BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v.

2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 55 (1)

Sec. 2.4 Chapter Summary 55

 The drift current density is proportional to the electric field and the mobility of the carriers
and is given by Jtot = q (n n + p p)E .
 The diffusion current density is proportional to the gradient of the carrier concentration
and given by Jtot = q (Dn dn=dx , Dp dp=dx).
 A pn junction is a piece of semiconductor that receives n-type doping in one section and
p-type doping in an adjacent section.
 The pn junction can be considered in three modes: equilibrium, reverse bias, and forward
bias.
 Upon formation of the pn junction, sharp gradients of carrier densities across the junction
result in a high current of electrons and holes. As the carriers cross, they leave ionized
atoms behind, and a “depletion resgion” is formed. The electric field created in the deple-
tion region eventually stops the current flow. This condition is called equilibrium.
 The electric field in the depletion results in a built-in potential across the region equal to
(kT=q) ln(NA ND )=n2i , typically in the range of 700 to 800 mV.
 Under reverse bias, the junction carries negligible current and operates as a capacitor. The
capacitance itself is a function of the voltage applied across the device.
 Under forward bias, the junction carries a current that is an exponential function of the
applie voltage: IS [exp(VF =VT ) , 1].
 Since the exponential model often makes the analysis of circuits difficult, a constant-
voltage model may be used in some cases to estimate the circuit’s response with less
mathematical labor.
 Under a high reverse bias voltage, pn junctions break down, conducting a very high cur-
rent. Depending on the structure and doping levels of the device, “Zener” or “avalanche”
breakdown may occur.

Problems

1. The intrinsic carrier concentration of germanium (GE) is expressed as

ni = 1:66  1015 T 3=2 exp ,2kT

Eg cm,3 ; (2.127)

where Eg = 0:66 eV.

(a) Calculate ni at 300 K and 600 K and compare the results with those obtained in Example
2.1 for Si.
(b) Determine the electron and hole concentrations if Ge is doped with P at a density of
5  1016 cm,3 .
2. An n-type piece of silicon experiences an electric field equal to 0.1 V/m.
(a) Calculate the velocity of electrons and holes in this material.
(b) What doping level is necessary to provide a current density of 1 mA/m2 under these
conditions? Assume the hole current is negligible.
3. A n-type piece of silicon with a length of 0:1 m and a cross section area of
0:05 m0:05 m sustains a voltage difference of 1 V.
(a) If the doping level is 1017 cm,3 , calculate the total current flowing through the device at
T = 300 K.
(b) Repeat (a) for T = 400 K assuming for simplicity that mobility does not change with
temperature. (This is not a good assumption.)
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56 Chap. 2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors

4. From the data in Problem 1, repeat Problem 3 for Ge. Assume n = 3900 cm2 =(V
s) and
p = 1900 cm2 =(V
s).
5. Figure 2.37 shows a p-type bar of silicon that is subjected to electron injection from the left

16 16
5 x 10 2 x 10

Electrons
Holes

0 2 µm x
Figure 2.37

and hole injection from the right. Determine the total current flowing through the device if the
cross section area is equal to 1 m  1 m.
6. In Example 2.9, compute the total number of electrons “stored” in the material from x = 0 to
x = L. Assume the cross section area of the bar is equal to a.
7. Repeat Problem 6 for Example 2.10 but for x = 0 to x = 1. Compare the results for linear
and exponential profiles.
8. Repeat Problem 7 if the electron and hole profiles are “sharp” exponentials, i.e., they fall to
negligible values at x = 2 m and x = 0, respectively (Fig. 2.38).
16 16
5 x 10 2 x 10

Electrons
Holes

0 2 µm x
Figure 2.38

9. How do you explain the phenomenon of drift to a high school student?

10. A junction employs ND = 5  1017 cm,3 and NA = 4  1016 cm,3 .
(a) Determine the majority and minority carrier concentrations on both sides.
(b) Calculate the built-in potential at T = 250 K, 300 K, and 350 K. Explain the trend.
11. Due to a manufacturing error, the p-side of a pn junction has not been doped. If ND =
3  1016 cm,3 , calculate the built-in potential at T = 300 K.
12. A pn junction with ND = 3  1016 cm,3 and NA = 2  1015 cm,3 experiences a reverse
bias voltage of 1.6 V.
(a) Determine the junction capacitance per unit area.
(b) By what factor should NA be increased to double the junction capacitance?
13. An oscillator application requires a variable capacitance with the characteristic shown in Fig.
2.39. Determine the required ND if NA = 1017 /cm2 .
14. Consider a pn junction in forward bias.
(a) To obtain a current of 1 mA with a voltage of 750 mV, how should IS be chosen?
(b) If the diode cross section area is now doubled, what voltage yields a current of 1 mA?
15. Figure 2.40 shows two diodes with reverse saturation currents of IS 1 and IS 2 placed in paral-
lel.
(a) Prove that the parallel combination operates as an exponential device.
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Sec. 2.4 Chapter Summary 57

C j (fF/ µ m 2 )

2.2

1.3

−1.5 −0.5 V R (V)

0
Figure 2.39

I tot

VB D1 D2

Figure 2.40

(b) If the total current is Itot , determine the current carried by each diode.
16. Two identical pn junctions are placed in series.
(a) Prove that this combination can be viewed as a single two-terminal device having an
exponential characteristic.
(b) For a tenfold change in the current, how much voltage change does such a device require?
17. Figure 2.41 shows two diodes with reverse saturation currents of IS 1 and IS 2 placed in series.
D1 D1

V D1 V D2
IB

VB
Figure 2.41

Calculate IB , VD1 , and VD2 in terms of VB , IS 1 , and IS 2 .

18. In the circuit of Problem 17, we wish to increase IB by a factor of 10. What is the required
change in VB ?
19. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.42, where IS = 2  10,15 A. Calculate VD1 and IX for

IX

R1 2 kΩ
VX
D1

Figure 2.42

VX = 0:5 V, 0.8 V, 1 V, and 1.2 V. Note that VD1 changes little for VX  0:8 V.
20. In the circuit of Fig. 2.42, the cross section area of D1 is increased by a factor of 10. Determine
VD1 and IX for VX = 0:8 V and 1.2 V. Compare the results with those obtained in Problem
19.
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58 Chap. 2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors

21. Suppose D1 in Fig. 2.42 must sustain a voltage of 850 mV for VX = 2 V. Calculate the
required IS .
22. For what value of VX in Fig. 2.42, does R1 sustain a voltage equal to VX =2? Assume IS =
2  10,16 A.
23. We have received the circuit shown in Fig. 2.43 and wish to determine R1 and IS . We note

IX

R1
VX
D1

Figure 2.43

that VX = 1 V ! IX = 0:2 mA and VX = 2 V ! IX = 0:5 mA. Calculate R1 and IS .

24. Figure 2.44 depicts a parallel resistor-diode combination. If IS = 3  10,16 A, calculate VD1
for IX = 1 mA, 2 mA, and 4 mA.

IX R1 1 kΩ D1

Figure 2.44

25. In the circuit of Fig. 2.44, we wish D1 to carry a current of 0.5 mA for IX = 1:3 mA.
Determine the required IS .
26. For what value of IX in Fig. 2.44, does R1 carry a current equal to IX =2? Assume IS =
3  10,16 A.
27. We have received the circuit shown in Fig. 2.45 and wish to determine R1 and IS . Measure-

IX VX R1 D1

Figure 2.45

ments indicate that IX = 1 mA ! VX = 1:2 V and IX = 2 mA ! VX = 1:8 V. Calculate

R1 and IS .
28. The circuit illustrated in Fig. 2.46 employs two identical diodes with IS = 5  10,16 A.

D1
IX R1 2 kΩ
D2

Figure 2.46

Calculate the voltage across R1 for IX = 2 mA.

29. In the circuit of Fig. 2.47, determine the value of R1 such that this resistor carries 0.5 mA.
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 59 (1)

Sec. 2.4 Chapter Summary 59

D1
IX 1 mA R 1 D2

Figure 2.47

Assume IS = 5  10,16 A for each diode.

30. Sketch VX as a function of IX for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.48. Assume (a) a constant-
voltage model, (b) an exponential model.

IX VX R1 D1

Figure 2.48

SPICE Problems
In the following problems, assume IS = 5  10,16 A.
31. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.49, plot Vout as a function of Iin . Assume Iin varies from 0 to
2mA.

I in D1 Vout

Figure 2.49

32. Repeat Problem 31 for the circuit depicted in Fig. 2.50, where R1 = 1 k
. At what value of
Iin are the currents flowing through D1 and R1 equal?

I in D1 R1 Vout

Figure 2.50

33. Using SPICE, determine the value of R1 in Fig. 2.50 such that D1 carries 1 mA if Iin = 2
mA.
34. In the circuit of Fig. 2.51, R1 = 500
. Plot Vout as a function of Vin if Vin varies from ,2
V to +2 V. At what value of Vin are the voltage drops across R1 and D1 equal?
R1
Vout
V in D1

Figure 2.51
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60 Chap. 2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors

35. In the circuit of Fig. 2.51, use SPICE to select the value of R1 such that Vout < 0:7 V for
Vin < 2 V. We say the circuit “limits” the output.

References
1. B. Streetman and S. Banerjee, Solid-State Electronic Device, fifth edition, Prentice-Hall, 1999.