A drought or drouth is a natural disaster of below-average precipitation in a

given region, resulting in prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether

atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought can last for months or
years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days. It can have a substantial
impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region and harm to the
local economy. Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the
chances of a drought developing and subsequent bush fires. Periods of heat can
significantly worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of water
vapour.
Many plant species, such as those in the family Cactaceae (or cacti),
have drought tolerance adaptations like reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to
enhance their ability to tolerate drought. Some others survive dry periods as
buried seeds. Semi-permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and
grasslands. Prolonged droughts have caused mass migrations and humanitarian
crisis. Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity. The most
prolonged drought ever in the world in recorded history occurred in
the Atacama Desert in Chile (400 Years).
TYPES OF DROUGHT
Wilhite and Glantz1 categorized the definitions in terms of four basic
approaches to measuring drought: meteorological, hydrological, agricultural,
and socioeconomic. The first three approaches deal with ways to measure
drought as a physical phenomenon. The last deals with drought in terms of
supply and demand, tracking the effects of water shortfall as it ripples through
socioeconomic systems.

METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT

Sequence of drought occurrence and impacts for commonly accepted drought

types. All droughts originate from a deficiency of precipitation or
meteorological drought but other types of drought and impacts cascade from
this deficiency. (Source: NDMC)
Meteorological drought is defined usually on the basis of the degree of dryness
(in comparison to some “normal” or average amount) and the duration of the
dry period. Definitions of meteorological drought must be considered as region
specific since the atmospheric conditions that result in deficiencies of
precipitation are highly variable from region to region.

For example, some definitions of meteorological drought identify periods of

drought on the basis of the number of days with precipitation less than some
specified threshold. This measure is only appropriate for regions characterized
by a year-round precipitation regime such as a tropical rainforest, humid
subtropical climate, or humid mid-latitude climate.

AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT
Agricultural drought links various characteristics of meteorological (or
hydrological) drought to agricultural impacts, focusing on precipitation
shortages, differences between actual and potential evapotranspiration, soil
water deficits, reduced groundwater or reservoir levels, and so forth. Plant water
demand depends on prevailing weather conditions, biological characteristics of
the specific plant, its stage of growth, and the physical and biological properties
of the soil. A good definition of agricultural drought should be able to account
for the variable susceptibility of crops during different stages of crop
development, from emergence to maturity. Deficient topsoil moisture at
planting may hinder germination, leading to low plant populations per hectare
and a reduction of final yield. However, if topsoil moisture is sufficient for early
growth requirements, deficiencies in subsoil moisture at this early stage may not
affect final yield if subsoil moisture is replenished as the growing season
progresses or if rainfall meets plant water needs.

HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT
Hydrological drought is associated with the effects of periods of precipitation
(including snowfall) shortfalls on surface or subsurface water supply (i.e.,
streamflow, reservoir and lake levels, groundwater). The frequency and severity
of hydrological drought is often defined on a watershed or river basin scale.
Although all droughts originate with a deficiency of precipitation, hydrologists
are more concerned with how this deficiency plays out through the hydrologic
system. Hydrological droughts are usually out of phase with or lag the
occurrence of meteorological and agricultural droughts. It takes longer for
precipitation deficiencies to show up in components of the hydrological system
such as soil moisture, streamflow, and groundwater and reservoir levels. As a
result, these impacts are out of phase with impacts in other economic sectors.
For example, a precipitation deficiency may result in a rapid depletion of soil
moisture that is almost immediately discernible to agriculturalists, but the
impact of this deficiency on reservoir levels may not affect hydroelectric power
production or recreational uses for many months. Also, water in hydrologic
storage systems (e.g., reservoirs, rivers) is often used for multiple and
competing purposes (e.g., flood control, irrigation, recreation, navigation,
hydropower, wildlife habitat), further complicating the sequence and
quantification of impacts. Competition for water in these storage systems
escalates during drought and conflicts between water users increase
significantly.

SOCIOECONOMIC DROUGHT
Socioeconomic definitions of drought associate the supply and demand of some
economic good with elements of meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural
drought. It differs from the aforementioned types of drought because its
occurrence depends on the time and space processes of supply and demand to
identify or classify droughts. The supply of many economic goods, such as
water, forage, food grains, fish, and hydroelectric power, depends on weather.
Because of the natural variability of climate, water supply is ample in some
years but unable to meet human and environmental needs in other years.
Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an economic good exceeds
supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply. For example, in
Uruguay in 1988–89, drought resulted in significantly reduced hydroelectric
power production because power plants were dependent on streamflow rather
than storage for power generation. Reducing hydroelectric power production
required the government to convert to more expensive (imported) petroleum and
implement stringent energy conservation measures to meet the nation’s power
needs.

In most instances, the demand for economic goods is increasing as a result of

increasing population and per capita consumption. Supply may also increase
because of improved production efficiency, technology, or the construction of
reservoirs that increase surface water storage capacity. If both supply and
demand are increasing, the critical factor is the relative rate of change. Is
demand increasing more rapidly than supply? If so, vulnerability and the
incidence of drought may increase in the future as supply and demand trends
converge.

ECOLOGICAL DROUGHT
A more recent effort focuses on ecological drought, defined as "a prolonged and
widespread deficit in naturally available water supplies — including changes in
natural and managed hydrology — that create multiple stresses across
ecosystems."

CAUSES OF DROUGHT

Plant and animal life are similarly affected. Accordingly, drought is a natural
event arising due to less precipitation than expected thus defining the intricacies
witnessed when the demands for water supply are higher than the available
water for some activity, humans, or the environment.

1. Rainfall or Precipitation Deficiency

Droughts take place whenever there is prolonged periods of rainfall deficiency
for a season or more and usually when there is a lack of anticipated rainfall or
precipitation. When a region goes for long periods without any rain, especially
for more than a season, then the situation leads to dry conditions and water
deficiency which qualify as drought.
Farmers, for instance, plant in expectation of rain and so when it doesn’t rain as
expected, drought conditions are experienced. In such cases, it is frequently
termed as agricultural drought.
2. Human Causes
Human activities play a relatively significant role in the management of
the water cycle. Human acts such as deforestation, construction, and agriculture
negatively impact the water cycle. Trees and vegetation cover are essential for
the water cycle as it helps to limit evaporation, stores water, and attracts rainfall.
In this sense, deforestation – clearing vegetation cover and cutting down trees
increases evaporation and lessens the ability of the soil to hold water leading to
increased susceptibility of desertification. Deforestation can also influence the
occurrence of dry conditions since it reduces forest’s watershed potential.
Construction and agricultural activities may as well reduce the overall supply
quantity of water, resulting in dry spells.
3. Drying out of Surface Water Flow
Lakes, rivers, and streams are the primary suppliers of downstream surface
waters in various geographical regions around the globe. In extremely hot
seasons or because of certain human activities, these surface water flows may
dry out downstream contributing to drought – meaning the demands for water
supply become higher than the available water.
Irrigation systems and hydro-electric dams are some of the human activities that
can significantly diminish the amount of water flowing downstream to other
areas.
4. Global Warming
Human actions have contributed to more and more emissions of greenhouse
gasses into the atmosphere thus resulting in the continued rise of the earth’s
average temperatures. Consequently, evaporation and evapotranspiration levels
have risen, and the higher temperatures have led to wildfires and extended dry
spell periods. The global warming situation tends to exacerbate the drought
conditions. Some of the worst droughts witnessed in sub-Saharan Africa have
been associated with global warming and climate change.

5. El Niño
El Niño events affecting several parts of the world are often associated with
hotter and drier weather conditions. These events are thus linked to droughts in
different parts of the world at different times depending on the strength of the
events. El Niño events influence weather patterns in the Amazon basin, parts of
the U.S. and Central America, and even parts of Africa and Southeast Asia.

Early signs of drought damage

Cracks are usually the first warning that drought could be harming your
foundation. Here are some of the most common places they’ll show up:

 Radiating out from the corners of windows and doors

 Along caulked surfaces or in drywall and plaster
 As a stairstep outline along concrete blocks
 In siding, brickwork or ground level flooring
 As gaps around cabinets, baseboards or exterior trim
 On exposed areas where the foundation meets exterior walls
A few superficial cracks happen normally as new building materials settle or
cure, but if you’re seeing more than one of these symptoms or a recent change,
it’s a good idea to have a qualified inspector give you an opinion. In general,
slab on grade foundations are more resistant to drought damage than homes
with basements, but they’re still at risk when soil starts to sink.

If foundation cracks are lengthening or widening, or if the surfaces on either

side of the crack aren’t on the same plane when you run your fingers over them,
it’s possible that your foundation is experiencing problems. Look for areas
where soil or concrete may be pulling away from the foundation. Inside the
house, doors and windows may be sticking or hardware may not line up.

Effects of Drought

The effects of drought are widespread and have devastating effects on the
environment and the society as a whole. Water use is part and parcel of almost
every human activity as well as the life of plants and animals. On this basis,
extended deficiency of water can affect the society in various ways both directly
and indirectly. The effects can therefore generally be categorized as
environmental, economic, and social.

1. Environmental Impacts of Droughts

Animal and plants die off as a consequence of drought. Mainly, the damages
arise out of extensive destruction of the wildlife habitats and reduction in water
quality and quantity. Some plants and animals may completely fail to recover
after the drought. The overall climate, the rocks, and soils are also affected,
negatively impacting various living and non-living factors.
 Drying out of water bodies
Surface waters such as lakes, rivers, ponds, creeks, streams and lagoons dry out
during extended dry conditions which destroy natural habitats. Most especially,
aquatic life and other wildlife dependent on these water bodies die or become
endangered, destroying the entire food chain and alters the ecosystem.
 Reduction in soil quality
Soil moisture, essential for soil microbial activities, is reduced in drought
conditions. As a result, soil quality is lowered because of minimized organic
activity and continued dry spell which kills soil organisms. The end result is dry
and cracked soil and it even becomes easier for decertification to occur.
 Migration and even death of Animals and Wildlife
Animals and wildlife are forced to migrate in drought conditions since they
have to move for long distances to get water and food where they can be
vulnerable, endangered because of new threats.

2. Social Impacts of Droughts

Social implications are possibly the most felt effects of drought. They include
 Outbreak of waterborne diseases
Droughts also increase the concentration levels nutrients, chemicals, and solid
particles or impurities in surface waters. As a result, managing and preventing
waterborne diseases such as typhoid and cholera becomes increasingly difficult,
especially in poor regions.
 Hunger, anemia, malnutrition, and deaths
Drought is a great causal factor for low food production, thus, when
experienced in poorer regions the effects of malnutrition, hunger, anemia and
mortalities are compounded since there is little food available for consumption.

PROTECTION AND RELIEF

Strategies for drought protection, mitigation or relief include:

 Dams – many dams and their associated reservoirs supply additional water
in times of drought.
 Cloud seeding – a form of intentional weather modification to induce
rainfall. This remains a hotly debated topic, as the United States National
Research Council released a report in 2004 stating that to date, there is still
no convincing scientific proof of the efficacy of intentional weather
modification.
 Desalination – use of sea water for irrigation or consumption.
 Drought monitoring – Continuous observation of rainfall levels and
comparisons with current usage levels can help prevent man-made drought.
 Land use – Carefully planned crop rotation can help to minimize erosion and
allow farmers to plant less water-dependent crops in drier years.
 Outdoor water-use restriction – Regulating the use of sprinklers, hoses or
buckets on outdoor plants, filling pools, and other water-intensive home
 maintenance tasks. Xeriscaping yards can significantly reduce unnecessary
water use by residents of towns and cities.
 Rainwater harvesting – Collection and storage of rainwater from roofs or
other suitable catchments.
 Recycled water – Former wastewater (sewage) that has been treated and
purified for reuse.
 Transvasement – Building canals or redirecting rivers as massive attempts
at irrigation in drought-prone areas.

DROUGHT MITIGATION
The components of a drought preparedness and mitigation plan are the
following

 Prediction
 Monitoring
 Impact assessment
 Response.

Prediction can benefit from climate studies which use coupled

ocean/atmosphere models, survey of snow packs, anomalous circulation
patterns in the ocean and atmosphere, soil moisture, assimilation of remotely
sensed data into numerical prediction models, and knowledge of stored water
available for domestic, stock, and irrigation uses.

Monitoring exists in countries which use ground-based information such as

rainfall, weather, crop conditions and water availability. Satellite observations
complement data collected by ground systems.

Impact assessment is carried out on the basis of land-use type, persistence of

stressed conditions, demographics and existing infrastructure, intensity and
areal extent, and its effect on agricultural yield, public health, water quantity
and quality, and building subsidence.

Response includes improved drought monitoring, better water and crop

management, augmentation of water supplies with groundwater, increased
public awareness and education, intensified watershed and local planning,
reduction in water demand, and water conservation.