history of atopy, and she is unsure about Wheezy’s bio-father, but adds “his
skin is kind of dry, now that you mention it”. Her step-father smokes, but “only outside”. They
have 2 cats, and they live in an apartment in D.C. that “may have had a cockroach issue”.

Now, how will you address Mrs. Knight’s question about whether or not Wheezy has
asthma? If you have enough information, how would you classify her asthma?

Wheezy’s PE is significant for intermittent end-expiratory wheezing, a dry cough, and clear
rhinorrhea. There is no eczema. Her CXR from the ER was read as “No infiltrate; no
airway abnormalities. Diffuse peribronchial cuffing, clinical
correlation required”. You tell Mrs. Knight that Wheezy appears to have asthma.
She looks at you quizzically and asks if there is a “better test you can do for asthma”.
You decide to proceed with PFTs today, realizing that Wheezy is just 2 days s/p discharge.
Where and how are PFTs done in the WR-B clinic? What information will you need?

Wheezy’s PFT results are at the end of this case. What is your interpretation? Do these PFT
results support your prior diagnosis?

You present these results to Mrs. Knight, who admits that she’s been worried about asthma all
along. As you prepare to conclude the visit, she asks again about Wheezy’s missing Asthma
Action Plan. Write an Asthma Action Plan, using your preferred template. Discuss the
rationale for each of the medications you choose. When do you want to follow up?

Wheezy and her mother thank you for your evaluation. Several minutes into your next patient,
you are interrupted by the pharmacist who asks, “Mrs. Knight wants to know why she can’t do
nebulizer treatments, since that was what got her better in the PICU”. How do you respond?

If Wheezy were younger and could not use inhalers, how would you order a nebulizer?
Follow-up Visit:
Wheezy and her mother return in 2 weeks for a follow-up. What do you want to ask Wheezy
and her mother to assess her degree of control?

Wheezy proudly reports that she has taken the “pink and orange” (Flovent) inhaler every day for
the last 2 weeks. Mrs. Knight concurs and states that the coughing spells have decreased to 2x
last week, which is about how many times they used Albuterol. There have been no nighttime
awakenings and no interference with daily activities. Wheezy’s PE today is unremarkable.

Is her asthma controlled? What else do you want to at this visit? What is your next step?

What if Mrs. Knight reported daytime symptoms >2x/ week, nighttime awakening >2
nights/month, SABA use >2x/ week. Under this scenario, what is your next step?

When would you make a referral and to whom?

 Wheezy Knight
Female
7 Caucasian
 Asthma Board Review

1. A mother brings her 9-year-old boy to your clinic because he has been complaining of being
tired in physical education class at school for the past few months. When you ask him about his
symptoms, he reports having trouble catching his breath after he runs. Past medical history is
negative, and a review of systems reveals only a cough that occurs primarily at night several
times a month. He has grown well, and findings on physical examination are normal.

Of the following, the MOST likely reason for his exercise intolerance is
A. cystic fibrosis
B. exercise-induced asthma
C. iron deficiency anemia
D. vocal cord dysfunction
E. Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome

2. An 18-month-old girl has been having an intermittent nonproductive cough for the past 6
months. Her parents state that the cough awakens the toddler at night a few times a month and
occurs when playing vigorously. During a recent upper respiratory tract illness, her cough
worsened and occurred daily for 3 weeks. On physical examination, there is no nasal discharge,
and the toddler appears healthy.

Of the following, the MOST likely diagnosis is

A. asthma
B. atypical pneumonia
C. gastroesophageal reflux
D. sinusitis
E. upper airway cough syndrome

3. An 8-year-old girl presents with multiple episodes of "bronchitis." For the past 2 years, she
has had problems with coughing, wheezing, and difficulty catching her breath during vigorous
exercise. Treatment with a metered dose beta2 agonist inhaler has improved her symptoms. In
your office, you discuss the different tests to assess lung function.

Of the following, the BEST test to measure lung function for this girl is
A. arterial blood gas
B. exhaled breath condensate
C. exhaled nitric oxide
D. pulse oximetry
E. spirometry
4. A 16-year-old girl who has moderate persistent asthma presents to the emergency department
with coughing, wheezing, and increasing dyspnea. She states that she was feeling fine until she
was exposed to cologne that one of her classmates was wearing. An ambulance was called after
her symptoms did not improve following administration of two puffs of her beta2 agonist
inhaler. On physical examination, the teenager has a respiratory rate of 30 breaths/min, heart rate
of 90 beats/min, and pulse oximetry of 98% on room air. She has difficulty completing a
sentence and points to her neck, saying it is "hard to get air in." Her lungs are clear to
auscultation, and rhinolaryngoscopy demonstrates adduction of one of the vocal cords during
inspiration. Pulmonary function testing shows a blunted inspiratory loop.

Of the following, the MOST likely cause for this patient’s symptoms is
A. allergic rhinitis
B. asthma exacerbation
C. habit cough
D. sinusitis
E. vocal cord dysfunction

5. You are asked to consult on a 9-month-old boy who has been hospitalized five times for
wheezing. His history reveals occasional coughing with feedings, but results of a pH probe
performed during his last admission were normal. His weight and height are at the 50th
percentile. Except for scattered wheezes with good aeration bilaterally, results of his physical
examination are normal.

Of the following, the test MOST likely to reveal the cause of his recurrent wheezing is
A. chest computed tomography scan
B. immunoglobulin panel
C. inspiratory and expiratory chest radiographs
D. pulmonary function testing
E. videofluoroscopic swallow study