Biology

1.A small white structure may have grown out of the seeds. If so, the seeds
have sprouted.
2.Bees collect nectar (sweet juices).
3.Animals which eat only plants are called Herbivores.
4.Animals which eat other animals are called Carnivores.
5.Animals which eat both plants and animals are called Omnivores.
6.Shoot system are Flower, Fruit, Stem, Leaf, Node, Internode, Bud.
7.Root system are Primary and Secondary.
8.Plants have two or more edible (edible) parts.
9.Food contains dietary fibres and water.
10.Carbohydrates found in form of starch and sugar.
11.A blue-black colour indicates that it contains starch.
12.A violet colour indicates the presence of proteins.
13.An oily patch on paper shows that the food item contains fat.
14.Foods containing fats and carbohydrates are also called ‘energy giving
foods.
15.Foods proteins are often called ‘body building foods’.
16.Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and K. There is also a group
of vitamins called Vitamin B-complex.
17.Vitamin A keeps our skin and eyes healthy. Vitamin C helps the body to
fight against many diseases. Vitamin D helps our body to use calcium for
bones and teeth.
18.Insufficient exposure to sunlight is causing Vitamin D.
19.Dietary fibres are also known as roughage.
20.Vitamin A is caused by loss of vision.
21.Vitamin B1 is caused by beri beri.
22.Vitamin C is caused by scurvy.
23.Vitamin D is caused by rickets.
24.Calcium is caused by bone and tooth decay.
25.Iodine is caused by goiter.
26.Iron is caused by Anaemia.
27.A loose thread or yarn at one of the edges and pull it out.
28.The thin strands of thread are made up of still thinner strands called
fibres.
29.Fabrics are made up of yarns and yarns are further made up of fibres.
30.The fibres of some fabrics such as cotton, jute, silk and wool are
obtained from plants and animals. These are called natural fibres.
31.Cotton and jute are examples of fibres obtained from plants.
32.Wool and silk fibres are obtained from animals.
33.Wool is obtained from the fleece of sheep or goat. It is also obtained
from the hair of rabbits, yaks and camels.
34.Silk fibre is drawn from the cocoon of silkworm.
35.Substances, which are not obtained from plant or animal sources. These
are called synthetic fibres. Some examples of synthetic fibres are
polyester, nylon and acrylic.
36.Cotton wool is also used for filling mattresses, quilts or pillows.
37.Cotton plants are usually grown at places having black soil and warm
climate.
38.The fruits of the cotton plant (cotton bolls) are about the size of a lemon.
39.Fibres are then separated from the seeds by combing. This process is
called ginning.
40.Jute fibre is obtained from the stem of the jute plant. It is cultivated
during the rainy season. In India, jute is mainly grown in West Bengal,
Bihar and Assam.
41.To make fabrics, all these fibres are first converted into yarns.
42.The process of making yarn from fibres is called spinning.
43.A simple device used for spinning is a hand spindle, also called takli.
44.Clothes made of homespun yarn termed as khadi.
45.The process of arranging two sets of yarns together to make a fabric is
called weaving.
46.Weaving of fabric is done on looms.
47.In knitting, a single yarn is used to make a piece of fabric.
48.Socks and many other clothing items are made of knitted fabrics.
49.Weaving and knitting are used for making different kinds of fabric.
50.Flax is also a plant that gives natural fibres.
51.In ancient Egypt, cotton as well as flax were cultivated near the river
Nile and were used for making fabrics.
52.Plants with green and tender stems are called herbs. They are usually
short and may not have many branches.
53.Some plants develop branches near the base of the stem. The stem is
hard but not very thick. Such plants are called shrubs.
54.Some plants are very tall and have hard and thick stem. The stems have
branches in the upper part, much above the ground. Such plants are called
trees.
55.Plants with weak stems that cannot stand upright but spread on the
ground are called creepers while those that take support and climb up are
called climber.
56.The part of leaf by which it is attached to the stem is called petiole.
57.Green part of the leaf is called lamina.
58.These lines on the leaf are called veins.
59.A prominent line in the middle of the leaf is called the midrib.
60.The design made by veins in a leaf is called the leaf venation.
61.If this design is net-like on both sides of midrib the venation is
reticulate.
62.In the leaves of grass you might have seen that the veins are parallel to
one another. This is parallel venation.
63.Water comes out of leaves in the form of vapour by a process called
transpiration.
64.Potatoes get this starch from their leaves and store it.
65.Leaves prepare their food in the presence of sunlight and a green
coloured substance, they also use water and carbon dioxide. This process
is called photosynthesis.
66.Roots help in holding the plant firmly to the soil. They anchor the plant
to the soil.
67.The main root is called tap root and the smaller roots are called lateral
roots.
68.All roots seem similar and these are called fibrous roots.
69.Prominent parts of the open flower are called sepals.
70.A small leaf-like structures is made of sepals.
71.Parts of a flower are Anther(Yellow colour), Stamen(Cream colour),
Pistil(Green colour).
72.The innermost part of flower is called the pistil.
73.Ovary is the lowermost and swollen part of the pistil.
74.Small bead like structures inside the ovary are called ovules.
75.In the sea, plants and animals are surrounded by saline (salty) water.
76.The presence of specific features or certain habits, which enable an
organism to live naturally in a place is called adaptation.
77.The place where organisms live is called habitat.
78.Plants and animals that live on land are said to live in terrestrial
habitats.
79.Plant and animals that live in water is called Aquatic habitats.
80.Animals that live on tree is called Arboreal animals.
81.The organisms, both plants and animals, living in a habitat are its biotic
components.
82.The non-living things such as rocks, soil, air and water in the habitat
constitute its abiotic components.
83.When the seed turned into a sprout, it is said to have germinated.
84.Adaptation is the method by which organisms get well adjusted to the
climate.
85.Such small changes that take place in the body of a single organism
over short periods, to overcome small problems due to changes in the
surroundings, are called acclimatisation.
86.Adaptation does not take place in a short time because the abiotic
factors of a region also change very slowly.
87.Desert plants lose very little water through transpiration. This helps in
reducing loss of water from the leaves through transpiration.
Photosynthesis in desert plants is usually carried out by the stems.
88.Stem is also covered with a thick waxy layer, which helps to retain
water in the tissues of cacti.
89.In lion ,It’s light brown colour helps it to hide in dry grasslands when it
hunts for prey (animals to eat).
90.A deer needs the presence of predators ( animals like lions that make it
their prey ).
91.Animals like squids and octopus, which do not have this streamlined
shape.
92.Dolphins and whales that do not have gills. They breathe in air through
nostrils or blow holes that are located on the upper parts of their heads.
93.In terrestrial plants, roots normally play a very important role in the
absorption of nutrients and water from the soil. However, in aquatic
plants, roots are much reduced in size and their main function is to hold
the plant in place.
94.Changes in our surroundings that makes us respond to them, are called
stimuli.
95.Mimosa, commonly known as ‘touch-me-not’.
96.The process of getting rid of wastes by organisms is known as excretion.
97.The rotting and conversion of some materials into manure is called
‘composting’.
98.Redworm is used for composting. This method of preparing compost
with the help of redworms is called vermicomposting.
99.Dried animal dung could also be used as a spread over sand or wire
mesh.
100.Redworms do not have teeth. They have a structure called ‘gizzard’,
which helps them in grinding their food.
101.Nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from simple
substances is called autotrophic.
102.Plants are called autotrophs.
103.Animals are heterotrophs.
104.Carbon dioxide from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on
the surface of leaves. These pores are surrounded by ‘guard cells’. Such
pores are called stomata.
105.Bodies of living organisms are made of tiny units called cells.
106.The cell is enclosed by a thin outer boundary, called the cell
membrane.
107.Most cells have a distinct, centrally located spherical structure called
the nucleus.
108.The nucleus is surrounded by a jelly-like substance called cytoplasm.
109.The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll. It helps leaves to
capture the energy of the sunlight.
110.Synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight, it is called
photosynthesis.
111.The solar energy is captured by the leaves and stored in the plant in
the form of food.
112.Photosynthesis also takes place in other green parts of the plant in
green stems and green branches.
113.Desert plants have scale- or spine-like leaves to reduce loss of water by
transpiration. These plants have green stems which carry out
photosynthesis.
114.Chlorophyll containing cells of leaves in the presence of sunlight, use
carbon dioxide and water to synthesise carbohydrates.
115.The presence of starch in leaves indicates the occurrence of
photosynthesis. Starch is also a carbohydrate.
116.Photosynthesis takes place in these leaves also.
117.Slimy, green patches in ponds or stagnant water bodies. These are
generally formed by the growth of organisms called algae.
118.Algae contain chlorophyll which gives them the green colour. Algae
can also prepare their own food by photosynthesis.
119.Carbohydrates are used to synthesise other components of food such
as proteins and fats. But proteins are nitrogenous substances which
contain nitrogen.
120.Nitrogen is present in abundance in gaseous form in the air.
121.Soil has certain bacteria that convert gaseous nitrogen into a usable
form and release it into the soil.
122.Plants can then synthesise proteins and vitamins.
123.Fertilisers rich in nitrogen to the soil.
124.Humans and animals such plants depend on the food produced by
other plants. They use the heterotrophic mode.
125.A yellow wiry branched structure twining around the stem and
branches of a tree is called Cuscuta (Amarbel). It does not have
chlorophyll.
126.The plant on which it climbs is called the host.
127.Cuscuta is called the parasite.
128.The pitcher-like or jug-like structure is the modified part of leaf. The
Apex of the leaf forms a lid which can open and close the mouth of the
pitcher. The insect is digested by the digestive juices secreted in the pitcher
and its nutrients are absorbed. Such insect-eating plants are called
insectivorous plants.
129.Cotton-like threads spread on a piece of bread is called fungi.
130.This mode of nutrition in which organisms take in nutrients from dead
and decaying matter is called saprotrophic nutrition. Such organisms
with saprotrophic mode of nutrition are called saprotrophs.
131.Fungi also grow on pickles, leather, clothes and other articles that are
left in hot and humid weather.
132.Some organisms live together and share both shelter and nutrients.
This relationship is called symbiosis.
133.In organisms called lichens, a chlorophyll-containing partner, which is
an alga, and a fungus living together.
134.Fertilisers and manures contain nutrients such as nitrogen,
potassium, phosphorous.
135.Bacterium called Rhizobium can take atmospheric nitrogen.
136.Pulses (dals) are obtained from leguminous plants.
137.Chlorophyll, water, carbon dioxide and sunlight are the essential
requirements for photosynthesis.
138.Animal nutrition includes nutrient requirement, mode of intake of
food and its utilisation in the body.
139.The breakdown of complex components of food into simpler
substances is called digestion.
140.Bees and humming-birds suck the nectar of plants.
141.Starfish feeds on animals covered by hard shells of calcium carbonate.
142.The canal can be divided into various compartments:
(1) the buccal cavity,
(2) food pipe or oesophagus,
(3) stomach,
(4) small intestine,
(5) large intestine ending in the rectum
(6) the anus.
These parts together form the alimentary canal (digestive tract).
143.The inner walls of the stomach and the small intestine such as salivary
glands.
144.Liver and the pancreas secrete digestive juices.
145.Digestive juices convert complex substances of food into simpler ones.
146.The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion.
147.The first set of teeth grows during infancy and they fall off at the age
between six to eight years. These are termed milk teeth.
148.The permanent teeth may last throughout life or fall off during old age
or due to some dental disease.
149.Our mouth has the salivary glands which secrete saliva.
150.Saliva breaks down the starch into sugars.
151.The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ attached at the back to the floor
of the buccal cavity.
152.Tongue mixes saliva with the food during chewing and helps in
swallowing food.
153.Bacteria break down the sugars present from the leftover food and
release acids. The acids gradually damage the teeth. This is called tooth
decay.
154.Tooth decay causes severe toothache.
155.The food pipe/oesophagus takes place throughout the alimentary
canal and pushes the food downwards.
156.Stomach is the widest part of the alimentary canal.
157.The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucus, hydrochloric acid and
digestive juices. The digestive juices break down the proteins into simpler
substances.
158.Small intestine is highly coiled and is about 7.5 metres long.
159.Small intestine receives secretions from the liver and the pancreas.
Besides, its wall also secretes juices.
160.The liver is a reddish brown gland situated in the upper part of the
abdomen on the right side.
161.Liver is the largest gland in the body.
162.Liver secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac called the gallbladder.
163.Bile plays an important role in the digestion of fats.
164.Pancreas is a large cream coloured gland located just below the
stomach.
165.The pancreatic juice acts on carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
166.The carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose, fats
into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids.
167.Stomach was discovered by William beaumont.
168.The digested food can now pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the
intestine is called absorption.
169.The inner walls of the small intestine are called villi (singular villus).
170.Glucose breaks down with the help of oxygen into carbon dioxide and
water.
171.Large intestine is about 1.5 metre in length. Its function is to absorb
water and some salts from the undigested food.
172.The faecal matter is removed through the anus from time to time. This
is called egestion.
173.Quickly swallow the grass and store it in a part of the stomach called
rumen.
174.Food gets partially digested and is called cud.
175.Cud returns to the mouth in small lumps and the animal chews it. This
process is called rumination and these animals are called ruminants.
176.The grass is rich in cellulose, a type of carbohydrate.
177.In ruminants like cattle, deer, etc., bacteria present in rumen helps in
digestion of cellulose.
178.Animals like horses, rabbits, etc.have a large sac-like structure called
Caecum between the oesophagus and the small intestine.
179.Amoeba is a microscopic single-celled organism.
180.Amoeba has a cell membrane, a rounded, dense nucleus and many
small bubble-like vacuoles.
181.Amoeba pushes out one, or more finger-like projections, called
pseudopodia or false feet for movement and capture of food.
182.Amoeba pushes out pseudopodia around the food particle and engulfs
it. The food becomes trapped in a food vacuole.
183.Digestive juices are secreted into the food vacuole.
184.Diarrhoea may be caused by an infection, food poisoning or
indigestion.
185.Wool is obtained from the fleece (hair) of sheep or yaks.
186.Sheep has two types of fibres that form its fleece: (i) the coarse beard
hair, and (ii) the fine soft under-hair close to the skin.
187.This process of selecting parents for obtaining special characters in
their offspring, such as soft under hair in sheep, is termed ‘selective
breeding’.
188.Wool is common in Tibet and Ladakh. Mohair is obtained from angora
goats found in hilly regions such as Jammu and Kashmir.
189.Wool is woven into fine shawls called Pashmina shawls.
190.Llama and Alpaca, found in South America, also yield wool.
191.The fur (hair) on the body of camels is also used as wool.
192.The fleece of the sheep along with a thin layer of skin is removed from
its body is called shearing.
193.Lohi found in Rajasthan, Punjab.
194.Rampur busair found in UP, Himachal Pradesh.
195.Nali found in Raj, Haryana and Punjab.
196.Bakharwal found in J and K.
197.Marwari found in Gujarat.
198.Patanwadi found in Gujarat.
199.The sheared skin with hair is thoroughly washed in tanks to remove
grease, dust and dirt. This is called scouring.
200.The small fluffy fibres, called burrs.
201.The processing of fibre into wool are
Shearing-Scouring-Sorting-Cleaning of burrs-Dyeing-Rolling.
202.Anthrax, which causes a fatal blood disease called sorter’s disease.
203.The rearing of silkworms for obtaining silk is called sericulture.
204.The female silk moth lays eggs, from which hatch larvae which are
called caterpillars or silkworms.
205.When the caterpillar is ready to enter the next stage of its life history
called pupa.
206.Caterpillar secretes fibre made of a protein.
207.Caterpillar completely covers itself by silk fibres and turns into a
pupa. This covering is known as cocoon.
208.Silk yarn (thread) is obtained from the cocoon of the silk moth.
209.Tassar silk, muga silk, kosa silk, etc. are obtained from cocoons spun
by different types of moths. The most common silk moth is the mulberry
silk moth.
210.China leads the world in silk production.
211.The larvae, called caterpillars or silkworms.
212.Hsi Ling Shi discovered silk.
213.A pile of cocoons is used for obtaining silk fibres.
214.The process of taking out threads from the cocoon for use as silk is
called reeling the silk.
215.Reeling is done in which unwind the threads or fibres of silk from the
cocoon.
216.The process of breakdown of food in the cell with the release of energy
is called cellular respiration. Cellular respiration takes place in the cells of
all organisms.
217.When breakdown of glucose occurs with the use of oxygen it is called
aerobic respiration.
218.Food can also be broken down, without using oxygen. This is called
anaerobic respiration.
219.Organisms such as yeast that can survive in the absence of air are
called anaerobes.
220.In presence of oxygen, glucose is breaks down into CO2 and water.
221.In absence of oxygen, glucose is breaks down into alcohol and CO2.
222.Yeasts are single-celled organisms.
223.The partial breakdown of glucose produces lactic acid.
224.The increase in the supply of oxygen results in the complete
breakdown of lactic acid into carbon dioxide and water.
225.When we inhale air, it passes through our nostrils into the nasal
cavity.
226.Lungs are present in the chest cavity.
227.A large muscular sheet called diaphragm forms the floor of the chest
cavity.
228.Cockroach: A cockroach has small openings on the sides of its body.
These openings are called spiracles. Insects have a network of air tubes
called tracheae. These air tubes or tracheae are found only in insects.
229.In earthworm, the exchange of gases occurs through the moist skin. In
fish it takes place through gills and in insects through the tracheae.
230.Leaves of the plants have tiny pores called stomata.
231.Blood is composed of a fluid, called plasma.
232.One type of cells are the red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red
pigment called haemoglobin.
233.White blood cells (WBC) which fight against germs that may enter our
body.
234.The clot is formed because of the presence of another type of cells in
the blood called platelets.
235.Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the
body.
236.Throbbing is called the pulse and it is due to the blood flowing in the
arteries.
237.Veins are the vessels which carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all
parts of the body back to the heart.
238.On reaching the tissues, they divide further into extremely thin tubes
called capillaries.
239.In heart, the two upper chambers are called the atria (singular:
atrium) and the two lower chambers are called the ventricles.
240.Animals such as sponges and Hydra do not possess any circulatory
system.
241.William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood.
242.The process of removal of wastes produced in the cells of the living
organisms is called excretion. The parts involved in excretion form the
excretory system.
245.From the kidneys, the urine goes into the urinary bladder through
tube-like ureters. It is stored in the bladder and is passed out through the
urinary opening at the end of a muscular tube called the urethra.
246.Aquatic animals like fish, excrete cellular waste as ammonia which
directly dissolves in water. Some land animals like birds, lizards and
snakes excrete a semi-solid, white coloured compound (uric acid).
247.Persons cannot survive unless their blood is filtered periodically
through an artificial kidney. This process is called dialysis.
248.The vessels are made of special cells, forming the vascular tissue.
249.A tissue is a group of cells that perform specialised functions in an
organism.
250.Transport of water and nutrients in the plant is called the xylem.
251.The food has to be transported to all parts of the plant is called the
phloem.
252.The water evaporates through the stomata present on the surface of
the leaves by the process of transpiration.
253.The production of new individuals from their parents is known as
reproduction.
254.Flowers are the reproductive parts.
255.In asexual reproduction plants can give rise to new plants without
seeds.
256.In sexual reproduction, new plants are obtained from seeds.
257.Reproduction is through the vegetative parts of the plant, it is known
as vegetative propagation.
258.A node is a part of the stem/branch at which a leaf arises.
259.Apart from flower buds, there are buds in the axil (point of attachment
of the leaf at the node) of leaves which develop into shoots. These buds are
called vegetative buds.
260.A bud consists of a short stem around which immature overlapping
leaves are present.
261.Potato plant sprouting from an ‘eye’.
262.Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant) has buds in the margins of leaves.
263.Roots of some plants can also give rise to new plants. Sweet potato and
Dahlia are examples.
264.Plants such as cacti produce new plants when their parts get detached
from the main plant body.
265.The small bulb-like projection coming out from the yeast cell is called a
bud.
266.Fragmentation in spirogyra (an alga).
267.Spores are asexual reproductive bodies. Each spore is covered by a
hard protective coat to withstand unfavourable conditions such as high
temperature and low humidity.
268.Plants such as moss and ferns also reproduce by means of spores.
269.In asexual reproduction new plants are obtained without production
of seeds.
270.Stamens are the male reproductive part and pistil is the female
reproductive part.
271.Flowers which contain either only pistil or stamens are called
unisexual flowers.
272.Flowers which contain both stamens and pistil are called bisexual
flowers.
273.Corn, papaya and cucumber produce unisexual flowers, whereas
mustard, rose and petunia have bisexual flowers.
274.Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes.
275.A pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary. Ovary contains one or more
ovules. The female gamete or egg is formed in an ovule.
276.In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete fuse to form a
zygote.
277.Pollen grains have a tough protective coat which prevents them from
drying up.
278.The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is
called pollination.

279.If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower or another flower
of the same plant, it is called self-pollination.
280.When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of a flower of a
different plant of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.
281.The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is called a zygote.
282.The process of fusion of male and female gametes (to form a zygote) is
called fertilisation.
283.The zygote develops into an embryo.
284.The seed contains an embryo enclosed in a protective seed coat.
285.Winged seeds such as those of drumstick and maple.
286.Light seeds of grasses or hairy seeds of aak (Madar) and hairy fruit of
sunflower.
287.Some seeds are dispersed by animals, especially spiny seeds with
hooks which get attached to the bodies of animals and are carried to
distant places. Examples are Xanthium and Urena. The seeds are scattered
far from the parent plant. This happens in the case of castor and balsam.
288.Common ailments like cold, influenza (flu) and most coughs are
caused by viruses.
289.Serious diseases like polio and chickenpox are also caused by viruses.
290.Diseases like dysentery and malaria are caused by
protozoa(protozoans) whereas typhoid and tuberculosis (TB) are bacterial
diseases.
291.Microorganisms may be single-celled like bacteria, some algae and
protozoa, or multicellular, such as many algae and fungi.
292.Friendly Microorganisms are used in the preparation of curd, bread
and cake. They have been used for the production of alcohol since ages.
293.Bacteria are also used in the preparation of medicines. In agriculture
they are used to increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen.
294.Lactobacillus promotes the formation of curd.
295.Bacteria and yeast are also helpful for fermentation of rice idlis and
dosa batter.
296.Microorganisms are used for the large scale production of alcohol,
wine and acetic acid (vinegar). Yeast is used for commercial production of
alcohol and wine. For this purpose yeast is grown on natural sugars
present in grains like barley, wheat, rice, crushed fruit juices, etc.
297.This process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is known as
fermentation.
298.Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation.
299.Medicines kill or stop the growth of disease causing microorganisms.
Such medicines are called antibiotics.
300.Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are some of the
commonly known antibiotics which are made from fungi and bacteria.
Antibiotics are also used to control many plant diseases.
301.When a disease-carrying microbe enters our body, the body produces
antibodies.
302.Cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can be prevented by
vaccination.
303.Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox.
304.Some bacteria like cyanobacteria (blue green algae) are able to fix
nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich soil with nitrogen and increase its
fertility. These microbes are commonly called biological nitrogen fixers.
305.Microorganisms decompose dead organic waste of plants and animals
converting them into simple substances.
306.Microorganisms cause diseases in human beings, plants and animals
are called pathogens.
307.Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a
healthy person through air, water, food or physical contact are called
communicable diseases. Examples of such diseases include cholera,
common cold, chicken pox and tuberculosis.
308.Carriers of disease causing microbes. Housefly is one such carrier.
Another example of a carrier is the female Anopheles mosquito which
carries the parasite of malaria (Plasmodium). Female Aedes mosquito acts
as a carrier of dengue virus.
309.TB caused by bacteria.
310.Measles caused by virus.
311.Chicken pox caused by virus.
312.Polio caused by virus.
313.Cholera caused by bacteria.
314.Typhoid caused by bacteria.
315.Hepatitis A caused by virus.
316.Malaria caused by protozoa.
317.Robert Koch discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) which
causes anthrax disease.
318.Anthrax is a dangerous human and cattle disease caused by a
bacterium.
319.Foot and mouth disease of cattle is caused by a virus.
320.Citrus canker caused by bacteria.
321.Rust of Wheat caused by fungi.
322.Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi (Okra) caused by Virus.
323.Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to check
the growth of microorganisms are called preservatives.
324.Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are common
preservatives.
325.Common salt has been used to preserve meat and fish for ages. Meat
and fish are covered with dry salt to check the growth of bacteria. Salting
is also used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, tamarind, etc.
326.Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved by sugar. Sugar reduces the
moisture content which inhibits the growth of bacteria which spoil food.
327.Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles.
328.Low temperature inhibits the growth of microbes.
329.Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants such as
beans and peas.
330.Nitrogen is one of the essential constituents of all living organisms as
part of proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic acids and vitamins.
331.Bacteria and fungi present in the soil convert the nitrogenous wastes
into nitrogenous compounds.
332.Bacteria and blue green algae present in the soil fix nitrogen from the
atmosphere and convert it into compounds of nitrogen.
333.Nitrogen is then used for the synthesis of plant proteins and other
compounds.
334.Robert Hooke discovered the cell.
335.Cork is a part of the bark of a tree.
336.Brick wall and Onion peel are basic structural units.
337.Stains (dyes) are used to colour parts of the cell.
338.Organisms made of more than one cell are called multicellular.
339.Single cell which is the fertilised egg.
340.Single celled organisms are called unicellular are Amoeba,
Paramecium.
341.A single-celled organism, like amoeba, captures and digests food,
respires, excretes, grows and reproduces. Amoeba has no definite shape.
342.Projections of varying lengths protruding out of its body. These are
called pseudopodia.
343.The change in shape is due to formation of pseudopodia which
facilitates movement and help in capturing food.
344.A white blood cell (WBC) in human blood is another example of a single
cell which can change its shape.
345.Amoeba is a full fledged organism capable of independent existence.
346.Cells are Spherical red blood cells of humans, Spindle shaped muscle
cells, Long branched nerve cell.
347.Nerve cell receives and transfers messages helping to control and
coordinate.
348.Bacterial cell also has a cell wall.
349.The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The largest cell
measuring 170 mm ×130 mm, is the egg of an ostrich.
350.A white material surrounds the yellow part. White material is albumin
which solidifies on boiling. The yellow part is yolk. It is part of the single
cell.
351.Nerve cells, both in the elephant and rat, are long and branched.
352.Each organ is further made up of smaller parts called tissues.
353.The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane,
also called the plasma membrane.
354.The boundary of the onion cell is the cell membrane covered by
another thick covering called the cell wall.
355.The central dense round body in the centre is called the nucleus.
356.The jelly-like substance between the nucleus and the cell membrane is
called cytoplasm.
357.Outer thick layer in cells of plants called cell wall.
358.Cells can be observed in the leaf peel of Tradescantia, Elodea or Rhoeo.
359.Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance present between the cell
membrane and the nucleus. Organelles of cells are present in the
cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, Golgi bodies, ribosomes.
360.Nucleus is generally spherical and located in the centre of the cell.
361.Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the
nuclear membrane.
362.Smaller spherical body in the nucleus is called the nucleolus.
363.Nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes. These
carry genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the
parents to the offspring.
364.Gene is a unit of inheritance in living organisms. It controls the
transfer of a hereditary characteristic from parents to offspring.
365.The entire content of a living cell is known as protoplasm. Protoplasm
is called the living substance of the cell.
366.The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are
termed prokaryotic cells. The organisms with these kinds of cells are
called prokaryotes. Examples are bacteria and blue green algae.
367.The cells, like onion cells and cheek cells having well-organised
nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as eukaryotic cells.
368.All organisms other than bacteria and blue green algae are called
eukaryotes.
369.Any blank-looking structures in the cytoplasm is called vacuole. Cheek
cells have smaller vacuoles. Large vacuoles are common in plant cells.
Vacuoles in animal cells are much smaller.
370.Small coloured bodies in the cytoplasm of the cells of Tradescantia
leaf. They are scattered in the cytoplasm of the leaf cells are called
plastids. Green coloured plastids are called chloroplasts.
371.In male reproductive organs, testes produce the male gametes called
sperms.
372.In female reproductive organs, a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian
tubes) and the uterus. Ovary produces female gametes called ova (eggs).
Uterus is the part where the development of the baby takes place.
373.Fusion of the egg and the sperm is called fertilisation. This results in
the formation of a fertilised egg or zygote.
374.Fertilisation which takes place inside the female body is called
internal fertilisation.
375.IVF or in vitro fertilisation (fertilisation outside the body).
376.in many animals fertilisation takes place outside the body of the
female. In these animals, fertilisation takes place in water.
377.Hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a shell.
378.Fusion of a male and a female gamete takes place outside the body of
the female is called external fertilisation.
379.All the eggs do not get fertilised and develop into new individuals. This
is because the eggs and sperm get exposed to water movement, wind and
rainfall.
380.Zygote formation and development of an embryo from the zygote, Ball
of cells (enlarged), Embedding of the embryo in the uterus (enlarged).
381.The stage of the embryo in which all the body parts can be identified is
called a foetus.
382.Internal fertilisation takes place in hens. The hard shell that you see in
a hen’s egg is one such protective layer.
383.The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous
animals. Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous.
384.Mothers lay them outside their bodies are examples of oviparous
animals. Mother gives birth to the young ones are examples of viviparous
animals.
385.In the case of tadpoles, they transform into adults capable of jumping
and swimming.
386.The transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes
is called metamorphosis.
387.Bulges are developing new individuals and they are called buds.
388.Reproduction in which only a single parent is involved is called
asexual reproduction.
389.New individuals develop from the buds in hydra, this type of asexual
reproduction is called budding.
390.Amoeba is a single-celled organism. It begins the process of
reproduction by the division of its nucleus into two nuclei.
391.Asexual reproduction in which an animal reproduces by dividing into
two individuals is called binary fission.
392.Dolly was the first mammal to be cloned.
393.The period of life, when the body undergoes changes, leading to
reproductive maturity, is called adolescence.
394.These changes mark the onset of puberty. Puberty ends when an
adolescent reaches reproductive maturity. At puberty, the voice box or the
larynx begins to grow.
395.The growing voice box in boys can be seen as a protruding part of the
throat called Adam’s apple.
396.A few glands such as sweat glands, oil glands (sebaceous gland) and
salivary glands release their secretions through ducts. Endocrine glands
release hormones directly into the bloodstream. So, they are also termed
ductless glands.
397.The changes which occur at adolescence are controlled by hormones.
These are secretions from endocrine glands, or endocrine system.
398.The male hormone or testosterone begins to be released by the testes
at the onset of puberty.
399.Once puberty is reached in girls, ovaries begin to produce the female
hormone or estrogen.
400.Milk secreting glands or mammary glands develop inside the breasts.
401.The production of these hormones is under the control of another
hormone secreted from an endocrine gland called the pituitary gland.
402.Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream to reach a
particular body part called target site.
403.Bleeding in women which is called menstruation.
404.The first menstrual flow begins at puberty and is termed menarche.
405.Stoppage of menstruation is termed menopause.
406.Menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones.
407.The hormones secreted by the pituitary.
408.Pituitary gland is an endocrine gland. It is attached to the brain.
409.Endocrine glands in the body such as thyroid, pancreas and adrenals.
410.‘Goitre’,a disease of the thyroid gland.
411.adrenal glands secrete hormones which maintain the correct salt
balance in the blood.
412.Adrenals also produce the hormone adrenaline. It helps the body to
adjust to stress when one is very angry, embarrassed or worried.
413.Thyroid and adrenals secrete their hormones when they receive
orders from the pituitary through its hormones. Pituitary also secretes
growth hormone.
414.This change from larva to adult is called metamorphosis.
Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by insect hormones. In a frog, it is
controlled by thyroxine, a hormone produced by the thyroid.
415.AIDS which is caused by viruses, HIV.
416.Van Leeuwenhoek discovered Protozoa.
417.Robert Brown discovered nucleus in cell.
418.Purkinje coined the term Protoplasm.
419.Schleiden had stated that plant tissues were composed of cells.
420.Schwann demonstrated the same fact for animal tissues.
421.The cell theory was further expanded by Virchow by suggesting that
all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
422.Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramoecium and bacteria are called
unicellular organisms.
423.Some substances like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the
cell membrane by a process called diffusion.
424.The movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable
membrane is called osmosis.
425.A hypotonic solution is any solution that has a lower osmotic pressure
than another solution.
426.An isotonic solution refers to two solutions having the same osmotic
pressure across a semipermeable membrane.
427.A hypertonic solution is a particular type of solution that has a
greater concentration of solutes on the outside of a cell when compared
with the inside of a cell.
428.Absorption of water by plant roots is also an example of osmosis.
429.The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic molecules
called lipids and proteins.
430.The flexibility of the cell membrane also enables the cell to engulf in
food and other material from its external environment are known as
endocytosis.
431.The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a
complex substance and provides structural strength to plants.
432.When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is
shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall
is known as plasmolysis.
433.Iodine solution also use safranin solution or methylene blue solution
to stain the cells.
434.Small green granules, called chloroplasts. They contain a green
substance called chlorophyll.
435.Iodine solution also use safranin solution or methylene blue solution
to stain the cells.
436.The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane.
437.The nucleus contains chromosomes.
438.Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of characters from
parents to next generation in the form of DNA.
439.Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.
440.Functional segments of DNA are called genes
441.DNA is present as part of chromatin material.
442.An undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acids is called a
nucleoid.
443.Organisms whose cells lack a nuclear membrane are called
prokaryotes.
444.Organisms with cells having a nuclear membrane are called
eukaryotes.
445.The chlorophyll in photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is associated
with membranous vesicles (bag like structures).
446.Cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. It also
contains many specialised cell organelles.
447.In prokaryotes, beside the absence of a defined nuclear region, the
membrane-bound cell organelles are also absent. On the other hand,
eukaryotic cells have nuclear membranes as well as membrane-enclosed
organelles.
448.Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-bound
tubes and sheets.
449.Rough endoplasmic reticulum looks rough under a microscope
because it has particles called ribosomes.
450.Ribosomes, which are present in all active cells, are the sites of protein
manufacture.
451.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum helps in the manufacture of fat
molecules, or lipids, important for cell function.
452.Proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane is known as
membrane biogenesis.
453.Proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones.
454.In the liver cells of the group of animals called vertebrates.
455.The Golgi apparatus first described by Camillo Golgi consists of a
system of membrane bound vesicles (flattened sacs) arranged
approximately parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
456.Golgi apparatus functions include the storage, modification and
packaging of products in vesicles.
457.Complex sugars may be made from simple sugars in the Golgi
apparatus.
458.The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes.
459.Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes.
460.Lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.

461.Lysosomes contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking

down all organic material.
462.Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
463.ATP Adenosine triphosphate is known as the energy currency of the
cell.
464.Mitochondria make some of their own proteins.
465.Plastids are present only in plant cells.
466.There are two types of plastids chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and
leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids).
467.Chromoplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as
chloroplasts.
468.Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants.
469.Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in
addition to chlorophyll.
470.Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as
starch, oils and protein granules are stored.
471.The internal organisation of the Chloroplast consists of numerous
membrane layers embedded in a material called the stroma.
472.Mitochondria, plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes.
473.Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
474.Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very
large vacuoles. These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids
and some proteins.
475.Food vacuole contains the food items that the Amoeba.
476.Plant cell are stored in vacuoles.
477.Meristematic tissue are classified as apical, lateral and intercalary.
478. Apical meristem is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and
increases the length of the stem and the root.
479.The girth of the stem or root increases due to lateral meristem
(cambium).
480. Intercalary meristem seen in some plants is located near the node.
481.Cells of meristematic tissue are very active, they have dense
cytoplasm, thin cellulose walls and prominent nuclei. They lack vacuoles.
482.Parenchyma is the most common simple permanent tissue.
483.Parenchyma consists of relatively unspecialised cells with thin cell
walls. This tissue generally stores food.
484.Parenchyma contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, and
then it is called chlorenchyma.
485.Large air cavities are present in parenchyma to help them float. Such
a parenchyma type is called aerenchyma.
486.The flexibility in plants is due to another permanent tissue,
collenchyma.
487.Sclerenchyma is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff.
488.Sclerenchyma is made of sclerenchymatous tissue.
489.Sclerenchyma are long and narrow as the walls are thickened due to
lignin. This tissue is present in stems, around vascular bundles, in the vein
of leaves and in the hard covering of seeds and nuts.
490.Outermost layer of cells called epidermis.
491.The epidermis is usually made of a single layer of cells.
492.Epidermal cells on the aerial parts of the plant often secrete a waxy,
water resistant layer on their outer surface.
493.Small pores here and there in the epidermis of the leaf. These pores are
called stomata.
494.Stomata are enclosed by two kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
495.Transpiration (loss of water in the form of water vapour) also takes
place through stomata.
496.In some plants like desert plants, epidermis has a thick waxy coating
of cutin (chemical substance with waterproof quality) on its outer surface.
497.A strip of secondary meristem located in the cortex forms layers of
cells which constitute the cork.
498.Xylem and phloem are examples of such complex tissues.
499.Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem
fibres.
500.Tracheids and vessels have thick walls.
501.The parenchyma stores food. Xylem fibres are mainly supportive in
function.
502.Phloem is made up of five types of cells: sieve cells, sieve tubes,
companion cells, phloem fibres and the phloem parenchyma.
503.Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls.
504.Phloem transports food from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
505.Blood and muscles are both examples of animal tissues.
506.Types of animal tissues, such as epithelial tissue, connective tissue,
muscular tissue and nervous tissue.
507.Blood is a type of connective tissue, and muscle forms muscular tissue.
508.The covering or protective tissues in the animal body are epithelial
tissues.
509.The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung
alveoli and kidney tubules are all made of epithelial tissue.
510.Transportation of substances occurs through a selectively permeable
surface is called the simple squamous epithelium.
511.Simple squamous epithelial cells are extremely thin and flat and form
a delicate lining.
512.The oesophagus and the lining of the mouth are also covered with
squamous epithelium.
513.Skin epithelial cells are arranged in many layers to prevent wear and
tear is called stratified squamous epithelium.
514.Absorption and secretion occur as in the inner lining of the intestine
tall epithelial cells are present.
515.Columnar epithelial tissue also has cilia, which are hair-like
projections on the outer surfaces of epithelial cells are ciliated columnar
epithelium.
516.Cuboidal epithelium (with cube-shaped cells) forms the lining of the
kidney tubules and ducts of salivary glands.
517.Portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward, and a multicellular gland
is formed is glandular epithelium.
518.Blood is a type of connective tissue.
519.The cells of connective tissue are loosely spaced and embedded in an
intercellular matrix.
520.Types of connective tissues are blood cells, compact bone, hyaline
cartilage, areolar tissue, adipose tissue.
521.Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix called plasma, in which red blood
corpuscles (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs) and platelets.
522.The plasma contains proteins, salts and hormones.
523.Different white blood corpuscles are Neutrophil (polynuclear
leukocyte), Eosinophil, Basophil, Lymphocyte, Monocyte, Platelets.
524.Compact Bone is another example of a connective tissue.
525.Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is composed of calcium
and phosphorus compounds.
526.Two bones can be connected to each other by another type of
connective tissue called the ligament.
527.Ligaments contain very little matrix and connect bones with bones.
528.Tendons connect muscles to bones and are another type of connective
tissue.
529.Haversian canal (contains blood vessels and nerve fibres).
530.Canaliculus (contains slender process of bone cell or osteocyte).
531.Another type of connective tissue hyaline cartilage.
532.The solid matrix is composed of proteins and sugars.
533.Cartilage smoothens bone surfaces at the joints and is also present in
the nose, ear, trachea and larynx.
534.Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and muscles,
around blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow.
535.Fat storing adipose tissue is found below the skin and between
internal organs.
536.Storage of fats also lets it act as an insulator.
537.Types of muscle fibres: (a) striated muscle, (b) smooth muscle, (c)
cardiac muscle.
538.Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells, also called muscle fibres.
539.Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins.
540.Striated muscle/Skeletal muscle/Voluntary muscles are long,
cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate (having many nuclei).
541.Smooth muscle/Involuntary muscle: The movement of food in the
alimentary canal or the contraction and relaxation of blood vessels are
involuntary movements.
542.Smooth muscles are also found in the iris of the eye, in ureters and in
the bronchi of the lungs. The cells are long with pointed ends (spindle
shaped) and uninucleate (having a single nucleus). They are also called
unstriated muscles.
543.Cardiac muscles: The muscles of the heart show rhythmic contraction
and relaxation. These involuntary muscles are called cardiac muscles.
544.Heart muscle cells are cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.
545.The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of the nervous
tissue.
546.The cells of nervous tissue are called nerve cells or neurons.
547.A neuron consists of a cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm, from
which long thin hair-like parts arise.
548.Each neuron has a single long part (process), called the axon, and
many short, branched parts (processes) called dendrites.
549.The signal that passes along the nerve fibre is called a nerve impulse.
550.Aristotle classified animals according to whether they lived on land, in
water or in the air.
551.A eukaryotic cell has membrane-bound organelles, including a
nucleus.
552.Charles Darwin first described his book, The Origin of Species.
553.Biodiversity means the diversity of life forms. It is a word commonly
used to refer to the variety of life forms found in a particular region.
554.The classification Whittaker proposed has five kingdoms: Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
555.Woese introduced by dividing the Monera into Archaebacteria (or
Archaea) and Eubacteria (or Bacteria).
556.Further classification is done by naming the sub-groups at various
levels as given in the following scheme: Kingdom Phylum (for animals) /
Division (for plants) Class- Order- Family- Genus- Species.
557.Monera do not have a defined nucleus or organelles.
558.The mode of nutrition of organisms in this group can be either by
synthesising their own food (autotrophic) or getting it from the
environment (heterotrophic).
559.Monera of this group includes bacteria, blue-green algae or
cyanobacteria, and mycoplasma.
560.Some examples of monera are Anabaena and bacteria.
561.Protista of this group includes many kinds of unicellular eukaryotic
organisms.
562.Protista of these organisms use appendages, such as hair-like cilia or
whip-like flagella.
563.In protista their mode of nutrition can be autotrophic or
heterotrophic.
564.Examples of protista are unicellular algae, diatoms and protozoans,
Paramecium, Amoeba, Euglena.
565.Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms.
567.Some of them use decaying organic material as food are called
saprotrophs.
568.A living protoplasm of a host organism for food are called parasites.
569.In fungi have cell walls made of a tough complex sugar called chitin.
570.Examples of fungi are Saccharomyces (Yeast), Penicillium (Mold),
Agaricus (Mushroom).
571.Some fungal species live in permanent mutually dependent
relationships with blue green algae (or cyanobacteria) are called
symbiotic.
572.These symbiotic life forms are called lichens.
573.Lichens as the slow-growing large coloured patches on the bark of
trees.
574.In Thallophyta plants that do not have well-differentiated body. The
plants in this group are commonly called algae. These plants are
predominantly aquatic.
575.Examples of thallophyta plants are Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora,
Ulva and Chara.
576.Bryophyta are called the amphibians of the plant kingdom. The plant
body is commonly differentiated to form stem and leaf-like structures.
577.Examples of bryophytes are moss (Funaria),Marchantia and Riccia.
578.In Pteridophyta some examples are Marsilea, ferns and horse-tails.
579.Pteridophyta are called ‘cryptogams’, or ‘those with hidden
reproductive organs’.
580.Plants with well differentiated reproductive parts that ultimately
make seeds are called phanerogams.
581.In Gymnosperms the plants of this group bear naked seeds and are
usually perennial, evergreen and woody.
582.Examples of gymnosperms are pines and deodar, Pinus, Cycus.
583.Angiosperms are called flowering plants.
584.In angiosperm seeds develop inside an ovary which is modified to
become a fruit.
585.Plant embryos in seeds have structures called cotyledons.
586.Cotyledons are called ‘seed leaves’.
587.Plants with seeds having a single cotyledon are called
monocotyledonous or monocots.
588.Plants with seeds having two cotyledons are called dicots.
589.Porifera are non-motile animals. There are holes or ‘pores’, all over the
body.
590.In porifera these animals are covered with a hard outside layer or
skeleton.
591.In porifera they are commonly called sponges, and are mainly found in
marine habitats.
592.Some examples of porifera are Euplectella, Sycon, Spongilla.
593.Coelenterata (Cnidaria) are animals living in water.
594.In coelenterata one makes up cells on the outside of the body, and the
other makes the inner lining of the body.
595.In coelenterata some of these species live in colonies (corals), while
others have a solitary like–span (Hydra).
596.Jellyfish and sea anemones are common examples of coelenterata.
597.Platyhelminthes is bilaterally symmetrical.
598.Platyhelminthes are three layers of cells which differentiated tissues
can be made are called triploblastic.
599.In platyhelminthes there is no true internal body cavity or coelom.
600.The body is flattened dorsoventrally are called flatworms. They are
either free-living or parasitic.
601.Some examples of platyhelminthes are Planaria, Liverfluke and
Tapeworm.
602.Nematoda (Aschelminthes) is also bilaterally symmetrical and
triploblastic. Body is cylindrical rather than flattened. A sort of body
cavity or a pseudocoelom is present.
603.In Nematoda Parasitic worms causing diseases, such as the worms
causing elephantiasis (filarial worms) or the worms in the intestines
(roundworm or pinworms).
604.Annelida animals are also bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
They have a true body cavity.
605.In Annelida this differentiation occurs in a segmental fashion.
606.In Annelida these animals are found in a variety of habitats– fresh
water, marine water as well as land.
607.Examples of Annelida are Nereis, Earthworm, Leeches.
608.Arthropoda are bilaterally symmetrical and segmented. There is an
open circulatory system, and so the blood does not flow in well defined
blood vessels. The coelomic cavity is blood-filled. They have jointed legs.
609.Examples of Arthropods are Palaemon (Prawn), Palamnaeus
(Scorpion), Aranea(Spider), Periplaneta (Cockroach), Butterfly,
Scolopendra (Centipede), Musca (House fly).
610.Mollusca have an open circulatory system and kidney-like organs for
excretion.
611.Examples of Mollusca are snails and mussels, Chiton, Octopus, Pila,
Unio.
612.Echinodermata are spiny skinned organisms.
613.Echinodermata are exclusively free-living marine animals.
614.Echinodermata are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity.
615.Echinodermata also have a peculiar water-driven tube.
616.Echinodermata have hard calcium carbonate structures.
617.Examples of echinoderms are Antedon (feather star), Holothuria (sea
cucumber), Echinus (sea urchin), Asterias (sea-star).
618.Protochordata (Balanoglossus): The notochord is a long rod-like
support structure that runs along the back of the animal separating the
nervous tissue from the gut.
619.Protochordates may not have a proper notochord present at all stages
in their lives.
620.Protochordates are marine animals.
621.Examples of protochordates are Herdmania and Amphioxus.
622.Vertebrata have a true vertebral column and internal skeleton.
623.Vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic and
segmented. All chordates possess the following features:
(i) have a notochord
(ii) have a dorsal nerve cord
(iii) are triploblastic
(iv) have paired gill pouches
(v) are coelomate
624.Cyclostomata, Cyclostomes are jawless vertebrates.
625.Cyclostomata are characterised by having an elongated eel-like body,
circular mouth, slimy skin and are scaleless.
626.Cyclostomata are ectoparasites. Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine
(Hagfish) are examples.
627.Pisces is streamlined, and a muscular tail is used for movement.
628.Pisces are cold-blooded and their hearts have only two chambers,
unlike the four that humans have.
629.In Pisces some with skeletons made entirely of cartilage, such as
sharks, and some with a skeleton made of both bone and cartilage, such as
tuna or rohu.
630.Examples of Pisces are Synchiropus splendidus (Mandarin fish),
Caulophryne jordani (Angler fish), Pterois volitans (Lionfish), Electric ray
(Torpedo), Stingray, Scoliodon (Dog fish), Labeo rohita (Rohu), Male
Hippocampus (Sea horse), Exocoetus (Flying fish), Anabas (Climbing
perch).
631.Amphibia having mucus glands in the skin, and a three-chambered
heart.
632.Amphibia are found both in water and on land.
633.Examples of Amphibia are Salamander, Toad, Rana tigrina (Common
frog), Hyla (Tree frog).
634.Reptilia are cold-blooded.
635.Reptilia have a three-chambered heart, crocodiles have four heart
chambers.
636.Reptilia lay eggs with tough coverings and do not need to lay their
eggs in water, unlike amphibians.
637.Examples of Reptilia are Turtle, Chameleon, King Cobra, Flying lizard
(Draco), House wall lizard (Hemidactylus).
638.Aves (Birds) are warm-blooded animals and have a four-chambered
heart.
639.In Aves there is an outside covering of feathers, and two forelimbs are
modified for flight.
640.Examples of Aves are White Stork (Ciconia ciconia), Ostrich (Struthio
camelus), Male Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula), Pigeon ,Sparrow, Crow.
641.Mammals are warm-blooded animals with four-chambered hearts.
642.Mammals have mammary glands for the production of milk to nourish
their young.
643.In Mammals Platypus and the echidna lay eggs, and some, like
kangaroos give birth to very poorly developed young ones.
644.Examples of Mammals are Cat, Human, Rat, Bat, Whale.
645.Nomenclature was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus.
646.Cells are made of a variety of chemical substances proteins
carbohydrates, fats or lipids.
647.The musculoskeletal system, which is made up of bones and muscles.
648.Diseases last for only very short periods of time, and these are called
acute diseases.
649.Other ailments can last for a long time, even as much as a lifetime, and
are called chronic diseases. An example is the infection causing
elephantiasis.
650.Diseases where microbes are the immediate causes are called
infectious diseases.
651.Cancers are caused by genetic abnormalities.
652.High blood pressure can be caused by excessive weight and lack of
exercise.
653.Peptic ulcers which cause acidity related pain and bleeding in the
stomach and duodenum.
654.Helicobacter pylori, was responsible for peptic ulcers.
655.Warren received the Nobel prize for physiology and medicine.
656.SARS viruses (Severe acute respiratory syndrome) is a serious form of
pneumonia. SARS is caused by a member of the coronavirus family of
viruses (the same family that can cause the common cold).
657.Staphylococci, the bacteria which can cause acne.
658.Trypanosoma, the protozoan organism responsible for sleeping
sickness.
659.Leishmania the protozoan organism that causes kala-azar. Organisms
are oval-shaped, and each has one long whip-like structure.
660.Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides) from the small intestine.
661.Infectious disease caused by
1)Bacteria (These one-cell organisms are responsible for illnesses such as
strep throat, urinary tract infections and tuberculosis).
2)Virus (common cold to AIDS).
3)Fungi (Many skin diseases, such as ringworm and athlete's foot, are
caused by fungi. Other types of fungi can infect your lungs or nervous
system).
4)Parasites (Malaria is caused by a tiny parasite that is transmitted by a
mosquito bite. Other parasites may be transmitted to humans from animal
feces).
662.Many infectious diseases, such as measles and chickenpox, can be
prevented by vaccines.
663.Mosquitoes can carry the malaria parasite or West Nile virus.
664.Human papillomavirus is linked to cervical cancer.
665.Hepatitis B and C have been linked to liver cancer.
666.Common examples of diseases caused by viruses are the common cold,
influenza, dengue fever and AIDS.
667.Diseases like typhoid fever, cholera, tuberculosis and anthrax are
caused by bacteria.
668.Protozoan microbes cause many familiar diseases, such as malaria
and kala azar.
669.Disease-causing microbes can spread through the air.
670.Diseases spread through the air are the common cold, pneumonia and
tuberculosis.
671.Suffering from an infectious gut disease, such as cholera.
672.Cholera causing microbes will enter a healthy person through the
water they drink.
673.Liver like the viruses that cause jaundice.
674.Virus causing Japanese encephalitis, or brain fever.
675.An active immune system recruits many cells to the affected tissue to
kill off the disease-causing microbes is called inflammation.
676.Drugs that kill protozoa such as the malarial parasite.
677.For airborne microbes, we can prevent exposure by providing living
conditions that are not overcrowded. For water-borne microbes, we can
prevent exposure by providing safe drinking water. For vector-borne
infections, we can provide clean environments.
678.Cowpox is a mild disease. It is ‘vaccinia.
679.Hepatitis A viruses which cause jaundice are transmitted through
water.
680.Rabies virus is spread by the bite of an infected dog.
681.Common types of non infectious diseases include cancer, diabetes, and
immune system diseases.
682.A disease that is not contagious is called a non infectious disease.
These diseases are not caused by pathogens.
683.Infectious diseases can also be prevented by immunisation.
684.Chronic is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more
than three months.
685.Common chronic diseases include arthritis, asthma, cancer, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease and
dementia,Crohn's disease,Cystic fibrosis, Epilepsy, Heart disease,
HIV/AIDS, Mood disorders (bipolar, cyclothymic, and depression), Multiple
sclerosis, Parkinson's disease.
686.Examples of acute diseases include appendicitis,acute leukemia, and
strep throat.Some acute diseases do not require hospitalization or medical
treatments, such as influenza, whereas others, such as pneumonia and
acute myocardial infarction, may require medical attention and extended
treatment.
687.Examples of viral diseases are Rubella, Hepatitis B and C, Wart,
Harpex simplex and labialis, Fifth disease, Ross river fever, Herpetic
whitlow, Neonatal infection.
688.Examples of infectious diseases are SARS, influenza, the common cold,
tuberculosis (TB), Hepatitis A and B.
689.Examples of non infectious diseases include diabetes, Alzheimer's,
cancer, osteoporosis, chronic lung disease, stroke, and heart disease.
690.These waste byproducts are needed to be removed from the body and
discarded outside by a process called excretion.
691.Organisms use bio-catalysts called enzymes.
692.Autotrophic nutrition is the process by which autotrophs take in
substances from the outside and convert them into stored forms of energy.
693.Carbon dioxide and water which is converted into carbohydrates in
the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
694.Process of photosynthesis occurs, Absorption of light energy by
chlorophyll, Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of
water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, Reduction of carbon dioxide to
carbohydrates.
695.Cell organelles called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll.
696.Stomata which are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.
697.Massive amounts of gaseous exchange takes place in the leaves
through these pores for the purpose of photosynthesis.
698.The opening and closing of the pore is a function of the guard cells.
699.Water used in photosynthesis is taken up from the soil by the roots in
terrestrial plants.

700.Nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium are taken up from the soil.
701.Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and
other compounds.
702.The parasitic nutritive strategy is used by a wide variety of organisms
like cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms.
703.Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions of the
cell surface which fuse over the food particle forming a food-vacuole.
704.Paramoecium, which is also a unicellular organism.
705.The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending from the
mouth to the anus.
706.Fluid called saliva secreted by the salivary glands.
707.The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks
down starch which is a complex molecule to give simple sugar.
708.The digestion in the stomach is taken care of by the gastric glands
present in the wall of the stomach. These release hydrochloric acid, a
protein digesting enzyme called pepsin, and mucus.
709.The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the
action of the enzyme pepsin.
710.Small intestine receives the secretions of the liver and pancreas.
711.Bile juice from the liver accomplishes this in addition to acting on fats.
712.Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large globules.
713.Bile salts break them down into smaller globules.
714.The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like
trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down emulsified
fats.
715.Small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice.
716.Enzymes present in it finally convert the proteins to amino acids,
complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
717.The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like
projections called villi.
718.Dental caries or tooth decay causes gradual softening of enamel and
dentine.

719.Oxygen to break-down glucose into carbon dioxide and water.

720.In cytoplasm breakdown of glucose(6 carbon molecule) into (3 carbon
molecule) called pyruvate and take place in absence of oxygen, called
anaerobic respiration, converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide(2
carbon molecule).
721.Lack of oxygen converted into lactic acid and energy (3 carbon
molecule).
722.Take place in presence of oxygen(Mitochondria), called aerobic
respiration and converted into carbon dioxide and water.
723.The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to
synthesise a molecule called ATP.
724.Rings of cartilage are present in the throat.
725.Smokeless tobacco is also a major risk factor for heart attacks,
strokes, pulmonary diseases and several forms of cancer.
726.The upper part of respiratory tract is provided with small hair -like
structures called cilia.
727.Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes
which finally terminate in balloon-like structures which are called alveoli
(singular–alveolus).
728.The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels.
729.Respiratory pigment is present in the red blood corpuscles.
730.Oxygen is carried by the red blood corpuscles.
731.Salts are also transported by the blood.
732.Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in
dissolved form.
733.The heart is a muscular organ.
734.Animals like amphibians or many reptiles have three-chambered
hearts.
735.Fish have only two chambered heart.
736.Blood goes through the heart twice during each cycle in other
vertebrates is known as double circulation.
737.The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood
pressure.
738.The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole
(contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure in artery during
ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called diastolic pressure.
739.The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic
pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
740.Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called
sphygmomanometer.
741.High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the
constriction of arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood
flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.
742.Arteries are the vessels which carry blood away from the heart.
743.Veins collect the blood from different organs and bring it back to the
heart.
744.The smallest vessels have walls which are one-cell thick and are called
capillaries.
745.The capillaries join together to form veins that carry the blood away
from an organ or tissue.
746.Leakage would lead to a loss of pressure which would reduce the
efficiency of the pumping system.
747.Blood has platelet cells which circulate around the body and blood
clotting.
748.Fluid also involved in transportation is called lymph or tissue fluid.
749.Pores present in the walls of capillaries some amount of plasma,
proteins and blood cells and contains less protein and colourless.
750.Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains
excess fluid from extracellular space back into the blood.
751.Soil is the nearest and richest source of raw materials like nitrogen,
phosphorus.
752.The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the
plant is known as transpiration.
753.Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water
and minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.
754.This transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called
translocation and it occurs in the part of the vascular tissue known as
phloem.
755.Phloem transports amino acids and other substances.
756.The translocation of food and other substances takes place in the sieve
tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and
downward directions.
757.Sucrose is transferred into phloem tissue using energy from ATP.
758.In the spring, sugar stored in root or stem tissue would be transported
to the buds.
759.The biological process involved in the removal of these harmful
metabolic wastes from the body is called excretion.
760.The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidneys, a
pair of ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
761.Nitrogenous waste such as urea or uric acid are removed from blood in
the kidneys.
762.Each capillary cluster in the kidney is associated with the cup-shaped
end of a coiled tube called Bowman’s capsule.
763.Each kidney has large numbers of these filtration units called
nephrons.
764.Urine is stored in the urinary bladder.
765.The bladder is muscular under nervous control.
766.An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products
from the blood through dialysis.
767.Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable
lining.
768.Normally, in a healthy adult, the initial filtrate in the kidneys is about
180 L daily.
769.Common transplantations include corneas, kidneys, heart, liver,
pancreas, lungs, intestines and bone marrow.
770.Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles.
771.Waste products may be stored in leaves that fall off.
772.Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old
xylem.
773.Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil.
774.Receptors are usually located in our sense organs, such as the inner
ear, the nose, the tongue.
775.The gap between two neurons is called synaptic gap, or synapse.
776.The synapse is the space between the axon of one neuron and the
dendrites of the next neuron in a nerve pathway.
777.Parts of a neuron (i) where information is acquired, (ii) through which
information travels as an electrical impulse, and (iii) where this impulse
must be converted into a chemical signal for onward transmission.
778.Reflex arcs are formed in this spinal cord.
779.Spinal cord is made up of nerves.
780.Brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system.
781.The brain has three such major parts or regions, namely the forebrain,
midbrain and hind-brain.
782.Forbrain receive sensory impulses from various receptors.
783.Involuntary actions are controlled by the midbrain and hind-brain.
784.Blood pressure, salivation and vomiting are controlled by the medulla
in the hind-brain.
785.A part hind-brain called the cerebellum.
786.Brain is contained in a fluid-filled balloon which provides further
shock absorption.
787.Muscle cells have special proteins.
788.Some plants like the pea plant climb up other plants or fences by
means of tendrils.
789.The roots of a plant always grow downwards while the shoots usually
grow upwards.
790.This upward and downward growth of shoots and roots, respectively,
in response to the pull of earth or gravity is, obviously, geotropism.
791.Chemotropism is an example is the growth of a pollen tube down the
style during fertilization in response to the presence of sugars.
792.Hydrotropism is the growth or turning of plant roots towards or away
from moisture.
793.A hormone called auxin, synthesised at the shoot tip, helps the cells to
grow longer.
794.Auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of the shoot which
is away from the light.
795.Plant hormones are gibberellins which, like auxins, help in the growth
of the stem.
796.Cytokinins promote cell division, such as in fruits and seeds.
797.Abscisic acid is one example of a hormone which inhibits growth. Its
effects include wilting of leaves.
798.Adrenaline is secreted from the adrenal glands.
799.The blood to the digestive system and skin is reduced due to
contraction of muscles around small arteries.
800.The breathing rate also increases because of the contractions of the
diaphragm and the rib muscles.
801.Animal hormones are part of the endocrine system.
802.Hypothalamus plays an important role in the release of many
hormones.
803.Hypothalamus releases growth hormone releasing factor which
stimulates the pituitary gland to release growth hormone.
804.Iodine is necessary for the thyroid gland to make thyroxine hormone.
805.Thyroxin regulates carbohydrates, protein and fat metabolism.
806.Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxine.
807.Iodine may suffer from goiter.
808.Growth hormone is one of the hormones secreted by the pituitary.
809.The changes associated with puberty are because of the secretion of
testosterone in males and oestrogen in females.
810.Insulin is a hormone which is produced by the pancreas and helps in
regulating blood sugar levels.
811.Hormones should be secreted in precise quantities, we need a
mechanism through which this is done.
812.If the sugar levels in the blood rise, they are detected by the cells of the
pancreas which respond by producing more insulin. As the blood sugar
level falls, insulin secretion is reduced.
813.Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands.
814.Pituitary gland Stimulates growth in all organs.
815.Thyroid gland Regulates metabolism for body growth.
816.Ovaries development of female sex organs, regulates menstrual cycle,
etc.
817.Releasing hormones stimulate the pituitary gland to release
hormones.
818.A feedback mechanism regulates the action of the hormones.
819.The nervous system uses electrical impulses to transmit messages.
820.Dendrites are the segments of the neuron that receive stimulation in
order for the cell to become active. They conduct electrical messages to the
neuron cell body for the cell to function.
821.An axon, or nerve fiber, is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or
neuron, in vertebrates, that typically conduct electrical impulses known
as action potentials away from the nerve cell body.
822.Amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take place in
any plane.
823.In binary fission, Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), which have a
whip-like structure at one end of the cell.
824.Other single-celled organisms, such as the malarial parasite,
Plasmodium, divide into many daughter cells simultaneously by multiple
fission.
825.Spirogyra simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation.
826.Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and each
piece grows into a complete organism is known as regeneration.
827.Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells.
828.In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division
at one specific site. These buds develop into tiny individuals and when
fully mature.
829.Vegetative propagation is used in methods such as layering or
grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes for
agricultural purposes.
830.Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum
fall on the soil and develop into new plants.
831.Plants can be grown from one parent in disease-free conditions.
832.The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for
growth and differentiation.
833.The thread-like structures that developed on the bread are the hyphae
of the bread mould (Rhizopus).
834.The blobs are sporangia, which contain cells, or spores, that can
eventually develop into new Rhizopus individuals.
835.One germ-cell is large and contains the food-stores while the other is
smaller and likely to be motile.
836.The motile germ cell is called the male gamete and the germ cell
containing the stored food is called the female gamete.
837.Stamens and pistil are the reproductive parts of a flower which
contain the germ-cells.
838.The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains
either stamens or pistil or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains
both stamens and pistil.
839.Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen grains
that are yellowish in colour.
840.Pistil is present in the centre of a flower and is the female reproductive
part.
841.The swollen bottom part is the ovary, middle elongated part is the
style and the terminal part which may be sticky is the stigma.
842.The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.
843.The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain fuses with the female
gamete present in the ovule.
844.This fusion of the germ-cells or fertilisation gives us the zygote.
845.If this transfer of pollen occurs in the same flower, it is referred to as
self-pollination.
846.If the pollen is transferred from one flower to another, it is known as
crosspollination.
847.The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed.
The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
848.The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a
seedling under appropriate conditions. This process is known as
germination. Cotyledon(Food store), Plumule(Future shoot),
Radicle(Future root).
849.The rate of general body growth begins to slow down reproductive
tissues begin to mature. This period during adolescence is called puberty.
850.In male reproductive system, it consists of portions which produce the
germ-cells.
851.In male reproductive system the formation of germ-cells or sperms
takes place in the testes.
852.The urethra forms a common passage for both the sperm and urine.
853.Glands like the prostate and the seminal vesicles add their secretions
so that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes their transport easier.
854.In female reproductive system, the female germ-cells or eggs are made
in the ovaries.
855.In female egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a thin
oviduct or fallopian tube.
856.In female the two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure
known as the uterus. The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
857.The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a
special tissue called placenta.
858.In female, contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue. The lining
slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucous.
859.This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as
menstruation. It usually lasts for about two to eight days.
860.Bacterial infections such as gonorrhoea and syphilis, and viral
infections such as warts and HIV-AIDS.
861.Other contraceptive devices such as the loop or the copper-T are
placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy.
862.If the vas deferens in the male is blocked, sperm transfer will be
prevented. If the fallopian tube in the female is blocked, the egg will not be
able to reach the uterus.
863.Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube.
864.The lowest part of the ear, called the earlobe.
865.The arm of a human, the wing of a bird or a bat, the leg of a dog and
the flipper of a dolphin or whale are homologous organs.
866.Mammals have four limbs.
867.Examples of analogous structures range from wings in flying animals
like bats, birds, and insects, to find in animals like penguins and fish.
868.Analogous structures, such as sweet potatoes and potatoes, which
have the same function of food storage.
869.Various kinds of fossils are Tree trunk, Invertebrate(Ammonite),
Invertebrate(Trilobite), Fish(Knightia), Dinosaur skull(Rajasaurus).
870.Mud is also compressed into rock, above the rock containing the
earlier invertebrate fossils.
871.A flatworm named Planaria has very simple ‘eyes’ that are really just
eye-spots which detect light.
872.Brassica oleracea is a plant species that includes many common foods
as cultivars, including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels
sprouts, collard greens, savoy, kohlrabi, and gai lan. it is called "wild
cabbage,” and is native to coastal southern and western Europe.
873.Wild B. oleracea is a tall biennial plant that forms a stout rosette of
large leaves in the first year.It is rich in essential nutrients including
vitamin C. A diet rich in cruciferous vegetables (e.g., cabbage, broccoli,
cauliflower) is linked to a reduced risk of several human cancers.
874.Slightly larger leaves, and come up with a leafy vegetable called kale.
875.A multicellular organism grows by cell division.
876.Unicellular organisms grow by cell division.
877.In lower organisms like yeast and hydra, we observe budding. In
Planaria (flatworms), we observe true regeneration.
878.Organisms which do not reproduce (mules, sterile worker bees,
infertile human couples, etc).
879.All plants, animals, fungi and microbes exhibit metabolism.
880.No non-living object exhibits metabolism.
881.Biodiversity means the variability among living organisms from all
sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this
includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
882.Binomial nomenclature or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of
naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two
parts.
883. For plants, scientific names which are provided in International Code
for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).
884.Animal taxonomists have evolved International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature (ICZN).
885.Binomial nomenclature name given by Carolus Linnaeus.
886.The scientific name of mango is Mangifera indica.
887.Dogs’, ‘Cats’, ‘Mammals’, ‘Wheat’, ‘Rice’, ‘Plants’, ‘Animals’, etc.are
convenient categories we use to study organisms. The scientific term for
these categories is taxa.
888.Linnaeus used Systema Naturae.
889.In species, Mangifera indica, Solanum tuberosum (potato) and
Panthera leo (lion). Indica, tuberosum and leo, represent the specific
epithets, while the first words Mangifera, Solanum and Panthera are
genera. Panthera has another specific epithet called tigris and Solanum
includes species like nigrum and melongena. The scientific name for
human beings are Homo sapiens.
890.In genus, potato and brinjal are two different species but both belong
to the genus Solanum. Lion (Panthera leo), leopard (P. pardus) and tiger (P.
tigris) with several common features, are all species of the genus
Panthera. Felis which includes cats.
891.In Family, Solanum, Petunia and Datura are placed in the family
Solanaceae. Panthera, comprising lion, tiger, leopard is put along with
genus, Felis (cats) in the family Felidae.
892..In order, Plant families like Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae are included
in the order Polemoniales mainly based on the floral characters. The
animal order, Carnivora, includes families like Felidae and Canidae.
893.In class, order Primata comprising monkey, gorilla and gibbon is
placed in class Mammalia along with order Carnivora that includes
animals like tigers, cats and dogs. Class Mammalia has other orders also.
894.In Phylum, Presence of notochord and dorsal hollow neural system,
are included in the phylum Chordata.
895.In Kingdom,
1.Man - Homo sapiens - Homo - Hominidae - Primata - Mammalia Chordata.
2.Housefly - Musca domestica - Musca - Muscidae - Diptera - Insecta
Arthropoda.
3.Mango - Mangifera indica - Mangifera - Anacardiaceae - Sapindales
Dicotyledonae - Angiospermae.
4.Wheat - Triticum aestivum - Triticum - Poaceae - Poales
Monocotyledonae - Angiospermae.
896.The famous botanical gardens are at Kew (England), Indian Botanical
Garden, Howrah (India) and at National Botanical Research Institute,
Lucknow (India).
897.R.H. Whittaker proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms
defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia.
898.Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were placed together under algae.
899.Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in Algae within Plants and
both having cell walls) with Paramoecium and Amoeba (which were
earlier placed in the animal kingdom which lack cell wall).
900.Kingdom Monera: Bacteria are grouped under four categories based
on their shape: the spherical Coccus (cocci), the rod-shaped Bacillus
(bacilli), the comma-shaped Vibrio and the spiral Spirillum (spirilla). Some
of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food from
inorganic substrates. They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or
chemosynthetic autotrophic.
901.Archaebacteria: These bacteria are special since they live in some of
the most harsh habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot
springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
902.Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such
as cows and buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of
methane (biogas).

903.Eubacteria/True bacteria are characterised by the presence of a rigid

cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum.
904.The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae) have
chlorophyll a similar to green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs.
905.The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae.
906.In cyanobacteria some of these organisms can fix atmospheric
nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
907.Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidised various inorganic
substances such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released
energy for their ATP production. They play a great role in recycling
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and sulphur.
908.Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant in nature.
910.Heterotrophic are helpful in making curd from milk, production of
antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume roots, etc.
911.Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases
caused by different bacteria.
912.The Mycoplasma are organisms that completely lack a cell wall. They
are the smallest living cells known and can survive without oxygen.
913.Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants.
914.Kingdom Protista are all single celled eukaryotes are placed under
Protista. Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and
Protozoans under Protista.
915.In protista,the protist cell body contains a well defined nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia.
916.Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell
Fusion and zygote formation.
917.Chrysophytes includes diatoms, golden algae (desmids).
918.Chrysophytes are microscopic and float passively in water currents
(plankton).
919.In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells, which fit
together as in a soap box. The walls are embedded with silica.

920.This soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups. Diatoms are
the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
921.Dinoflagellates are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
922.Dinoflagellates appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on
the main pigments present in their cells.
923.In dinoflagellates most of them have two flagella; one lies
longitudinally and the other transversely in a furrow between the wall
plates.
924.Red dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid
multiplication that they make the sea appear red (red tides).
925.Toxins released by such large numbers may even kill other marine
animals such as fish.
926.Euglenoids have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their
body flexible. They have two flagella, a short and a long one.
927.Euglenoids are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight.
928.The pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in higher
plants. Example: Euglena.
929.Slime moulds are saprophytic protists.
930.Slime moulds form an aggregation called plasmodium.
931.Plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at
their tips.
932.The spores are dispersed by air currents.
933.All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.
934.Amoeboid protozoans live in freshwater, sea water or moist soil. Their
prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba.
935.Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of them such as
Entamoeba are parasites.
936.Flagellated protozoans are either free-living or parasitic. They have
flagella.
937.The parasitic forms cause diseases such as sleeping sickness. Example:
Trypanosoma.
938.Ciliated protozoans are aquatic, actively moving organisms because
of the presence of thousands of cilia.
939.Ciliated protozoans have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of
the cell surface.
940.The coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden
with food to be steered into the gullet.
941.Example of ciliated protozoans is Paramoecium.
942.Sporozoans have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.
943.In sporozoans the most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial parasite)
which causes malaria, a disease which has a staggering effect on human
population.
944.Fungi constitute heterotrophic organisms.
945.Mushrooms and toadstools are also fungi.
946.White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus.
947.Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to make bread and beer.
948.Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat rust-causing
Puccinia is an important example.
949.Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.
950.Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals
and plants. They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.
951.Fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like
structures called hyphae.
952.The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
953.Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated
cytoplasm these are called coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross
walls in their hyphae.
954.The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysaccharides.
955.Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from
dead substrates and hence are called saprophytes.
956.Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites.
957.They can also live as symbionts in association with algae as lichens
and with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza.
958.Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means
fragmentation, fission and budding.

959.Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or

zoospores, and sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and
basidiospores.
960.The various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting
bodies.
961.The sexual cycle involves the following three steps:
(i) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called
plasmogamy.
(ii) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
962.In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells.
963.Fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic
stage occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called
dikaryophase of fungus.
964.The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs,
leading to the formation of haploid spores.
965.The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and
fruiting bodies form the basis for the division of the kingdom into various
classes.
966.Phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in
moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants. The mycelium is
septate and coenocytic.
967.In phycomycetes asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores
(motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile). These spores are endogenously
produced in sporangia.
968.A zygospore is formed by the fusion of two gametes. These gametes are
similar in morphology (isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or
oogamous).
969.In phycomycetes some common examples are Mucor, Rhizopus (the
bread mould mentioned earlier) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on
mustard).
970.Ascomycetes known as sac-fungi, the ascomycetes are mostly
multicellular, e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, e.g., yeast
(Saccharomyces).
971.Ascomycetes are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous
(growing on dung). Myceliumis branched and septate.
972.The asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on the special
mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce
mycelium.
973.Sexual spores are called ascospores which are produced endogenously
in sac like asci (singular ascus).
974.These asci are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called
ascocarps.
975.Some examples of Ascomycetes are Aspergillus, Claviceps and
Neurospora.
976.Neurospora is used extensively in biochemical and genetic work.
977.Many members like morels and truffles are edible and are considered
delicacies.
978.Basidiomycetes commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are
mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
979.Basidiomycetes grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living
plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts.
980.In Basidiomycetes the sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is
brought fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of different strains or
genotypes.
981.Dikaryotic which gives rise to a basidium.
982.Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium producing four
basidiospores.
983.The Basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
984.In BasidiomycetesSome common members are Agaricus (mushroom),
Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus).
985.Deuteromycetes commonly known as imperfect fungi.
986The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores known as
conidia.
987.Some examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

988.Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll containing

organisms commonly called plants.
989.Heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites.
990.Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants
and Cuscuta is a parasite.
991.The plant cells have a eukaryotic structure with prominent
chloroplasts and cell wall mainly made of cellulose.
992.Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
993.The lengths of haploid and diploid phases, and whether these phases
are free living or dependent on others.
994.Kingdom Animalia is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic
organisms that are multicellular and their cells lack cell walls.
995.In Animalia they digest their food in an internal cavity and store food
reserves as glycogen or fat. Their mode of nutrition is holozoic by
ingestion of food.
996.The viruses are non-cellular organisms.
997.The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by
Dmitri Ivanowsky.
998.Microbes as causal organism of the mosaic disease of tobacco.
999.Infected plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants and
called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).
1000.Viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either RNA or
DNA.
1001.No virus contains both RNA and DNA.
1002.A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious.
1003.Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) are
usually double stranded DNA viruses.
1004.The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called
capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid.
1005.These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric
forms.
1006.Viruses cause diseases like mumps, smallpox, herpes and influenza.
1007.AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus.
1008.Viroids: T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was
smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease.
1009.Viroids was found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is
found in viruses, hence the name viroid.
1010.The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.
1011.Prions are bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called
mad cow disease in cattle and its analogous variant Cr–Jakob disease
(CJD) in humans.
1012.Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e. mutually useful associations
between algae and fungi.
1013.The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component
as mycobiont, which are autotrophic and heterotrophic.
1014.Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb
mineral nutrients and water for its partner.
1015.Lichens are very good pollution indicators – they do not grow in
polluted areas.
1016.Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
under Plantae.
1017.Androecium structure (system given by Linnaeus).
1018.Classification for flowering plants was given by George Bentham and
Joseph Dalton Hooker.
1019.Cytotaxonomy that is based on cytological information like
chromosome number, structure.
1020.Chemotaxonomy that uses the chemical constituents of the plant to
resolve confusions.
1021.Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and
largely aquatic (both freshwater and marine) organisms. Some of them
also occur in association with fungi (lichens) and animals (e.g., on a sloth).
1022.Ranging from colonial forms like Volvox and the filamentous forms
like Ulothrix and Spirogyra.
1023.In Algae vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation.
1024.In Algae each fragment develops into a thallus.
1025.In Algae asexual reproduction is by the production of different types
of spores, the most common being the zoospores. They are flagellated
(motile) and on germination gives rise to new plants.
1026.Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of two gametes.
These gametes can be flagellated and similar in size (as in Ulothrix) or non
flagellated (non-motile) but similar in size (as in Spirogyra)is called
isogamous.
1027.Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in species of Eudorina is
termed as anisogamous.
1028.Fusion between one large, nonmotile (static) female gamete and a
smaller, motile male gamete is termed oogamous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus.
1029.At least half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried
out by algae through photosynthesis.
1030.Many species of Porphyra, Laminaria and Sargassum are among the
70 species of marine algae used as food.
1031.Marine brown and red algae produce large amounts of hydrocolloids
(water holding substances), e.g., algin (brown algae) and carrageenan (red
algae) which are used commercially.
1032.Agar, one of the commercial products obtained from Gelidium and
Gracilaria are used to grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams
and jellies.
1033.Chlorella a unicellular alga rich in proteins is used as food
supplement even by space travellers.
1034.The algae are divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae,
Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
(a) Green algae (i) Volvox (ii) Ulothrix
(b) Brown algae (i) Laminaria (ii) Fucus (iii) Dictyota
(c) Red algae (i) Porphyra (ii) Polysiphonia.
1035.Chlorophyceae are called green algae.
1036.In Chlorophyceae the plant body may be unicellular, colonial or
filamentous.
1037.In Chlorophyceae they are usually grass green due to the dominance
of pigments chlorophyll a and b.
1038.In Chlorophyceae the chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like,
reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in different species.
1039.Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called
pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts.
1040.Pyrenoids contain protein and starch.
1041.In Chlorophyceae some algae may store food in the form of oil
droplets.
1042.In Chlorophyceae green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made of
an inner layer of cellulose and an outer layer of pectose.
1043.In Chlorophyceae vegetative reproduction usually takes place by
fragmentation or by formation of different types of spores.
1044.Asexual reproduction is by flagellated zoospores produced in
zoosporangia.
1045.In Chlorophyceae may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
1046.In Chlorophyceae some commonly found green algae are:
Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara. Cell wall is
cellulose. Number and position is 2-8, equal, apical. Habitat is Fresh water,
brackish water, salt water.
1047.Phaeophyceae are brown algae.
1048.Phaeophyceae range from simple branched, filamentous forms
(Ectocarpus).
1049.Phaeophyceae possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and
xanthophylls.
1050.Phaeophyceae vary in colour from olive green to various shades of
brown depending upon the amount of the xanthophyll pigment,
fucoxanthin present in them.
1051.In Phaeophyceae food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which
may be in the form of laminarin or mannitol.
1052.In Phaeophyceae the vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually
covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating of algin.
1053.In Phaeophyceae the protoplast contains, in addition to plastids, a
centrally located vacuole and nucleus.
1054.In Phaeophyceae the plant body is usually attached to the
substratum by a holdfast, and has a stalk, the stipe and leaf like
photosynthetic organ.
1055.In Phaeophyceae vegetative reproduction takes place by
fragmentation.
1056.In Phaeophyceae asexual reproduction in most brown algae is by
biflagellate zoospores that are pear-shaped and have two unequal
laterally attached flagella.
1057.In Phaeophyceae sexual reproduction may be isogamous,
anisogamous or oogamous.
1058.In Phaeophyceae union of gametes may take place in water or within
the oogonium (oogamous species).
1059.In Phaeophyceae the gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) and bear
two laterally attached flagella.
1060.In Phaeophyceae the common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota,
Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus. Number and position is 2,
unequal,lateral. Habitat is Fresh water (rare) brackish water, salt water.
1061.Rhodophyceae are called red algae.
1062.In Rhodophyceae red algae are marine and found in the warmer
areas.
1063.The red thalli of most of the red algae are multicellular.
1064.In Red algae the food is stored as floridean starch which is very
similar to amylopectin and glycogen in structure.
1065.The red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation.
1066.In Red algae they reproduce asexually by non-motile spores and
sexually by non-motile gametes.
1067.In Red algae sexual reproduction is oogamous and accompanied by
complex post fertilisation developments.
1068.In Red algae the common members are: Polysiphonia, Porphyra,
Gracilaria and Gelidium.
1069.In Red algae major pigments Chlorophyll a,d, phycoerythrin.
1070.In Red algae cell wall is Cellulose, pectin and polysulphate esters.
Number and position is absent.
1071.In Red algae habitat is Freshwater, (some),brackish water, salt water
(most).
1072.Bryophytes include the various mosses and liverworts.
1073.A liverwort – Marchantia
(a) Female thallus
(b) Male thallus Mosses
(c) Funaria, gametophyte and sporophyte
(d) Sphagnum gametophyte.
1074.Bryophytes are also called amphibians of the plant.
1075.Bryophytes is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the
substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.
1076.Bryophytes may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures.
The main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid.
1077.Bryophytes produces gametes is called a gametophyte.
1078.In Bryophytes the male sex organ is called antheridium.
1079.The female sex organ called archegonium is flask-shaped and
produces a single egg.
1080.Zygotes do not undergo reduction division. They produce a
multicellular body called a sporophyte.
1081.The sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic
gametophyte.
1082.Some cells of the sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) to
produce haploid spores.
1083.Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used
as fuel.
1084.Mosses along with lichens are the first organisms to colonise rocks.
Since moses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact of falling
rain and prevent soil erosion.
1085.The bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.
1086.Liverworts grow in moist, shady habitats such as banks of streams,
marshy ground, damp soil, bark of trees and deep in the woods.
1087.The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchantia.
1088.The thallus is dorsiventral and closely appressed to the substrate.
1089.The leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages in two rows on the
stem-like structures.
1090.Asexual reproduction in liverworts takes place by fragmentation of
thalli, or by the formation of specialised structures called gemmae (sing.
gemma).
1091.Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which develop in
small receptacles called gemma cups located on the thalli.
1092.The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule.
1093.These spores germinate to form free-living gametophytes.
1094.Mosses which develops directly from a spore.
1095.Leafy stage, which develops from the secondary protonema as a
lateral bud. They consist of upright, slender axes bearing spirally
arranged leaves.
1096.Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by fragmentation and budding
in the secondary protonema.
1097.In sexual reproduction, the sex organs antheridia and archegonia are
produced at the apex of the leafy shoots.
1098.Zygote develops into a sporophyte, consisting of a foot, seta and
capsule.
1099.The capsule contains spores.
1100.Spores are formed after meiosis.
1101.The mosses have an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal.
1102.Common examples of mosses are Funaria, Polytrichum and
Sphagnum.
1103..Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns.
1104.Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purposes and as soil-binders.
1105.The pteridophytes are found in cool, damp, shady places though some
may flourish well in sandy-soil conditions.
1106.In pteridophytes, the main plant body is a sporophyte.
1107.The leaves in pteridophytes are small (microphylls) as in Selaginella
or large (macrophylls) as in ferns.
1108.The sporophytes bear sporangia that are subtended by leaf-like
appendages called sporophylls.
1109.Sporophylls may form distinct compact structures called strobili or
cones (Selaginella, Equisetum).
1110.The sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells.
1111.Pteridophytes are Selaginella, Equisetum, Fern, Salvinia.
1112.The spores germinate to give rise to inconspicuous free-living, mostly
photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes called prothallus.
1113.The gametophytes bear male and female sex organs called antheridia
and archegonia.
1114.Fusion of male gamete with the egg present in the archegonium result
in the formation of zygote.
1115.In majority of the pteridophytes all the spores are of similar kinds;
such plants are called homosporous.
1116.Genera like Selaginella and Salvinia which produces two kinds of
spores, macro (large) and micro (small) spores, are known as
heterosporous.
1117.The development of the zygotes into young embryos take place within
the female gametophytes.
1118.The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes: Psilopsida
(Psilotum); Lycopsida (Selaginella, Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum)
and Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum).
1119.Gymnosperms develop post-fertilisation are not covered, are naked.
1120.Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees or tall trees and shrubs.
1121.In Gymnosperms Redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest trees
species.
1122.The roots are generally tap roots.
1123.In Gymnosperms roots in some genera have fungal association in the
form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some others (Cycas) small specialised
roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2 - fixing cyanobacteria.
1124.In Gymnosperms the stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched
(Pinus, Cedrus).
1125.In Gymnosperms the leaves may be simple or compound. In conifers,
the needle-like leaves reduce the surface area. Their thick cuticle and
sunken stomata also help to reduce water loss.
1126.The gymnosperms are heterosporous they produce haploid
microspores and megaspores.
1127.Sporangia that are borne on sporophylls which are arranged spirally
along an axis to form lax or compact strobili or cones.
1128.The strobili bearing microsporophylls and microsporangia are called
microsporangiate or male strobili.
1129.The microspores develop into a male gametophytic generation which
is highly reduced and is confined to only a limited number of cells. This
reduced gametophyte is called a pollen grain.
1130.The development of pollen grains take place within the
microsporangia.
1131.The cones bearing megasporophylls with ovules or megasporangia
are called microsporangiate or female strobili.
1132.The male or female cones or strobili may be borne on the same tree
(Pinus).
1133.In cycas male cones and megasporophylls are borne on different
trees.
1134.The megaspore mother cell is differentiated from one of the cells of
the nucellus.
1135.The nucellus is protected by envelopes and the composite structure is
called an ovule.
1136.The ovules are borne on megasporophylls which may be clustered to
form the female cones.
1137.The megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four
megaspores.
1138.One of the megaspores enclosed within the megasporangium
develops into a multicellular female gametophyte that bears two or more
archegonia or female sex organs.
1139.In gymnosperms the male and the female gametophytes do not have
an independent free-living existence.
1140.They are carried in air currents and come in contact with the opening
of the ovules borne on megasporophylls.

1141.The pollen tube carrying the male gametes grows towards archegonia
in the ovules and discharge their contents near the mouth of the
archegonia.
1142.In Gymnosperms zygote develops into an embryo and the ovules into
seeds. These seeds are not covered.
1143.Gymnosperms are Gymnosperms Cycas, Pinus, Ginkgo.
1144.In Angiosperms the pollen grains and ovules are developed in
specialised structures called flowers.
1145.In angiosperms the seeds are enclosed in fruits. They range in size
from the smallest Wolffia to tall trees of Eucalyptus (over 100 metres).
1146.The dicotyledons are characterised by seeds having two cotyledons,
reticulate venations in leaves, and tetramerous or pentamerous flowers,
having four or five members in each floral whorl.
1147.The monocotyledon are characterised by single dicotyledonous seeds,
parallel venation in leaves, and trimerous flowers having three members
in each floral whorl.
1148.The male sex organ in a flower is the stamen.
1149.In Angiosperms each stamen consists of a slender filament with an
anther at the tip.
1150.In Angiosperms the female sex organ in a flower is the pistil.
1151.In Angiosperms pistil consists of a swollen ovary at its base, a long
slender style and stigma.
1152.Inside the ovary, ovules are present.
1153.Each ovule has a megaspore mother cell that undergoes meiosis to
form four haploid megaspores.
1154.Each embryo-sac has a three-celled egg apparatus – one egg cell and
two synergids, three antipodal cells and two polar nuclei.
1155.Pollen grain are carried by wind or various other agencies to the
stigma of the pistil is termed as pollination.
1156.One of the male gametes fuses with the egg cell (syngamy) to form a
zygote.
1157.The other male gamete fuses with the diploid secondary nucleus to
produce the triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN).
1158.Occurrence of two fusions syngamy and triple fusion is termed as
double fertilisation.
1159.The zygote develops into an embryo (with one or two cotyledons) and
the PEN develops into endosperm.
1160.Ovules develop into seeds and the ovaries develop into fruit.
1161.Sporophytic is represented only by the one-celled zygote. There are
free-living sporophytes.
1162.Meiosis in the zygote results in the formation of haploid spores.
1163.The haploid spores divide mitotically and form the gametophyte.
1164.Plants is the free-living gametophyte is termed as haplontic.
1165.Many algae such as Volvox, Spirogyra and some species of
Chlamydomonas represent.
1166.Diploid sporophyte is the dominant, photosynthetic, independent
phase of the plant.
1167.The gametophytic phase is represented by the single to few-celled
haploid gametophyte is termed as diplontic.
1168.In Diploid An alga, Fucus sp., represents this pattern.
1169.All seed bearing plants, gymnosperms and angiosperms
1170.Bryophytes and pteridophytes exhibit (Haplo-diplontic).
1171.A dominant, independent, photosynthetic, thalloid or erect phase is
represented by a haploid gametophyte.
1172.The diploid sporophyte is represented by a dominant, independent,
photosynthetic, vascular plant body.
1173.Algal genera are haplontic, some of them such as Ectocarpus,
Polysiphonia, kelps are haplo-diplontic. Fucus, an alga is diplontic.
1174.In sponges, the cells are arranged as loose cell aggregates, they
exhibit cellular level.
1175.Organ level is exhibited by members of Platyhelminthes.
1176.In animals like Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and
Chordates, organs have associated to form functional systems, each
system concerned with a specific physiological function. This pattern is
called organ system.

1177.Digestive system in Platyhelminthes has only a single opening to the

outside of the body that serves as both mouth and anus, and is hence
called incomplete.
1178.(i) open type in which the blood is pumped out of the heart and the
cells and tissues are directly bathed in it.
(ii) closed type in which the blood is circulated through a series of
vessels of varying diameters (arteries, veins and capillaries).
1179.Sponges are mostly asymmetrical, any plane that passes through the
centre does not divide them into equal halves.
1180.When any plane passing through the central axis of the body divides
the organism into two identical halves is called radial symmetry.
1181 Coelenterates, ctenophores and echinoderms have this kind of body
plan.
1182.Animals like annelids, arthropods, etc.where the body can be divided
into identical left and right halves in only one plane, exhibit bilateral
symmetry.
1183.Animals in which the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, an
external ectoderm and an internal endoderm, are called diploblastic
animals, e.g., coelenterates.
1184.Mesoglea is present in between the ectoderm and the endoderm.
1185.Those animals in which the developing embryo has a third germinal
layer, mesoderm, in between the ectoderm and endoderm, are called
triploblastic animals (platyhelminthes to chordates).
1186.Presence or absence of a cavity between the body wall and the gut
wall.
1187.The body cavity, which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom.
1188.Animals possessing coelom are called coelomates, e.g., annelids,
molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates.
1189.The mesoderm is present as scattered pouches in between the
ectoderm and endoderm. Such a body cavity is called pseudocoelom and
the animals possessing them are called pseudocoelomates, e.g.,
aschelminthes.

1190.The animals in which the body cavity is absent are called

acoelomates, e.g., platyhelminthes.
1191.In earthworm, the body shows this pattern called metameric
segmentation and the phenomenon is known as metamerism.

1192.Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on

the dorsal side during embryonic development in some animals.

1193.Animals with notochord are called chordates.

1194.Animals which do not form this structure are called non-chordates,

e.g., porifera to echinodermata.

1195.Phylum Porifera are commonly known as sponges.

1196.Porifera are generally marine and mostly asymmetrical animals.

1197.In Porifera water enters through minute pores (ostia) in the body wall
into a central cavity, spongocoel, from where it goes out through the
osculum.
1198.Choanocytes or collar cells line the spongocoel and the canals.
1199.In Porifera the body is supported by a skeleton made up of spicules or
spongin fibres.
1200.In Porifera sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite).
1201.In Porifera sponges reproduce asexually by fragmentation and
sexually by formation of gametes.
1202.In Porifera fertilisation is internal and development is indirect
having a larval stage which is morphologically distinct from the adult.
1203.Examples of Porifera : (a) Sycon (b) Euspongia (c) Spongilla, Sycon
(Scypha), Spongilla (Freshwater sponge) and Euspongia (Bath sponge).
1204.Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria) are aquatic, mostly marine, sessile
or free-swimming, radially symmetrical animals.

1205.Coelenterata cnidoblasts or cnidocytes (which contain the stinging

capsules or nematocysts) present on the tentacles and the body.
1206.Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense and for the capture of
prey.
1207.Cnidarians exhibit tissue level of organisation and are diploblastic.
1208.Cnidaria have a central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening,
mouth on hypostome.
1209.Some of the cnidarians, e.g., corals have a skeleton composed of
calcium carbonate.
1210.Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyps and medusae.
1211.The former is a sessile and cylindrical form like Hydra, Adamsia, etc.
1212.Latter is umbrella-shaped and free-swimming like Aurelia or jellyfish.
1213.Cnidarians which exist in both forms exhibit alternation of
generation (Metagenesis), polyps produce medusae asexually and
medusae form the polyps sexually (e.g., Obelia).
1214.Examples of Cnidaria are Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war),
Adamsia (Sea anemone), Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia (Sea-fan) and
Meandrina (Brain coral). Examples of Coelenterata indicating outline of
their body form : (a) Aurelia (Medusa) (b) Adamsia (Polyp).
1215.Ctenophores commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies are
exclusively marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic organisms with
tissue level of organisation.
1216.Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is
well-marked in ctenophores.
1217.In Ctenophores Reproduction takes place only by sexual means.
1218.Examples of Ctenophores are Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.
1219.Platyhelminthes have dorso-ventrally flattened body, hence are
called flatworms.
1220.Platyhelminthes are mostly endoparasites found in animals
including human beings.
1221.Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and acoelomate
animals with organ level of organisation.
1222.In Platyhelminthes hooks and suckers are present in the parasitic
forms.
1223.Flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion.
1224.In Platyhelminthes fertilisation is internal and development is
through many larval stages.
1225.Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
Examples: Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke).
1226.Aschelminthes the name roundworms.
1227.Aschelminthes may be free living, aquatic and terrestrial or parasitic
in plants and animals.
1228.Roundworms have organ-system level of body organisation. They are
bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and pseudocoelomate animals.
1229.Alimentary canal is complete with a well developed muscular
pharynx.
1230.In Aschelminthes often females are longer than males.
1231.In Aschelminthes fertilisation is internal and development may be
direct (the young ones resemble the adult) or indirect.
1232.Examples of Aschelminthes are Ascaris (Roundworm), Wuchereria
(Filarial worm), Ancylostoma (Hookworm).
1233.Annelida may be aquatic (marine and freshwater) or terrestrial; free
living, and sometimes parasitic.
1234.Annelida exhibit organ-system level of body organisation and
bilateral symmetry.
1235.Annelida are triploblastic, metamerically segmented and coelomate
animals.
1236.In Annelida their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments
or metameres.
1237.Annelida possess longitudinal and circular muscles which help in
locomotion.
1238.Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral appendages, parapodia,
which help in swimming.
1239.In Annelida a closed circulatory system is present.
1240.Nephridia (sing. nephridium) help in osmoregulation and excretion.

1241.Neural system consists of paired ganglia (sing. ganglion) connected

by lateral nerves to a double ventral nerve cord.
1242.Nereis, an aquatic form, is dioecious, but earthworms and leeches are
monoecious.
1243.Examples of Annelida are Nereis, Pheretima (Earthworm) and
Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech).
1244.Arthropoda is the largest phylum of Animalia which includes insects.
1245.Over two-thirds of all named species on earth are arthropods.
1246.Arhtropoda are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, segmented and
coelomate animals.
1247.The body of arthropods is covered by chitinous exoskeleton.
1248.Arthropoda consists of head, thorax and abdomen.
1249.Arthropoda have jointed appendages (arthros-joint, poda
appendages).
1250.In Arthropoda, Circulatory system is of open type.
1251.Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound and simple),
statocysts or balancing organs are present.
1252.In Arthropoda Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules.
1253.In Arthropoda Examples: Economically important insects –
Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac insect)
Vectors – Anopheles, Culex and Aedes (Mosquitoes)
Gregarious pest – Locusta (Locust)
Living fossil – Limulus (King crab).
Examples of Arthropoda : (a) Locust (b) Butterfly (c) Scorpion (d) Prawn.
1254.Mollusca is the second largest animal phylum.
1255.Molluscs are terrestrial or aquatic (marine or freshwater) having an
organ-system level of organisation.
1256.Mollusca are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate
animals.
1257.In Mollusca Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is unsegmented
with a distinct head, muscular foot and visceral hump.
1258.In Mollusca a soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the
visceral hump.
1259.The space between the hump and the mantle is called the mantle
cavity in which feather like gills are present.
1260.Mollusca have respiratory and excretory functions.
1261.In Mollusca the anterior head region has sensory tentacles.
1262.In Mollusca the mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for feeding,
called radula.
1263.In Mollusca they are usually dioecious and oviparous with indirect
development.
1264.Mollusca Examples: Pila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl oyster), Sepia
(Cuttlefish), Loligo (Squid), Octopus (Devil fish), Aplysia (Sea Hare),
Dentalium (Tusk shell) and Chaetopleura (Chiton).
1265.Echinodermata have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles and,
hence, the name Echinodermata (Spiny bodied).
1266.The adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical but larvae are
bilaterally symmetrical.
1267.Echinoderms are triploblastic and coelomate animals.
1268.In echinoderms digestive system is complete with mouth on the lower
(ventral) side and anus on the upper (dorsal) side.
1269.The most distinctive feature of echinoderms is the presence of water
vascular system which helps in locomotion, capture and transport of food
and respiration.
1270.In Echinoderms an excretory system is absent.
1271.In Echinoderms development is indirect with free-swimming larva.
1272.Echinoderms Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Echinus (Sea urchin),
Antedon (Sea lily), Cucumaria (Sea cucumber) and Ophiura (Brittle star).
1273.Hemichordata have a rudimentary structure in the collar region
called stomochord, a structure similar to notochord.
1274.Hemichordata consists of a small group of worm-like marine animals
with organ-system level of organisation.
1275.Hemichordata are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and
coelomate animals.
1276.In Hemichordata the body is cylindrical and is composed of an
anterior proboscis, a collar and a long trunk.
1277.In Hemichordata Circulatory system is of open type.
1278.In Hemichordata respiration takes place through gills.
1279.In Hemichordata excretory organ is proboscis gland.
1280.Hemichordata Examples: Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.
1281.Chordata are characterised by the presence of a notochord, a dorsal
hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits.
1282.Chordata are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with
organ-system level of organisation. They possess a post anal tail and a
closed circulatory system.
1283.In Chordates Notochord present.
1284.In Chordates Central nervous system is dorsal, hollow and single.
1285.In Chordates Pharynx perforated by gill slits. Heart is ventral. A
postanal part (tail) is present.
1286.In Non chordates Notochord absent.
1287.In Non Chordates Central nervous system is ventral, solid and double.
Gill slits are absent. Heart is dorsal (if present). Post-anal tail is absent.
1288.Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or
Tunicata, Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.
1289.Subphylum Urochordata and Cephalochordata are often referred to
as protochordates and are exclusively marine.
1290.In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail,
1291.In Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail region and is
persistent throughout their life. Examples:
Urochordata – Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum;
Cephalochordata – Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or Lancelet).
1292.Thus all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not
vertebrates.
1293.Vertebrates have a ventral muscular heart with two, three or four
chambers, kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation and paired
appendages which may be fins or limbs.
1294.Cyclostomata are ectoparasites on some fish.
1295.Cyclostomata have an elongated body bearing 6-15 pairs of gill slits
for respiration.
1296.Cyclostomes have a sucking and circular mouth without jaws.
1297.In cyclostomes cranium and vertebral column are cartilaginous.
1298.In Cyclostomes Circulation is of closed type.
1299.Cyclostomes are marine but migrate for spawning to fresh water.
1300.Cyclostomes Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
A jawless vertebrate - Petromyzon.
1301.Chondrichthyes are marine animals with streamlined body and have
cartilaginous endoskeleton.
1302.In Chondrichthyes Notochord is persistent throughout life.
1303.In Chondrichthyes Gill slits are separate and without operculum (gill
cover).
1304.In Chrondrichthyes the skin is tough, containing minute placoid
scales.
1305.In Chrondrichthyes teeth are modified placoid scales which are
backwardly directed. These animals are predaceous.
1306.In Chondrichthyes due to the absence of air bladder, they have to
swim constantly to avoid sinking Heart is two-chambered (one auricle and
one ventricle).
1307.In Chrondrichthyes some of them have electric organs (e.g., Torpedo)
and some possess poison sting (e.g., Trygon).
1308.In Chondrichthyes they are cold-blooded (poikilothermous).
1309.In Chondrichthyes In males pelvic fins bear claspers. Examples:
Scoliodon (Dog fish),
Pristis (Saw fish),
Carcharodon (Great white shark),
Trygon (Stingray)
1310.Osteichthyes includes both marine and freshwater fishes with bony
endoskeleton.
1311.Osteichthyes have four pairs of gills which are covered by an
operculum on each side.
1312.Osteichthyes, Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
1313.Osteichthyes air bladder is present which regulates buoyancy.
1314.Heart is two chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
1315.Osteichthyes are cold-blooded animals.
1316.Osteichthyes Examples: Marine – Exocoetus (Flying fish),
Hippocampus (Sea horse); Freshwater – Labeo (Rohu), Catla (Katla),
Clarias (Magur); Aquarium – Betta (Fighting fish), Pterophyllum (Angel
fish).
1317.Amphibia have two pairs of limbs.
1318.Amphibia,Body is divisible into head and trunk.
1319.Amphibia,Tail may be present in some.
1320.The amphibian skin is moist (without scales). The eyes have eyelids.
1321.In Amphibia, A tympanum represents the ear.
1322.Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open into a
common chamber called the cloaca.
1323.The heart is three chambered (two auricles and one ventricle). These
are cold-blooded animals.
1324.Amphibia, Examples: Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree Frog),
Salamandra (Salamander), Ichthyophis (Limbless amphibia)
1325.Reptilia are mostly terrestrial animals and their body is covered by
dry and cornified skin, epidermal scales or scutes.
1326.Reptilia do not have external ear openings.
1327.In Reptilia, Tympanum represents ear. Limbs, when present, are two
pairs.
1328.In Reptilia, Heart is usually three-chambered, but four-chambered in
crocodiles.
1329.Reptiles are poikilotherms.
1330.In Reptilia, Snakes and lizards shed their scales as skin cast.
1331.In Reptilia, Examples: Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon
(Tree lizard), Calotes (Garden lizard), Crocodilus (Crocodile), Alligator
(Alligator). Hemidactylus (Wall lizard), Poisonous snakes – Naja (Cobra),
Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper).
1332.Aves (birds) are the presence of feathers and most of them can fly
except flightless birds (e.g., Ostrich).
1333.In Avest the forelimbs are modified into wings.

1334.In Aves the hind limbs generally have scales and are modified for
walking, swimming or clasping the tree branches.
1335.In Aves skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of
the tail.
1336.In Aves endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones are
hollow with air cavities (pneumatic).
1337.The digestive tract of birds has additional chambers, the crop and
gizzard.
1338.In Aves, Heart is completely four chambered.
1339.In Aves, They are warm-blooded (homoiothermous).
1340.In Aves, Examples : Corvus (Crow), Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula
(Parrot), Struthio (Ostrich), Pavo (Peacock), Aptenodytes (Penguin),
Neophron (Vulture).
1341.Mammalia is the presence of milk producing glands (mammary
glands) by which the young ones are nourished.
1342.Mammalia have two pairs of limbs.
1343.The skin of mammals is unique in possessing hair.
1344.In Mammalia, External ears or pinnae are present. Teeth are present
in the jaw. Heart is four chambered. They are homoiothermous.
1345.In Mammalia, Examples:
Oviparous-Ornithorhynchus (Platypus);
Viviparous - Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying fox), Camelus
(Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Felis (Cat), Elephas
(Elephant), Equus (Horse), Delphinus (Common dolphin), Balaenoptera
(Blue whale), Panthera tigris (Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion).
1346.Primary root which grows inside the soil. It bears lateral roots of
several orders that are referred to as secondary, tertiary, etc. roots.
1347.The primary roots and its branches constitute the tap root system as
seen in the mustard plant.
1348.In monocotyledonous plants the primary root is short lived and is
replaced by a large number of roots.
1349.These primary roots originate from the base of the stem and
constitute the fibrous root system, as seen in the wheat plant.
1350.In some plants, like grass, Monstera and the banyan tree, roots arise
from parts of the plant other than the radicle and are called adventitious
roots.
1351.The main functions of the root system are absorption of water and
minerals from the soil, providing a proper anchorage to the plant parts,
storing reserve food material and synthesis of plant growth regulators.
1352.Different types of roots : (a) Tap (b) Fibrous (c) Adventitious.
1353.The root is covered at the apex by a thimble-like structure called the
root cap.
1354.Root cap protects the tender apex of the root as it makes its way
through the soil.
1355.Root cap is the region of meristematic activity.
1356.Epidermal cells form very fine and delicate, thread-like structures
called root hair.
1357.These root hairs absorb water and minerals from the soil. They are
modified for support, storage of food and respiration.
1358.Tap roots of carrot, turnip and adventitious roots of sweet potato, get
swollen and store food.
1359.A banyan tree are called prop roots.
1360.Maize and sugarcane are called stilt roots.
1361.Rhizophora growing in swampy areas, many roots come out of the
ground and grow vertically upwards. Such roots, called pneumatophores,
help to get oxygen for respiration.
1362.Modification of root for : (a) storage (b) respiration: pneumatophore
in Rhizophora.
1363.The Stem develops from the plumule of the embryo of a germinating
seed.
1364.The stem bears nodes and internodes.
1365.The region of the stem where leaves are born are called nodes while
internodes are the portions between two nodes.
1366.The stem bears buds, which may be terminal or axillary.
1367.Stem is generally green when young and later often become woody
and dark brown.
1368.The main function of the stem is spreading out branches bearing
leaves, flowers and fruits. It conducts water, minerals and
photosynthates.
1369.Some stems perform the function of storage of food, support,
protection and of vegetative propagation.
1370.Underground stems of potato, ginger, turmeric, zaminkand,
Colocasia are modified to store food in them.
1371.Stem tendrils which develop from axillary buds, are slender and
spirally coiled and help plants to climb such as in gourds (cucumber,
pumpkins, watermelon) and grapevines.
1372.Thorns are found in many plants such as Citrus, Bougainvillea.
1373.Some plants of arid regions modify their stems into flattened
(Opuntia), or fleshy cylindrical (Euphorbia) structures. They contain
chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis.
1374.Underground stems of some plants such as grass and strawberry, etc.
1375.In plants like mint and jasmine a slender lateral branch arises from
the base of the main axis and after growing aerially for some time arch
downwards to touch the ground.
1376.A lateral branch with short internodes and each node bearing a
rosette of leaves and a tuft of roots is found in aquatic plants like Pistia
and Eichhornia.
1377.In banana, pineapple and Chrysanthemum, the lateral branches
originate from the basal and underground portion of the main stem, grow
horizontally beneath the soil and then come out obliquely upward giving
rise to leafy shoots.
1378.The Leaf develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil.
1379.The axillary bud later develops into a branch.
1380.A typical leaf consists of three main parts: leaf base, petiole and
lamina.
1381.The leaf is attached to the stem by the leaf base and may bear two
lateral small leaf like structures called stipules.
1382.In monocotyledons, the leaf base expands into a sheath covering the
stem partially or wholly.
1383.In some leguminous plants the leaf base may become swollen, which
is called the pulvinus.
1384.The petiole help hold the blade to light.
1385.The lamina or the leaf blade is the green expanded part of the leaf
with veins and veinlets.
1386.Middle prominent vein, which is known as the midrib.
1387.Veins provide rigidity to the leaf blade and act as channels of
transport for water, minerals and food materials.
1388.The shape, margin, apex, surface and extent of incision of lamina
varies in different leaves.
1389.The arrangement of veins and veinlets in the lamina of leaf is termed
as venation.
1390.When the veinlets form a network, the venation is termed as
reticulate.
1391.When the veins run parallel to each other within a lamina, the
venation is termed as parallel.
1392.A leaf is said to be simple, when its lamina is entire or when incised,
the incisions do not touch the midrib.
1393.When the incision of the lamina reach up to the midrib breaking it
into a number of leaflets, the leaf is called compound.
1394.A bud is present in the axil of petiole in both simple and compound
leaves, but not in the axil of leaflets of the compound leaf.
1395.In a pinnately compound leaf a number of leaflets are present on a
common axis, rachis, which represents the midrib of the leaf as in neem.
1396.In opposite type, a pair of leaves arise at each node and lie opposite to
each other as in Calotropis and guava plants.
1397.If more than two leaves arise at a node and form a whorl, it is called
whorled, as in Alstonia.
1398.Leaves are often modified to perform functions other than
photosynthesis.
1399.Leaves are converted into tendrils for climbing as in peas or into
spines for defence as in cacti.
1400.The fleshy leaves of onion and garlic store food.
1401.In some plants such as Australian acacia, the leaves are small and
short-lived.
1402.The petioles in these plants expand, become green and synthesise
food.
1403.Leaves of certain insectivorous plants such as pitcher plant, venus
fly trap are also modified leaves.
1404.A flower is a modified shoot wherein the shoot apical meristem
changes to floral meristem.
1405.When a shoot tip transforms into a flower, it is always solitary.
1406.The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as
inflorescence.
1407.In racemose type of inflorescences the main axis continues to grow,
the flowers are borne laterally in an acropetal succession.
1408.In cymose type of inflorescence the main axis terminates in a flower,
hence is limited in growth.The flowers are borne in a basipetal order.
1409.The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms.
1410.A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged
successively on the swollen end of the stalk or pedicel, called thalamus or
receptacle.
1411.Flower are calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
1412.Calyx and corolla are accessory organs, while androecium and
gynoecium are reproductive organs.
1413.In some flowers like lily, the calyx and corolla are not distinct and are
termed as perianth.
1414.When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual.
1415.A flower having either only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.
1416.In symmetry, the flower may be actinomorphic (radial symmetry) or
zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry).
1417.When a flower can be divided into two equal radial halves in any
radial plane passing through the centre, it is said to be actinomorphic, e.g.,
mustard, datura, chilli.
1418.When it can be divided into two similar halves only in one particular
vertical plane, it is zygomorphic, e.g., pea, gulmohur, bean, Cassia.
1419.A flower is asymmetric (irregular) if it cannot be divided into two
similar halves by any vertical plane passing through the centre, as in
canna.
1420.A flower may be trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous when the
floral appendages are in multiples of 3, 4 or 5, respectively.
1421.Flowers with bracts-reduced leaf found at the base of the pedicel - are
called bracteate and those without bracts, ebracteate.
1422.Flowers are described as hypogynous, perigynous and epigynous.
1423.In the hypogynous flower the gynoecium occupies the highest
position while the other parts are situated below it. The ovary in such
flowers is said to be superior, e.g., mustard, china rose and brinjal.
1424.If gynoecium is situated in the centre and other parts of the flower
are located on the rim of the thalamus almost at the same level, it is called
perigynous. The ovary here is said to be half inferior, e.g., plum, rose and
peach.
1425.In epigynous flowers, the margin of thalamus grows upward
enclosing the ovary completely and getting fused with it, the other parts of
flowers arise above the ovary. Hence, the ovary is said to be inferior as in
flowers of guava and cucumber, and the ray florets of sunflower.
1426.Calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower and the members are
called sepals.
1427.Sepals are green, leaf like and protect the flower in the bud stage.
1428.The calyx may be gamosepalous (sepals united) or polysepalous
(sepals free).
1429.Corolla is composed of petals.
1430.Petals are usually brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination.
1431.Like calyx, corolla may also be gamopetalous (petals united) or
polypetalous (petals free).
1432.Corolla may be tubular, bell shaped, funnel-shaped or wheel-shaped.
1433.The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with
respect to the other members of the same whorl is known as aestivation.
1434.The main types of aestivation are valvate, twisted, imbricate and
vexillary.
1435.When sepals or petals in a whorl just touch one another at the
margin, without overlapping, as in Calotropis, it is said to be valvate.
1436.If one margin of the appendage overlaps that of the next one and so
on as in China rose, lady’s finger and cotton, it is called twisted.
1437.If the margins of sepals or petals overlap one another but not in any
particular direction as in Cassia and gulmohur, the aestivation is called
imbricate.
1438.In pea and bean flowers, there are five petals, the largest (standard)
overlaps the two lateral petals (wings) which in turn overlap the two
smallest anterior petals (keel); this type of aestivation is known as
vexillary or papilionaceous
1439.Androecium is composed of stamens.
1440.Each stamen which represents the male reproductive organ consists
of a stalk or a filament and an anther.
1441.Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two chambers, the
pollen-sacs.
1442.The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs.
1443.A sterile stamen is called staminode.
1444.When stamens are attached to the petals, they are epipetalous as in
brinjal, or epiphyllous when attached to the perianth as in the flowers of
lily.
1445.The stamens in a flower may either remain free (polyandrous) or
may be united in varying degrees.
1446.The stamens may be united into one bunch or one bundle
(monadelphous) as in China rose, or two bundles (diadelphous) as in pea,
or into more than two bundles (polyadelphous) as in citrus. There may be a
variation in the length of filaments within a flower, as in Salvia and
mustard.
1447.Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of the flower and is made
up of one or more carpels.
1448.A carpel consists of three parts namely stigma, style and ovary.
1449.Ovary is the enlarged basal part, on which lies the elongated tube, the
style.
1450.The stigma is usually at the tip of the style and is the receptive
surface for pollen grains.
1451.Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a flattened, cushion
like placenta.
1452.When more than one carpel is present, they may be free (as in lotus
and rose) and are called apocarpous.
1453.They are termed syncarpous when carpels are fused, as in mustard
and tomato.
1454.Ovules develop into seeds and the ovary matures into a fruit.
1455.The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as
placentation.
1456.The placentation are of different types namely, marginal, axile,
parietal, basal, central and free central.
1457.In marginal placentation the placenta forms a ridge along the ventral
suture of the ovary and ovules are borne on this ridge forming two rows,
as in pea.
1458.When the placenta is axial and the ovules are attached to it in a
multilocular ovary, the placentation is said to be axile, as in china rose,
tomato and lemon.
1459.In parietal placentation, the ovules develop on the inner wall of the
ovary or on peripheral part.
1460.Ovary is one-chambered but it becomes two chambered due to the
formation of the false septum, e.g., mustard and Argemone.
1461.When the ovules are borne on central axis and septa are absent.
1462.Dianthus and Primrose the placentation is called free central.
1463.In basal placentation, the placenta develops at the base of ovary and
a single ovule is attached to it, as in sunflower, marigold.
1464.The Fruit is a feature of the flowering plants. It is a mature or ripened
ovary, developed after fertilisation.
1465.If a fruit is formed without fertilisation of the ovary, it is called a
parthenocarpic fruit.
1466.Fruit consists of a wall or pericarp and seeds.
1467.The pericarp may be dry or fleshy.
1468.When pericarp is thick and fleshy, it is differentiated into the outer
epicarp, the middle mesocarp and the inner endocarp.
1469.In mango and coconut, the fruit is known as a drupe. They develop
from monocarpellary superior ovaries and are one seeded.
1470.In mango the pericarp is well differentiated into an outer thin
epicarp, a middle fleshy edible mesocarp and an inner stony hard
endocarp.
1471.In coconut which is also a drupe, the mesocarp is fibrous.
1472.Ovules develop into seeds.
1473.A seed is made up of a seed coat and an embryo.
1474.The embryo is made up of a radicle, an embryonal axis and one (as in
wheat, maize) or two cotyledons (as in gram and pea).
1475.The outermost covering of a seed is the seed coat.
1476.The seed coat has two layers, the outer testa and the inner tegmen.
1477.The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the developing
seeds were attached to the fruit.
1478.Hilum is a small pore called the micropyle.
1479.Within the seed coat is the embryo, consisting of an embryonal axis
and two cotyledons.
1480.The cotyledons are often fleshy and full of reserve food materials.
1481.Embryonal axis are present the radicle and plumule.
1482.In some seeds such as castor the endosperm formed as a result of
double fertilisation, is a food storing tissue and called endospermic seeds.
1483.In plants such as bean, gram and the pea, the endosperm is not
present in mature seeds and such seeds are called non endospermous.
1484.Monocotyledonous seeds are endospermic but some as in orchids are
non-endospermic.
1485.In the seeds of cereals such as maize the seed coat is membranous
and generally fused with the fruit wall.
1486.The endosperm is bulky and stores food.
1487.The outer covering of endosperm separates the embryo by a
proteinous layer called aleurone layer.

1488.The embryo is situated in a groove at one end of the endosperm. It

consists of one large and shield shaped cotyledon known as scutellum and
a short axis with a plumule and radicle.
1489.The plumule and radicle are enclosed in sheaths which are called
coleoptile and coleorhiza.
1490.Fabaceae: This family was earlier called Papilionoideae, a subfamily
of family Leguminosae.
Vegetative Characters
Trees, shrubs, herbs; root with root nodules
1.Stem: erect or climber.
2.Leaves: alternate, pinnately compound or simple; leaf base, pulvinate;
stipulate; venation reticulate.
Pisum sativum (pea) plant :
(a) Flowering twig
(b) Flower
(c) Petals
(d) Reproductive parts
(e) L.S.carpel
(f) Floral diagram

Floral characters
1.Inflorescence: racemose
2.Flower: bisexual, zygomorphic.
3.Calyx: sepals five, gamosepalous; valvate/imbricate aestivation.
4.Corolla: petals five, polypetalous, papilionaceous, consisting of a
posterior standard, two lateral wings, two anterior ones forming a keel
(enclosing stamens and pistil), vexillary aestivation.
5.Androecium: ten, diadelphous, anther dithecous.
6.Gynoecium: ovary superior, mono carpellary, unilocular with many
ovules, style single.
7.Fruit: legume; seed: one to many, non-endospermic.
Economic importance: Many plants belonging to the family are sources of
pulses (gram, arhar, sem, moong, soyabean; edible oil (soyabean,
groundnut); dye (Indigofera); fibres (sunhemp); fodder (Sesbania,
Trifolium), ornamentals (lupin, sweet pea); medicine (muliathi).
1491.Solanaceae: It is a large family, commonly called as the ‘potato
family’.
Vegetative Characters
Plants mostly herbs, shrubs and rarely small trees
1.Stem: herbaceous rarely woody, aerial; erect, cylindrical, branched, solid
or hollow, hairy or glabrous, underground stem in potato (Solanum
tuberosum)
2.Leaves: alternate, simple, rarely pinnately compound, exstipulate;
venation reticulate.
Solanum nigrum (makoi) plant :
(a) Flowering twig
(b) Flower
(c) L.S. of flower
(d) Stamens
(e) Carpel
(f) Floral diagram

Floral Characters
1.Inflorescence : Solitary, axillary or cymose as in Solanum
Flower: bisexual, actinomorphic
2.Calyx: sepals five, united, persistent, valvate aestivation
3.Corolla: petals five, united; valvate aestivation
4.Androecium: stamens five, epipetalous
5.Gynoecium: bicarpellary obligately placed, syncarpous; ovary superior,
bilocular, placenta swollen with many ovules, axile
6.Fruits: berry or capsule
7.Seeds: many, endospermous

Economic Importance: Many plants belonging to this family are a source of

food (tomato, brinjal, potato), spices (chilli); medicine (belladonna,
ashwagandha); fumigatory (tobacco); ornamentals (petunias).
1492.Liliaceae: Commonly called the ‘Lily family’ is a characteristic
representative of monocotyledonous plants.

Vegetative characters: Perennial herbs with underground bulbs/corms/

rhizomes
Leaves mostly basal, alternate, linear, exstipulate with parallel venation
Floral characters
1.Inflorescence: solitary / cymose; often umbellate clusters
2.Flower: bisexual; actinomorphic
Perianth tepal six, often united into tube; valvate aestivation Androecium:
stamen six, epitepalous
3.Gynoecium: tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular with
many ovules; axile placentation
4.Fruit: capsule, rarely berry
5.Seed: endospermous
Economic Importance: Many plants belonging to this family are good
ornamentals (tulip, Gloriosa), source of medicine (Aloe), vegetables
(Asparagus), and colchicine (Colchicum autumnale).
Allium cepa (onion) plant :
(a) Plant
(b) Inflorescence
(c) Flower
(d) Floral diagram
1493.Growth in plants is largely restricted to specialised regions of active
cell division called meristems.
1494.The meristems which occur at the tips of roots and shoots and
produce primary tissues are called apical meristems.
1495.During the formation of leaves and elongation of stem, some cells ‘left
behind’ from shoot apical meristem, constitute the axillary bud. Such buds
are present in the axils of leaves and are capable of forming a branch or a
flower.
1496.The meristem which occurs between mature tissues is known as
intercalary meristem. They occur in grasses and regenerate parts
removed by grazing herbivores.
1497.Both apical meristems and intercalary meristems are primary
meristems.
1498.The meristem that occurs in the mature regions of roots and shoots of
many plants, particularly those that produce woody axis and appear later
than primary meristem is called the secondary or lateral meristem. They
are cylindrical meristems.
1499.Fascicular vascular cambium, interfascicular cambium and cork
cambium are examples of lateral meristems. These are responsible for
producing the secondary tissues.
1500.Following divisions of cells in both primary as well as secondary
meristems, the newly formed cells become structurally and functionally
specialised and lose the ability to divide. Such cells are termed permanent
or mature cells and constitute the permanent tissues.
1501.During the formation of the primary plant body, specific regions of
the apical meristem produce dermal tissues, ground tissues and vascular
tissues.
1502.A simple tissue is made of only one type of cells.
1503The various simple tissues in plants are parenchyma, collenchyma
and sclerenchyma.
1504.The cells of the parenchyma are generally isodiametric. They may be
spherical, oval, round, polygonal or elongated in shape. Their walls are
thin and made up of cellulose. They may either be closely packed or have
small intercellular spaces.
1505.The parenchyma performs various functions like photosynthesis,
storage, secretion.
1506.The collenchyma occurs in layers below the epidermis in most
dicotyledonous plants.
1507.Collenchyma is found either as a homogeneous layer or in patches.
1508.Collenchyma consists of cells which are much thickened at the
corners due to a deposition of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
1509.Collenchymatous cells may be oval, spherical or polygonal and often
contain chloroplasts. They contain chloroplasts. Intercellular spaces are
absent. They provide mechanical support to the growing parts of the plant
such as young stem and petiole of a leaf.
1510.Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow cells with thick and lignified
cell walls having a few or numerous pits.
1511.Sclerenchyma are usually dead and without protoplasts.
1512.Sclerenchyma may be either fibres or sclereids.
1513.The sclereids are spherical, oval or cylindrical, highly thickened dead
cells with very narrow cavities (lumen).
1514.Sclereids are commonly found in the fruit walls of nuts; pulp of fruits
like guava, pear and sapota; seed coats of legumes and leaves of tea.
1515.Xylem functions as a conducting tissue for water and minerals from
roots to the stem and leaves.
1516.Tracheids are elongated or tube like cells with thick and lignified
walls and tapering ends.
1517.In flowering plants, tracheids and vessels are the main water
transporting elements.
1518.Vessel is a long cylindrical tube-like structure made up of many cells
called vessel members, each with lignified walls and a large central cavity.
1519.The vessel cells are also devoid of protoplasm.
1520.The presence of vessels is a characteristic feature of angiosperms.
1521.Xylem fibres have highly thickened walls and obliterated central
lumens. These may either be septate or aseptate.
1522.Xylem parenchyma cells are living and thin-walled, and their cell
walls are made up of cellulose.
1523Xylem parenchyma store food materials in the form of starch or fat,
and other substances like tannins.
1524.The radial conduction of water takes place by the ray
parenchymatous cells.
1525.Primary xylem is of two types protoxylem and metaxylem.
1526.The first formed primary xylem elements are called protoxylem and
1527.Later formed primary xylem is called metaxylem.
1528.Protoxylem lies towards the centre (pith) and the metaxylem lies
towards the periphery of the organ. This type of primary xylem is called
endarch.
1529.In roots, the protoxylem lies towards periphery and metaxylem lies
towards the centre. Such arrangement of primary xylem is called exarch.
1530.Phloem transports food from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
1531.Phloem in angiosperms is composed of sieve tube elements,
companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
1532.Gymnosperms have albuminous cells and sieve cells.
1533.Sieve tube elements are also long, tube-like structures, arranged
longitudinally and are associated with the companion cells.
1534.A mature sieve element possesses a peripheral cytoplasm and a large
vacuole but lacks a nucleus.
1535.The functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of
companion cells.
1536.The companion cells are specialised parenchymatous cells, which are
closely associated with sieve tube elements.
1537.The companion cells help in maintaining the pressure gradient in the
sieve tubes.
1538.Phloem parenchyma is made up of elongated, tapering cylindrical
cells which have dense cytoplasm and nucleus.
1539.The cell wall is composed of cellulose.
1540.The phloem parenchyma stores food material and other substances
like resins, latex and mucilage.
1541.Phloem parenchyma is absent in most monocotyledons.
1542.Phloem fibres (bast fibres) are made up of sclerenchymatous cells.
1543.Phloem fibres are generally absent in the primary phloem but are
found in the secondary phloem.
1544.Phloem fibres are much elongated, unbranched and have pointed,
needle like apices.
1545.Phloem fibres of jute, flax and hemp are used commercially.
1546.The first formed primary phloem consists of narrow sieve tubes and
is referred to as protophloem.
1547.Later formed phloem has bigger sieve tubes and is referred to as
metaphloem.
1548.The epidermal tissue system forms the outermost covering of the
whole plant body and comprises epidermal cells, stomata and the
epidermal appendages – the trichomes and hairs.
1549.The epidermis is the outermost layer of the primary plant body.
1550.Epidermis is made up of elongated, compactly arranged cells, which
form a continuous layer.
1551.Epidermis is usually single layered.
1552.Epidermal cells are parenchymatous with a small amount of
cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large vacuole.
1553.The outside of the epidermis is often covered with a waxy thick layer
called the cuticle which prevents the loss of water.
1554.Cuticle is absent in roots. Stomata are structures present in the
epidermis of leaves.
1555.Stomata regulate the process of transpiration and gaseous exchange.
1556.Each stoma is composed of two bean shaped cells known as guard
cells which enclose stomatal pore. In grasses, the guard cells are dumb-bell
shaped.
1557.The outer walls of guard cells (away from the stomatal pore) are thin
and the inner walls (towards the stomatal pore) are highly thickened.
1558.The guard cells possess chloroplasts and regulate the opening and
closing of stomata.
1559.A few epidermal cells, in the vicinity of the guard cells become
specialised in their shape and size and are known as subsidiary cells.
1560.The stomatal aperture, guard cells and the surrounding subsidiary
cells are together called stomatal apparatus.
1561.The root hairs are unicellular elongations of the epidermal cells and
help absorb water and minerals from the soil.
1562.On the stem the epidermal hairs are called trichomes.
1563.The trichomes help in preventing water loss due to transpiration.
1564.Epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue.
1565.Ground tissue consists of simple tissues such as parenchyma,
collenchyma and sclerenchyma.

1566.Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex, pericycle, pith

and medullary rays, in the primary stems and roots.
1567.In leaves, the ground tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast
containing cells and is called mesophyll.
1568.The vascular system consists of complex tissues, the phloem and the
xylem.
1569.The xylem and phloem together constitute vascular bundles.
1570.Cambium is present between phloem and xylem.
1571.Such vascular bundles because of the presence of cambium possess
the ability to form secondary xylem and phloem tissues, and hence are
called open vascular bundles.
1572.In the monocotyledons, the vascular bundles have no cambium
present in them. Hence, since they do not form secondary tissues they are
referred to as closed.
1573.When xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are arranged in an
alternate manner along the different radii, the arrangement is called
radial such as in roots.
1574.In conjoint type of vascular bundles, the xylem and phloem are jointly
situated along the same radius of vascular bundles. Such vascular bundles
are common in stems and leaves.
1575.The conjoint vascular bundles usually have the phloem located only
on the outer side of xylem.
1576.The outermost layer is epiblema.
1577.Many of the cells of epiblema protrude in the form of unicellular root
hairs.
1578.The cortex consists of several layers of thin-walled parenchyma cells
with intercellular spaces.
1579.The innermost layer of the cortex is called endodermis. It comprises a
single layer of barrel-shaped cells without any intercellular spaces.
1580.The tangential as well as radial walls of the endodermal cells have a
deposition of water-impermeable, waxy material suberin in the form of
casparian strips.

1581.A few layers of thick-walled parenchymatous cells referred to as

pericycle.
1582.Lateral roots and vascular cambium during secondary growth takes
place in these cells.
1583.The parenchymatous cells which lie between the xylem and phloem
are called conjunctive tissue.
1584.There are usually two to four xylem and phloem patches.
1585.Later, a cambium ring develops between the xylem and phloem.
1586.All tissues on the inner side of the endodermis such as pericycle,
vascular bundles and pith constitute the stele.
1587.Monocotyledonous Root has epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle,
vascular bundles and pith.
1588.As compared to the dicot root which have fewer xylem bundles, there
are usually more than six (polyarch) xylem bundles in the monocot root.
1589.Monocotyledonous roots do not undergo any secondary growth.
1590.Dicotyledonous stem shows that the epidermis is the outermost
protective layer of the stem.
1591.The cells arranged in multiple layers between epidermis and
pericycle constitute the cortex.
1592.The outer hypodermis, consists of a few layers of collenchymatous
cells just below the epidermis.
1593.Cortical layers below hypodermis consists of rounded thin walled
parenchymatous cells with conspicuous intercellular spaces.
1594.The innermost layer of the cortex is called the endodermis.
1595.The cells of the endodermis are rich in starch grains and the layer is
also referred to as the starch sheath.
1596.Pericycle is present on the inner side of the endodermis.
1597.Above the phloem in the form of semilunar patches of sclerenchyma.
1598.Parenchymatous cells, which constitute medullary rays.
1599.A large number of vascular bundles are arranged in a ring ; the ‘ring’
arrangement of vascular bundles is a characteristic of dicot stem.
1600.Each vascular bundle is conjoint, open, and with endarch protoxylem.
1601.A large number of rounded, parenchymatous cells with large
intercellular spaces which occupy the central portion of the stem
constitute the pith.
1602.Monocotyledonous Stem: The monocot stem has a sclerenchymatous
hypodermis, a large number of scattered vascular bundles, each
surrounded by a sclerenchymatous bundle sheath, and a large,
conspicuous parenchymatous ground tissue.
1603.The phloem parenchyma is absent, and water-containing cavities are
present within the vascular bundles.
1604.Dorsiventral leaf through the lamina shows three main parts,
namely, epidermis, mesophyll and vascular system.
1605.The epidermis which covers both the upper surface (adaxial
epidermis) and lower surface (abaxial epidermis) of the leaf has a
conspicuous cuticle.
1606.The abaxial epidermis generally bears more stomata than the
adaxial epidermis.
1607.The tissue between the upper and the lower epidermis is called the
mesophyll.
1608.Mesophyll, which possesses chloroplasts and carry out
photosynthesis, is made up of parenchyma. It has two types of cells the
palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma.
1609.The axially placed palisade parenchyma is made up of elongated
cells, which are arranged vertically and parallel to each other.
1610.The oval or round and loosely arranged spongy parenchyma is
situated below the palisade cells and extends to the lower epidermis.
1611.Vascular system includes vascular bundles, which can be seen in the
veins and the midrib.
1612.The veins vary in thickness in the reticulate venation of the dicot
leaves.
1613.The vascular bundles are surrounded by a layer of thick walled
bundle sheath cells.
1614.Isobilateral Leaf, the stomata are present on both the surfaces of the
epidermis.
1615.Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy
parenchyma.
1616.In grasses, certain adaxial epidermal cells along the veins modify
themselves into large, empty, colourless cells. These are called bulliform
cells.
1617.When the bulliform cells in the leaves have absorbed water and are
turgid, the leaf surface is exposed. When they are flaccid due to water
stress, they make the leaves curl inwards to minimise water loss.
1618.The growth of the roots and stems in length with the help of apical
meristem is called the primary growth.
1619.Apart from primary growth most dicotyledonous plants exhibit an
increase in girth. This increase is called the secondary growth.
1620.The tissues involved in secondary growth are the two lateral
meristems: vascular cambium and cork cambium.
1621.The meristematic layer that is responsible for cutting off vascular
tissues, xylem and phloem is called vascular cambium.
1622.Vascular cambium is present in patches as a single layer between the
xylem and phloem. Later it forms a complete ring.
1623.Cambium present between primary xylem and primary phloem is the
intrafascicular cambium.
1624.The cells of medullary rays, adjoining these intrafascicular cambium
become meristematic and form the interfascicular cambium. Thus, a
continuous ring of cambium is formed.
1625.The cambium is generally more active on the inner side than on the
outer.
1626.Secondary xylem produced is more than secondary phloem and soon
forms a compact mass.
1627.The primary and secondary phloems get gradually crushed due to the
continued formation and accumulation of secondary xylem.
1628.Cambium forms a narrow band of parenchyma, which passes
through the secondary xylem and the secondary phloem in the radial
direction. These are the secondary medullary rays.
1629.The wood formed during this season is called spring wood or early
wood.
1630.In winter, the cambium is less active and forms fewer xylary
elements that have narrow vessels, and this wood is called autumn wood
or late wood.
1631.The spring wood is lighter in colour and has a lower density whereas
the autumn wood is darker and has a higher density.
1632.Concentric rings, constitute an annual ring.
1633.Annual rings seen in a cut stem give an estimate of the age of the tree.
1634.Secondary xylem is dark brown due to deposition of organic
compounds like tannins, resins, oils, gums, aromatic substances and
essential oils in the central or innermost layers of the stem. This region
comprises dead elements with highly lignified walls and is called
heartwood.
1635.The heartwood does not conduct water.
1636.The peripheral region of the secondary xylem, is lighter in colour and
is known as the sapwood. It is involved in the conduction of water and
minerals from root to leaf.
1637.Meristematic tissue called cork cambium or phellogen develops,
usually in the cortex region.
1638.Phellogen is a couple of layers thick. It is made of narrow, thin-walled
and nearly rectangular cells.
1639.The cork is impervious to water due to suberin deposition in the cell
wall.
1640.The cells of secondary cortex are parenchymatous.
1641.Phellogen, phellem, and phelloderm are collectively known as
periderm.
1642.Bark is a non-technical term that refers to all tissues exterior to the
vascular cambium, therefore including secondary phloem.
1643.Bark refers to a number of tissue types, viz., periderm and secondary
phloem.
1644.Bark that is formed early in the season is called early or soft bark.
Towards the end of the season, late or hard bark is formed.
1645.Parenchymatous cells soon rupture the epidermis, forming a lens
shaped openings called lenticels.
1646.Lenticels permit the exchange of gases between the outer atmosphere
and the internal tissue of the stem. These occur in most woody trees.
1647.In the dicot root, the vascular cambium is completely secondary in
origin.
1648.Vacular cambium originates from the tissue located just below the
phloem bundles, a portion of pericycle tissue, above the protoxylem
forming a complete and continuous wavy ring, which later becomes
circular Secondary growth also occurs in stems and roots of
gymnosperms.
1649.Secondary growth does not occur in monocotyledons.
1650.Animal tissues are classified into four types : (i) Epithelial, (ii)
Connective, (iii) Muscular and (iv) Neural.
1651.Epithelial Tissue has a free surface, which faces either a body fluid or
the outside environment and thus provides a covering or lining for some
part of the body. The cells are compactly packed with little intercellular
matrix.
1652.There are two types of epithelial tissues namely simple epithelium
and compound epithelium.
1653.Simple epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells and functions
as a lining for body cavities, ducts, and tubes.
1654.The compound epithelium consists of two or more cell layers and has
protective function as it does in our skin.
1655.Simple epithelium is further divided into three types. (i) Squamous,
(ii) Cuboidal, (iii) Columnar.
1656.The squamous epithelium is made of a single thin layer of flattened
cells with irregular boundaries.
1657.Squamous epithelium are found in the walls of blood vessels and air
sacs of the lungs.
1658.The cuboidal epithelium is composed of a single layer of cube-like
cells.
1659.Cuboidal epithelium is commonly found in ducts of glands and
tubular parts of nephrons in the kidneys and its main functions are
secretion and absorption.
1660.The epithelium of proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) of nephron in the
kidney has microvilli.
1661.The columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of tall and
slender cells.
1662.Columnar epithelium are found in the lining of the stomach and
intestine and help in secretion and absorption.
1663.If the columnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia on their free surface they
are called ciliated epithelium.
1664.In ciliated epithelium,their function is to move particles or mucus in a
specific direction over the epithelium.
1665.Ciliated epithelium are mainly present in the inner surface of hollow
organs like bronchioles and fallopian tubes.
1666.Columnar or cuboidal cells get specialised for secretion and are
called glandular epithelium.
1667.Unicellular consisting of isolated glandular cells (goblet cells of the
alimentary canal).
1668.Multicellular consisting of a cluster of cells (salivary gland).
1669.Exocrine glands secrete mucus, saliva, earwax, oil, milk, digestive
enzymes and other cell products.
1670.Endocrine glands do not have ducts. Their products called hormones
are secreted directly into the fluid bathing the gland.
1671.Compound epithelium is made of more than one layer (multi-layered)
of cells.
1672.Compound epithelium cover the dry surface of the skin, the moist
surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands
and of pancreatic ducts.
1673.Tight junctions help to stop substances from leaking across a tissue.
1674.Adherens junctions perform cementing to keep neighbouring cells
together.
1675.Gap junctions facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by
connecting the cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid transfer of ions,
small molecules and sometimes big molecules.

1676.Connective Tissue range from soft connective tissues to specialised

types, which include cartilage, bone, adipose, and blood.
1677.In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibres of
structural proteins called collagen or elastin. These cells also secrete
modified polysaccharides, which accumulate between cells and fibres and
act as matrix (ground substance).
1678.Connective tissues are classified into three types: (i) Loose connective
tissue, (ii) Dense connective tissue and (iii) Specialised connective tissue.
1679.Loose connective tissue has cells and fibres loosely arranged in a
semi-fluid ground substance.
1680.Areolar tissue present beneath the skin.
1682.Areolar contains fibroblasts (cells that produce and secrete fibres),
macrophages and mast cells.
1683.Adipose tissue is another type of loose connective tissue located
mainly beneath the skin. This tissue are specialised to store fats.
1684.Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed in the dense connective
tissues.
1685.Orientation of fibres show a regular or irregular pattern and are
called dense regular and dense irregular tissues.
1686.In the dense regular connective tissues, the collagen fibres are
present in rows between many parallel bundles of fibres.
1687.Tendons, which attach skeletal muscles to bones and ligaments which
attach one bone to another are examples of this tissue.
1688.Dense irregular connective tissue has fibroblasts and many fibres
(mostly collagen) that are oriented differently. This tissue is present in the
skin.
1689.Cartilage,bones and blood are various types of specialised connective
tissues.
1690.Cartilage is solid and pliable and resists compression.
1691.Cells of this tissue (chondrocytes) are enclosed in small cavities
within the matrix secreted by them.
1692.Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints, between
adjacent bones of the vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.
1693.Bones have a hard and non-pliable ground substance rich in calcium
salts and collagen fibres.
1694.The bone cells (osteocytes) are present in the spaces called lacunae.
1695.Limb bones, such as the long bones of the legs, serve weight-bearing
functions.
1696.The bone marrow in some bones is the site of production of blood
cells.
1697.Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing plasma, red blood cells
(RBC), white blood cells (WBC) and platelets.
1698.Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical fibres arranged in
parallel arrays.
1699.Cylindrical fibres are composed of numerous fine fibrils, called
myofibrils.
1700.Muscles play an active role in all the movements of the body.
1701.Muscles are of three types, skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
1702.Skeletal muscle tissue is closely attached to skeletal bones.
1703.In a typical muscle such as the biceps, striated (striped) skeletal
muscle fibres are bundled together in a parallel fashion.
1704.A sheath of tough connective tissue encloses several bundles of
muscle fibres.
1705.Smooth muscle fibres taper at both ends (fusiform) and do not show
striations.
1706.The wall of internal organs such as the blood vessels, stomach and
intestine contains this type of muscle tissue.
1707.Smooth muscles are ‘involuntary’ as their functioning cannot be
directly controlled.
1708.Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile tissue present only in the heart.
1709.Neural tissue exerts the greatest control over the body’s
responsiveness to changing conditions.
1710.Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells.
1711.The neuroglial cell which constitute the rest of the neural system
protect and support neurons.

1712.Neuroglia make up more than one half the volume of neural tissue in
our body.
1713.Earthworm is a reddish brown terrestrial invertebrate that inhabits
the upper layer of the moist soil.
1714.Earthworm live in burrows made by boring and swallowing the soil.
1715.Earthworm can be traced by their faecal deposits known as worm
castings.
1716.The common Indian earthworms are Pheretima and Lumbricus.
1717.Earthworms have long cylindrical body.
1718.In Earthworm the dorsal surface of the body is marked by a dark
median mid dorsal line (dorsal blood vessel) along the longitudinal axis of
the body.
1719.In Earthworm the ventral surface is distinguished by the presence of
genital openings (pores).
1720.In Earthworm anterior end consists of the mouth and the
prostomium, a lobe which serves as a covering for the mouth.
1721.Periosteum (buccal segment) which contains the mouth.
1722.In Earthworm, Segments are covered by a prominent dark band of
glandular tissue called clitellum.
1723.In Earthworm the body is divisible into three prominent regions
preclitellar, clitellar and postclitellar segments.
1724.In Earthworm numerous minute pores called nephridiopores open on
the surface of the body.
1725.The body wall of the earthworm is covered externally by a thin non
cellular cuticle below which is the epidermis two muscle layers (circular
and longitudinal) and an innermost coelomic epithelium.
1726.The epidermis is made up of a single layer of columnar epithelial cells
which contain secretory gland cells.
1727.In Earthworm the alimentary canal is a straight tube.
1728.In Earthworm a terminal mouth opens into the buccal cavity which
leads into muscular pharynx.
1729.A small narrow tube, oesophagus , continues into a muscular gizzard.
It helps in grinding the soil particles and decaying leaves, etc.
1730.The food of the earthworm is decaying leaves and organic matter
mixed with soil.
1731.In Earthworm calciferous glands, present in the stomach, neutralise
the humic acid present in humus.
1732.In earthworm presence of internal median fold of dorsal wall called
typhlosole.
1733.The alimentary canal opens to the exterior by a small rounded
aperture called anus.
1734.The ingested organic rich soil passes through the digestive tract
where digestive enzymes break down complex food into smaller
absorbable units.
1735.Pheretima exhibits a closed type of blood vascular system, consisting
of blood vessels, capillaries and heart.
1736.In earthworm smaller blood vessels supply the gut, nerve cord, and
the body wall. Blood glands are present. They produce blood cells and
haemoglobin which is dissolved in blood plasma.
1737.In earthworm blood cells are phagocytic in nature. Respiratory
exchange occurs through moist body surface into their bloodstream.
1738.The excretory organs occur as segmentally arranged coiled tubules
called nephridia (nephridium).
1739.Septal nephridia present on both sides of intersegmental septa of
segment to the last that open into intestine.
1740.Integumentary nephridia attached to the lining of the body wall of
segment to the last that open on the body surface.
1741.In earthworm pharyngeal nephridia present.
1742.Nervous system is represented by ganglia arranged segment wise on
the ventral paired nerve cord.
1743.The nerve cord in the anterior region bifurcates laterally encircling
the pharynx and joins the cerebral ganglia dorsally to form a nerve ring.
1744.In earthworm sensory system does not have eyes but does possess
light and touch sensitive organs (receptor cells).
1745.Worms have specialised chemoreceptors (taste receptors) which
react to chemical stimuli.
1746.Earthworm is hermaphrodite (bisexual) testes and ovaries are
present in the same individual.
1747.In earthworm two pairs of accessory glands are present.
1748.Four pairs of spermathecae are located.
1749.In earthworm receive and store spermatozoa during copulation.
1750.Ovarian funnels are present.
1751.In earthworm sperm occurs between two worms during mating.
1752.They mate juxtaposing opposite gonadal openings exchanging
packets of sperm called spermatophores.
1753.In earthworm mature sperm and egg cells and nutritive fluid are
deposited in cocoons produced by the gland cells of clitellum.
1754.In earthworm fertilisation and development occur within the cocoons
which are deposited in soil.
1755.In earthworm the ova (eggs) are fertilised by the sperm cells within
the cocoon which then slips off the worm and is deposited in or on the soil.
1756.Development of earthworms is direct,there is no larva formed.
1757.Earthworms are known as ‘friends of farmers’ because they make
burrows in the soil and make it porous which helps in respiration and
penetration of the developing plant roots.
1758.The process of increasing fertility of soil by earthworms is called
vermicomposting. They are also used as bait in game fishing.
1759.Cockroaches are brown or black bodied animals that are included in
class Insecta of the Phylum Arthropoda.
1760.Bright yellow, red and green coloured cockroaches have also been
reported in tropical regions.
1761.In cockroaches their size ranges from ¼ inches to 3 inches (0.6-7.6 cm)
and have long antenna, legs and flat extension of the upper body wall that
conceals head.
1762.Cockroaches are nocturnal omnivores that live in damp places
throughout the world.
1763.Cockroaches,Periplaneta americana are about 34-53 mm long.
1764.The body of the cockroach is segmented and divisible into three
distinct regions head, thorax and abdomen.
1765.The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton (brown in
colour).
1766.In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites
(tergites dorsally and sternites ventrally) that are joined to each other by
a thin and flexible articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).
1767.Head is triangular in shape and lies anteriorly at right angles to the
longitudinal body axis.
1768.In cockroaches,It is formed by the fusion of six segments and shows
great mobility in all directions due to flexible neck.
1769.In cockroaches the head capsule bears a pair of compound eyes.
1770.A pair of thread like antennae arise from membranous sockets lying
in front of eyes.
1771.Antennae have sensory receptors that help in monitoring the
environment.
1772.Anterior end of the head bears appendages forming biting and
chewing type of mouthparts.
1773.The mouthparts consisting of a labrum (upper lip), a pair of
mandibles, a pair of maxillae and labium (lower lip).
1774.A median flexible lobe, acting as tongue (hypopharynx), lies within
the cavity enclosed by the mouthparts.
1775.Thorax consists of three parts prothorax, mesothorax and
metathorax.
1776.The head is connected with thorax by a short extension of the
prothorax known as the neck.
1777.The first pair of wings arises from mesothorax and the second pair
from metathorax.
1778.Forewings (mesothoracic) called tegmina are opaque dark and
leathery and cover the hind wings when at rest.
1779.The hind wings are transparent, membranous and are used in flight.
1780.In cockroaches sterna forms a brood or genital pouch whose anterior
part contains female gonopore, spermathecal pores and collateral glands.
1781.In males, genital pouch or chamber lies at the hind end of abdomen
bounded dorsally terga and ventrally sternum.
1782.It contains dorsal anus, ventral male genital pore and gonapophysis.
1783.Threadlike anal styles which are absent in females.
1784.A pair of jointed filamentous structures called anal cerci.
1785.In cockroaches, the alimentary canal present in the body cavity is
divided into three regions: foregut, midgut and hindgut.
1786.The mouth opens into a short tubular pharynx, leading to a narrow
tubular passage called oesophagus.
1787.In cockroaches crop used for storing of food.
1788.The crop is followed by gizzard or proventriculus.
1789.In cockroaches it has an outer layer of thick circular muscles and
thick inner cuticle forming six highly chitinous plates called teeth.
1790.Gizzard helps in grinding the food particles.
1791.A ring of blind tubules called hepatic or gastric caeca is present at the
junction of foregut and midgut which secrete digestive juice.
1792.Midgut and hindgut is present another ring of yellow coloured thin
filamentous Malpighian tubules.
1793.They help in removal of excretory products from haemolymph.
1794.The hindgut is broader than midgut and is differentiated into ileum,
colon and rectum. The rectum opens out through anus.
1795.Blood vascular system of cockroach is an open type.
1796.Blood vessels are poorly developed and open into space (haemocoel).
1797.Visceral organs located in the haemocoel are bathed in blood
(hemolymph).
1798.The hemolymph is composed of colourless plasma and haemocytes.
1799.Heart of cockroach consists of elongated muscular tube lying along
mid dorsal line of thorax and abdomen.
1800.Blood from sinuses enter heart through ostia and is pumped
anteriorly to sinuses again.
1801.The respiratory system consists of a network of trachea that open
through pairs of small holes called spiracles present on the lateral side of
the body.
1802.Thin branching tubes (tracheal tubes subdivided into tracheoles)
carry oxygen from the air to all the parts.
1803.The opening of the spiracles is regulated by the sphincters.
1804.Exchange of gases takes place at the tracheoles by diffusion.
1805.Excretion is performed by Malpighian tubules.
1806.Each tubule is lined by glandular and ciliated cells. They absorb
nitrogenous waste products and convert them into uric acid which is
excreted out through the hindgut. Therefore, this insect is called uricotelic.
1807.Fat body, nephrocytes and urecose glands also help in excretion.
1808.In cockroaches three ganglia lie in the thorax, and six in the
abdomen.
1809.Brain is represented by supra-oesophageal ganglion which supplies
nerves to antennae and compound eyes.
1810.In cockroach, the sense organs are antennae, eyes, maxillary palps,
labial palps, anal cerci, etc.
1811.The compound eyes are situated at the dorsal surface of the head.
1812.Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia (sing.:
ommatidium).
1813.Ommatidia, a cockroach can receive several images of an object. This
kind of vision is known as mosaic vision with more sensitivity but less
resolution, being common during night (hence called nocturnal vision).
1814.Cockroaches are dioecious.
1815.From each testis arises a thin vas deferens, which opens into
ejaculatory duct through seminal vesicle.
1816.The ejaculatory duct opens into male gonopore situated ventral to
anus.
1817.A mushroom shaped gland is present in abdominal segments which
functions as an accessory reproductive glands.
1818.The external genitalia are represented by male gonapophysis or
phallomere (chitinous asymmetrical structures, surrounding the male
gonopore).
1819.The sperms are stored in the seminal vesicles and are glued together
in the form of bundles called spermatophores.
1820.The female reproductive system consists of two large ovaries.
1821.Each ovary is formed of a group of eight ovarian tubules or ovarioles,
containing a chain of developing ova.
1822.Oviducts of each ovary unite into a single median oviduct (also called
vagina) which opens into the genital chamber.
1823.A pair of spermatheca is present which opens into the genital
chamber.
1824.Sperms are transferred through spermatophores.
1825.Their fertilised eggs are encased in capsules called ootheca.
1826.Ootheca is a dark reddish to blackish brown capsule, about 3/8" (8
mm) long.
1827.The development of americana is paurometabolous, meaning there is
development through nymphal stage.
1828.Frogs can live both on land and in freshwater and belong to the class
Amphibia of phylum Chordata.
1829.The most common species of frog found in India is Rana tigrina.
1830.Frog do not have constant body temperature. Such animals are called
cold blooded or poikilotherms.
1831.Frog have the ability to change the colour to hide them from their
enemies (camouflage). This protective coloration is called mimicry.
1832.During this period they take shelter in deep burrows to protect them
from extreme heat and cold. This is known as summer sleep (aestivation)
and winter sleep (hibernation) respectively.
1833.The skin is smooth and slippery due to the presence of mucus.
1834The colour of dorsal side of body is generally olive green with dark
irregular spots. On the ventral side the skin is uniformly pale yellow.
1835.Body of a frog is divisible into head and trunk . A neck and tail are
absent. Above the mouth, a pair of nostrils is present.
1836.In frog eyes are bulged and covered by a nictitating membrane that
protects them while in water.
1837.Tympanum (ear) receives sound signals.
1838.The forelimbs and hind limbs help in swimming, walking, leaping and
burrowing.
1839.The hind limbs end in five digits and they are larger and more
muscular than forelimbs that end in four digits.
1840.Feet have webbed digits that help in swimming.
1841.Frogs exhibit sexual dimorphism.
1842.Male frogs can be distinguished by the presence of sound producing
vocal sacs and also a copulatory pad on the first digit of the fore limbs
which are absent in female frogs.
1843.The alimentary canal is short because frogs are carnivores.
1844.The mouth opens into the buccal cavity that leads to the oesophagus
through pharynx.
1845.Oesophagus is a short tube that opens into the stomach which in turn
continues as the intestine, rectum and finally opens outside by the cloaca.
1846.Liver secretes bile that is stored in the gallbladder.
1847.Pancreas, a digestive gland produces pancreatic juice containing
digestive enzymes.
1848.Food is captured by the bilobed tongue.
1849.Digestion of food takes place by the action of HCl and gastric juices
secreted from the walls of the stomach.
1850.Partially digested food called chyme is passed from the stomach to
the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum.
1851.The duodenum receives bile from the gallbladder and pancreatic
juices from the pancreas through a common bile duct.
1852.Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic juices digest carbohydrates and
proteins.
1853.Final digestion takes place in the intestine.
1854.Digested food is absorbed by the numerous finger-like folds in the
inner wall of intestine called villi and microvilli.
1855.The undigested solid waste moves into the rectum and passes out
through the cloaca.
1856.In water, skin acts as aquatic respiratory organ (cutaneous
respiration).
1857.Dissolved oxygen in the water is exchanged through the skin by
diffusion.
1858.On land, the buccal cavity, skin and lungs act as the respiratory
organs.
1859.The respiration by lungs is called pulmonary respiration.
1860.The lungs are a pair of elongated, pink coloured sac-like structures
present in the upper part of the trunk region (thorax).
1861.Air enters through the nostrils into the buccal cavity and then to the
lungs.
1862.During aestivation and hibernation gaseous exchange takes place
through skin.
1863.The vascular system of frog is well-developed closed type.
1864.Frogs have a lymphatic system also.
1865.The blood vascular system involves the heart, blood vessels and
blood.
1866.The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph channels and lymph
nodes.
1867.Heart is a muscular structure situated in the upper part of the body
cavity.
1868.Heart has three chambers, two atria and one ventricle and is covered
by a membrane called the pericardium.
1869.A triangular structure called sinus venosus joins the right atrium. It
receives blood through the major veins called the vena cava.
1870.The ventricle opens into a saclike conus arteriosus on the ventral side
of the heart.
1871.The blood from the heart is carried to all parts of the body by the
arteries (arterial system).
1872.The veins collect blood from different parts of the body to the heart
and form the venous system.
1873.Special venous connection between liver and intestine as well as the
kidney and lower parts of the body are present in frogs.
1874.The former is called hepatic portal system and the latter is called
renal portal system.
1875.The blood is composed of plasma and cells. The blood cells are RBC
(red blood cells) or erythrocytes, WBC (white blood cells) or leukocytes and
platelets.
1876.RBCs are nucleated and contain red coloured pigment namely
haemoglobin.
1877.The circulation of blood is achieved by the pumping action of the
muscular heart.
1878.The excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters, cloaca
and urinary bladder.
1879.Each kidney is composed of several structural and functional units
called uriniferous tubules of nephrons.
1880.Two ureters emerge from the kidneys in the male frogs.
1881.The ureters act as urinogenital duct which opens into the cloaca.
1882.The thin-walled urinary bladder is present ventral to the rectum
which also opens in the cloaca.
1883.The frog excretes urea and thus is a ureotelic animal.
1884.Excretory wastes are carried by the blood into the kidney where it is
separated and excreted.
1885.Frog includes both neural system and endocrine glands.
1886.Hormones which are secreted by the endocrine glands.
1887.The endocrine glands found in frog are pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, thymus, pineal body, pancreatic islets, adrenals and gonads.
1888.The nervous system is organised into a central nervous system (brain
and spinal cord), a peripheral nervous system (cranial and spinal nerves)
and an autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic).
1889.There are ten pairs of cranial nerves arising from the brain.
1890.Brain is enclosed in a bony structure called brain box (cranium).
Cranium is made up of 8 bones.
1891.The brain is divided into fore-brain, midbrain and hind-brain.
1892.Forebrain includes olfactory lobes, paired cerebral hemispheres and
unpaired diencephalon.
1893.The midbrain is characterised by a pair of optic lobes.
1894.Hind brain consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
1895.Frog has different types of sense organs, namely organs of touch
(sensory papillae), taste (taste buds), smell (nasal epithelium), vision
(eyes) and hearing (tympanum with internal ears).
1896.Eyes in a frog are a pair of spherical structures situated in the orbit
in skull. These are simple eyes (possessing only one unit).
1897.External ear is absent in frogs and only tympanum can be seen
externally. The ear is an organ of hearing as well as balancing
(equilibrium).
1898.Male reproductive organs consist of a pair of yellowish ovoid testes,
which are found adhered to the upper part of kidneys by a double fold of
peritoneum called mesorchium.
1899.Vasa efferentia are that arise from testes. They enter the kidneys on
their side and open into Bidder’s canal.
1900.The cloaca is a small, median chamber that is used to pass faecal
matter, urine and sperms to the exterior.
1901.The ovaries are situated near kidneys and there is no functional
connection with kidneys.
1902.A pair of oviduct arising from the ovaries opens into the cloaca
separately.
1903.Development involves a larval stage called tadpole.
1904.Tadpole undergoes metamorphosis to form the adult.
1905.Anton Van Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell.
1906.Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the cell.
1907..Schwann studied different types of animal cells and reported that
cells had a thin outer layer which is today known as the ‘plasma
membrane’.
1908.Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory.
1909.Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divide and new cells
are formed from pre-existing cells.
1910.Inside each cell is a dense membrane bound structure called nucleus.
1911.This nucleus contains the chromosomes which in turn contain the
genetic material, DNA. Cells that have membrane bound nuclei are called
eukaryotic.
1912.In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, a semi-fluid matrix called
cytoplasm occupies the volume of the cell.

1913.The cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular activities in both the

plant and animal cells.
1914.Eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound distinct structures
called organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the golgi complex,
lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies and vacuoles.
1915.Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in all cells –
both eukaryotic as well as prokaryotic.
1916.Ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm but also within the
two organelles chloroplasts (in plants) and mitochondria and on rough ER.
1917.Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound organelle called
centrosome which helps in cell division.
1918.Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells, are only 0.3 µm in length while
bacteria could be 3 to 5 µm.
1919.The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an ostrich.
1920.Human red blood cells are about 7.0 µm in diameter.
1921.Nerve cells are some of the longest cells.
1922.Red blood cells (round and biconcave)
1923.White blood cells (amoeboid)
1924.Columnar epithelial cells (long and narrow)
1925.Nerve cell((Branched and long)
1926.Mesophyll cells (round and oval)
1927.Prokaryotic cells: prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue
green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO (Pleuropneumonia Like Organisms).
1928.The four basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod like), coccus
(spherical), vibrio (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral).
1929.The fluid matrix filling the cell is the cytoplasm.
1930.These smaller DNA called plasmids.
1931.Plasmid DNA is used to monitor bacterial transformation with
foreign DNA.
1932.Nuclear membrane is found in eukaryotes.
1933.No organelles, like the ones in eukaryotes, are found in prokaryotic
cells except for ribosomes.

1934.A specialised differentiated form of cell membrane called mesosome

is the characteristic of prokaryotes.
1935.Typical bacteria (1-2 m)
1936.PPLO (about 0.1 m)
1937.A typical eukaryotic cell (10-20 m)
1938.Viruses (0.02-0.2 m)
1939.The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three layered structure.
1940.The outermost glycocalyx followed by the cell wall and then the
plasma membrane.
1941.A loose sheath called the slime layer in some, while in others it may be
thick and tough, called the capsule.
1942.The plasma membrane is selectively permeable.
1943.Mesosome which is formed by the extensions of plasma membrane
into the cell.
1944.Mesosome are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
1945.Mesosome help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and
distribution to daughter cells.
1946.Mesosome also help in respiration, secretion processes, to increase
the surface area of the plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
1947.In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, there are other membranous
extensions into the cytoplasm called chromatophores which contain
pigments.
1948.Bacterial cells may be motile or non-motile.
1949.If motile, they have thin filamentous extensions from their cell wall
called flagella.
1950.Bacterial flagellum is composed of three parts – filament, hook and
basal body.
1951.The filament is the longest portion and extends from the cell surface
to the outside.
1952.The pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein.
1953.The fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell.
1954.Ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the cell.

1955.Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.

1956.Ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called
polyribosomes or polysome.
1957.Prokaryotic cells are stored in the cytoplasm in the form of inclusion
bodies.
1958.Prokaryotic cells are not bound by any membrane system and lie free
in the cytoplasm, e.g., phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and
glycogen granules.
1959.Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green
photosynthetic bacteria.
1960.The eukaryotes include all the protists, plants, animals and fungi.
1961.Eukaryotic cells possess an organised nucleus with a nuclear
envelope.
1962.Eukaryotic cells have a variety of complex locomotory and
cytoskeletal structures.
1963.Plastids and a large central vacuole which are absent in animal cells.
1964.Animal cells have centrioles which are absent in almost all plant
cells.
1965.Cell membrane is mainly composed of lipids and proteins.
1966.The major lipids are phospholipids that are arranged in a bilayer.
1967.Lipids are arranged within the membrane with the polar head
towards the outer sides and the hydrophobic tails towards the inner part.
1968.Phospholipids membrane also contains cholesterol.
1969.Cell membranes also possess protein and carbohydrate.
1970.In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte has 52 percent
protein and 40 percent lipids.
1971.Cell membrane was proposed by Singer and Nicolson.
1972.Many molecules can move briefly across the membrane without any
requirement of energy and this is called the passive transport.
1973.Water may also move across this membrane from higher to lower
concentration.
1974.Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis.
1975.As the polar molecules cannot pass through the nonpolar lipid
bilayer.
1976.A few ions or molecules are transported across the membrane
against their concentration gradient from lower to higher concentration.
Such a transport is an energy dependent process, in which ATP is utilised
and is called active transport.
1977.Non living rigid structure called the cell wall forms an outer covering
for the plasma membrane of fungi and plants.
1978.Cell wall also helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides a barrier to
undesirable macromolecules.
1979.Algae have cell wall made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and
minerals like calcium carbonate.
1980.Cell wall consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
1981.The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate.
1982.The cell wall and middle lamellae may be traversed by
plasmodesmata.
1983.The endomembrane system include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi
complex, lysosomes and vacuoles.
1984.Presence of a network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures
scattered in the cytoplasm that is called the endoplasmic reticulum.
1985.ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments,
luminal (inside ER) and extra luminal (cytoplasm) compartments.
1986.The endoplasmic reticulum bearing ribosomes on their surface is
called rough endoplasmic reticulum.
1987.Ribosomes they appear smooth and are called smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.
1988.RER is involved in protein synthesis and secretion.
1989.The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site for synthesis of
lipid. Steroidal hormones are synthesised in SER.
1990.Camillo Golgi first observed densely stained reticular structures near
the nucleus. These were later named Golgi bodies after him.
1991.They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae of 0.5µm to
1.0µm diameter.

1992.Cisternae are present in a Golgi complex.

1993.The Golgi cisternae are convex cis or the forming face and concave
trans or the maturing face.
1994.Golgi apparatus is an important site of formation of glycoproteins
and glycolipids.
1995.Lysosomes are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by the
process of packaging in the golgi apparatus.
1996.All types of hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases – lipases, proteases,
carbohydrases) optimally active at acidic pH.
1997.These enzymes are capable of digesting carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids and nucleic acids.
1998.Vacuoles is a membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm.
1999.Vacuoles contains water, sap, excretory product and other materials
not useful for the cell.
2000.The vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
2001.In plant cells the vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per cent of the volume
of the cell.
2002.In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the transport of a number of ions
and other materials against concentration gradients into the vacuole.
2003.In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is important for osmoregulation
and excretion.
2004.Food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food particles.
2005.Mitochondria is sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of
0.2-1.0µm (average 0.5µm) and length 1.0-4.1µm.
2006.Each mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure with the
outer membrane and the inner membrane.
2007.The inner compartment is filled with a dense homogeneous substance
called the matrix.
2008.The outer membrane forms the continuous limiting boundary of the
organelle.
2009.The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called cristae
(sing.: crista).

2010.Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration. They produce

cellular energy in the form of ATP, hence they are called ‘power houses’ of
the cell.
2011.The matrix also possesses single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA
molecules, ribosomes and the components required for the synthesis of
proteins.
2012.Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoides.
2013.Plastids can be classified into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and
leucoplasts.
2014.The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments which
are responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis.
2015.In the chromoplasts fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene,
xanthophylls and others are present. This gives the part of the plant a
yellow, orange or red colour.
2016.The leucoplasts are the colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes
with stored nutrients: Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (starch), e.g.,
potato; elaioplasts store oils and fats whereas the aleuroplasts store
proteins.
2017.Chloroplasts of green plants are found in the mesophyll cells of the
leaves.
2018.Chloroplasts are double membrane bound.
2019.Of the two, the inner chloroplast membrane is relatively less
permeable.
2020.The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called
the stroma.
2021.A number of organised flattened membranous sacs called thylakoids,
are present in the stroma.
2022.Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins called grana
(singular: granum) or the intergranal thylakoids.
2023.Flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the
thylakoids of the different grana.
2024.The membrane of the thylakoids enclose a space called a lumen.
2025.The stroma of the chloroplast contains enzymes required for the
synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins. It also contains small, double
stranded circular DNA molecules and ribosomes.
2026.Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids.
2027.Ribosomes are the granular structures first observed by George
Palade. They are composed of ribonucleic acid and proteins.
2028.Cilia and Flagella: Cilia (cilium) and flagella (flagellum) are hair-like
outgrowths of the cell membrane.
2029.Cilia are small structures which work like oars.
2030.Flagella are responsible for cell movement.
2031.The prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella.
2032.Axoneme possesses a number of microtubules running parallel to the
long axis.
2033.The axoneme usually has nine doublets of radially arranged
peripheral microtubules, and a pair of centrally located microtubules.
2034.The central tubules are connected by bridges and is also enclosed by
a central sheath. Thus, there are nine radial spokes.
2035.Both the cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole-like structure
called the basal bodies.
2036.Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical
structures called centrioles. They are made up of nine evenly spaced
peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein.
2037.The central part of the proximal region of the centrioles is also
proteinaceous and called the hub.
2038.The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella, and spindle
fibres that give rise to spindle apparatus during cell division in animal
cells.
2039.Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown.
2040.Nucleus stained by basic dyes was given the name chromatin by
Flemming.
2041.Many membrane bound minute vesicles called microbodies that
contain various enzymes, are present in both plant and animal cells.

2042.Trichloroacetic acid (Cl3CCOOH) using a mortar and pestle.

2043.All the carbon compounds that we get from living tissues can be
called biomolecules.
2044.Ash contains inorganic elements (like calcium, magnesium etc).
Inorganic compounds like sulphate, phosphate, etc.are also seen in the
acid-soluble fraction.
2045.Amino acids are organic compounds are called amino acids. They are
substituted methanes.
2046.Amino acid is called glycine, a methyl group (alanine), hydroxy
methyl (serine), etc.
2047.Based on number of amino and carboxyl groups, there are acidic (e.g.,
glutamic acid), basic (lysine) and neutral (valine) amino acids. Similarly,
2048.There are aromatic amino acids (tyrosine, phenylalanine,
tryptophan).
2049.Lipids are water insoluble, fatty acids.
2050.Palmitic acid has 16 carbons.
2051.Arachidonic acid has 20 carbon atoms.
2052.Fatty acids could be saturated or unsaturated.
2053.Lipid is glycerol which is trihydroxy propane.
2054.Many lipids have both glycerol and fatty acids.
2055.Fatty acids are found esterified with glycerol. They can be then
monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides. These are also called fats
and oils based on melting point.
2056.Oils have lower melting point (gingelly oil) and hence remain as oil in
winters.
2057.Some lipids have phosphorus and phosphorylated. These are
phospholipids. They are found in cell membrane. Lecithin is one example.
2058.Neural tissues have lipids.
2059.Some of these are nitrogen bases – adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil,
and thymine.
2060.When found attached to a sugar, they are called nucleosides.
2061.If a phosphate group is also found esterified to the sugar they are
called nucleotides.
2062.Adenosine, guanosine, thymidine, uridine and cytidine are
nucleosides.
2063.Adenylic acid, thymidylic acid, guanylic acid, uridylic acid and
cytidylic acid are nucleotides.
2064.Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA consist of nucleotides only.
2065.DNA and RNA function as genetic material.
2066.Presence of all such categories of compounds are called primary
metabolites.
2067.When one analyses plant fungal and microbial cells called primary
metabolites.
2068.Alkaloids, flavonoids, rubber, essential oils, antibiotics, coloured
pigments, scents, gums, spices are called secondary metabolites.
2069..Some Secondary Metabolites are:
1.Pigments: Carotenoids, Anthocyanins, etc.
2.Alkaloids: Morphine, Codeine, etc.
3.Terpenoides: Monoterpenes, Diterpenes etc.
4.Essential oils: Lemongrass oil, etc.
5.Toxins: Abrin, Ricin
6.Lectins: Concanavalin A
7.Drugs: Vinblastine, curcumin, etc.
8.Polymeric substance: Rubber, gums, cellulose.
2070.The acid insoluble fraction has four types of organic compounds,
proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides and lipids.
2071.Lipids are small molecular weight compounds and are present not
only as such but also arranged into structures like cell membrane and
other membranes.
2072.Cell membrane and other membranes are broken into pieces, and
form vesicles which are not water soluble.
2073.Lipids are not strictly macromolecules.
2074.The acid soluble pool represents roughly the cytoplasmic
composition.
2075.Proteins are polypeptides. They are linear chains of amino acids
linked by peptide bonds.
2076.Each protein is a polymer of amino acids.
2077.As there are 20 types of amino acids (alanine, cysteine, proline,
tryptophan, lysine, etc.).
2078.A protein is a heteropolymer and not a homopolymer.
2079.A homopolymer has only one type of monomer repeating ‘n’ number
of times.
2080.Dietary proteins are the source of essential amino acids.
2081.Collagen is the most abundant protein in the animal world and
Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most
abundant protein.
2082.Some Proteins and their Functions:
1.Collagen: Intercellular ground substance
2.Trypsin: Enzyme
3.Insulin: Hormone
4.Antibody: Fights infectious agents
5.Receptor: Sensory reception (smell, taste, hormone, etc.)
6.GLUT-4: Enables glucose transport into cells.
2083.The acid insoluble pellet also has polysaccharides (carbohydrates) as
another class of macromolecules.
2084.Polysaccharides are long chains of sugars.
2085.Polysaccharides are threads (literally a cotton thread) containing
different monosaccharides as building blocks.
2086.Cellulose is a polymeric polysaccharide consisting of only one type of
monosaccharide i.e., glucose.
2087.Cellulose is a homopolymer.
2088.Animals have another variant called glycogen.
2089.Inulin is a polymer of fructose. In a polysaccharide chain (say
glycogen).
2090.The right end is called the reducing end and the left end is called the
non-reducing end.
2091.Starch forms helical secondary structures.
2092.The starch-I2 is blue in colour.
2093.Cellulose does not contain complex helices.
2094.Plant cell walls are made of cellulose.
2095.Paper made from plant pulp and cotton fibre is cellulosic. There are
more complex polysaccharides in nature.
2096.Plant cell have as building blocks, amino-sugars and chemically
modified sugars (e.g., glucosamine, N-acetyl galactosamine, etc.).
2097.Exoskeletons of arthropods have a complex polysaccharide called
chitin.
2098.These complex polysaccharides are mostly homopolymers.
2099.Nucleic acids are polynucleotides.
2100.For nucleic acids, the building block is a nucleotide.
2101.A nucleotide has three chemically distinct components. One is a
heterocyclic compound, the second is a monosaccharide and the third a
phosphoric acid or phosphate.
2102.The heterocyclic compounds in nucleic acids are the nitrogenous
bases called adenine, guanine, uracil, cytosine, and thymine.
2103.Adenine and Guanine are substituted purines while the rest are
substituted pyrimidines.
2104.The skeletal heterocyclic ring is called as purine and pyrimidine
respectively.
2105.The sugar found in polynucleotides is either ribose (a
monosaccharide pentose) or 2’ deoxyribose.
2106.A nucleic acid containing deoxyribose is called deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) while that which contains ribose is called ribonucleic acid (RNA).
2107.Proteins are heteropolymers containing strings of amino acids.
2108.The first amino acid is also called as N-terminal amino acid.
2109.The last amino acid is called the Cterminal amino acid.
2110.A protein thread does not exist throughout as an extended rigid rod.
2111.The thread is folded in the form of a helix (similar to a revolving
staircase).
2112.Protein thread are arranged in the form of a helix.
2113.In a polypeptide or a protein, amino acids are linked by a peptide
bond which is formed when the carboxyl (-COOH) group of one amino acid
reacts with the amino (-NH2 ) group of the next amino acid with the
the elimination of a water moiety (the process is called dehydration).
2114.In a polysaccharide the individual monosaccharides are linked by a
glycosidic bond.
2115.This bond is also formed by dehydration.
2116.This bond is formed between two carbon atoms of two adjacent
monosaccharides.
2117.A few examples for such metabolic transformations are: removal of
CO2 from amino acids making an amino acid into an amine, removal of
amino group in a nucleotide base; hydrolysis of a glycosidic bond in a
disaccharide, etc.
2118.Acetic acid becomes cholesterol, glucose becomes lactic acid in our
skeletal muscle.
2119.When glucose is degraded to lactic acid in our skeletal muscle, energy
is liberated.
2120.This metabolic pathway from glucose to lactic acid which occurs in 10
metabolic steps is called glycolysis.
2121.The most important form of energy currency in living systems is the
bond energy in a chemical called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
2122.Glucose in a normal healthy individual is 4.2 mmol/L– 6.1 mmol/L,
while that of hormones would be nanograms/mL. These biomolecules are
in a metabolic flux.
2123.All enzymes are proteins. These are called ribozymes.
2124.A physical change simply refers to a change in shape without
breaking of bonds.
2125.Another physical process is a change in state of matter: when ice
melts into water, or when water becomes a vapour. These are also physical
processes.
2126.When bonds are broken and new bonds are formed during
transformation this will be called a chemical reaction.
2127.Hydrolysis of starch into glucose is an organic chemical reaction.
2128.Rate of a physical or chemical process refers to the amount of
product formed per unit time.

2129.Rate can also be called velocity if the direction is specified.

2130.A general rule of thumb is that rate doubles or decreases by half for
every 10°C change in either direction.
2131.Enzyme present within the cytoplasm called carbonic anhydrase.
2132.A metabolic pathway in which glucose becomes pyruvic acid. In our
skeletal muscle, under anaerobic conditions, lactic acid is formed.
2133.Under normal aerobic conditions, pyruvic acid is formed.
2134.In yeast, during fermentation, the same pathway leads to the
production of ethanol (alcohol).
2135.The chemical or metabolic conversion refers to a reaction.
2136.The chemical which is converted into a product is called a ‘substrate’.
2137.Each enzyme shows its highest activity at a particular temperature
and pH called the optimum temperature and optimum pH.
2138.When the binding of the chemical shuts off enzyme activity, the
process is called inhibition and the chemical is called an inhibitor.
2139.Enzymes which catalyse oxidoreduction between two substrates.
2140.Isomerases Includes all enzymes catalysing inter-conversion of
optical, geometric or positional isomers.
2141..Enzymes are composed of one or several polypeptide chains.
2142.Non-protein constituents called cofactors.
2143.Protein portion of the enzymes is called the apoenzyme.
2144.In peroxidase and catalase, which catalyze the breakdown of
hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.
2145.Haem is the prosthetic group and it is a part of the active site of the
enzyme.
2146.(NAD) and NADP contain the vitamin niacin.
2147..Zinc is a cofactor for the proteolytic enzyme carboxypeptidase.
2148.Transport through the vascular system (the xylem and the phloem)
and is called translocation.
2149.Xylem is transported from roots to the stems.
2150.Organic compounds synthesised in the photosynthetic leaves are
exported to all other parts of the plant including storage organs.

2151.Diffusion: Movement by diffusion is passive, and may be from one

part of the cell to the other, or from cell to cell, or over short distances, say,
from the intercellular spaces of the leaf to the outside.
2152.Diffusion is a slow process and is not dependent on a ‘living system’.
2153.Diffusion rates are affected by the gradient of concentration, the
permeability of the membrane separating them, temperature and
pressure.
2154.Facilitated Diffusion: The diffusion of any substance across a
membrane also depends on its solubility in lipids.
2155.Substances soluble in lipids diffuse through the membrane faster.
2156.Membrane proteins provide sites at which such molecules cross the
membrane.
2157.A concentration gradient must already be present for molecules to
diffuse even if facilitated by the proteins is called facilitated diffusion.
2158.The proteins form channels in the membrane for molecules to pass
through.
2159.The porins are proteins that form large pores in the outer membranes
of the plastids, mitochondria and some bacteria.
2160.Water channels – made up of eight different types of aquaporins.
2161.Active transport is carried out by specific membrane-proteins.
2162.Pumps are proteins that use energy to carry substances across the
cell membrane.
2163.These pumps can transport substances from a low concentration to a
high concentration (‘uphill’ transport).
2164.Terrestrial plants is lost to the air through evaporation from the
leaves, i.e., transpiration.
2165.A mature corn plant absorbs almost three litres of water in a day,
while a mustard plant absorbs water equal to its own weight in about 5
hours.
2166.Water molecules possess kinetic energy.
2167.The greater the concentration of water in a system, the greater is its
kinetic energy or ‘water potential’.

2168.This process of movement of substances down a gradient of free

energy is called diffusion.
2169.Water potential is expressed in pressure units such as pascals (Pa).
2170.The magnitude of this lowering due to dissolution of a solute is called
solute potential is always negative.
2171.The more the solute molecules, the lower (more negative).
2172.If a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure is applied to pure
water or a solution, its water potential increases.
2173.When water enters a plant cell due to diffusion causing a pressure
built up against the cell wall, it makes the cell turgid this increases the
pressure potential.
2174.Pressure potential is usually positive, though in plants negative
potential or tension in the water column in the xylem plays a major role in
water transport up a stem.
2175.Water potential of a cell is affected by both solute and pressure
potential.
2176.The plant cell is surrounded by a cell membrane and a cell wall.
2177. In plants the cells usually contain a large central vacuole, vacuolar
sap.
2178.In plant cells, the cell membrane and the membrane of the vacuole,
the tonoplast are important determinants of movement of molecules in or
out of the cell.
2179.Osmosis is the term used to refer specifically to the diffusion of water
across a differentially- or selectively permeable membrane.
2180.Osmosis occurs spontaneously in response to a driving force.
2181.The net direction and rate of osmosis depends on both the pressure
gradient and concentration gradient.
2182.Water will move from its region of higher chemical potential (or
concentration) to its region of lower chemical potential until equilibrium
is reached.
2183.At equilibrium the two chambers should have nearly the same water
potential.

2184.External pressure can be applied from the upper part of the funnel.
2185.Osmotic pressure is the positive pressure applied, while osmotic
potential is negative.
2186.Plasmolysis: If the external solution balances the osmotic pressure of
the cytoplasm, it is said to be isotonic.
2187.If the external solution is more dilute than the cytoplasm, it is
hypotonic and if the external solution is more concentrated, it is
hypertonic.
2188.Cells swell in hypotonic solutions and shrink in hypertonic ones.
2189.Plasmolysis occurs when water moves out of the cell.
2190.Plasmolysis occurs when the cell is placed in a solution that is
hypertonic to the protoplasm.
2191.The water when drawn out of the cell through diffusion into the
extracellular fluid causes the protoplast to shrink away from the walls.
The cell is said to be plasmolysed.
2192.The movement of water occurred across the membrane moving from
an area of high water potential to an area of lower water potential outside
the cell.
2193.When the cell is placed in an isotonic solution, there is no net flow of
water towards the inside or outside.
2194.If the external solution balances the osmotic pressure of the
cytoplasm it is said to be isotonic.
2195.When water flows into the cell and out of the cell and are in
equilibrium, the cells are said to be flaccid.
2196.When the cells are placed in a hypotonic solution (higher water
potential or dilute solution as compared to the cytoplasm), water diffuses
into the cell causing the cytoplasm to build up a pressure against the wall,
that is called turgor pressure.
2197.The pressure exerted by the protoplasts due to the entry of water
against the rigid walls is called pressure potential.
2198.This turgor pressure is responsible for enlargement and extension
growth of cells.

2199.Imbibition is a diffusion when water is absorbed by solids, colloids,

causing them to increase in volume.
2200.The classical examples of imbibition are absorption of water by seeds
and dry wood.
2201.Imbibition is also diffusion since water movement is along a
concentration gradient; the seeds and other such materials have almost
no water hence they absorb water easily.
2202.Diffusion is a slow process. It can account for only short distance
movement of molecules.
2203.The movement of a molecule across a typical plant cell (about 50 µm)
takes approximately 2.5 s.
2204.Mass flow is the movement of substances in bulk or en masse from
one point to another as a result of pressure differences between the two
points.
2205.Bulk flow can be achieved either through a positive hydrostatic
pressure gradient (garden hose) or a negative hydrostatic pressure
gradient (suction through a straw).
2206.The bulk movement of substances through the conducting or
vascular tissues of plants is called translocation.
2207.Xylem is associated with translocation of mainly water, mineral
salts, some organic nitrogen and hormones, from roots to the aerial parts
of the plants.
2208.The phloem translocates a variety of organic and inorganic solutes,
mainly from the leaves to other parts of the plants.
2209.Root hairs are thin-walled slender extensions of root epidermal cells
that greatly increase the surface area for absorption.
2210.Water is absorbed along with mineral solutes, by the root hairs,
purely by diffusion.
2211.Once water is absorbed by the root hairs.
2212.The apoplast is the system of adjacent cell walls throughout the
plant.
2213.The apoplastic movement of water occurs exclusively through the
intercellular spaces and the walls of the cells.
2214.Tension develop in a continuous stream of water in the apoplast,
hence mass flow of water occurs due to the adhesive and cohesive
properties of water.
2215.The symplastic system is the system of interconnected protoplasts.
Intercellular movement is through the plasmodesmata.
2216.Symplastic movement may be aided by cytoplasmic streaming.
2217.Hydrilla leaf the movement of chloroplasts due to streaming.
2218.Water flow in the roots occurs apoplast.
2219.The inner boundary of the cortex, the endodermis, is impervious to
water because of a band of suberised matrix called the casparian strip.
2220.The water then moves through the symplast and again crosses a
membrane to reach the cells of the xylem.
2221.The movement of water through the root layers is symplastic in the
endodermis.
2222.In young roots, water enters directly into the xylem vessels and/or
tracheids. These are non-living conduits and so are parts of the apoplast.
2223.A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association of a fungus with a root
system.
2224.The fungal filaments form a network around the young root or they
penetrate the root cells.
2225.The fungus provides minerals and water to the roots, in turn the
roots provide sugars and N containing compounds to the mycorrhizae.
2226.Pinus seeds cannot germinate and establish without the presence of
mycorrhizae.
2227.Water follows (its potential gradient) and increases the pressure
inside the xylem is called root pressure.
2228.Effects of root pressure is also observable at night and early morning
when evaporation is low, and excess water collects in the form of droplets
around special openings of veins near the tips of grass blades, and leaves
of many herbaceous parts. Such water loss in its liquid phase is known as
guttation.
2229.Water is transient in plants.

2230.Less than 1 percent of the water reaching the leaves is used in

photosynthesis and plant growth.
2231.Most of it is lost through the stomata in the leaves. This water loss is
known as transpiration.
2232.Transpiration is the evaporative loss of water by plants.
2233.Transpiration occurs mainly through stomata.
2234.Besides the loss of water vapour in transpiration, exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the leaf also occurs through these stomata.
2235.The immediate cause of the opening or closing of stomata is a change
in the turgidity of the guard cells.
2236.The inner wall of each guard cell, towards the pore or stomatal
aperture, is thick and elastic.
2237.When turgidity increases within the two guard cells flanking each
stomatal aperture or pore, the thin outer walls bulge out and force the
inner walls into a crescent shape.
2238.The opening of the stoma is also aided due to the orientation of the
microfibrils in the cell walls of the guard cells.
2239.Cellulose microfibrils are oriented radially rather than
longitudinally making it easier for the stoma to open.
2240.When the guard cells lose turgor, due to water loss (or water stress)
the elastic inner walls regain their original shape, the guard cells become
flaccid and the stoma closes.
2241.Lower surface of a dorsiventral (often dicotyledonous) leaf has a
greater number of stomata.
2242.An isobilateral (often monocotyledonous) leaf they are about equal
on both surfaces.
2243.Transpiration is affected by several external factors: temperature,
light, humidity, wind speed.
2244.Plant factors that affect transpiration include number and
distribution of stomata, percent of open stomata, water status of the
plant, canopy structure etc.
2245.Cohesion- mutual attraction between water molecules.

2246.Adhesion-attraction of water molecules to polar surfaces (such as the

surface of tracheary elements).
2247.Surface Tension- water molecules are attracted to ea.
2248.The gradient is transmitted into the photosynthetic cells and on the
water-filled xylem in the leaf vein.
2249.Transpiration has more than one purpose; it
1.creates transpiration pull for absorption and transport of plants
2.supplies water for photosynthesis
3.transports minerals from the soil to all parts of the plant
4.cools leaf surfaces, sometimes 10 to 15 degrees, by evaporative cooling
5.maintains the shape and structure of the plants by keeping cells turgid
2250.Plants obtain their carbon and most of their oxygen from CO2 in the
atmosphere.
2251.Minerals are present in the soil as charged particles (ions) which
cannot move across cell membranes.
2252.The concentration of minerals in the soil is usually lower than the
concentration of minerals in the root. This needs energy in the form of
ATP.
2253.The active uptake of ions is partly responsible for the water potential
gradient in roots and for the uptake of water by osmosis.
2254.Ions are absorbed from the soil by both passive and active transport.
2255.Endodermal cells have many transport proteins embedded in their
plasma membrane.
2256.Unloading of mineral ions occurs at the fine vein endings through
diffusion and active uptake by these cells.
2257.Older dying leaves export much of their mineral content to younger
leaves.
2258.Elements most readily mobilised are phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen
and potassium.
2259.Some elements that are structural components like calcium are not
remobilised.
2260.Small amount of exchange of materials does take place between
xylem and phloem.
2261.Xylem transports only inorganic nutrients while phloem transports
only organic materials.
2262.Food, primarily sucrose, is transported by the vascular tissue
phloem.
2263.Plant which synthesises the food, the leaf, and sink, the part that
needs or stores the food.
2264.Sugar stored in roots may be mobilised to become a source of food in
the early spring.
2265.Phloem sap is mainly water and sucrose.
2266.Sugars, hormones and amino acids are also transported or
translocated through phloem.
2267.The accepted mechanism used for translocation of sugars from
source to sink is called the pressure flow hypothesis.
2268.As glucose is prepared at the source (by photosynthesis) it is
converted to sucrose (a disaccharide).
2269.The sugar is then moved in the form of sucrose into the companion
cells and then into the living phloem sieve tube cells by active transport.
2270.Water in the adjacent xylem moves into the phloem by osmosis.
2271.As osmotic pressure builds up the phloem sap will move to areas of
lower pressure.
2272.The sugar converting it into energy, starch, or cellulose.
2273.As sugars are removed, the osmotic pressure decreases and water
moves out of the phloem.
2274.Sugars are loaded (actively transported) into a sieve tube.
2275.Phloem tissue is composed of sieve tube cells, which form long
columns with holes in their end walls called sieve plates.
2276.Cytoplasmic strands pass through the holes in the sieve plates, so
forming continuous filaments.
2277.As hydrostatic pressure in the sieve tubes of phloem increases,
pressure flow begins, and the sap moves through the phloem.
2278.Sugars are transported out of the phloem and removed as complex
carbohydrates.

2279.Girdling was used to identify the tissues through which food is

transported.
2280.Phloem is the tissue responsible for translocation of food and that
transport takes place in one direction towards the roots.
2281.This technique of growing plants in a nutrient solution is known as
hydroponics.
2282.Macronutrients are generally present in plant tissues in large
amounts.
2283.The macronutrients include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorous, sulphur, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
2284.Of these, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are mainly obtained from
CO2 and H2O, while the others are absorbed from the soil as mineral
nutrition.
2285.Micronutrients include iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc,
boron, chlorine and nickel.
(i)Components of biomolecules(carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen).
(ii)Components of energy-related chemical compounds in plants
(magnesium in chlorophyll and phosphorus in ATP).
(iii) Essential elements that activate or inhibit enzymes.
2286.Magnesium ions is an activator for both ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase oxygenase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, both of
which are critical enzymes in photosynthetic carbon fixation.
2287.Zinc ions is an activator of alcohol dehydrogenase and Mo of
nitrogenase during nitrogen metabolism.
2288.Potassium plays an important role in the opening and closing of
stomata.
2289.Nitrogen is the essential nutrient element required by plants in the
greatest amount.
2290.Nitrogen is required by all parts of a plant, particularly the
meristematic tissues and metabolically active cells.
2291.Nitrogen is one of the major constituents of proteins, nucleic acids,
vitamins and hormones.

2292.Phosphorus is absorbed by the plants from soil in the form of

phosphate ions.
2293.Phosphorus is a constituent of cell membranes, certain proteins,
nucleic acids and nucleotides, and is required for all phosphorylation
reactions.
2294.Potassium more abundant quantities in meristematic tissues, buds,
leaves and root tips.
2295.Potassium helps to maintain an anion-cation balance in cells and is
involved in protein synthesis, opening and closing of stomata, activation
of enzymes and in the maintenance of the turgidity of cells.
2296.Plant absorbs calcium from the soil in the form of calcium ions.
2297.Plant is used in the synthesis of cell wall as calcium pectate in the
middle lamella.
2298.Plant is also needed during the formation of the mitotic spindle.
2299.Plant is involved in the normal functioning of the cell membranes.
2300.Plant activates certain enzymes and plays an important role in
regulating metabolic activities.
2301.Magnesium activates the enzymes of respiration, photosynthesis and
are involved in the synthesis of DNA and RNA.
2302.Magnesium is a constituent of the ring structure of chlorophyll and
helps to maintain the ribosome structure.
2303.Plants obtain sulphur in the form of sulphate.
2304.Sulphur is present in two amino acids cysteine and methionine.
2305.Sulphur is the main constituent of several coenzymes, vitamins
(thiamine, biotin, Coenzyme A) and ferredoxin.
2306.Plants obtain iron in the form of ferric ions.
2307.Iron is an important constituent of proteins involved in the transfer
of electrons like ferredoxin and cytochromes.
2308.Iron activates catalase enzyme and is essential for the formation of
chlorophyll.
2309.Manganese activates many enzymes involved in photosynthesis,
respiration and nitrogen metabolism.

2310.Manganese is in the splitting of water to liberate oxygen during

photosynthesis.
2311.Zinc activates various enzymes, especially carboxylases.
2312.Zinc is also in the synthesis of auxin.
2313.Copper is essential for the overall metabolism in plants.
2314.Copper is associated with certain enzymes involved in redox
reactions.
2315.Boron is required for uptake and utilisation of Calcium ions,
membrane functioning, pollen germination, cell elongation, cell
differentiation and carbohydrate translocation.
2316.Molybdenum is a component of several enzymes, including
nitrogenase and nitrate reductase both of which participate in nitrogen
metabolism.
2317.Chlorine helps in determining the solute concentration and the anion
cation balance in cells.
2318.Clorine is essential for the water-splitting reaction in photosynthesis
a reaction that leads to oxygen evolution.
2319.Sulphur and Calcium are a part of the structural component of the
cell.
2320.Chlorosis is the loss of chlorophyll leading to yellowing in leaves.
2321.Necrosis, or death of tissue, leaf tissue, is due to the deficiency of Ca,
Mg, Cu, K. Lack or low level of N, K, S, Mo causes an inhibition of cell
division.
2322.The prominent symptoms of manganese toxicity is the appearance of
brown spots surrounded by chlorotic veins.
2323.Manganese also inhibit calcium translocation in shoot apex.
2324.Excess of manganese induce deficiencies of iron, magnesium and
calcium.
2325.The entry or exit of ions to and from the symplast requires the
expenditure of metabolic energy, which is an active process.
2326.The movement of ions is usually called flux.
2327.Mineral salts are translocated through xylem along with the
ascending stream of water, which is pulled up through the plant by
transpirational pull.
2328.Soil also harbours nitrogen-fixing bacteria, other microbes, holds
water, supplies air to the roots and acts as a matrix that stabilises the
plant.
2329.Both macro-nutrients (N, P, K, S, etc.) and micro-nutrients (Cu, Zn, Fe,
Mn, etc.) form components of fertilisers.
2330.Nitrogen is a constituent of amino acids, proteins, hormones,
chlorophylls and many of the vitamins.
2331.Nitrogen exists as two nitrogen atoms joined by a very strong triple
covalent bond.
2332.The process of conversion of nitrogen to ammonia is termed as
nitrogen fixation.
2333.Industrial combustions, forest fires, automobile exhausts and power
generating stations are also sources of atmospheric nitrogen oxides.
2334.Decomposition of organic nitrogen of dead plants and animals into
ammonia is called ammonification.
2335.Ammonia is first oxidised to nitrite by the bacteria Nitrosomonas
and/or Nitrococcus.
2336.The nitrite is further oxidised to nitrate with the help of the
bacterium Nitrobacter. These steps are called nitrification. These
nitrifying bacteria are chemoautotrophs.
2337.The nitrate formed is absorbed by plants and is transported to the
leaves.
2338.Nitrate present in the soil is also reduced to nitrogen by the process
of denitrification.
2339.Denitrification is carried by bacteria Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus.
2340.Reduction of nitrogen to ammonia by living organisms is called
biological nitrogen fixation.
2341.Nitrogenase which is capable of nitrogen reduction is present
exclusively in prokaryotes.
2342.The nitrogen-fixing microbes could be free-living or symbiotic.
2343.Examples of free-living nitrogen-fixing aerobic microbes are
Azotobacter and Beijerinckia while Rhodospirillum is anaerobic and free
living.
2344.A number of cyanobacteria such as Anabaena and Nostoc are also
free living nitrogen-fixers.
2345.Species of rod-shaped Rhizobium has such a relationship with the
roots of several legumes such as alfalfa, sweet clover, sweet pea, lentils,
garden pea, broad bean, clover beans, etc.
2346.The microbe, Frankia, also produces nitrogen-fixing nodules on the
roots of non leguminous plants (e.g., Alnus). Both Rhizobium and Frankia
are free living in soil, but as symbionts, can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
2347.Nodules make pink is due to the presence of leguminous haemoglobin
or leg-haemoglobin.
2348.Nodule formation involves Rhizobium.
2349.The root-hairs curl and the bacteria invade the root-hair.
2350.An infection thread is produced carrying the bacteria into the cortex
of the root.
2351.The nodule formed establishes a direct vascular connection with the
host for exchange of nutrients.
2352.The nodule contains all the necessary biochemical components, such
as the enzyme nitrogenase and leghaemoglobin.
2353.Nodule contains an oxygen scavenger called leg-haemoglobin.
2354.Ammonia synthesis by nitrogenase requires a very high input of
energy.
2355.Ammonia reacts with ketoglutaric acid and forms glutamic acid.
2356.Transamination involves the transfer of an amino group from one
amino acid to the keto group of a keto acid.
2357.Glutamic acid is the main amino acid from which the transfer of NH2
, the amino group takes place and other amino acids are formed through
transamination.
2358.The two most important amides asparagine and glutamine found in
plants are a structural part of proteins. They are formed from two amino
acids namely aspartic acid and glutamic acid.

2359.Amides contain more nitrogen than the amino acids they are
transported to other parts of the plant via xylem vessels.
2360.The nodules of some plants (e.g., soyabean) export the fixed nitrogen
as ureides.
2361.Avariegated leaf or a leaf that was partially covered with black
paper, and exposed to light.
2362.Photosynthesis occurred only in the green parts of the leaves in the
presence of light.
2363.Priestley discovered oxygen.
2364.Glucose is usually stored as starch.
2365.Bacteria accumulated mainly in the region of blue and red light of the
split spectrum.
2366.Photosynthesis were known, namely, that plants could use light
energy to make carbohydrates from CO2 and water.
2367.C6 H12 O6 represents glucose.
2368.Photosynthesis does take place in the green leaves of plants.
2369.Chloroplast there is membranous system consisting of grana, stroma
lamellae and the matrix stroma.
2370.The membrane system is responsible for trapping the light energy
and also for the synthesis of ATP and NADPH.
2371.In stroma, Sugar which in turn forms starch.
2372.The former set of reactions are directly light driven are called light
reactions (photochemical reactions).
2373.Chlorophyll a (bright or blue green in the chromatogram),
chlorophyll b (yellow-green), xanthophylls (yellow) and carotenoids
(yellow to yellow-orange).
2374.Pigments are substances that have an ability to absorb light at
specific wavelengths.
2375.Chlorophyll a pigment to absorb light of different wavelengths.
2376.Most of photosynthesis takes place in the blue and red regions of the
spectrum; some photosynthesis does take place at the other wavelengths
of the visible spectrum.

2377.Chlorophyll is the major pigment responsible for trapping light, other

thylakoid pigments like chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids,
which are called accessory pigments, also absorb light and transfer the
energy to chlorophyll a.
2378.Light reactions or the ‘Photochemical’ phase include light absorption,
water splitting, oxygen release, and the formation of high-energy
chemical intermediates, ATP and NADPH.
2379.The light harvesting complexes are made up of hundreds of pigment
molecules bound to proteins.
2380.Each photosystem has all the pigments (except one molecule of
chlorophyll a) forming a light harvesting system also called antennae.
2381.The single chlorophyll a molecule forms the reaction centre.
2382.ATP is synthesised by cells (in mitochondria and chloroplasts) is
named phosphorylation.
2383.Photophosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate in the presence of light.
2384.ATP is synthesised in the chloroplast.
2385.ATP synthesis is linked to development of a proton gradient across a
membrane.
2386.Splitting of the water molecule takes place on the inner side of the
membrane.
2387.As electrons move through the photosystems, protons are
transported across the membrane.
2388.The NADP reductase enzyme is located on the stroma side of the
membrane.
2389.Chemiosmosis requires a membrane, a proton pump, a proton
gradient and ATP synthase.
2390.ATP will be used immediately in the biosynthetic reaction taking
place in the stroma, responsible for fixing CO2 , and synthesis of sugars.
2391.Calvin pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants.
2392.Carboxylation is the fixation of CO2 into a stable organic
intermediate.
2393.Reduction are a series of reactions that lead to the formation of
glucose.
2394.Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants
adapted to temperate climates.
2395.Only green plants and cyanobacteria can prepare their own food; by
the process of photosynthesis they trap light energy and convert it into
chemical energy that is stored in the bonds of carbohydrates like glucose,
sucrose and starch.
2396.Food has to be translocated to all non green parts.
2397.Animals are heterotrophic, i.e., they obtain food from plants directly
(herbivores) or indirectly (carnivores).
2398.Saprophytes like fungi are dependent on dead and decaying matter.
2399.Cellular respiration or the mechanism of breakdown of food
materials within the cell to release energy, and the trapping of this energy
for synthesis of ATP.
2400.Photosynthesis takes place within the chloroplasts (in eukaryotes),
whereas the breakdown of complex molecules to yield energy takes place
in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondria (also only in eukaryotes).
2401.The breaking of the C-C bonds of complex compounds through
oxidation within the cells, leading to release of considerable amount of
energy is called respiration.
2402.Living’ cells are organised in thin layers inside and beneath the bark.
They also have openings called lenticels.
2403.The breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid is called glycolysis.
2404.The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden, Otto
Meyerhof, and J. Parnas.
2405.Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and is present in all
living organisms.
2406.Glucose undergoes partial oxidation to form two molecules of
pyruvic acid.
2407.Sucrose is converted into glucose and fructose by the enzyme,
invertase, and these two monosaccharides readily enter the glycolytic
pathway.
2408.Glucose and fructose are phosphorylated to give rise to glucose-
6phosphate by the activity of the enzyme hexokinase.
2409.This phosphorylated form of glucose then isomerises to produce
fructose-6- phosphate.
2410.Glycolysis takes place to produce pyruvate from glucose.
2411.Pyruvic acid is then the key product of glycolysis.
2412.Pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis are lactic acid fermentation,
alcoholic fermentation and aerobic respiration.
2413.Fermentation takes place under anaerobic conditions in many
prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes.
2414.Pyruvic acid is converted to CO2 and ethanol.
2415.Aerobic respiration is the process that leads to a complete oxidation
of organic substances in the presence of oxygen.
2416.For aerobic respiration to take place within the mitochondria, the
final product of glycolysis, pyruvate is transported from the cytoplasm
into the mitochondria.
2417.Pyruvate which is formed by the glycolytic catabolism of
carbohydrates in the cytosol.
2418.Although the aerobic process of respiration takes place only in the
presence of oxygen.
2419.Fermentation accounts for only a partial breakdown of glucose
whereas in aerobic respiration it is completely degraded to CO2 and H2O.
2420.Glucose is the favoured substrate for respiration. All carbohydrates
are usually first converted into glucose.
2421.Fats to be broken down into glycerol and fatty acids.
2422.Meristems that cause the increase in the girth of the organs in which
they are active is known as secondary growth of the plant.
2423.Growth is measured by increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length,
area, volume and cell number.
2424.Growth of a pollen tube is measured in terms of its length, an
increase in surface area denotes the growth in a dorsiventral leaf.
2425.Root apex and the shoot apex represent the meristematic phase of
growth. The cells in this region are rich in protoplasm.
2426.The cells proximal to the meristematic zone represent the phase of
elongation.
2427.The increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate.
2428.Measurement and the comparison of total growth per unit time is
called the absolute growth rate.
2429.The growth of the given system per unit time expressed on a common
basis per unit initial parameter is called the relative growth rate.
2430.Oxygen helps in releasing metabolic energy essential for growth
activities.
2431.Nutrients (macro and micro essential elements) are required by
plants for the synthesis of protoplasm.
2432.Differentiation also develop a very strong, elastic, lignocellulosic
secondary cell walls to carry water long distances even under extreme
tension.
2433.Plants follow different pathways in response to environment or
phases of life to form different kinds of structures. This ability is called
plasticity, heterophylly in cotton, coriander and larkspur.
2434.In such plants, the leaves of the juvenile plant are different in shape
from those in mature plants.
2435.On the other hand, differences in the shape of leaves produced in air
and those produced in water in buttercup also represent the
heterophyllous.
2436.Heterophylly is an example of plasticity.
2437.The plant growth regulators are small, simple molecules of diverse
chemical composition. They could be indole compounds (acetic acid);
adenine, furfurylamino purine, kinetin), Carotenoids (abscisic acid);
terpenes (gibberellic acid) or gases (ethylene).
2438.Plant growth promoters are auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins.
2439.Plant growth regulators are also involved in various growth
inhibiting activities such as dormancy and abscission.
2440.Auxin was isolated by F.W.
2441.The ‘bakanae’ (foolish seedling) disease of rice seedlings, was caused
by a fungal pathogen Gibberella fujikuroi.
2442.Auxins: Auxins was first isolated from human urine.
2443.Auxins like IAA and indole butyric acid (IBA) have been isolated from
plants. NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2, 4-D (2,
4dichlorophenoxyacetic) are synthetic auxins.
2444.Auxins help to initiate rooting in stem cuttings, an application widely
used for plant propagation.
2445.Auxins promote flowering e.g. in pineapples.
2446.Auxins help to prevent fruit and leaf drop at early stages but
promote the abscission of older mature leaves and fruits.
2447.In most higher plants, the growing apical bud inhibits the growth of
the lateral (axillary) buds, a phenomenon called apical dominance.
2448.Removal of shoot tips (decapitation) usually results in the growth of
lateral buds.
2449.Auxins also induce parthenocarpy, e.g., in tomatoes.
2450.Auxins are widely used as herbicides. 2, 4-D, widely used to kill
dicotyledonous weeds, does not affect mature monocotyledonous plants.
2451.Auxins is used to prepare weed-free lawns by gardeners. Auxin also
controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell division.
2452.Apical dominance in plants :
(a) A plant with apical bud intact
(b) A plant with apical bud removed
2453.Growth of lateral buds into branches after decapitation.
2454.Gibberellic acid was one of the first gibberellins to be discovered.
2455.Gibberellins, cause fruits like apple to elongate and improve its
shape.
2456.Gibberellins is used to speed up the malting process in brewing
industry.
2457.Sugarcane stores carbohydrate as sugar in their stems.
2458.Gibberellins also promotes bolting (internode elongation just prior to
flowering) in beets, cabbages and many plants with rosette habit.
2459.Kinetin a modified form of adenine, a purine.
2460.Kinetin does not occur naturally in plants.
2461.Natural cytokinins are synthesised in regions where rapid cell
division occurs for example, root apices, developing shoot buds, young
fruits etc.
2462.Cytokinins helps to produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves,
lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation.
2463.Cytokinins help overcome the apical dominance.
2464.Ethylene is synthesised by tissues and ripening fruits.
2465.Influences of ethylene on plants include horizontal growth seedlings,
swelling axis and apical hook formation in dicot seedlings.
2466.Ethylene enhances the respiration rate during ripening of the fruits.
2467.Rise in the rate of respiration is called respiratory climactic.
2468.Ethylene promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation in deep water
rice plants.
2469.Ethylene helps leaves/ upper parts of the shoot to remain above
water.
2470.Ethylene also promotes root growth and root hair formation, thus
helping the plants to increase their absorption surface.
2471.Ethylene is used to initiate flowering and for synchronising fruit-set
in pineapples. It also induces flowering in mango. It is one of the most
widely used plant growth regulators in agriculture.
2472.The most widely used compound as source of ethylene is ethephon.
2473.Ethephon in an aqueous solution is readily absorbed and transported
within the plant and releases ethylene slowly.
2474.Ethephon hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes and apples and
accelerates abscission in flowers and fruits (thinning of cotton, cherry,
walnut).
2475.Ethephon promotes female flowers in cucumbers thereby increasing
the yield.
2476.Abscisic acid was discovered for its role in regulating abscission and
dormancy.
2477.Abscisic acid acts as a general plant growth inhibitor and an
inhibitor of plant metabolism.
2478.Abscisic acid inhibits seed germination.

2479.Abscisic acid stimulates the closure of stomata and increases the

tolerance of plants. It is also called the stress hormone.
2480.Abscisic acid plays an important role in seed development,
maturation and dormancy.
2481.Abscisic acid helps seeds to withstand desiccation and other factors
unfavourable for growth. It acts as an antagonist to Gibberellic acid.
2482.Photoperiodism,the former group of plants are called long day
plants. Examples are aster, hibiscus, coneflower, lettuce, spinach, radish,
sugar beet, and potato.
2483.A plant that requires a long period of darkness, is termed a "short
day" (long night) plant.
2484.Short-day plants form flowers only when the day length is less than
about 12 hours.
2485.Many spring and fall flowering plants are short day plants, including
chrysanthemums, poinsettias and Christmas cactus.
2486.A day-neutral plant is a plant that flowers regardless of the amount
of light of daylight it receives.
2487.Corn and rice are examples day-neutral plants that will bloom
whether the day is long or short.
2488.Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the
length of day or night. It occurs in plants and animals.
2489.Photoperiodism can also be defined as the developmental responses
of plants to the relative lengths of light and dark periods.
2490.Plants for which flowering is either quantitatively or qualitatively
dependent on exposure to low temperature is termed vernalisation.
2491.Vernalisation refers especially to the promotion of flowering by a
period of low temperature.
2492.Wheat, barley, rye have two kinds of varieties: winter and spring
varieties.
2493.The ‘spring’ variety are normally planted in the spring and come to
flower and produce grain before the end of the growing season.
2494.Winter varieties planted in spring would normally fail to flower or
produce mature grain within a span of a flowering season.
2495.Another example of vernalisation is seen in biennial plants.
2496.Biennials are monocarpic plants that normally flower and die in the
second season.
2497.Sugarbeet, cabbages, carrots are some of the common biennials.
2498.Impermeable and hard seed coat; presence of chemical inhibitors
such as abscisic acids, phenolic acids, para-ascorbic acid; and immature
embryos are some of the reasons which causes seed dormancy.
2499.Each tooth is embedded in a socket of jaw bone is called thecodont.
2500.A set of temporary milk or deciduous teeth replaced by a set of
permanent or adult teeth is called diphyodont.
2501.Heterodont dentition namely incisors, canines, premolars and
molars.
2502.The hard chewing surface of the teeth made up of enamel helps in the
mastication of food.
2503.The upper surface of the tongue has small projections called papillae.
Pharynx which serves as a common passage for food and air.
2504.The oesophagus and the trachea (windpipe) open into the pharynx.
2505.A cartilaginous flap called the epiglottis prevents the entry of food
into the glottis opening of the windpipe during swallowing.
2506.The oesophagus is a thin, long tube which extends posteriorly
passing through the neck, thorax and diaphragm and leads to a ‘J’ shaped
bag like structure called stomach.
2507.A muscular sphincter (gastro-oesophageal) regulates the opening of
the oesophagus into the stomach.
2508.Acardiac portion into which the oesophagus opens, a fundic region,
body (main central region) and a pyloric portion which opens into the first
part of the small intestine.
2509.Ileum consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
2510.Caecum is a small blind sac which hosts some symbiotic
microorganisms.
2511.A narrow finger-like tubular projection, the vermiform appendix
which is a vestigial organ, arises from the caecum.

2512.The colon is divided into four parts, ascending, transverse,

descending part and a sigmoid colon.
2513.Serosa is the outermost layer and is made up of a thin mesothelium
(epithelium of visceral organs) with some connective tissues.
2514.Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles usually arranged into an
inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer.
2515.The submucosal layer is formed of loose connective tissue containing
nerves, blood and lymph vessels.
2516.In duodenum, glands are also present in the submucosa.
2517.The innermost layer lining the lumen of the alimentary canal is the
mucosa.
2518.Innermost layer forms irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach and
small finger-like foldings called villi in the small intestine.
2519.The cells lining the villi produce numerous microscopic projections
called microvilli.
2520.Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries and a large lymph
vessel called the lacteal.
2521.Mucosal epithelium secrete mucus that help in lubrication.
2522.Mucosa also forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands) and crypts
in between the bases of villi in the intestine (crypts of Lieberkuhn).
2523.Salivary glands situated just outside the buccal cavity secrete
salivary juice into the buccal cavity.
2524.Liver is the largest gland of the body weighing about 1.2 to 1.5 kg in an
adult human.
2525.Liver is situated in the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm
and has two lobes.
2526.The hepatic lobules are the structural and functional units of the
liver containing hepatic cells arranged in the form of cords.
2527.Each lobule is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called the
Glisson’s capsule.
2528.The bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes through the hepatic
ducts and is stored and concentrated in a thin muscular sac called the
gallbladder.
2529.The duct of gall gallbladder (cystic duct) along with the hepatic duct
from the liver forms the common bile duct.
2530.The bile duct and the pancreatic duct open together into the
duodenum as the common hepato-pancreatic duct which is guarded by a
sphincter called the sphincter of Oddi.
2531.The pancreas is a compound (both exocrine and endocrine) elongated
organ situated between the limbs of the ‘C’ shaped duodenum.
2532.The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing
enzymes and the endocrine portion secretes hormones, insulin and
glucagon.
2533.The buccal cavity performs two major functions, mastication of food
and facilitation of swallowing.
2534.Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and adhering the masticated
food particles into a bolus.
2535.The bolus is then conveyed into the pharynx and then into the
oesophagus by swallowing or deglutition.
2536.The bolus further passes down through the oesophagus by successive
waves of muscular contractions called peristalsis.
2537.Saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes and
enzymes, salivary amylase and lysozyme.
2538.Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an antibacterial agent that
prevents infections.
2539.Starch is hydrolysed here by this enzyme (optimum pH 6.8) into a
disaccharide – maltose.
2540.Gastric glands have three major types of cells namely
(i)mucous neck cells which secrete mucus;
(ii)peptic or chief cells which secrete the proenzyme pepsinogen; and
(iii)parietal or oxyntic cells which secrete HCl and intrinsic factor (factor
essential for absorption of vitamin B12).
2541.The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic gastric juice from the
stomach by the churning movements of its muscular wall and is called the
chyme.

2542.The proenzyme pepsinogen, on exposure to hydrochloric acid gets

converted into the active enzyme pepsin.
2543.Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and peptones (peptides).
2544.The mucus and bicarbonates present in the gastric juice play an
important role in lubrication and protection of the mucosal epithelium
from excoriation by the highly concentrated hydrochloric acid. HCl
provides the acidic pH (pH 1.8).
2545.Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme found in gastric juice of infants which
helps in the digestion of milk proteins.
2546.Lipases are also secreted by gastric glands.
2547.The bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice are the secretions
released into the small intestine.
2548.Pancreatic juice and bile are released through the hepato-pancreatic
duct.
2549.The pancreatic juice contains inactive enzymes – trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, amylases, lipases and
nucleases.
2550.Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme, enterokinase, secreted by the
intestinal mucosa into active trypsin, which in turn activates the other
enzymes in the pancreatic juice.
2551.The bile released into the duodenum contains bile pigments (bilirubin
and bili-verdin), bile salts, cholesterol and phospholipids but no enzymes.
2552.Bile helps in emulsification of fats, breaking down of the fats into
very small micelles. Bile also activates lipases.
2553.Goblet cells which secrete mucus.
2554.Goblet cells constitute the intestinal juice or succus entericus. This
juice contains a variety of enzymes like disaccharidases (e.g., maltase),
dipeptidases, lipases, nucleosidases, etc.
2555.An alkaline medium (pH 7.8). Submucosal glands (Brunner’s glands)
also help in this.
2556.Fats are broken down by lipases with the help of bile into di-and
monoglycerides.

2557.Nucleases in the pancreatic juice acts on nucleic acids to form

nucleotides and nucleosides.
2558.The breakdown of biomacromolecules occurs in the duodenum region
of the small intestine.
2559.The functions of large intestine are:
(i) absorption of water, minerals and certain drugs;
(ii) secretion of mucus which helps in adhering the waste (undigested)
particles together and lubricating it for an easy passage.
2560.The undigested, unabsorbed substances called faeces enters into the
caecum of the large intestine through ileo-caecal valve, which prevents
the backflow of the faecal matter. It is temporarily stored in the rectum
until defecation.
2561.Gastric and intestinal secretions are also, similarly, stimulated by
neural signals.
2562.Hormonal control of the secretion of digestive juices is carried out by
local hormones produced by the gastric and intestinal mucosa.
2563.Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion pass
through the intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph.
2564.Absorption is carried out by passive, active or facilitated transport
mechanisms.
2565.Some substances like glucose and amino acids are absorbed with the
help of carrier proteins. This mechanism is called the facilitated transport.
2566.Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient.
2567.Various nutrients like amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose,
electrolytes are absorbed into the blood by this mechanism.
2568.Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble, cannot be absorbed into the
blood.
2569.They are first incorporated into small droplets called micelles.
2570.They are re-formed into very small protein coated fat globules called
chylomicrons which are transported into the lymph vessels (lacteals) in
the villi.
2571.Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the
alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
2572.The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening
(defaecation) is a voluntary process and is carried out by a mass
peristaltic movement.
2573.Stomach: Absorption of water, simple sugars, and alcohol etc. takes
place.
2574.Small Intestine: Principal organ for absorption of nutrients.
2575.The digestion is completed here and the final products of digestion
such as glucose, fructose, fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids are
absorbed through the mucosa into the bloodstream and lymph.
2576.Large Intestine: Absorption of water, some minerals and drugs takes
place.
2577.The inflammation of the intestinal tract is the most common ailment
due to bacterial or viral infections.
2578.The infections are also caused by the parasites of the intestine like
tapeworm, roundworm, threadworm, hookworm, pinworm, etc.
2579.Jaundice: The liver is affected, skin and eyes turn yellow due to the
deposit of bile pigments.
2580.Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth.
This reflex action is controlled by the vomit centre in the medulla. A feeling
of nausea precedes vomiting.
2581.Diarrhoea: The abnormal frequency of bowel movement and
increased liquidity of the faecal discharge is known as diarrhoea. It
reduces the absorption of food.
2582.Constipation: In constipation, the faeces are retained within the colon
as the bowel movements occur irregularly.
2583.Indigestion: In this condition, the food is not properly digested
leading to a feeling of fullness.
2584.The causes of indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety,
food poisoning, over eating, and spicy food.
2585.Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) may affect large sections of the
population during drought, famine and political turmoil.
2586.PEM affects infants and children to produce Marasmus and
Kwashiorkor.
2587.Marasmus is produced by a deficiency of proteins and calories.
2588.Marasmus is found in infants less than a year in age.
2589.Kwashiorkor is produced by protein deficiency unaccompanied by
calorie deficiency.
2590.Kwashiorkor results from the replacement of mother’s milk by a high
calorie low protein diet in a child more than one year in age.
2591.Oxygen break down simple molecules like glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids.
2592.Carbon dioxide which is harmful is also released during catabolic
reactions.
2593.Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc.,
exchange O2 with CO2 by simple diffusion.
2594.Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of
tubes (tracheal tubes) to transport atmospheric air within the body.
2595.Special vascularised structures called gills (branchial respiration)
are used by most of the aquatic arthropods and molluscs.
2596.Vascularised bags called lungs (pulmonary respiration) are used by
the terrestrial forms for the exchange of gases.
2597.Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammals respire through lungs.
2598.Amphibians like frogs can respire through their moist skin
(cutaneous respiration) also.
2599.The nasal chamber opens into the pharynx, a portion of which is the
common passage for food and air.
2600.The pharynx opens through the larynx region into the trachea.
2601.Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps in sound production and
hence called the sound box.
2602.During swallowing glottis can be covered by a thin elastic
cartilaginous flap called the epiglottis to prevent the entry of food into the
larynx.
2603.Trachea is a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity,
which divides at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra into a right and left
primary bronchi.
2604.Each bronchi undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary
and tertiary bronchi and bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal
bronchioles.
2605.Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very thin
irregular walled and vascularised bag-like structures called alveoli.
2606.Two lungs which are covered by a double-layered pleura, with
pleural fluid between them. It reduces friction on the lung-surface.
2607.The outer pleural membrane is in close contact with the thoracic
lining whereas the inner pleural membrane is in contact with the lung
surface.
2608.Lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber which is anatomically an
air-tight chamber.
2609.The thoracic chamber is formed dorsally by the vertebral column,
ventrally by the sternum, laterally by the ribs and on the lower side by the
dome-shaped diaphragm.
2610.Respiration involves:
(i)Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn
in and CO2 rich alveolar air is released out.
(ii)Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2 ) across alveolar membrane.
(iii)Transport of gases by the blood.
(iv)Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
(v)Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant
release of CO2.
2611.Inspiration during which atmospheric air is drawn in and expiration
by which the alveolar air is released out.
2612.The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by
creating a pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.
2613.Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the lungs
(intrapulmonary pressure) is less than the atmospheric pressure, there is
a negative pressure in the lungs with respect to atmospheric pressure.
2614.Expiration takes place when the intrapulmonary pressure is higher
than the atmospheric pressure.

2615.Exchange of gases also occur between blood and tissues.

2616.Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is
called partial pressure.
2617.The diffusion membrane is made up of three major layers namely the
thin squamous epithelium of alveoli, the endothelium of alveolar
capillaries and the basement substance(composed of a thin basement
membrane supporting the squamous epithelium and the basement
membrane surrounding the single layer endothelial cells of capillaries).
2618.Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in the
RBCs.
2619.CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin (about
2025 percent)
2620.RBCs contain enzyme, carbonic anhydrase and plasma.
2621.A specialised centre present in the medulla region of the brain called
the respiratory rhythm centre is primarily responsible for this regulation.
2622.Another centre present in the pons region of the brain called
pneumotaxic centre.
2623.Asthma is a difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to
inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles.
2624.Emphysema is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are
damaged due to which respiratory surface is decreased. One of the major
causes of this is cigarette smoking.
2625.Fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissues) causing serious lung
damage.
2626.Blood is a special connective tissue consists of a fluid matrix, plasma.
2627.Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constitute nearly 55 percent
of the blood.
2628.Fibrinogen, globulins and albumins are the major proteins.
Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood.
2629.Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc are also present in the plasma.
coagulation or clotting of blood are also present in the plasma.
2630.Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.

2631.Erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets are constitute nearly 45

percent of the blood.
2632.Erythrocytes or red blood cells are the most abundant of all the cells
in blood.
2633.RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow.
2634.RBCs have a red coloured, iron containing complex protein called
haemoglobin.
2635.RBCs have an average life span of 120 days.
2636.Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells as they are colourless
due to the lack of haemoglobin.
2637.Two main categories of white blood cells are granulocytes and
agranulocytes.
2638.Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are different types of
granulocytes.
2639.Lymphocytes and monocytes are the agranulocytes.
2640.Neutrophils are the most abundant cells (60-65 per cent) of the total
WBCs and basophils are the least (0.5-1 percent).
2641.Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin, heparin.
2642.Eosinophils resist infections associated with allergic reactions.
2643.B and T lymphocytes are responsible for immune responses of the
body.
2644.Platelets also called thrombocytes.
2645.Megakaryocytes (special cells in the bone marrow).
2646.Blood normally contains 1,500,00-3,500,00 platelets mm–3.
2647.‘O’ group individuals are called ‘universal donors’.
2648.Karl Landsteiner discovered the ABO blood group.
2649.Blood group AB are universal recipients.
2650.Based on the antigen property, the blood group of all
human beings can be classified as −
Blood Group A--antigen A and antibody B
Blood Group B--antigen B and antibody A
Blood Group AB--antigen A and antigen B and no antibody
Blood Group O--no antigen, but antigen A as well as antibody B
2651.Erythroblastosis fetalis is hemolytic anemia in the fetus (or neonate,
as erythroblastosis neonatorum) caused by transplacental transmission
of maternal antibodies to fetal RBCs.
2652.Coagulation of Blood is a clot or coagulate formed mainly of a
network of threads called fibrins in which dead and damaged formed
elements of blood.
2653.Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens in the
plasma by the enzyme thrombin.
2654.Thrombins, in turn are formed from another inactive substance
present in the plasma called prothrombin.
2655.Thrombokinase, is required for the above reaction. This complex is
formed by a series of linked enzymatic reactions (cascade process)
involving a number of factors present in the plasma.
2656.Calcium ions play a very important role in clotting.
2657.An injury or trauma stimulates platelets in the blood to release.
2658.An elaborate network of vessels called the lymphatic system collects
this fluid and drains it back to the major veins.
2659.The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called lymph.
2660.Lymph is a colourless fluid containing specialised lymphocytes
which are responsible for the immune responses of the body.
2661.Lymph is also an important carrier for nutrients, hormones, etc.
2662.Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals present in the
intestinal villi.
2663.Open circulatory system is present in arthropods and molluscs in
which blood pumped by the heart passes through large vessels into open
spaces or body cavities called sinuses.
2664.Annelids and chordates have a closed circulatory system in which
the blood pumped by the heart is always circulated through a closed
network of blood vessels.
2665.Fishes have a 2 chambered heart with an atrium and a ventricle.
2666.Amphibians and the reptiles (except crocodiles) have a 3-chambered
heart with two atria and a single ventricle.

2667.Crocodiles, birds and mammals possess a 4-chambered heart with

two atria and two ventricles.
2668.Human circulatory system also called the blood vascular system
consists of a muscular chambered heart.
2669.Heart is situated in the thoracic cavity.
2670.Heart is protected by a double walled membranous bag, pericardium.
2671.Our heart has four chambers, two relatively small upper chambers
called atria and two larger lower chambers called ventricles.
2672.The atrium and ventricle of the same side are also separated by a
thick fibrous tissue called the atrio-ventricular septum.
2673.Heart is made of cardiac muscles.
2674.A specialised cardiac musculature called the nodal tissue.
2675.A patch of this tissue is present in the right upper corner of the right
atrium called the sino-atrial node.
2676.The lower left corner of the right atrium close to the atrio-ventricular
septum called the atrio-ventricular node.
2677.These branches give rise to minute fibres throughout the ventricular
musculature of the respective sides and are called purkinje fibres.
2678.Cardiac Cycle consists of systole and diastole of both the atria and
ventricles.
2679.During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately 70
mL of blood which is called the stroke volume.
2680.The cardiac output can be defined as the volume of blood pumped out
by each ventricle per minute and averages 5000 mL or 5 litres in a healthy
individual.
2681.The first heart sound (Club) is associated with the closure of the
tricuspid and bicuspid valves whereas the second heart sound (dub) is
associated with the closure of the semilunar valves.
2682.The blood flows through Blood Vessels—the arteries and veins.
2683.An inner lining of squamous endothelium is tunica intima.
2684.A middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibres is tunica media.
2685.An external layer of fibrous connective tissue with collagen fibres is
tunica externa.
2686.Oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary veins into the left
atrium.
2687.The oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by a network of
arteries, arterioles and capillaries to the tissues.
2688.Deoxygenated blood is collected by a system of venules, veins and
vena cava and emptied into the right atrium.
2689.A unique vascular connection exists between the digestive tract and
liver called hepatic portal system.
2690.The hepatic portal vein carries blood from the intestine to the liver.
2691.Hypertension is the term for blood pressure that is higher than
normal (120/80).
2692.120 mm Hg (millimetres of mercury pressure) is the systolic.
2693.80 mm Hg is the diastolic, or resting, pressure.
2694.Coronary Artery Disease often referred to as atherosclerosis affects
the vessels that supply blood to the heart muscle.
2695.Coronary Artery disease is caused by deposits of calcium, fat,
cholesterol and fibrous tissues which makes the lumen of arteries
narrower.
2696.Angina is also called ‘angina pectoris’.
2697.Angina can occur in men and women of any age but it is more
common among the middle-aged and elderly.
2698.Angina occurs due to conditions that affect the blood flow.
2699.Congestion of the lungs is one of the main symptoms of heart failure.
2700.Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major forms of nitrogenous
wastes excreted by the animals.
2701.The process of excreting ammonia is Ammonotelism. Eg Bony fish.
2702.Many bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects are
ammonotelic.
2703.Amphibians and marine fishes mainly excrete urea and are called
ureotelic animals.
2704.Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as
uric acid in the form of pellet or paste with a minimum loss of water and
are called uricotelic animals.
2705.Vertebrates have complex tubular organs called kidneys.
2706.Protonephridia or flame cells are the excretory structures in
Platyhelminthes (Flatworms, e.g., Planaria), rotifers, some annelids and
the cephalochordate – Amphioxus.
2707.Nephridia are the tubular excretory structures of earthworms and
other annelids.
2708.Nephridia help to remove nitrogenous wastes and maintain a fluid
and ionic balance.
2709.Malpighian tubules are the excretory structures of most of the
insects including cockroaches. Malpighian tubules help in the removal of
nitrogenous wastes and osmoregulation.
2710.Antennal glands or green glands perform the excretory function in
crustaceans like prawns.
2711.Excretory system consists of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and
urethra.
2712.Towards the centre of the inner concave surface of the kidney is a
notch called hilum.
2713.Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called the renal
pelvis with projections called calyces.
2714.Inside the kidney, there are two zones, an outer cortex and an inner
medulla.
2715.The cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids as renal
columns called Columns of Bertini.
2716.Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular structures called
nephrons.
2717.Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole.
2718.Blood from the glomerulus is carried away by an efferent arteriole.
2719.The renal tubule begins with a double walled cup-like structure called
Bowman’s capsule.
2720.Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule, is called the malpighian
body or renal corpuscle.
2721.A hairpin shaped Henle’s loop is the next part of the tubule which has
a descending and an ascending limb.
2722.The DCTs of many nephrons open into a straight tube called collecting
duct.
2723.A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the Henle’s loop
forming a ‘U’ shaped vasa recta.
2724.Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons.
2725.Urine formation involves three main processes namely, glomerular
filtration, reabsorption and secretion, that takes place in different parts of
the nephron.
2726.Urine formation is the filtration of blood, which is carried out by the
glomerulus and is called glomerular filtration.
2727.The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of blood.
2728.The epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule called podocytes are
arranged in an intricate manner so as to leave some minute spaces called
filtration slits or slit pores.
2729.The amount of filtrate formed by the kidneys per minute is called the
glomerular filtration rate.
2730.Reabsorption of water also occurs passively in the initial segments of
the nephron.
2731.Tubular secretion is also an important step in urine formation as it
helps in the maintenance of ionic and acid base balance of body fluids.
2732.Renin which converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I and
further to angiotensin II.
2733.Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water from the distal
parts of the tubule.
2734.An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the
release of Atrial Natriuretic Factor. It is blood pressure lowering hormone.
2735.Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary
bladder where it is stored until a voluntary signal is given by the central
nervous system.
2736.The process of release of urine is called micturition and the neural
mechanisms causing it is called the micturition reflex.
2737.The urine formed is a light yellow coloured watery fluid which is
slightly acidic (pH-6.0).
2738.Presence of glucose (Glycosuria) and ketone bodies (Ketonuria) in
urine are indicative of diabetes mellitus.
2739.Kidneys, lungs, liver and skin also help in the elimination of excretory
wastes.
2740.Liver the largest gland in our body secretes bile containing
substances like bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid
hormones, vitamins and drugs.
2741.Sweat gland is produced by the sweat glands is a watery fluid
containing NaCl, lactic acid etc.
2742.Sebaceous glands eliminate certain substances like sterols,
hydrocarbons and waxes through sebum. This secretion provides a
protective oily covering for the skin.
2743.Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in blood,
a condition called uremia.
2744.Urea can be removed by a process called hemodialysis.
2745.During the process of haemodialysis, the blood drained from a
convenient artery is pumped into a dialysing unit called artificial kidney.
2746.The unit contains a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by a fluid
(dialysing fluid) having the same composition as that of plasma except the
nitrogenous wastes. As nitrogenous wastes are absent in the dialysing
fluid.
2747.Kidney is used in transplantation from a donor.
2748.Renal calculi: Stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates,
etc.) formed within the kidney.
2749.Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
2750.Movements result in a change of place or location are called
locomotion.
2751.Paramoecium cilia helps in the movement of food through
cytopharynx.
2752.Types of movement: Three main types of movements are amoeboid,
ciliary and muscular.
2753.Macrophages and leukocytes in blood exhibit amoeboid movement. It
is affected by pseudopodia formed by the streaming of protoplasm (as in
Amoeba).
2754.Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments are also involved in
amoeboid movement.
2755.Ciliary movement occurs in most of our internal tubular organs
which are lined by ciliated epithelium.
2756.The coordinated movements of cilia in the trachea help us in
removing dust particles and some of the foreign substances inhaled along
with the atmospheric air.
2757.Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc, require muscular
movement.
2758.Flagellar movement helps in the swimming of spermatozoa,
maintenance of water current in the canal system of sponges and in
locomotion of Protozoans like Euglena.
2759.Three types of muscles are identified : (i) Skeletal (ii) Visceral and (iii)
Cardiac.
2760.Skeletal muscles are closely associated with the skeletal components
of the body.
2761.Skeletal muscles have a striped appearance under the microscope
and hence are called striated muscles. As their activities are under the
voluntary control of the nervous system, they are known as voluntary
muscle.
2762.Visceral muscles are located in the inner walls of hollow visceral
organs of the body like the alimentary canal, reproductive tract, etc. they
are called smooth muscles (nonstriated muscle).
2763.Their activities are not under the voluntary control of the nervous
system and are therefore known as involuntary muscles.
2764.Cardiac muscles are the muscles of heart. They are involuntary in
nature as the nervous system does not control their activities directly.
2765.Each organised skeletal muscle in our body is made of a number of
muscle bundles of fascicles held together by a common collagenous
connective tissue layer called fascia.
2766.Each muscle fibre is lined by the plasma membrane called
sarcolemma.
2767.Muscle fibre is a syncytium as the sarcoplasm contains many nuclei.
2768.The endoplasmic reticulum, i.e., sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle
fibres is the store house of calcium ions.
2769.Muscle fibre is the presence of a large number of parallelly arranged
filaments in the sarcoplasm called filaments of myofibrils.
2770.Myofibril has established two important proteins Actin and Myosin.
2771.The light bands contain actin and is called I-band or Isotropic band.
Dark band called ‘A’ or Anisotropic band contains myosin.
2772.The portion of the myofibril between two successive lines is
considered as the functional unit of contraction and is called a sarcomere.
2773.Each myosin (thick) filament is also a polymerised protein.
Monomeric proteins called Meromyosin.
2774.The junction between a motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the
muscle fibre is called the neuromuscular junction or motor end plate.
2775.Muscle contains a red coloured oxygen storing pigment called
myoglobin.
2776.Myoglobin content is high in some of the muscles which gives a
reddish appearance are called the Red fibres. These muscles also contain
plenty of mitochondria which can utilise the large amount of oxygen
stored in them for ATP production. These muscles, therefore, can also be
called aerobic muscles.
2777.Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few
cartilages.
2778.Bone and cartilage are specialised connective tissues.
2779.The former has a very hard matrix due to calcium salts in it and the
latter has slightly pliable matrix due to chondroitin salts.
2780.Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones.
2781.The skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute axial
skeleton.
2782.Skull is composed of two sets of bones cranial and facial, that totals
to 22 bones.
2783.Skull form the hard protective outer covering, cranium for the brain.

2784.The facial region is made up of 14 skeletal elements which form the

front part of the skull.
2785.A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is present at the base of the
buccal cavity.
2786.Each middle ear contains three tiny bones – Malleus, Incus and
Stapes, collectively called Ear Ossicles.
2787.Our vertebral column is formed by 26 units called vertebrae.
2788.Sternum is a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax.
2789.There are 12 pairs of ribs.
2790.It has two articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and is hence called
bicephalic.
2791.First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs.
2792.Pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the sternum but join the
seventh rib with the help of hyaline cartilage are called vertebrochondral
(false) ribs.
2793.Ribs are not connected ventrally are called floating ribs. Thoracic
vertebrae, ribs and sternum together form the rib cage. 11th and 12th ribs
are called floating ribs.
2794.Each limb is made of 30 bones.
2795.The bones of the hand (fore limb) are humerus, radius and ulna,
carpal (wrist bones), metacarpals (palm bones) and phalanges.
2796.Femur (thigh bone – the longest bone), tibia and fibula, tarsals (ankle
bones), metatarsals and phalanges are the bones of the legs (hind limb).
2797.Pectoral and Pelvic girdle bones help in the articulation of the upper
and the lower limbs.
2798.Each half of pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and scapula.
2799.Scapula is a large triangular flat bone situated in the dorsal part of
the thorax between the second and seventh ribs.
2800.The dorsal, flat, triangular body of scapula has a slightly elevated
Ridge called the spine which projects as a flat, expanded process called the
acromion.
2801.Below the acromion is a depression called the glenoid cavity which
articulates with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint.
2802.Each clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures is called the
collarbone.
2803.Pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones.
2804.Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones ilium, ischium
and pubis.
2805.At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called
acetabulum.
2806.Fibrous joints do not allow any movement. It is between cranial
bones. This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones which fuse end-to-
end with the help of dense fibrous connective tissues in the form of
sutures, to form the cranium.
2807.In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are joined together with
the help of cartilages. It is between public bones in the pelvic girdle.
2808.Synovial joints are characterised by the presence of a fluid filled
synovial cavity between the articulating surfaces of the two bones.
2809.Ball and socket joint (between humerus and pectoral girdle/Femur
and acetabulum), hinge joint (knee joint, between Phalanges), pivot joint
(between atlas and axis), gliding joint (between the carpal) and saddle
joint (between carpal and metacarpal of thumb) are some examples.
2810.Autoimmune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to
fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscle.
2811.Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle mostly due to genetic
disorder.
2812.Rapid spasms in muscle due to low calcium ions in body fluid.
2813.Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.
2814.Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterised by decreased bone
mass and increased chances of fractures. Decreased levels of estrogen is a
common cause.
2815.Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
2816.Coordination is the process through which two or more organs
interact and complement the functions of one another.
2817.The neural system of all animals is composed of highly specialised
cells called neurons.
2818.Neurons which can detect, receive and transmit different kinds of
stimuli.
2819.Hydra is composed of a network of neurons.
2820.Brain is present along with a number of ganglia and neural tissues.
2821.Central neural system includes the brain and the spinal cord.
2822.The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to
the central neural system.
2823.Efferent fibres transmit regulatory impulses from the central neural
system to the concerned peripheral tissues/organs.
2824.The Peripheral neural system is called somatic neural system and
autonomic neural system.
2825.Visceral nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system
that comprises the whole complex of nerves, fibres, ganglia, and plexuses
by which impulses travel from the central nervous system to the viscera
and from the viscera to the central nervous system.
2826.A neuron is composed of three major parts, cell body, dendrites and
Axon.
2827.The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and
certain granular bodies called Nissl’s granules.
2828.Cell body also contain Nissl’s granules and are called dendrites.
2829.Axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is branched.
2830.Each branch terminates as a bulb-like structure called synaptic knob
which possess synaptic vesicles containing chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
2831.Multipolar(with one axon and two or more dendrites found in the
cerebral cortex).
2832.Bipolar(with one axon and one dendrite, found in the retina of the
eye.
2833.Unipolar(cell body with one axon only; found usually in the
embryonic stage).
2834.Schwann cells, which form a myelin sheath around the axon.
2835.The gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called nodes of
Ranvier.
2836.Myelinated nerve fibres are found in spinal and cranial nerves.
2837.Unmyelinated nerve fibre is found in autonomous and the somatic
neural systems.
2838.The electrical potential difference across the resting plasma
membrane is called the resting potential.
2839.The electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane at
the site A is called the action potential, which is in fact termed as a nerve
impulse.
2840.A synapse is formed by the membranes of a presynaptic neuron and
a postsynaptic neuron.
2841.The membranes of the pre- and postsynaptic neurons are separated
by a fluid-filled space called the synaptic cleft.
2842.Neurotransmitters are involved in the transmission of impulses at
these synapses.
2843.Brain controls the voluntary movements, balance of the body,
functioning of vital involuntary organs (e.g., lungs, heart, kidneys, etc.),
thermoregulation, hunger and thirst, circadian rhythms of our body,
activities of several endocrine glands.
2844.Brain is covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer layer
called the dura mater.
2845.A very thin middle layer called the arachnoid and an inner layer
(which is in contact with the brain tissue) called pia mater.
2846.The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
2847.Cerebrum forms the major part of the human brain.
2848. A deep cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally into two halves,
which are termed as the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
2849.The hemispheres are connected by a tract of nerve fibres called the
corpus callosum.
2850.The layer of cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres is called the
cerebral cortex.
2851.The cerebral cortex contains motor areas, sensory areas and large
regions.

2852.The cerebrum wraps around a structure called the thalamus.

2853.Hypothalamus lies at the base of the thalamus.
2854.The hypothalamus contains a number of centres which control body
temperature, urge for eating and drinking. It also contains several groups
of neurosecretory cells, which secrete hormones called hypothalamic
hormones.
2855.The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres like amygdala,
hippocampus.
2856.A complex structure form called the limbic lobe or limbic system.
2857.The midbrain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the
forebrain and pons of the hindbrain.
2858.A canal called the cerebral aqueduct passess through the midbrain.
2859.The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists mainly of four round
swellings (lobes) called corpora quadrigemina.
2860.The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called
the medulla oblongata).
2861.Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the
brain.
2862.The medulla of the brain is connected to the spinal cord.
2863.The medulla contains centres which control respiration
cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions.
2864.Brain stem forms the connections between the brain and spinal cord.
2865.Nose contains mucus-coated receptors which are specialised for
receiving the sense of smell and called olfactory receptors.
2866.The tongue detects tastes through taste buds, containing gustatory
receptors.
2867.Our paired eyes are located in sockets of the skull called orbits.
2868.The external layer is composed of dense connective tissue and is
called the sclera.
2869.The anterior portion of this layer is called the cornea.
2870.Choroid contains many blood vessels and looks bluish in colour.
2871.The choroid layer becomes thick in the anterior part to form the
ciliary body.
2872.The ciliary body itself continues forward to form a pigmented and
opaque structure called the iris.
2873.Iris which is the visible coloured portion of the eye.
2874.The eyeball contains a transparent crystalline lens.
2875.The aperture surrounded by the iris is called the pupil.
2876.The inner layer is the retina contains three layers of neural cells from
inside to outside ganglion cells, bipolar cells and photoreceptor cells.
2877.Photoreceptor cells,rods and cones. These cells contain the light
sensitive proteins called the photopigments.
2878.The daylight (photopic) vision are functions of cones and the twilight
(scotopic) vision is the function of the rods.
2879.The rods contain a purplish red protein called the rhodopsin or visual
purple which contains Vitamin A.
2880.Photopigments that respond to red, green and blue light.
2881.Photoreceptor cells are not present in that region is called the blind
spot. When optic nerve pass through out of retina is called blind spot.
2882.A yellowish pigmented spot called the macula lutea with a central pit
called the fovea.
2883.The fovea is a thinned out portion of the retina where only the cones
are densely packed.
2884.The space between the cornea and the lens is called the aqueous
chamber and contains a thin watery fluid called aqueous humor.
2885.The space between the lens and the retina is called the vitreous
chamber and is filled with a transparent gel called vitreous humor.
2886.Human eyes is composed of opsin (a protein) and retinal (an aldehyde
of vitamin A).
2887.Potentials (impulses) are transmitted by the optic nerve to the visual
cortex.
2888.The outer ear consists of the pinna and external auditory meatus
(canal).
2889.The tympanic membrane is composed of connective tissues covered
with skin outside and with mucus membrane inside.

2890.The middle ear contains three ossicles called malleus, incus and
stapes.
2891.The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is
attached to the oval window.
2892.An Eustachian tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx.
2893.The Eustachian tube helps in equalising the pressures on either side
of the eardrum.
2894.The fluid-filled inner ear called labyrinth.
2895.Membranous labyrinth which is surrounded by a fluid called
perilymph.
2896.Membranous labyrinth is filled with a fluid called endolymph.
2897.The coiled portion of the labyrinth is called cochlea.
2898.The space within cochlea called scala media.
2899.The organ of corti is a structure located on the basilar membrane
which contains hair cell.
2900.The hair cells are present in rows on the internal side of the organ of
corti.
2901.Stereo cilia are projected from the apical part of each hair cell.
2902.Rows of the hair cells is a thin elastic membrane called tectorial
membrane.
2903.The inner ear also contains a complex system called vestibular
apparatus.
2904.The vestibular apparatus is composed of three semicircular canals
and the otolith (macula is the sensory part of saccule and utricle).
2905.The base of canals is swollen and is called ampulla, which contains a
projecting ridge called crista ampullaris.
2906.Endocrine glands lack ducts and are called ductless glands. Their
secretions are called hormones.
2907.Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus
and gonads are the organised endocrine system.
2908.Hypothalamus is the basal part of the diencephalon, forebrain.
2909.Hypothalamus contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called
nuclei.
2910.Releasing hormones (which stimulate secretion of pituitary
hormones)
2911.Inhibiting hormones (which inhibit secretions of pituitary hormones).
2912.Hypothalamic hormone called Gonadotropin releasing hormone
(GnRH) stimulates the pituitary.
2913.Somatostatin from the hypothalamus inhibits the release of growth
hormone from the pituitary.
2914.The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called the sella turcica.
2915.Adenohypophysis consists of two portions, pars distalis and pars
intermedia.
2916.The pars distalis region of pituitary commonly called anterior
pituitary.
2917.Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) also known as posterior pituitary,
stores and releases two hormones called oxytocin and vasopressin.
2918.Excess secretion of growth hormone in adults especially in middle
age can result in severe disfigurement (especially of the face) called
Acromegaly.
2919.Prolactin regulates the growth of the mammary glands and
formation of milk.
2920.Luteinizing hormone stimulates the synthesis and secretion of
hormones called androgens. Luteinizing produced pituitary hormone.
2921.Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates growth and development of
the ovarian follicles in females.
2922.Melanocyte stimulating hormone acts on the melanocytes (melanin
containing cells) and regulates pigmentation of the skin.
2923.Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles of our body and stimulates their
contraction.
2924.Vasopressin acts mainly at the kidney and stimulates reabsorption
of water and electrolytes by the distal tubules and thereby reduces loss of
water through urine (diuresis) is also called antidiuretic hormone.
2925.Thyroid stimulating hormone stimulates the synthesis and secretion
of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland.

2926.Adrenocorticotrophic hormone stimulates the synthesis and

secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids.
2927.Luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone stimulate
gonadal activity and hence are called gonadotropins.
2928.The pineal gland is located on the dorsal side of forebrain. Pineal
gland present diencephalon of forebrain acts as master clock.
2929.Pineal secretes a hormone called melatonin.
2930.Melatonin plays a very important role in the regulation (diurnal)
rhythm of our body.
2931.Melatonin helps in maintaining the normal rhythm of sleep-wake
cycle, body temperature.
2932.Melatonin also influences metabolism, pigmentation, the menstrual
cycle.
2933.The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes which are located on
either side of the trachea.
2934.Both the lobes are interconnected with a thin flap of connective
tissue called isthmus.
2935.The thyroid gland is composed of follicles and stromal tissues.
2936.Iodine is essential for the normal rate of hormone synthesis in the
thyroid.
2937.Deficiency of iodine results in hypothyroidism.
2938.Enlargement of the thyroid gland called goitre. Goitre is used in
thyroxine and Triiodothyronine.
2938.Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development
and maturation of the growing baby leading to stunted growth
(cretinism), mental retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin,
deaf-mutism.
2939.Hypothyroidism may cause menstrual cycle to become irregular.
2940.Due to cancer of the thyroid gland or due to development of nodules
of the thyroid gland, the rate of synthesis and secretion of thyroid
hormones is increased to abnormal high levels leading to a condition
called hyperthyroidism.

2941.Exopthalmic goitre is a form of hyperthyroidism, characterised by

enlargement of the thyroid gland, protrusion of the eyeballs, increased
basal metabolic rate, and weight loss, also called Graves’ disease.
2942.Thyroid hormones play an important role in the regulation of basal
metabolic rate.
2943.Thyroid hormones control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins
and fat.
2944.Maintenance of water and electrolyte balance is also influenced by
thyroid hormones.
2945.Thyroid gland also secretes a protein hormone called thyrocalcitonin
which regulates the blood calcium levels. Thyroid gland secretes
thyrotropin.
2946.Four parathyroid glands are present on the back side of the thyroid
gland.
2947.The parathyroid glands secrete a peptide hormone called
parathyroid hormone.
2948.The secretion of parathyroid hormone is regulated by circulating
levels of calcium ions.
2949.Parathyoid hormone also stimulates reabsorption of calcium ions by
the renal tubules.
2950.Parathyroid/Parathormone hormone is a hypercalcemic hormone, it
increases the blood calcium ion levels.
2951.The thymus gland is a lobular structure located between lungs
behind sternum on the ventral side of the aorta.
2952.The thymus plays a major role in the development of the immune
system.
2953.Thymus gland secretes the peptide hormones called thymosins.
2954.Thymosins also promote production of antibodies to provide humoral
immunity.
2955.Adrenal glands one at the anterior part of each kidney.
2956.The centrally located tissue is called the adrenal medulla, outside this
lies the adrenal cortex.
2957.In adrenal gland, carbohydrate metabolism causing acute weakness
and fatigue leading to a disease called Addison’s disease.
2958.The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones called adrenaline or
epinephrine and noradrenaline or norepinephrine. These are commonly
called as catecholamines.
2959.Adrenaline and noradrenaline are secreted during emergency
situations and are called emergency hormones or hormones of Fight or
Flight.
2960.Catecholamines also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen resulting
in an increased concentration of glucose in blood.
2961.Catecholamines also stimulate the breakdown of lipids and proteins.
2962.The adrenal cortex can be divided into three layers, called zone
reticularis (inner layer), zona fasciculata (middle layer) and zone
glomerulosa (outer layer).
2963.The adrenal cortex secretes many hormones, commonly called as
corticoid and corticotropin.
2964.The corticoids which are involved in carbohydrate metabolism are
called glucocorticoids.
2965.Corticoids which regulate the balance of water and electrolytes in
our body are called mineralocorticoids.
2966.Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid in our body.
2967.Glucocorticoids stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis;
and inhibit cellular uptake and utilisation of amino acids.
2968.Cortisol is also involved in maintaining the cardiovascular system as
well as the kidney.
2969.Cortisol stimulates red blood cell production.
2970.Aldosterone stimulates the reabsorption of sodium ions and water
and excretion of potassium ions and phosphate ions.
2971.Aldosterone helps in the maintenance of electrolytes, body fluid
volume, osmotic pressure and blood pressure.
2972.Androgenic steroids are also secreted by the adrenal cortex, growth
of axial hair, pubic hair and facial hair during puberty.
2973.Pancreas is a composite gland which acts as both exocrine and
endocrine gland.
2974.The endocrine pancreas consists of ‘Islets of Langerhans’.
2975.Islets of Langerhans in a normal human pancreas representing only 1
to 2 percent of the pancreatic tissue.
2976.The alpha cells secrete a hormone called glucagon.
2977.Beta cells secrete insulin.
2978.Glucagon is a peptide hormone maintaining normal blood glucose
levels.
2979.Glucagon acts mainly on the liver cells (hepatocytes) and stimulates
glycogenolysis resulting in an increased blood sugar (hyperglycemia).
2980.Glucagon and insulin is a hyperglycemic hormone.
2981.Insulin is a peptide hormone, regulation of glucose homeostasis.
2982.Insulin acts mainly on hepatocytes and adipocytes (cells of adipose
tissue).
2983.Glucose from blood to hepatocytes and adipocytes resulting in
decreased blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia).
2984.Insulin also stimulates glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis).
2985.Prolonged hyperglycemia leads to a complex disorder called diabetes
mellitus.
2986.Diabetes mellitus which is associated with loss of glucose through
urine and formation of harmful compounds known as ketone bodies.
2987.Testis is present in the scrotal sac (outside abdomen) of male
individuals.
2988.Testis is composed of seminiferous tubules and stromal or interstitial
tissue.
2989.The Leydig cells or interstitial cells, which are present in the
intertubular spaces produce a group of hormones called androgens
mainly testosterone.
2990.Androgens regulate the male sex organs like epididymis, vas
deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra.
2991.Androgenes stimulate muscle growth, growth of facial and axillary
hair, aggressiveness, low pitch of voice etc.
2992.Androgens play a major stimulatory role in the process of
spermatogenesis (formation of spermatozoa).
2993.Androgenes influence the male sexual behaviour (libido).
2994.Females have a pair of ovaries located in the abdomen.
2995.Ovary also produces two groups of steroid hormones called estrogen
and progesterone.
2996.Ovary is composed of ovarian follicles and stromal tissues.
2997.The estrogen is synthesised and secreted mainly by the growing
ovarian follicles.
2998.Ruptured follicle is converted to a structure called the corpus luteum,
which secretes mainly progesterone.
2999.Estrogens also regulate female sexual behaviour.
3000.Progesterone also acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the
formation of alveoli (sac-like structures which store milk) and milk
secretion.
3001.Hormones are also secreted by some tissues which are not endocrine
glands.
3002.Atrial wall of our heart secretes a very important peptide hormone
called atrial natriuretic factor.
3003.Atrial natriuretic factor is secreted which causes dilation of the
blood vessels.
3004.The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide hormone
called erythropoietin.
3005.Erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis (formation of RBC).
3006.Endocrine cells secrete four major peptide hormones, gastrin,
secretin, cholecystokinin and gastric inhibitory peptide.
3007.Gastrin acts on the gastric glands and stimulates the secretion of
hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
3008.Secretin acts on the exocrine pancreas and stimulates secretion of
water and bicarbonate ions.
3009.Cholecystokinin acts on both pancreas and gallbladder and
stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile juice.
3010.Gastric inhibitory peptide inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
3011.Non endocrine tissues secrete hormones called growth factor.

3012.Hormone receptors present on the cell membrane of the target cells

are called membrane-bound receptors and the receptors present inside the
target cells are called intracellular receptors.
3013.Nuclear receptors (present in the nucleus).
3014.Hormones can be divided into groups :
(i) peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon,
pituitary hormones and hypothalamic hormones, etc.)
(ii) steroids (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone)
(iii) iodothyronines (thyroid hormones)
(iv) amino-acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine)
3015.Cloning is the process of producing genetically identical individuals
of an organism either naturally or artificially. In nature, many organisms
produce clones through asexual reproduction.
3016.Small buds are produced that remain attached initially to the parent
cell which, eventually gets separated and mature into new yeast
organisms (cells).
3017.Vegetative propagules in angiosperms are Eyes of potato, Rhizome of
ginger, Bulbil of Agave, Leaf buds of Bryophyllum, Offset of water
hyacinth.
3018.Zoospores is a spore of certain algae, fungi, and protozoans, capable
of swimming by means of a flagellum.
3019.Other common asexual reproductive structures are conidia
(Penicillium), buds (Hydra) and gemmules (sponge).
3020.Vegetative propagation such as runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber,
offset, bulb are all capable of giving rise to new offspring.
3021.If the body breaks into distinct pieces (fragments) each fragment
grows into an adult capable of producing offspring (e.g., Hydra). This is
also a mode of asexual reproduction called fragmentation.
3022.The plant water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is nicknamed as the
"Terror of Bengal" because it grows at an alarming rate and spreads on the
surface of the water body.
3023.Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial aquatic plant (or
hydrophyte) native to tropical and subtropical South America. With
broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves, water hyacinth may rise above the
surface of the water.
3024.Adventitious buds arise from the notches present at the margins of
leaves of Bryophyllum.
3025.Juvenile phase is the period of growth in an individual organism
after its birth and before it reaches reproductive maturity.
3026.Vegetative phase of plant growth that occurs after germination and
before flowering, during which the plant develops the majority of its
foliage and truly flourishes.

3027.Strobilanthes kunthiana, kurinji or neelakurinji, is a shrub that is

found in the shola forests of the Western Ghats in South India. Nilgiri Hills,
which literally means the blue mountains, got their name from the
purplish blue flowers of Neelakurinji.
3028.When both the gametes are similar in appearance that these can be
distinguished, these gametes are called homogametes or isogametes.
3029.Heterogamete are either of a pair of gametes that differ in form, size,
or behavior and occurs typically as large nonmotile female gametes and
small motile sperm.
3030.An antheridium is a haploid structure or organ producing and
containing male gametes (called antherozoids or sperm).
3031.An ovum is the name for the haploid female reproductive cell, or
gamete. Both animals and land plants (embryophytes) produce ova.
3032.Female is pistillate or bearing pistils.
3033.Unisexual is either male or female; not hermaphrodite.
3034.Bisexual speices are Earthworms, sponge, tapeworm and leeches are
hermaphrodites.
3035.Cockroach is an example of a unisexual species.
3036.A haploid parent produces gametes by mitotic division.
3037.Monera, fungi, algae and bryophytes have haploid.
3038.Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms and human beings, the
parental body is diploid.
3039.Oogonium is female sex organ.
3040.Antheridium is male sex organ.
3041.Bisexual animal (Earthworm), Unisexual animal (Cockroach),
Monoecious plant (Chara), Dioecious plant (Marchantia), Bisexual flower
(sweet potato).
3042.Meiocytes (gamete mother cell) undergo meiosis.
3044.Male gamete is motile and the female gamete is stationary.
3045.Algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes, water is the medium through
which this gamete transfer takes place.
3046.Pollen grains are the carriers of male gametes and ovule have the
egg.
3047.Pollen grains produced in anthers have to be transferred to the
stigma before it can lead to fertilisation.
3048.Cross-pollination is defined as the transfer of pollen from one flower
to another of a different plant.
3049.Pollination facilitates transfer of pollen grains to the stigma.
3050.Syngamy results in the formation of a diploid zygote.
3051.Fertilisation also known as insemination, pollination, fecundation,
syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to initiate the
development of a new individual organism or offspring.
3052.Rotifers, honeybees and even some lizards and birds (turkey), the
female gamete undergoes development to form new organisms without
fertilisation is called parthenogenesis.
3053.Syngamy occurs in the external medium (water) outside the body of
the organism is called external fertilisation.
3054.Aquatic animals are Fish, Amphibians, Marine Mammal, Mollies,
Water Bird, aquatic insect, Fiddler crab.
3055.Terristerial animals are Reptiles, Birds, Mammals, Cat, Ants, Spider.
3056.Syngamy occurs inside the body of the organism is called internal
fertilisation.
3057.Non-motile male gametes are carried to female gamete by pollen
tubes.
3058.Zygote divides by meiosis to form haploid spores that grow into
haploid individuals.
3059.Embryogenesis refers to the process of development of an embryo
from the zygote.
3060.During embryogenesis, zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and
cell differentiation.
3061.Oviparous animals like reptiles and birds, the fertilised eggs covered
by hard calcareous shell.
3062.Viviparous animals (majority of mammals including human beings),
the zygote develops into a young one inside the body of the female
organism.
3063.In flowering plants, the zygote is formed inside the ovule.
3064.After fertilisation the sepals, petals and stamens of the flower wither
and fall off.
3065.Pistil remains attached to the plant.
3066.Zygote develops into the embryo and the ovules develop into the seed.
3067.Ovary develops into the fruit which develops a thick wall called
pericarp.
3068.Pericarp is the part of a fruit formed from the wall of the ripened
ovary.
3069..Senescent phase is the period when an organism grows old and loses
the ability to reproduce.
3070.Inflorescences are formed which bear the floral buds and then the
flowers.
3071.Androecium is male reproductive structure.
3072.Gynoecium is female reproductive structure.
3073.Stamen the long and slender stalk called the filament and the
terminal generally bilobed structure called the anther.
3074.The proximal end of the filament is attached to the thalamus.
3075.A typical angiosperm anther is bilobed with each lobe having two
theca, they are dithecous.
3076.The anther is a four-sided (tetragonal) structure consisting of four
microsporangia located at the corners, two in each lobe.
3077.The microsporangia develop further and become pollen sacs.
3078.Microsporangium is generally surrounded by four wall layers are
epidermis, endothecium, middle layers and the tapetum.
3079.The innermost wall layer is the tapetum nourishes the developing
pollen grains.
3080.Tapetum cells possess dense cytoplasm and generally have more
than one nucleus.
3081.When the anther is young, a group of compactly arranged
homogenous cells called the sporogenous tissue occupies the centre of
each microsporangium.
3082.Sporogenous tissue is capable of giving rise to a microspore tetrad.
3083.The process of formation of microspores from a pollen mother cell
through meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
3084.The microspores are formed and arranged in a cluster of four cells
the microspore tetrad.
3085.As the anthers mature and dehydrated, the microspores dissociate
from each other and develop into pollen grains.
3086.Pollen grains represent the male gametophytes.
3087.Hibiscus is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family,
Malvaceae.
3088.Hibiscus or less widely known as rose mallow. Other names include
hardy hibiscus, rose of sharon, and tropical hibiscus.
3089.Pollen grains are generally spherical measuring about 25-50
micrometers in diameter.
3090.Pollen grains has a prominent two-layered wall.
3091.Exine a hard outer layer, is made up of sporopollenin which is one of
the most resistant organic materials.
3092.Pollen grain exine has prominent apertures called germ pores where
sporopollenin is absent.
3093.The inner wall of the pollen grain is called the intine. It is a thin and
continuous layer made up of cellulose and pectin.
3094.The cytoplasm of pollen grain is surrounded by a plasma membrane.
3095.When the pollen grain is mature it contains two cells, the vegetative
cell and generative cell.
3096.Vegetative cell has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly
shaped nucleus.
3097.Generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative
cell. It is spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm and a nucleus.
3098.Generative cell divides mitotically to give rise to the two male
gametes before pollen grains are shed.
3099.Pollen grains cause severe allergies and bronchial afflictions in some
chronic respiratory disorders are asthma, bronchitis.
3100.Parthenium or carrot grass that came into India as a contaminant
with imported wheat, has become ubiquitous in occurrence and causes
pollen allergy.
3101.Pollen grains are rich in nutrients.
3102.The study of pollen is called palynology.
3103.Rosaceae is perhaps the third most economically important group,
after Poaceae.
3104.Members of Rosaceae are generally woody plants, mostly shrubs or
small to medium-size trees, some of which are armed with thorns, spines,
or prickles to discourage herbivores.
3105.Rosaceae, the rose family, is a medium-sized family of flowering
plants, including 4,828 species in 91 genera.
3106.Leguminosae is in the major group Angiosperms (Flowering plants).
3107.The Fabaceae or Leguminosae, commonly known as the legume, pea,
or bean family. It includes trees, shrubs, and perennial or annual
herbaceous plants, which are easily recognized by their fruit and their
compound, stipulate leaves.
3108.Black locust is a member of the Fabaceae (pea) family.
3109.The Solanaceae, or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that
ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes,
shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of agricultural crops, medicinal
plants, spices, weeds, and ornamentals.
3110.Store pollen grains is a large number of species for years in liquid
nitrogen (-1960C).
3111.Stored pollen can be used as pollen banks, similar to seed banks, in
crop breeding programmes.
3112.Gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of the flower.
3113.Gynoecium may consist of a single pistil (monocarpellary) or may
have more than one pistil (multicarpellary).
3114.When there are more than one, the pistils may be fused together
(syncarpous) or may be free (apocarpous).
3115.Stigma serves as a landing platform for pollen grains.
3116.Style is the elongated slender part beneath the stigma.
3117.Basal bulged part of the pistil is the ovary.
3118.Inside the ovary is the ovarian cavity (locule).
3109.Placenta is located inside the ovarian cavity.
3110.Hibiscus showing pistil (other floral parts have been removed), (b)
Multicarpellary, syncarpous pistil of Papaver, (c) A multicarpellary,
apocarpous gynoecium of Michelia.
3111.Arising from the placenta are the megasporangia, commonly called
ovules.
3112.Ovule is a small structure attached to the placenta by means of a
stalk called funicle.
3113.The body of the ovule fuses with funicle in the region called hilum.
3114.Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes called integuments.
3115.Integuments encircle the nucellus except at the tip where a small
opening called the micropyle.
3116.Opposite the micropylar end, is the chalaza, representing the basal
part of the ovule.
3117.Enclosed within the integuments is a mass of cells called the nucellus.
3118.Nucellus is the embryo sac or female gametophyte.
3119.An ovule generally has a single embryo sac formed from a
megaspore.
3120.The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother
cell is called megasporogenesis.
3121.MMC is a large cell containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent
nucleus. The MMC undergoes meiotic division.
3122.Meiosis results in the production of four megaspores.
3123.Functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte
(embryo sac).
3124.Six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organised into
cells; the remaining two nuclei, called polar nuclei are situated below the
egg apparatus in the large central cell.
3125.Three cells are grouped together at the micropylar end and constitute
the egg apparatus.
3126.The egg apparatus consists of two synergids and one egg cell.
3127.Three cells are at the chalazal end and are called the antipodals.
3128.Large central cell has two polar nuclei.
3129.Transfer of pollen grains (shed from the anther) to the stigma of the
pistil is termed pollination.
3130.Autogamy is transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
of the same flower.
3131.In Autogamy plants such as Viola (common pansy), Oxalis, and
Commelina produce two types of flowers – chasmogamous flowers which
are similar to flowers of other species with exposed anthers and stigma,
and cleistogamous flowers which do not open at all.
3132.Geitonogamy is transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma of another flower of the same plant.
3133.Xenogamy is transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
of a different plant.
3134.Arum lilies, tridax (part of the daisy family) and some orchids are
self-pollinating flowers.
3135.Apple, Pear, Asian Pear, Cherry, Plum and Grapes are some of the
examples of cross pollinated flowers.
3136.Viola , Oxalis, Commelina and Cardamine produce cleistogamous
flowers.
3137.Pollination by wind is more common amongst abiotic pollinations.
3138.Wind-pollination is quite common in grasses.
3139.Water pollinated plants are Vallisneria and Hydrilla which grow in
fresh water and several marine sea-grasses such as Zostera.
3140.Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds (sunbirds
and hummingbirds) and bats are the common pollinating agents.
3141.Animals, insects, particularly bees are the dominant biotic
pollinating agents.
3142.Animals such as some primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling)
rodents, or even reptiles (gecko lizard and garden lizard) have also been
reported as pollinators in some species.
3143.Pollination by water in Vallisneria.
3144.Tallest flower of Amorphophallus (6 feet in height).
3145.Yucca is a genus of perennial shrubs and trees in the family
Asparagaceae, subfamily Agavoideae.
3146.Hermaphrodite flowers is used in botany to describe a flower that
has both staminate (male, pollen-producing) and carpellate (female,
ovule-producing).
3147.Both male and female flowers are present on the same plant such as
castor and maize (monoecious).
3148.Papaya, male and female flowers are present on different plants,
each plant is either male or female (dioecy).
3149.Pollen grains are shed at two-celled condition (a vegetative cell and a
generative cell).
3150.Generative cell divides and forms the two male gametes during the
growth of pollen tube in the stigma.
3151.Pollen tubes carry the two male gametes.
3152.Filiform apparatus present at the micropylar part of the synergids.
3153.Crotalaria plant is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family
Fabaceae commonly known as rattlepods.
3154.Vinca plant is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae.
3155.Artificial hybridisation is one of the major approaches of crop
improvement programme.
3156.If the female parent bears bisexual flowers, removal of anthers from
the flower bud before the anther dehisces using a pair of forceps is
necessary. This step is referred to as emasculation.
3157.One of the male gametes moves towards the egg cell and fuses with its
nucleus thus completing the syngamy.
3158.This results in the formation of a diploid cell, the zygote.
3159.Syngamy and triple fusion take place in an embryo sac is called
double fertilisation.
3160.Endosperm while the zygote develops into an embryo.
3161.Embryo development, maturation of ovule into seed and ovary into
fruit.
3162.Mature seeds are pea, groundnut, beans, castor and coconut.
3163.Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac.
3164.The root tip is covered with a root cap.
3165.In the grass family the cotyledon is called scutellum that is situated
towards one side (lateral) of the embryonal axis.
3166.Embryonal axis has the radical and root cap enclosed in an
undifferentiated sheath called coleorhiza.
3167.Epicotyl has a shoot apex and a few leaf primordia enclosed in a
hollow foliar structure, the coleoptile.
3168.A seed consists of seed coat, cotyledon and an embryo axis.
3169.Swollen due to storage of food reserves (as in legumes).
3170.Mature seeds may be non-albuminous or exalbuminous.
3171.Non albuminous seeds are Pea, groundnut.
3172.Albuminous seeds are wheat, maize, barley, castor and sunflower.
3173.Seeds such as black pepper and beet, remnants of nucellus are also
persistent. Persistent nucellus is the perisperm.
3174.The embryo may enter a state of inactivity called dormancy.
3175.As ovules mature into seeds, the ovary develops into a fruit.
3176.The wall of the ovary develops into the wall of fruit called pericarp.
3177.False fruit is also called pseudo fruit or pseudo carp.
3178.Examples of false fruits are strawberries, pineapple, mulberry,
apples, pears, cashews, thalamus.
3179.Fruits develop only from the ovary and are called true fruits.
3180.True fruits are Blueberry, Kiwifruit, Lemon, Watermelon, Cherry.
3181.Fruits develop without fertilisation are called parthenocarpic fruits.
3182.Pineapple, banana, cucumber, grape, orange, grapefruit, persimmons
naturally occurring parthenocarpy fruits.
3183.Lupinus arcticus excavated from Arctic Tundra.
3184.Date palm, Phoenix dactylifera discovered during the archeological
excavation at King Herod’s palace near the Dead Sea.
3185.Asteraceae or Compositae (commonly referred to as the aster, daisy,
composite, or sunflower family) is a very large and widespread family of
flowering plants (Angiospermae).
3186.Family planning’ were initiated in 1951.
3187.Improved programmes covering wider reproduction-related areas
are currently in operation under the popular name ‘Reproductive and
Child Health Care (RCH) programmes’.
3188.Statutory ban on amniocentesis for sex-determination to legally
check increasing menace of female foeticides, massive child
immunisation, etc., are some programmes.
3189.A genetic disorder is a genetic problem caused by one or more
abnormalities.
3190.Genetic disorders are down syndrome, haemophilia, sickle-cell
anemia, Cystic fibrosis is a disorder of the glands that causes excess
mucus in the lungs. Sickle cell disease, Tay-Sachs disease.
3191.Saheli’ a new oral contraceptive for females was developed by
scientists at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) in Lucknow.
3192.The world population which was around 2 billion in 1900 rocketed to
about 6 billion by 2000 and 7.2 billion in 2011.
3193.Maternal mortality refers to deaths due to complications from
pregnancy or childbirth.
3194.Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths per 1,000 live
births of children under one year of age.
3195.According to the 2011 census report, the population growth rate was
less than 2 percent.
3195.The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2017 was
enacted by the government of India with the intension of reducing the
incidence of illegal abortion and consequent maternal mortality and
morbidity.
3196.Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP).
3197.Government of India legalised MTP in 1971.
3198.Infectious diseases or sexually transmitted infections or venereal
diseases or reproductive tract infections are Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital
herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B, Human
Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome,
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, Human Papillomavirus.
3199.Hepatitis–B and HIV can also be transmitted by sharing of injection
needles, surgical instruments, etc.with infected persons, transfusion of
blood, or from an infected mother to the foetus.
3200.Pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID), abortions, still births, ectopic
pregnancies, infertility or even cancer of the reproductive tract.
3201.Pelvic inflammatory disease is an infection of the uterus, fallopian
tubes, ovaries and cervix. It's usually caused by a sexually transmitted
infection (STI), like chlamydia or gonorrhea, and is treated with
antibiotics.
3202.Pelvic inflammatory disease is an infection of the organs of a
woman's reproductive system.
3203.In vitro fertilisation (IVF–fertilisation outside the body) popularly
known as test tube baby programme.
3203.(ZIFT–zygote intra fallopian transfer).
3204.(IUT – intrauterine transfer).
3205.(GIFT – gamete intra fallopian transfer).
3206. Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).
3207.(IUI – intrauterine insemination).
3208.Inheritance is the process by which characters are passed on from
parents to progeny.
3209.Character of seed shape is round and wrinkled.
3210.Character of seed colour is yellow and green.
3211.Character of flower colour is violet and white.
3212.Character of pod shape is full and constricted.
3213.Character of pod colour is green and yellow.
3214.Character of flower position is axial and terminal.
3215.Character of Stem height is tall and dwarf.
3216.Gregor Mendel, conducted hybridisation experiments on garden peas
and proposed the laws of inheritance.
3217.Mendel investigated characters in the garden pea plant that were
manifested as two opposing traits, e.g., tall or dwarf plants, yellow or
green seeds.
3218.Seven pairs of contrasting traits in pea plant studied by Mendel.
3219.Removal of anthers is emasculation.
3220.Mendel study the inheritance of one gene.
3221.Genes are the units of inheritance.
3222.Genes which code for a pair of contrasting traits are known as alleles.
3223.Mendel also proposed that in a true breeding, tall or dwarf pea
variety the allelic pair of genes for height are identical or homozygous.
3224.Tall and dwarf are the phenotype.
3225.Plant is heterozygous for genes controlling one character (height), it
is a monohybrid.
3226.Hybrids contain alleles which express contrasting traits, the plants
are heterozygous.
3227.A Punnett square used to understand a typical monohybrid cross.
3228.Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors.
3229.The inheritance of flower colour in the dog flower (snapdragon or
Antirrhinum sp.) is a good example to understand incomplete dominance.
3230.ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene.
3231.The plasma membrane of the red blood cells have sugar polymers
that protrude from its surface and the kind of sugar is controlled by the
gene.
3232.ABO blood grouping also provides a good example of multiple alleles.
3233.Starch synthesis in pea seeds is controlled by one gene.
3234.Starch is synthesised by homozygotes and therefore, large starch
grains are produced.
3235. Heterozygotes produce round seeds, and seems to be the dominant
allele.
3236.Round and wrinkled seed shape also segregated in a 3:1 ratio.
3237.Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri noted that the behaviour of
chromosomes was parallel to the behaviour of genes and used
chromosome movement to explain Mendel’s laws.
3238.de Vries, Correns and von Tschermak) independently rediscovered
Mendel’s results on the inheritance of characters.
3239.Sutton and Boveri argued that the pairing and separation of a pair of
chromosomes would lead to the segregation of a pair of factors they
carried.
3240.Sutton united the knowledge of chromosomal segregation with
Mendelian principles and called it the chromosomal theory of inheritance.
3241.Chromosomal theory of inheritance by Thomas Hunt Morgan.
3242.Morgan worked with the tiny fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster.
3243.Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses in Drosophila to study
genes that were sex-linked.
3244.Alfred Sturtevant used the frequency of recombination between gene
pairs on the same chromosome as a measure of the distance between
genes and ‘mapped’ their position on the chromosome.
3245.Phenylketonuria disease which occurs in humans. The disease is
caused by mutation in the gene that codes for the enzyme phenylalanine
hydroxylase (single gene mutation)
3246.Hermann Paul August Otto Henking discovered the X chromosome.
3247.Henking noticed that one chromosome did not take part in meiosis.
3248.Mutation is the alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of
an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA.
3249.Mutation also arise due to change in a single base pair of DNA. This is
known as point mutation.
3250.Mutation is sickle cell anemia.
3251.Mendelian disorders are Haemophilia, Cystic fibrosis, Sickle cell
anaemia, Colour blindness, Phenylketonuria, Thalassemia.
3252.Colour Blindness a sex-linked recessive disorder due to defect in
either red or green cone of eye.
3253.Colour blindness is due to mutation in certain genes present in the X
chromosome.
3254.Colour blindness occurs in about 8 percent of males and only about
0.4 percent of females.
3255.Haemophilia is sex linked recessive disease, which shows its
transmission from unaffected carrier female to some of the male progeny.
Protein that is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of
blood.
3256.Heterozygous female (carrier) for haemophilia may transmit the
disease to sons.
3257.Sickle-cell anaemia is an autosome linked recessive trait that can be
transmitted from parents to offspring when both the partners are a
carrier for the gene (or heterozygous).
3258.Sickle-cell anaemia is controlled by a single pair of alleles.
3259.Sickle-cell anaemia is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid by
Valine.
3260.Phenylketonuria inborn error of metabolism is also inherited as an
autosomal recessive trait. An enzyme that converts the amino acid
phenylalanine into tyrosine.
3261.Phenylalanine is converted into phenylpyruvic acid. These are also
excreted through urine because of its poor absorption by the kidney.
3262.Thalassemia is also an autosome-linked recessive blood disease
transmitted from parents to offspring when both the partners are
unaffected carrier for the gene (or heterozygous).
3263.Thalassemia results in reduced rate of synthesis of one of the globin
chains.
3264.Down’s syndrome results in the gain of extra copy of chromosome 21.
3265.Turner’s syndrome results due to loss of an X chromosome in human
females.
3266.Cytokinesis is the physical process of cell division, which divides the
cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells.
3267.Total number of chromosomes in a normal human cell is 46 (23 pairs).
3268.Down’s Syndrome is the presence of an additional copy of the
chromosome number 21 (trisomy 21). This disorder was first described by
Langdon Down.
3269.Klinefelter’s Syndrome is also caused due to the presence of an
additional copy of X Chromosome resulting into a karyotype of 47, XXY.
3270.In Klinefelter's, Gynaecomastia is a common condition that causes
boys' and men's breasts to swell and become larger than normal. It is most
common in teenage boys and older men.
3271.Gynecomastia are cirrhosis of the liver, malnutrition, chronic kidney
failure, disorders of the testes (male sex organs) including infection,
trauma, or inborn disorders, aging, testicular cancer, anti-androgen
treatments for prostate cancer, and hyperthyroidism.
3272.Turner’s Syndrome is caused due to the absence of one of the X
chromosomes, 45 with X0, Such females are sterile as ovaries are
rudimentary.
3273.Cytokinesis failure leads to both centrosome amplification and
production of tetraploid cells.
3274.Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides.
3275.DNA acts as the genetic material in most of the organisms.
3276.RNA acts as a genetic material in some viruses, mostly functions as a
messenger.
3277.RNA from DNA (transcription), the genetic code that determines the
sequence of amino acids in proteins.
3278.DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.
3279.The length of DNA is usually defined as the number of nucleotides (or
a pair of nucleotides referred to as base pairs).
3280.Bacteriophage has 5386 nucleotides.
3281.Bacteriophage lambda has 48502 base pairs.
3282.Escherichia coli, also known as E. coli, is a Gram-negative, facultative
anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacteria of the genus Escherichia that is
commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms.
3283.A nucleotide has three components, a nitrogenous base, Pentose
sugar (ribose in RNA, and deoxyribose for DNA).
3284.There are two types of nitrogenous bases, Purines (Adenine and
Guanine), and Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine).
3285.Cytosine is common for both DNA and RNA and Thymine is present in
DNA.
3286.Uracil is present in RNA at the place of Thymine.
3287.A nitrogenous base is linked to pentose sugar through a N-glycosidic
linkage to form a nucleoside, such as adenosine or deoxyadenosine,
guanosine or deoxyguanosine, cytidine or deoxycytidine and uridine or
deoxythymidine.
3287.Nucleotide (or deoxynucleotide depending upon the type of sugar
present).
3288.The backbone of a polynucleotide chain is formed due to sugar and
phosphates.
3289.RNA the uracil is found at the place of thymine (5-methyl uracil,
another chemical name for thymine).
3290.DNA as an acidic substance present in nucleus was first identified by
Friedrich Meischer. He named it as ‘Nuclein’.
3291.James Watson and Francis Crick to create their famous two-strand,
or double-helix, model.
3292.Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, proposed Double Helix model
for the structure of DNA.
3293.Adenine and Thymine and Guanine and Cytosine are constant and
equals one.
3294.Double-helix structure of DNA is made of two polynucleotide chains,
where the backbone is constituted by sugar-phosphate.
3295.Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with Thymine.
3296.Guanine is bonded with Cytosine with three H-bonds.
3297.Francis Crick proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology,
which states that genetic information flows from DNAà RNAà Protein.
3298.Viruses the flow of information is in the reverse direction is from
RNA to DNA.
3299.DNA(negatively charged) is held with some proteins (that have
positive charges) in a region termed as ‘nucleoid.
3300.E. coli do not have a defined nucleus.
3301.DNA in nucleoid is organised in large loops held by proteins.
3302.There is a set of positively charged, basic proteins called histones.
3303.Histones are rich in basic amino acid residues lysine and arginine.
3304.Histones are organised to form a unit of eight molecules called
histone octamer.
3305.The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the positively
charged histone octamer to form a structure called a nucleosome.
3306.Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure in the
nucleus called chromatin.
3307.The beads-on-string structure in chromatin is packaged to form
chromatin fibers.
3308.Chromatin are loosely packed (and stains light) and are referred to
as euchromatin.
3309.The chromatin that is more densely packed and stains dark are
called Heterochromatin.
3310.Euchromatin is said to be active chromatin, whereas
heterochromatin is inactive.
3311.Discovery of nuclein by Meischer.
3312.Gregor Johann Mendel is Father of modern genetics.
3313.Walter sutton Mendelian laws of inheritance, This is now known as
the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory.
3314.Thomas Hunt Morgan elucidating the role that the chromosome plays
in heredity.
3315.Frederick Griffith, in a series of experiments with Streptococcus
pneumoniae (bacterium responsible for pneumonia), witnessed a
miraculous transformation in the bacteria.
3316.Oswald Theodore Avery Jr. Avery was one of the first molecular
biologists and a pioneer in immunochemistry.
3317.Colin MacLeod discovered that deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA is
responsible for the transformation of the physical characteristics of
bacteria.
3318.Maclyn McCarty studying infectious disease organisms, was best
known for his part in the monumental discovery that DNA, rather than
protein, constituted the chemical nature of a gene.
3319.DNA is the genetic material came from the experiments of Alfred
Hershey and Martha Chase. They worked with viruses that infect bacteria,
called bacteriophages.
3320.Viruses grown in the presence of radioactive phosphorus contained
radioactive DNA.
3321.DNA contains phosphorus but protein does not.
3322.Viruses grown on radioactive sulfur contained radioactive protein
but not radioactive DNA because DNA does not contain sulfur.
3323.Radioactive phages were allowed to attach to E. coli bacteria.
3324.Viral coats were removed from the bacteria by agitating them in a
blender.
3325.DNA is genetic material that is passed from virus to bacteria.
3326.RNA is the genetic material (Tobacco Mosaic viruses, QB
bacteriophage).
3327.DNA is the predominant genetic material.
3328.RNA is a reactive group. RNA is now known to be catalytic.
3329.DNA is a better genetic material.
3330.RNA can directly code for the synthesis of proteins.
3331.DNA is preferred for storage of genetic information.
3332.RNA was the first genetic material.
3333.RNA used to act as a genetic material as well as a catalyst.
3334.RNA catalysts and not by protein enzymes. But, RNA being a catalyst
was reactive.
3335.DNA was given by Zaccharis.
3336.The discovery of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of
deoxyribonucleic acid by James Watson and Francis Crick.
3337.Watson and Crick proposed a scheme for replication of DNA. This
scheme was termed as semiconservative DNA replication.
3338.The Meselson–Stahl experiment was an experiment by Matthew
Meselson and Franklin Stahl in which supported Watson and Crick's
hypothesis that DNA replication was semiconservative.
3339.Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl grew E. coli in a medium
containing 15NH4Cl (15N is the heavy isotope of nitrogen).
3340.DNA by centrifugation in a cesium chloride density gradient.
3341.15N is not a radioactive isotope, and it can be separated from 14N
only based on densities.
3342.Vicia faba (faba beans) by Taylor.
3343.E. coli, the process of replication requires a set of catalysts (enzymes).
3344.DNA replication results into polyploidy(a chromosomal anomaly).
3345.The process of copying genetic information from one strand of the
DNA into RNA is termed as transcription.
3346.Amino acids in the proteins.
3347.A gene is defined as the functional unit of inheritance.
3348.Cistron as a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide.
3349.Structural gene in a transcription unit could be said as monocistronic
(mostly in eukaryotes) or polycistronic (mostly in bacteria or
prokaryotes).
3350.Exons are said to be those sequence that appear in mature or
processed RNA.
3351.The exons are interrupted by introns.
3352.mRNA provides the template, tRNA brings aminoacids and reads the
genetic code.
3353.RNA polymerase binds to the promoter and initiates transcription
(Initiation).
3354.Nucleic acids (genetic material) were responsible for change in amino
acids in proteins.
3355.George Gamow was developer of Lemaître's Big Bang theory.
3356.George Gamow argued that since there are only 4 bases and if they
have to code for the 20 amino acids.
3357.Har Gobind Khorana was instrumental in synthesising RNA
molecules with defined combinations of bases (homopolymers and
copolymers).
3358.Har Gobind Khorana, an organic chemist who specialized in the study
of proteins and nucleic acids, shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology of
Medicine.
3359.Marshall Warren Nirenberg shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine with Har Gobind Khorana and Robert W. Holley for "breaking the
genetic code" and describing how it operates in protein synthesis.
3360.Severo Ochoa enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase) was also
helpful in polymerising RNA with defined sequences in a template
independent manner (enzymatic synthesis of RNA).
3361.Severo Ochoa, National Medal of Science for Biological Sciences,
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, National Medal of Science for
Chemistry.
3362.Translation refers to the process of polymerisation of amino acids to
form a polypeptide.
3363.Ribosome consists of structural RNAs.
3364.The ribosome also acts as a catalyst.
3365.Gene expression results in the formation of a polypeptide.
3366.Beta-galactosidase is synthesised by E. coli, it is used to catalyse the
hydrolysis of a disaccharide, lactose into galactose and glucose.
3367.Francois Jacob known for operon, originated the idea that control of
enzyme levels in all cells occurs through regulation of transcription. He
shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine.
3368.Jacques Lucien Monod known for lac operon, Allosteric regulation.
3369.Lactose is a substrate for the enzyme beta-galactosidase and it
regulates switching on and off of the operon.
3370.Lactose is transported into the cells through the action of permease.
3371.Human genome was launched in the year 1990.
3372.Human Genome Project (HGP) was called a mega project.
3378.HGP was closely associated with the rapid development of a new area
in biology called Bioinformatics.
3379.The Human Genome Project was a 13-year project coordinated by the
U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institute of Health. HGP, the
Wellcome Trust (U.K.) became a major partner; additional contributions
came from Japan, France, Germany, China and others. The project was
completed in 2003.
3380.Many non-human model organisms, such as bacteria, yeast,
Caenorhabditis elegans (a free living non-pathogenic nematode),
Drosophila (the fruit fly), plants (rice and Arabidopsis.
3381.DNA is a very long polymer.
3382.BAC (bacterial artificial chromosomes), and YAC (yeast artificial
chromosomes).
3383.Frederick Sanger who twice received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry
for his discovery of the structure of the insulin molecule, Copley Medal,
Royal Medal, Canada international award, Lasker award, Horwitz prize,
Order of merit, Companions of honour, William bate Hardy prize.
3384.Sanger is also credited for developing method for determination of
amino acid sequences in proteins.
3385.The sequence of chromosome 1 was completed only in May 2006 ( last
of the 24 human chromosomes – 22 autosomes and X and Y – to be
sequenced).
3386.Human genome contains 3164.7 million bp.
3387.The average gene consists of 3000 bases.
3388.The total number of genes is estimated at 30,000–much lower than
previous estimates of 80,000 to 1,40,000 genes.
3389.All (99.9%) nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all people.
3390.Less than 2% of the genome codes for proteins.
3391.Chromosome 1 has the most genes (2968), and the Y has the fewest
(231).
3392.Single nucleotide polymorphism occur in humans.
3393.Polymorphism (variation at the genetic level) arises due to
mutations.
3394.DNA Fingerprinting was initially developed by Alec Jeffreys. He used
a satellite DNA as probe that shows a very high degree of polymorphism. It
was called Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR).
3395.Stellar distances are measured in light years.
3396.Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas and dust.
3397.Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of the universe.
3398.Milky way galaxy is a barred, spiral galaxy that contains more than
200 billion stars and is 100,000 light years across.
3399.Water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia released from
molten mass covered the surface.
3400.Units of life called spores were transferred to different planets
including earth.
3401.Louis Pasteur showed that in pre-sterilised flasks, life did not come
from killed yeast while in another flask open to air, new living organisms
arose from ‘killed yeast’.
3402.Alexander Ivanovich Oparin book The Origin of Life.
3403.John Burdon Sanderson Haldane, study of physiology, genetics,
evolutionary biology, and mathematics. He made innovative contributions
to the fields of statistics and biostatistics.
3404.S.L. Miller, created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4
, H2 , NH3 and water vapour at 8000C. He observed formation of amino
acids. In similar experiments others observed, formation of sugars,
nitrogen bases, pigment and fats.
3405.Charles Robert Darwin was best known for his contributions to the
science of evolution. His proposition that all species of life have descended
over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted.
3406.Alfred Russel Wallace was best known for independently conceiving
the theory of evolution through natural selection.
3407.Malay Archipelago is a book by Alfred Russel Wallace.
3408.Embryological support for evolution was also proposed by Ernst
Heckel.
3409.Karl Ernst von Baer founding father of embryology.
3410.Ernst Heckel discovered, described and named thousands of new
species.
3411.The forelimb consists of Humerus, radius and ulna, carpals,
metacarpals, digits or phalanges.
3412.Bougainvillea and Cucurbita represent homology.
3413.Examples of analogy are the eye of the octopus and of mammals or
the flippers of Penguins and Dolphins.
3414.Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification) is
another example for analogy.
3415.The leaves of a pitcher plant, a Venus fly trap, a cactus and a
poinsettia are all examples of homology plant.
3416.The arm of a human, the wing of a bird or a bat, the leg of a dog and
the flipper of a dolphin or whale are homologous animals.
3417.Variety of beaks of finches that Darwin finches found in Galapagos
Island.
3418.Marsupials is that most of the young are carried in a pouch.
3419.Placental mammal (infraclass Eutheria) which facilitates exchange
of nutrients and wastes between the blood of the mother and that of the
fetus.
3420.Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of
Darwinian Theory of Evolution.
3421.Thomas malthus theory an essay on the principle of population.
3422.Hugo de Vries put a theory of evolution, called mutation theory. He is
known chiefly for suggesting the concept of genes, rediscovering the laws
of heredity.
3423.Hardy Weinberg principle, also known as Hardy Weinberg
equilibrium, model, theorem, or law, states that allele and genotype
frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to
generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences.
3424.Lobefins the first amphibians that lived on both land and water.
3425.Lobefin a group of lunged, fleshy-finned, bony fishes, which may
have been the precursors of the limbs of four-footed animals.
3426.Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they form coal deposits.
3427.Mammals were viviparous.
3428.Primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus. They were hairy
and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees.
3429.Ramapithecus was man-like while Dryopithecus was ape-like.
3430.Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands.
3431.Fossils discovered in Java in 1891.
3432.Homo erectus is a species of archaic humans that lived throughout
most of the Pleistocene geological epoch.
3433.Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
3434.The discovery of blood circulation by William Harvey.
3435.Genetic disorders, deficiencies with which a child is born and
deficiencies/defects which the child inherits from parents from birth.
3436.Diseases which are easily transmitted from one person to another,
are called infectious diseases.
3437.Infectious diseases can be caused by:
1.Bacteria. These one-cell organisms are responsible for illnesses such as
strep throat, urinary tract infections and tuberculosis.
2.Viruses. Even smaller than bacteria, viruses cause a multitude of
diseases ranging from the common cold to AIDS.
3.Fungi. Many skin diseases, such as ringworm and athlete's foot are
caused by fungi. Other types of fungi can infect your lungs or nervous
system.
4.Parasites. Malaria is caused by a tiny parasite that is transmitted by a
mosquito bite. Other parasites may be transmitted to humans from animal
feces.
3438.Some of infectious diseases like AIDS are fatal.
3439.A non-communicable/infectious disease is a disease that is not
transmissible directly from one person to another.
3440.Non infectious disease are parkinson's disease, autoimmune
diseases, strokes, most heart diseases, most cancers, diabetes, chronic
kidney disease, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, Alzheimer's disease,
cataracts, and others.
3441.Salmonella typhi is a pathogenic bacterium which causes typhoid.
3442.Mary Mallon, also known as Typhoid Mary. She identified as an
asymptomatic carrier of the pathogen associated with typhoid fever
3443.Bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae
are responsible for the disease pneumonia in humans which infects the
alveoli (air filled sacs) of the lungs.
3444.Bacterial diseases are Syphilis, TB, Meningitis, Cholera, Lyme
diseases, Diphtheria, Tetanus, Plague, Brucellosis, Typhoid fever,
Leptospirosis, Whooping cough, Leprosy, Tooth decay, Lamierre’s
syndrome, Dysentery.
3445.Rhino viruses represent one such group of viruses which cause one of
the most infectious human ailments, the common cold.
3446.Human diseases are caused by protozoans.
3447.Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malaria and P. falciparum) a tiny protozoan
is responsible for malaria.
3448.Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites (infectious form)
through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito.
3449.Haemozoin which is responsible for the chill and high fever.
3450.Parasites form sporozoites that stored in their salivary glands.
3451.Female Anopheles mosquito is the vector (transmitting agent).
3452.Parasite(Sporozoites) reach liver through blood.
3453.Female mosquito takes up gametocytes with blood meal.
3454.Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite in the large intestine
of humans which causes amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery).
3455.Ascaris, the common roundworm and Wuchereria, the filarial worm,
are some of the helminths which are known to be pathogenic to man.
3456.Ascaris, an intestinal parasite causes ascariasis.
3457.Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and W. malayi), the filarial worms cause
chronic inflammation. Lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs and the
disease is called elephantiasis in filariasis.
3458.Many fungi belonging to the genera Microsporum, Trichophyton and
Epidermophyton are responsible for ringworms which is one of the most
common infectious diseases.
3459.Ringworm causes a scaly, crusted rash that may appear as round,
ring-like red patches on the skin.
3460.Airborne are Anthrax (inhalational), Chickenpox, Influenza, Measles,
Smallpox, Cryptococcosis, and Tuberculosis, pneumonia and the common
cold. Airborne diseases can also affect non-humans.
3461.An airborne disease is any disease that is caused by pathogens that
can be transmitted through the air.
3462.Malaria and filariasis that are transmitted through insect vectors.
3463.Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae, spraying of
insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps.
3464.Vector-borne (Aedes mosquitoes) diseases like dengue and
chikungunya.
3465.Vector-borne diseases are human illnesses caused by parasites,
viruses and bacteria that are transmitted by mosquitoes.
3466.Infectious diseases like polio, diphtheria, pneumonia and tetanus
have been controlled by the use of vaccines.
3467.An example of natural activity immunity is fighting off a cold. An
example of artificial active immunity is building up a resistance to a
disease due to immunization.
3468.Innate immunity is non-specific type of defence, that is present at the
time of birth.
3469.Skin which prevents entry of the microorganisms.
3470.Mucus coating of the epithelium lining the respiratory,
gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts also help in trapping microbes.
3471.Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from eyes all prevent
microbial growth.
3472.Leukocytes (WBC) like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-
neutrophils) and monocytes and natural killer (lymphocytes) in the blood
as well as macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and destroy microbes.
3473.Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which protect
non-infected cells from further viral infection.
3474.Lymphocytes present in our blood B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes.
.B-lymphocytes produce an army of antibodies(Immunoglobulins).
3475.Colostrum is produced by the mammary glands of mammals delivery
of the newborn.
3476.Colostrum contains antibodies to protect the newborn against
disease.
3477.Foetus also receives some antibodies from their mother, through the
placenta during pregnancy.
3478.The principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on the
property of ‘memory’ of the immune system.
3479.Antitoxin, a preparation containing antibodies to the toxin.
3480.Hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
3481.Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune
system develop protection from a disease. Vaccines contain a
microorganism or virus in a weakened or killed state, or proteins or toxins
from the organism.
3482.Immunisation is the process by which an individual's immune system
becomes fortified against an agent (known as the immunogen).
3483.The measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and the varicella
(chickenpox)vaccine are examples. Killed (inactivated) vaccines are made
from a protein or other small pieces taken from a virus or bacteria. The
whooping cough (pertussis)vaccine is an example.
3484.Common examples of allergens are mites in dust, pollens, animal
dander.
3485.Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and
serotonin from the mast cells.
3486.The use of drugs like antihistamine, adrenaline and steroids quickly
reduce the symptoms of allergy.
3487.Rheumatoid arthritis which affects an auto-immune disease.
3488.A disease in which the body's immune system attacks healthy cells is
called auto autoimmune disease.
3489.Human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells
and soluble molecules like antibodies.
3490.Lymphoid organs are the organs where origin and/or maturation
and proliferation of lymphocytes occur.
3491.Primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow and thymus.
3492.Lymphoid organs like spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of
the small intestine and appendix.
3493.Bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells
including lymphocytes.
3494.Thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart and beneath the
breastbone.
3495.Bone-marrow and thymus produce T-lymphocytes.
3496.Spleen is a large bean shaped organ. It mainly contains lymphocytes
and phagocytes. It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne
microorganisms. Spleen also has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
3497.Lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different points
along the lymphatic system.
3498.Lymph nodes serve to trap the microorganisms or other antigens,
which happen to get into the lymph and tissue fluid.
3499.Lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes.
3500.lymphoid tissue also located within the lining of the major tracts
(respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts) called mucosa associated
lymphoid tissue (MALT). It constitutes about 50 per cent of the lymphoid
tissue in the human body.
3501.AIDS stands for Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome.
3502.An often-inherited medical condition that occurs at or before birth is
congenital disorder.
3503.Examples of congenital disorder are cleft lip and cleft palate, cerebral
palsy, Fragile X syndrome, Down syndrome, spina bifida, cystic fibrosis,
heart conditions.
3504.AIDS was first reported in 1981.
3505.AIDS is caused by the HIV called retrovirus, which have an envelope
enclosing the RNA genome.
3506.Mycobacterium is a genus of Actinobacteria.This genus includes
pathogens known to cause serious diseases in mammals, including
tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and leprosy (Mycobacterium
leprae) in humans.
3507.M. leprae is a gram-positive, aerobic rod surrounded by the
characteristic waxy coating unique to Mycobacteria.
3508.Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma Gondii.
3509.AIDS is enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay.
3510.National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO).
3511.HIV is spread through semen, vaginal fluids, blood, and breast milk.
3512.Metastasis is the most feared property of malignant tumors.
3513.Transformation of normal cells into cancerous neoplastic cells are
called carcinogens.
3514.Ionising radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non-ionizing
radiations like UV cause DNA damage leading to neoplastic
transformation.
3515.Carcinogens present in tobacco cause of lung cancer.
3516.Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have genes called
viral oncogenes.
3517.Leukemia is cancer of the body's blood-forming tissues, including the
bone marrow and the lymphatic system.
3518.leukemia are more common in children. Other forms of leukemia
occur mostly in adults. Leukemia usually involves the white blood cells.
3519.Leukemia happens when the DNA of immature blood cells, mainly
white cells.
3520.Acute lymphocytic leukemia is the most common kind of leukemia in
children.
3521.Acute myeloid leukemia affects adults and, less often, children.
3522.Chronic lymphocytic leukemia, Chronic myeloid leukemia.
3523.Radiography (use of X-rays), CT (computed tomography) and MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging) are very useful to detect cancers of the
internal organs.
3524.MRI uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations.
3525.Antibodies against cancer -specific antigens are also used for
detection of certain cancers.
3526.Treatment of cancer are surgery, radiation therapy and
immunotherapy.
3527.Chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancerous cells.
3528.Cancer cells are cells that divide relentlessly, forming solid tumors or
flooding the blood with abnormal cells. Cell division is a normal process
used by the body for growth and repair.
3529.A tumor is an abnormal growth of cells that serves no purpose. A
benign tumor is not a malignant tumor, which is cancer.
3530.The drugs, which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids
and coca alkaloids. These are obtained from flowering plants. Some are
obtained from fungi.
3531.Opioids are the drugs, which bind to specific opioid receptors present
in our central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.
3532.Heroin commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmorphine
which is a white, odourless, bitter crystalline compound. This is obtained
by acetylation of morphine which is extracted from the latex of poppy
plant Papaver somniferum.
3533.Cannabinoids present in the brain.
3534.Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescences of the
plant Cannabis sativa.
3535.Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum
coca, native to South America. It interferes with the transport of the
neuro-transmitter dopamine. Cocaine, commonly called coke or crack.
3536.Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.
3537.Hallucinogenic properties are Atropa belladonna and Datura.
3538.Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, used as
medicines to help patients cope with mental illnesses like depression and
insomnia.
3539.Morphine is a very effective sedative and painkiller, and is very
useful in patients who have undergone surgery.
3540.Tobacco contains nicotine, an alkaloid.
3541.Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-
adrenaline into blood circulation, both of which raise blood pressure and
increase heart rate.
3542.A withdrawal syndrome (discontinuation syndrome) is a set of
symptoms occurring in discontinuation or dosage reduction of some types
of medications and recreational drugs.
3543.Examples of withdrawal syndrome are anxiety, shakiness, nausea
and sweating, Fatigue, Clammy skin, Pupils, Insomnia, Mood swings,
Seizure.
3544.Intracerebral hemorrhage also known as cerebral bleed, is a type of
intracranial bleed that occurs within the brain tissue or ventricles.
3545.Causes of brain hemorrhage include high blood pressure, abnormally
weak or dilated (aneurysm) blood vessels that leak, drug abuse, and
trauma.
3546.Bleeding are high blood pressure and amyloidosis.
3547.AIDS and Hepatitis B, the viruses, which are responsible for
transferred from one person to another by infected needles and syringes.
3548.AIDS and Hepatitis B infections are chronic infections and ultimately
fatal can be transmitted through sexual contact or infected blood.
3549.Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and
raising livestock.
3550.Bird flu is caused by a type of avian influenza virus.
3551.Homozygous purelines developed by Mendel.
3552.Out-breeding is the breeding of unrelated animals, which may be
between individuals of the same breed but having no common ancestors.
3553.Out-crossing is the practice of mating of animals within the same
breed, but having no common ancestors on either side of their pedigree up
to 4-6 generations. The offspring of such a mating is known as an out-
cross.
3554.Hisardale is a new breed of sheep developed in Punjab by crossing
Bikaneri ewes and Merino rams.
3555.Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET) is one such
programme for herd improvement.
3556.Apiculture is the technique of scientific rearing of honey bees in a
specially designed wooden box and without damaging the comb
foundation extract honey and wax from their artificial hives.
3557.Honeybee also produces beeswax, uses as preparation of cosmetics
and polishes.
3558.Apis cerana indica, the Indian honey bee.
3559.Bees are the pollinators of many of our crop species such as
sunflower, Brassica, apple and pea.
3560.Freshwater fishes which are very common include Catla, Rohu and
common carp.
3561.Marine fish that are eaten include Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel and
Pomfrets.
3562.Pisciculture involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures
such as fish ponds, usually for food.
3563.Aquaculture (less commonly spelled aquiculture), also known as
aquafarming, is the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants,
algae, and other organisms.
3564.Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater
populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with
commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish.
3565.Blue Revolution. The concept of rapid increase in the production of
fish and marine product through package programme is called as blue
revolution. It was launched in India during the seventh Five-year plan
(1985-1990) when the Central Government sponsored the Fish Farmers
Development Agency (FFDA).
3566.The Green Revolution, or Third Agricultural Revolution, is a set of
research technology transfer initiatives occurring between 1950 and the
late 1960s, that increased agricultural production worldwide, particularly
in the developing world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s.
3567.Plant breeding is a method of altering the genetic pattern of plants to
increase their value and utility for human welfare.
3568.Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits of plants in order
to produce desired characteristics.
3569.Plant breeding involves crossing or hybridisation of pure lines.
3570.Plant breeding is a purposeful manipulation of plants to create
desired plant types that are better suited for cultivation, give better yield
and are disease resistant.
3571.Pathogens a bacterium, fungi, virus, or other microorganism that can
cause disease.
3572.A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent. The term
pathogen came into use in the 1880.
3573.Germplasm are living genetic resources such as seeds or tissues that
are maintained for the purpose of animal and plant breeding,
preservation, and other research uses.
3574.Agriculture accounts for approximately 33 percent of India’s GDP and
employs nearly 62 percent of the population.
3575.During the period 1960 to 2000, wheat production increased from 11
million tonnes to 75 million tonnes while rice production went up from 35
million tonnes to 89.5 million tonnes.
3576.Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug, at the International Centre for
Wheat and Maize Improvement in Mexico, developed semi-dwarf wheat.
3577.In 1963, several varieties such as Sonalika and Kalyan Sona, which
were high yielding and disease resistant, were introduced all over the
wheat-growing belt of India.
3578.Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8, (developed at the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines) and Taichung
Native-1 (from Taiwan).
3579.The derivatives were introduced in 1966. Later better-yielding semi
dwarf varieties Jaya and Ratna were developed in India.
3580.Saccharum barberi (Sugarcane) was originally grown in north India.
3581.Tropical canes grown in south India Saccharum officinarum had
thicker stems and higher sugar content but did not grow well in north
India.
3582.Millets like Hybrid maize, jowar and bajra have been successfully
developed in India.
3583.Diseases caused by fungi are rusts, e.g., brown rust of wheat, red rot
of sugarcane and late blight of potato; by bacteria black rot of crucifers;
and by viruses tobacco mosaic, turnip mosaic.

3584.
Crop Variety Resistance to diseases

Wheat Himgiri Leaf and stripe rust, hill bunt

Brussica Pusa swarnim White rust

(Karan rai)

Cauliflower Pusa Shubhra Black rot and Curl

Pusa Snowball K-1

Cowpea Pusa Komal Bacterial blight

Chilli Pusa sadabahar Chilli mosaic virus, Tobacco

mosaic virus and Leaf curl.
3585.Mutation is the process by which genetic variations are created
through changes in the base sequence within genes.
3586.Mutation breeding, sometimes referred to as "variation breeding", is
the process of exposing seeds to chemicals or radiation in order to
generate mutants with desirable traits to be bred with other cultivars.
3587.In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew
were induced by mutations.
3588.Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus)
was transferred from a wild species and resulted in a new variety of A.
esculentus called Parbhani kranti.
3589.Resistance to jassids in cotton and cereal leaf beetle in wheat.
3590.Bollworm is the common term for a moth larva that attacks the
fruiting bodies of certain crops, especially cotton. The most common
moths known as bollworms are: Red or Sudan bollworm, Diparopsis
castanea. Rough bollworm, Earias perhuegeli. Spotted bollworm, Earias
fabia.
3591.High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize leads to
resistance to maize stem borers.

3592.
Crop Variety Insect Pests

Brassica (rapeseed Pusa Gaurav Aphidis

mustard)

Flat bean Pusa Sem 2, and 3 Jassids, aphids and

fruit borer

Okra (Bhindi) Pusa Sawani Shoot and Fruit borer

3593.Biofortification is the process by which the nutritional quality of food
crops is improved through agronomic practices, conventional plant
breeding, or modern biotechnology.
3594.Biofortification is the idea of breeding crops to increase their
nutritional value. This can be done either through conventional selective
breeding, or through genetic engineering.
3595.Lysine is an amino acid (a building block of protein).
3596.Lysine is used for preventing and treating cold sores (caused by a
virus called herpes simplex labialis). It is taken by mouth or applied
directly to the skin for this use.
3597.Tryptophan is an amino acid needed for normal growth in infants
and for nitrogen balance in adults. It is an essential amino acid.
3598.Hybrid maize generates high yields, increased value and reduced
production costs.
3599.Hybrid vigor, or heterosis, occurs when crossing two genetically
unrelated inbred parents to create a hybrid.
3600.Vitamin an enriched carrots, spinach, pumpkin.
3601.Vitamin C enriched bitter gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato.
3602.Iron and calcium enriched spinach and bathua.
3603.Protein enriched beans broad, lablab, French and garden peas.
3604.Single-cell proteins refers to edible unicellular microorganisms.
3605.Protein extract from pure or mixed cultures of algae, yeasts, fungi or
bacteria may be used as an ingredient.
3606.Blue-green algae like Spirulina can be grown waste water from
potato processing plants (containing starch), straw, molasses, animal
manure and even sewage, protein, minerals, fats, carbohydrates and
vitamins.
3607.Bacterial species is Methylophilus methylotrophus.
3608.Totipotency is the ability of a single cell to divide and produce all the
differentiated cells in an organism.
3609.Spores and zygotes are examples of totipotent cells.
3610.Carbon source such as sucrose and also inorganic salts, vitamins,
amino acids and growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins.
3611.Somaclones are the plants produced from tissue culture and
genetically identical to the original plant from which they are grown are
called somaclones.
3612.Meristem (apical and axillary) is free of virus.
3613.Protoplasts is the protoplasm of a living plant or bacterial cell whose
cell wall has been removed. It is surrounded by plasma membrane.
3614.Protoplast term coined by Hanstein.
3615.Microbes are protozoa, bacteria, fungi and microscopic animal and
plant viruses, viroids and prions are proteinaceous infectious agents.
3616.A bacillus (plural bacilli) or bacilliform bacterium is a rod-shaped
bacteria or archaeon.
3617.A coccus (plural cocci) is any bacteria or archaeon that has a
spherical, ovoid, or generally round shape.
3618.A bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects bacteria.
3619.Bacteriophages destroy their host cells.
3620.All bacteriophages are composed of a nucleic acid molecule that is
surrounded by a protein structure.
3621.Adenovirus which causes respiratory infections.
3622.Tobacco mosaic virus is a positive-sense single stranded RNA virus in
the genus Tobamovirus that infects a wide range of plants, especially
tobacco.
3623.Lactobacillus and others commonly called lactic acid bacteria grow
in milk and convert it to curd.
3624.Dosa and idli is also fermented by bacteria.
3625.Dough, which is used for making bread, is fermented using baker’s
yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
3626.Microbes are also used to ferment fish, soybean and bamboo shoots
to make food.
3627.Cheese, is one of the oldest food items in which microbes were used.
3628.Swiss cheese’ are due to production of a large amount of CO2 by a
bacterium named Propionibacterium shermanii.
3629.Roquefort cheese’ are ripened by growing a specific fungi.
3630.Beverages and antibiotics are some examples of microbes.
3631.Production on an industrial scale, requires growing microbes in very
large vessels called fermentors.
3632.Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae used for bread-making and
commonly called brewer’s yeast, is used for fermenting malted cereals and
fruit juices, to produce ethanol.
3633.Wine and beer are produced without distillation whereas whisky,
brandy and rum are produced by distillation of fermented.
3634.Antibiotics are chemical substances, which are produced by some
microbes and can kill or retard the growth of other (disease-causing)
microbes.
3635.Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be discovered.
3636.Alexander Fleming while working on Staphylococci bacteria.
3637.Alexander Fleming found out that it was due to a chemical produced
by the mould and he named it Penicillin after the mould Penicillium
notatum.
3638.Antibiotic was established much later by Ernest Chain and Howard
Florey.
3639.This antibiotic was extensively used to treat American soldiers
wounded in World War II. Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1945.
3640.Antibiotics have greatly improved our capacity to treat deadly
diseases such as plague, whooping cough, diphtheria and leprosy.
3641.Microbes are also used for commercial and industrial production of
certain chemicals like organic acids, alcohols and enzymes.
3642. Examples of organic acid producers are Aspergillus niger (a fungus)
of citric acid, Acetobacter aceti (a bacterium) of acetic acid; Clostridium
butylicum (a bacterium) of butyric acid and Lactobacillus (a bacterium) of
lactic acid.
3643.Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used for commercial production
of ethanol.
3644.Microbes are also used for production of enzymes.
3645.Lipases are used in detergent formulations and are helpful in
removing oily stains from the laundry.
3646.Streptokinase produced by the bacterium Streptococcus and
modified by genetic engineering is used as a ‘clot buster’ for removing
clots from the blood vessels.
3647.Cyclosporin A is used as an immunosuppressive agent in organ-
transplant patients is produced by the fungus Trichoderma polysporum.
3648.Statins produced by the yeast Monascus purpureus have been
commercialised as blood-cholesterol lowering agents. It acts by
competitively inhibiting the enzyme responsible for synthesis of
cholesterol.
3649.Sewage is treated in sewage treatment plants to make it less
polluting.
3650.A major component of this waste water is human excreta. This
municipal waste-water is also called sewage. It contains large amounts of
organic matter and microbes. Many of which are pathogenic.
3651.Treatment of waste water is done by the heterotrophic microbes
naturally present in the sewage.
3652.Floating debris is removed by sequential filtration. Then the grit (soil
and small pebbles) are removed by sedimentation.
3653.All solids that settle form the primary sludge, and the supernatant
forms the effluent.
3654.Flocs is the masses of bacteria associated with fungal filaments to
form mesh like structures.
3655.Bacteria produce a mixture of gases such as methane, hydrogen
sulphide and carbon dioxide. These gases form biogas and can be used as a
source of energy as it is inflammable.
3656.The Ministry of Environment and Forests has initiated Ganga Action
Plan and Yamuna Action Plan to save these major rivers of our country
from pollution.
3657.Biogas is a mixture of methane.
3658.Methanogens, and one such common bacterium is
Methanobacterium. These bacteria are commonly found in the anaerobic
sludge during sewage treatment.
3659.Methanogens are also present in the rumen (a part of stomach) of
cattle.
3660.Cellulosic material present in the food of cattle is also present in the
rumen.
3661.In rumen, methanogens help in the breakdown of cellulose.
3662.Biogas production was developed in India mainly due to the efforts of
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and Khadi and Village
Industries Commission.
3663.Soil is also polluted through use of weedicides to remove weeds.
3664.Ladybird, and Dragonflies are useful to get rid of aphids and
mosquitoes.
3665.An example of microbial to control butterfly caterpillars is the
bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis.
3666.Vulnerable plants such as brassicas and fruit trees.
3667.Bacillus thuringiensis is a species of bacteria that lives in soil.
3668.Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium,
commonly used as a biological pesticide.
3669.Bt cotton is a genetically modified organism or genetically modified
pest resistant plant cotton variety, which produces an insecticide to
combat bollworm.
3670.Trichoderma(Fungi) species are free-living fungi that are very
common in the root ecosystems.
3671.Baculoviruses are pathogens and used as biological control agents
are in the genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus.
3672.Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich soil. The main sources of
biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.
3673.Nodules on the roots of leguminous plants formed by the symbiotic
association of Rhizobium.
3674.Bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen while free-living in the soil
(examples Azospirillum and Azotobacter), thus enriching the nitrogen
content of the soil.
3675.Fungi are also known to form symbiotic associations with plants
(mycorrhiza).
3676.Members of the genus Glomus form mycorrhiza.
3677.Cyanobacteria are autotrophic microbes widely distributed in
aquatic and terrestrial environments many of which can fix atmospheric
nitrogen, e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatori.
3678.Cyanobacteria serve as an important bio fertilizer.
3679.Blue green algae also add organic matter to the soil and increase its
fertility.
3680.Microbes can also be used to kill harmful pests, a process called as
biocontrol.
3681.Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or
enzymes from organisms to produce products and processes useful to
humans.
3682.In vitro fertilisation leading to a ‘test-tube’ baby, synthesising a gene
and using it, developing a DNA vaccine.
3683.Sterile (microbial contamination-free).
3684.Gene cloning is the process in which a gene of interest is located and
copied (cloned) out of DNA extracted from an organism.
3685.Gene transfer newly acquired DNA is incorporated into the genome of
the recipient through either recombination or insertion.
3686.DNA has become part of a chromosome. In a chromosome there is a
specific DNA sequence called the origin of replication, which is responsible
for initiating replication.
3687.Cloning is the process of producing genetically identical individuals
of an organism either naturally or artificially.
3688.Cloning in biotechnology refers to the process of creating clones of
organisms or copies of cells or DNA fragments.
3689.Plasmid (autonomously replicating circular extrachromosomal DNA)
of Salmonella typhimurium.
3690.Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer accomplished this in 1972 by
isolating the antibiotic resistance gene by cutting out a piece of DNA from
a plasmid which was responsible for conferring antibiotic resistance.
3691.Plasmid DNA act as vectors to transfer the piece of DNA attached to
it.
3692.Mosquito acts as an insect vector to transfer the malarial parasite.
3693.Plasmid can be used as a vector to deliver an alien piece of DNA into
the host organism.
3694.DNA ligase, which acts on cut DNA molecules and joins their ends.
3695.DNA is transferred into Escherichia coli, a bacterium closely related
to Salmonella.
3696.E. coli was called cloning of antibiotic resistance gene in E. coli.
3697.Two enzymes responsible for restricting the growth of bacteriophage
in Escherichia coli were isolated.
3698.Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called
nucleases.
3699.Matrix is agarose which is a natural polymer extracted from
seaweed.
3700.Genes encoding resistance to antibiotics such as ampicillin,
chloramphenicol, tetracycline or kanamycin are considered useful
selectable markers for E. coli.
3701.Agrobacterium Tumefaciens is a plant pathogenic bacterium that
causes tumours (crown gall disease) in some plant species.It is a rod-
shaped, Gram-negative soil bacterium.
3702.Cancer cells are cells that divide relentlessly, forming solid tumors or
flooding the blood with abnormal cells.
3703.Agrobacterium tumifaciens has now been modified into a cloning
vector which is no more pathogenic to the plants.
3704.DNA is a hydrophilic molecule, it cannot pass through cell
membranes.
3705.Macromolecules such as RNA, proteins, polysaccharides and lipids.
3706.Enzymes such as lysozyme (bacteria), cellulase (plant cells), chitinase
(fungus).
3707.Genes are located on long molecules of DNA intertwined with proteins
such as histones.
3708.RNA can be removed by treatment with ribonuclease whereas
proteins can be removed by treatment with protease.
3709.DNA is a negatively charged molecule, hence it moves towards the
positive electrode (anode).
3710.DNA polymerase (isolated from a bacterium, Thermus aquaticus).
3711.Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis.
Examples are Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato and soybean.
3712.Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt-cotton) produce proteins that kill certain
insects such as lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm),
coleopterans (beetles) and dipterans (flies, mosquitoes).
3713.B. thuringiensis forms protein crystals.
3714.Bt-toxin is converted into an active form of toxin due to the alkaline
pH of the gut which solubilise the crystals.
3715.A nematode Meloidogyne incognita infects the roots of tobacco
plants.
3716.Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from the pancreas of
slaughtered cattle and pigs.
3717.Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic
islets; it is considered to be the main anabolic hormone of the body.
3718.Gene therapy is the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid into a
patient's cells as a drug to treat disease.
3719.Inserting a gene into a patient's cells instead of using drugs or
surgery.
3720.The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990.
3721.Adenosine deaminase deficiency is an autosomal recessive metabolic
disorder that causes immunodeficiency.
3722.Serum does not contain white blood cells- leukocytes, or red blood
cells- erythrocytes), nor a clotting factor; it is the blood plasma not
including the fibrinogens.
3723.Serum includes all proteins not used in blood clotting and all the
electrolytes, antibodies, antigens, hormones, and any exogenous
substances. The study of serum is serology.
3724.Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA).
3725.Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens
(proteins, glycoproteins).
3726.Transgenic animals are animals (most commonly mice) that have
had a foreign genes deliberately inserted into their genome.
3727.Human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis
and Alzheimer’s.
3728.Emphysema is a type of Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
involving damage to the air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs.
3729.Emphysema makes it hard to catch your breath. The most common
cause is cigarette smoking.
3730.COPD includes both emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
3731.Phenylketonuria is an inborn error of metabolism that results in
decreased metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine.
3732.A birth defect that causes an amino acid called phenylalanine.
3733.Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that affects mostly the lungs, but
also the pancreas, liver, kidneys, and intestines. Its causes Genetic
(autosomal recessive).
3734.Cystic fibrosis affects the cells that produce mucus, sweat and
digestive juices.
3735.In 1997, the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced human protein
enriched milk.
3736.Transgenic mice is used for safety vaccines.
3737.Indian Government has set up organisations such as GEAC (Genetic
Engineering Approval Committee), which will make decisions regarding
the validity of GM research and the safety of introducing GM-organisms
for public services.
3738.The diversity of rice in India is one of the richest in the world.
3739.Mango trees do not and cannot grow in temperate countries like
Canada and Germany.
3740.Snow leopards are not found in Kerala forests.
3741.A wide range of temperatures are called eurythermal.
3742.A narrow range of temperatures are called stenothermal.
3743.Euryhaline able to tolerate a wide range of salinity.
3744.Stenohaline usually fish, that cannot tolerate a wide fluctuation in
the salinity of water.
3745.Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a constant internal
environment in response to environmental changes.
3746.The nervous and endocrine systems control homeostasis.
3747.Thermoregulation is a process that allows your body to maintain its
core internal temperature.
3748.Thermoregulation mechanisms are designed to return your body to
homeostasis.
3749.Osmoregulation is the maintenance of constant osmotic pressure in
the fluids of an organism by the control of water and salt concentrations.
3750.Sahara desert located on the African continent. It is the largest hot
desert in the world, and the third largest desert overall after Antarctica
and the Arctic.
3751.Hibernation is a deep sleep that helps them to save energy and
survive the winter.
3752.Hibernation the animal's body temperature drops, and its heartbeat
and its breathing slow down.
3753.Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in
endotherms.
3754.Aestivation or æstivation is a state of animal dormancy, similar to
hibernation, although taking place in the summer rather than winter.
3755.Aestivation is characterized by inactivity and a lowered metabolic
rate, that is entered in response to high temperatures and arid conditions.
3756.Zooplankton are heterotrophic plankton. Plankton are organisms
drifting in oceans, seas, and bodies of freshwater.
3757.The desert kangaroo rat (Dipodomys deserti) is a rodent species is
found in desert areas of southwestern North America.
3758.Desert plants have a thick cuticle on their leaf surfaces and have
their stomata arranged in deep pits (sunken) to minimise water loss
through transpiration.
3759.Desert plants like Opuntia, have no leaves, they are reduced to spines
and the photosynthetic function is taken over by the flattened stems.
3760.Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ears and
limbs to minimise heat loss is called the Allen’s Rule.
3761.Altitude sickness, also called mountain sickness, is a group of general
symptoms that are brought on by climbing or walking to a higher and
higher altitude too quickly.
3762.Mountain sickness is caused by reduced air pressure and lower
oxygen levels at high altitudes.
3763.Altitude sickness is a condition in which the body receives an
inadequate supply of oxygen.Its symptoms include nausea, fatigue and
heart palpitations.
3764.Three major known groups of Archaebacteria are methanogens,
halophiles, and thermophiles.
3765.Rats in an abandoned dwelling, teakwood trees in a forest tract,
bacteria in a culture plate and lotus plants in a pond, are some examples of
a population.
3766. If the age distribution (per cent individuals of a given age or age
group) is plotted for the population, the resulting structure is called an age
pyramid.
3767.Chlamydomonas is a genus of unicellular green algae (Chlorophyta).
These algae are found all over the world, in soil, fresh water, oceans, and
even in snow on mountaintops.
3768.Parthenium hysterophorus known as carrot weed, white top or
congress grass in India is an herbaceous.
3769.Banyan, (Ficus benghalensis), also called Indian banyan or banyan
fig, unusually shaped tree.
3770.Banyan tree reaches a height up to 30 metres (100 feet) and spreads
laterally indefinitely.
3771.Natality refers to the number of births during a given period in the
population that are added to the initial density.
3772.Mortality is the number of deaths in the population during a given
period.
3773.Immigration is the number of individuals of the same species that
have come into the habitat from elsewhere during the time period under
consideration.
3774.Emigration is the number of individuals of the population who left
the habitat and gone elsewhere during the time period under
consideration.
3775.Darwinism is a theory of evolution developed by Charles Darwin
stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the
natural selection.
3776.Organisms breed only once in their lifetime Pacific salmon fish,
bamboo.
3777.Organisms breed many times during their lifetime most birds and
mammals.
3778.Organisms produce a large number of small-sized offspring Oysters,
pelagic fishes.
3779.Organisms produce a small number of large-sized offspring birds,
mammals.
3780.The first recorded introduction of prickly pear (Opuntia
monacantha) was attributed to Governor Phillip at Port Jackson in 1788.
3781.Prickly pear, is a genus in the cactus family, Cactaceae.
3782.Starfish Pisaster is an important predator.
3783.Some species of insects and frogs are cryptically-coloured
(camouflaged) to avoid being detected easily by the predator.
3784.Predators are those animals that live by preying on other organisms
for food.
3785.Phytophagous feeding on plant sap and other parts of plants.
3786.Calotropis are commonly known as milkweeds because of the latex
they produce.
3787.Calotropis species are considered common weeds.
3788.Substances extract from plants on a commercial scale (nicotine,
caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium).
3789.Abingdon tortoise in the Galapagos Islands.
3790.Connell's elegant tests demonstrated that on rocky shores of
Scotland, the bigger and unrivaled barnacle Balanus commands the
intertidal region and prohibits the substandard barnacle Chatalamus
from that zone.
3791.Gause's Law of competitive exclusion states that two species that
compete for the exact same resources cannot stably coexist.
3792.MacArthur showed that five closely related species of warblers living
on the same tree were able to avoid competition and co-exist due to
behavioural differences in their foraging activities.
3793.Malarial parasite caused by a plasmodium parasite, transmitted by
the bite of infected mosquitoes.
3794.Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism are
called ectoparasites.
3795.Many marine fish are infested with ectoparasitic copepods.
3796.Cuscuta, a parasitic plant.
3797.Female mosquito is the one that bites males feed on flower nectar.
Her saliva lubricates the opening.
3798.Female anopheles can transmit malaria.
3799.Malaria is caused by a one-celled parasite called a Plasmodium.
3800.Female Anopheles mosquitoes pick up the parasite from infected
people.
3801.Endoparasites are those that live inside the host body liver, kidney,
lungs, red blood cells.
3802.Brood parasitism in birds is a fascinating example of parasitism.
3803.Brood parasitism because a nest of baby birds is called a brood.
3804.Brood parasitism is when a bird lays its eggs in the nest of another
bird.
3805.The host bird (as the owner of the nest is called) is then responsible
for raising and feeding the parasite bird.
3806.Epiphyte on a mango branch.
3807.An epiphyte is an organism that grows on the surface of a plant and
derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water.
3808.Ficus carica is an Asian species of flowering plant in the mulberry
family, known as the common fig tree. It is the source of the fruit.
3809.A wasp is any insect of the order Hymenoptera and suborder
Apocrita that is neither a bee nor an ant.
3810.The most commonly known wasps, such as yellowjackets and hornets
are living together in a nest with an egg-laying queen and non-
reproducing workers.
3811.Sea anemones are a group of marine, predatory animals.
3812.Anemone, a terrestrial flowering plant.
3813.Sea anemones are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa,
subclass Hexacorallia.
3814.Lichens represent between a fungus and photosynthesising algae or
cyanobacteria.
3815.Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the roots of higher
plants.
3816.Female wasps develop from fertilized eggs and are usually much
more abundant than males.
3817.Solitary wasps are relatively small insects that build their nests in
burrows in the ground or out of mud on an exposed surface.
3818.Female wasps are the gender that carries the stinger, called an
ovipositor.
3819.Insect pollinators including bees, (honey bees, solitary species,
bumblebees); pollen wasps (Masarinae); ants; flies including bee flies,
hoverflies and mosquitoes; lepidopterans, both butterflies and moths; and
flower beetles.
3820.Pseudocopulation, the action of a male insect, such as a bee, wasp, or
fly.
3821.Forest, grassland and desert are some examples of terrestrial
ecosystems.
3822.Pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic
ecosystems.
3823.Decomposers are the fungi, bacteria and flagellates.
3824.Heterotrophs are herbivores and decomposers.
3825.Earthworm help in the breakdown of complex organic matter as well
as in loosening of the soil.
3826.Decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic
substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients.
3827.Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of
animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus.
3828.The important steps in the process of decomposition are
fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralisation.
3829.Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller
particles. This process is called fragmentation.
3830.By the process of leaching, water soluble inorganic nutrients go
down into the soil horizon.
3831.Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler
inorganic substances. This process is called catabolism.
3832.Humus is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes
decomposition at an extremely slow rate.
3833.The rate of decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of
detritus and climatic factors.
3834.If detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like
sugars.
3835.Temperature and soil moisture are the most important climatic
factors that regulate decomposition.
3836.If detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like
sugars.
3837.The green plant in the ecosystem are called producer.
3838.In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and
woody plants.
3839.In an aquatic ecosystem are various species like phytoplankton,
algae and higher plants.
3840.All animals depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food
needs. They are hence called consumers and also heterotrophs.
3841.Some common herbivores are insects, birds and mammals in
terrestrial ecosystems and molluscs in aquatic ecosystems.
3842.The consumers that feed on these herbivores are carnivores, or more
correctly primary carnivores (though secondary consumers).
3843.Animals that depend on the primary carnivores for food are labelled
secondary carnivores.
3844.The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is
made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi
and bacteria. These are also known as saprotrophs.
3845.Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and
waste materials into simple.
3846.Some animals like cockroaches, crows, are omnivores.
3847.Tertiary consumers are Man, Lion.
3848.Secondary consumers are Birds, Fishes and Wolf.
3849.Primary consumers are Zooplankton, Grasshopper and Cow.
3850.Primary producers are Phytoplankton, Grass and trees.
3851.Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a
particular time called as the standing crop.
3852.The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms
(biomass) or the number in a unit area.
3853.A sparrow is a primary consumer.
3854.Secondary consumer when it eats insects and worms.
3855.Hydrarch succession takes place in wet areas and the successional
series progress from hydric to the mesic conditions.
3856.Xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress
from xeric to mesic conditions.
3857.The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
3858.Lichens which are secrete acids to dissolve rock, helping in
weathering and soil formation.
3859.The amount of nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium, etc., present in the soil at any given time, is referred to as the
standing state.
3860.Nutrient cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle) and sedimentary cycle
(e.g., sulphur and phosphorus cycle.
3861.Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic
acids and cellular energy transfer systems.
3862.The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains
phosphorus in the form of phosphates.
3863.Plants capture solar energy and then, food is transferred from the
producers to decomposers.
3864.Biodiversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth.
Biodiversity is typically a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and
ecosystem level.
3865.Rauvolfia vomitoria, the poison devil's-pepper, is a plant species.
3866.Causes of biodiversity losses
1.Habitat loss and fragmentation.
2.Overexploitation
3.Alien species invasions.
4.Co-extinctions
3867.Weed species like carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water
hyacinth (Eicchornia).
3868.African catfish Clarias gariepinus.
3869.Pollination (without which plants cannot give us fruits or seeds).
3870.Endemism (that is, species confined to that region and not found
anywhere else.
3871.sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya,
Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and
Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya
Pradesh.
3872.The Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
3873.World Summit on Sustainable Development held in 2002 in
Johannesburg, South Africa.
3874.Government of India has passed the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986.
3875.Automobiles are a major cause of atmospheric pollution.
3876.Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act came into force in 1981.
3877.Government of India has passed the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974
3878.Suspended solid are sand, silt and clay.
3879.Colloidal material are fecal matter, bacteria, cloth, paper fibres.
3880.Dissolve materials are nitrate, ammonia, phosphate, sodium,
calcium.
3881.Presence of large amounts of nutrients in waters also causes
excessive growth of planktonic (free-floating) algae, called an algal bloom.
3882.Algal blooms cause deterioration of the water quality and fish
mortality.
3883.(Eichhornia crassipes), the world’s most problematic aquatic weed,
also called ‘Terror of Bengal.
3884.Outbreak of serious diseases, such as dysentery, typhoid, jaundice,
cholera, etc
3885.Biomagnification refers to increase in concentration of the toxicant
at successive trophic levels.
3886.Eutrophication is the natural aging of a lake by nutrient enrichment
of its water.
3887.Marsh plants are grasses, rushes, reeds, water lilies, lily pads
(floating plants), pondweed, coontail, duckweed, and cattails, takes roots
in shadows.
3888.A citizens group called Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) are
responsible for the upkeep and safeguarding of this wonderful project.
3889.Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in trash.
3890.The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water
vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone.
3891.The thickness of the ozone in a column of air from the ground to the
top of the atmosphere is measured in terms of Dobson units.
3892.UV-B damages DNA and mutation may occur. It causes aging of skin,
damage to skin cells and various types of skin cancers.
3893.A high dose of UV-B causes inflammation of cornea, called snow
blindness, cataract, etc. Such exposure may permanently damage the
cornea.
3894.Montreal Protocol, was signed at Montreal (Canada) in 1987
(effective
in 1989) to control the emission of ozone depleting substances.
3895.Waterlogging and soil salinity are some of the problems that have
come in the wake of the Green Revolution.
3896.Slash and burn agriculture, commonly called as Jhum cultivation in
the north-eastern states of India.
3897.Ash is used as fertiliser and the land is then used for farming or cattle
grazing.
3898.Deforestation also causes loss of biodiversity due to habitat
destruction, disturbs hydrologic cycle, causes soil erosion, and may lead to
desertification in extreme cases.
3899.Reforestation is the process of restoring a forest that once existed but
was removed at some point of time in the past.
3900.The Government of India has recently instituted the Amrita Devi
Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award for individuals or communities from
rural areas.
3901.Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas.
3902.Government of India in 1980s has introduced the concept of Joint
Forest Management (JFM) so as to work closely with the local communities
for protecting and managing forest.
3903.Greenhouse effect is mainly due to increased emissions of carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and CFCs., and also due to deforestation.
3904.Ingestion of chlorofluorocarbons can lead to nausea, irritation of the
digestive tract and diarrhoea.
3905.Some examples of the communicable disease include HIV, hepatitis A,
B and C, measles, salmonella, measles and blood-borne illnesses.
3906.Communicable diseases are illnesses caused by viruses or bacteria.
3907.Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a communicable disease that is
preventable through vaccination. It affects the liver causing jaundice.
3908.Examples of non-communicable diseases include diabetes,
Alzheimer's, cancer, osteoporosis, chronic lung disease, stroke, and heart
disease.
3909.Human are Viviparous.
3911.Fertilization is internal in humans.
3912.Zygote is Diploid.
3913.Ovulation is induced by hormone is called Luteinizing hormone.
3914.Structure provides vascular connection between foetus and uterus is
called Placenta(Umbilical cord).
3915.Spermotozoa get nutrition from sertoli cells.
3916.Oogenesis takes place in Ovary.
3917.Infertlity is due to abnormalities/defects in either male or female.
3918.Lactation help us a natural method of contraception.
3919.Embryos with blastomeres are transferred into fallopian tube and
uterus.
3920.Ectotherms which does not maintain heat its body temperature. All
animals are ectotherms except mammals and birds. They are cold blooded
animals.
3921.Endotherms which maintain heat its body temperature. Mammals
and birds are endotherms.
3922.Man, Homosapiens are andothermic animals.
3923.Black bear are ectothermic animals.
3924.An organisms of benthic zone is corals.
3925.Pyramid is spindle type.
3926.Major reservoir of carbon on earth is oceans.
3927.Decomposers is largest population in food chain.
3928.Second trophic level in a lake is Zooplankton.
3929.50% of photosynthetically radiation in incident solar radiation.
3930.Grazing food chain, energy comes from the sun. It begins with
primary producers or plants and end in carnivores.
3931.Production in which energy is produced by the process of synthesis in
organic compound from inorganic substances.
3932.Flow of energy occurs from one trophic level to another is called the
food chain.
3933.Food web is a network of various food chains is interconnected to
each other.
3934.Litter is dead organic material fallen off the surface of the soil
remains animals and excreta.
3935.Primary productivity is the rate of synthesis of biomass or energy
fixation by plants
3936.Secondary productivity is the rate of synthesis of biomass by
consumers, herbivores and carnivores.
3937.Electrostatic Precipitator is carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides.
3938.Earmuffs is high noise level.
3939.Landfills is solid waste.
3940.Ultraviolet B causes skin cancer, reduce photosynthesis in
phytoplanktons, reduce diversity.
3941.Catalytic converter is reduce emission of poisonous gases like
nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon. It is made up of
platinum, palladium, and rhodium.
3942.Eutrophication is due to nutrient enrichment with nitrogen and
phosphorus.
3943.Moss spores germinate to form an algae-like filamentous structure
called the protonema.
3944.Boron deficiency leads to stout axis.
3945.Pepsin, Lipase, Renin is correct chronological order.
3946.Hydrolysis of Amylases.
3947.Salivary gland is parotid biliverdin.
3948.Protein free fluid is filtered from blood plasma into Bowman;s
capsule.
3949.Glucose is reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule.
3950.Excretion of uric acid is known as uricotelism and the animals which
excrete uric acid are called uricotelic. Eg Birds.
3951.An excretory human adult excretes 25-30gm of urea/day.
3952.Actin is present in thin filament.
3953.H-Zone of striated muscle represents thick filaments.
3954.Tropomyosin are thin filament.
3955.All mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae.
3956.Number of phalanges in each limb of humans is 14.
3957.Filament of myofibril contain two proteins namely tropomyosin and
troponin.
3958.Ear(cristae and maculae present in internal ears) help us in
maintaining the body balance.
3959.Cort(Internal ear) determines pitch of sound.
3960.Skin secretes Melanotropin.
3961.Cretinism is responsible for thyroxine and Triiodothyronine.
3962.A 'solar water heater' cannot be used to get 'hot water' on “a cloudy
day”.
3963.Nuclear energy is not a biomass energy source.
3964.Nuclear energy is not sun energy.
3965.Grass, goat and human constitute food chain.
3966.Pasteurization is the process of heating, and then rapidly cooling,
liquids or food in order to kill microbes that may expedite their spoilage or
cause disease. Louis Pasteur discovered by pasteurization.
3967.Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell.
3968.Phanerogams consist of the embryo along with stored food, which
assists for the initial growth of the embryo during germination.
3969.In palmately compound leaves, the leaflets are attached at a common
point, i.e., at the tip of petiole, as in silk cotton.
3970.Phyllotaxy is the pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or
branch.
3971.In alternate type of phyllotaxy, a single leaf arises at each node in
alternate manner, as in China rose, mustard and sunflower plants.
3972.Water potential gradient between the absorbent and the liquid
imbibed is essential for imbibition.
3973.Gametes are haploid.
3974.Monera, fungi, algae and bryophytes have haploid.
3975.Anatomy is the branch of science concerned with the bodily structure
of humans, animals, and other living organisms.
3976.Acarology is the study of mites and ticks.
3977.Actinobiology is the study of the effects of radiation on living
organisms.
3978.Aerobiology is the study of airborne microorganisms, pollen, spores,
and seeds, especially as agents of infection.
3979.Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science that deals with the
study of crops and the soils in which they grow.
3980.Agrostology is the branch of botany concerned with grasses.
3981.Angiology which studies the diseases of the circulatory system and
the lymphatic system.
3982.Anthology is study of flowers.
3983.Anthropology is the study of humans, early hominids and primates,
such as chimpanzees.
3984.Apiculture is study of beekeeping.
3985.Araneology is the branch of zoology that deals with spiders.
3986.Arthrology is the science concerned with the study of anatomy,
function, dysfunction and treatment of joints and articulations.
3987.Aschelitinthology is study of roundworms.
3988.Agriculture is the study of producing crops and raising livestock.
3989.Astrobiology is the branch of biology concerned with the effects of
outer space on living organisms and with the search for extraterrestrial
life.
3990.Agriology is the study of the customs of nonliterate people.
3991.Aphidology is study of aphids (plant lice).
3992.Agrobiology is the branch of biology that deals with soil science and
plant nutrition and its application to crop production.
3993.Agrology is study of science to agriculture.
3994.Andrology is the study of male health, especially male sexual organs
and reproduction.
3995.Arboriculture is study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other
perennial woody plants.
3995.Allometry is the study of the relationship of body size to shape,
anatomy, physiology.
3996.Archaebiology is study of ancient time through archaeological
materials.
3997.Biology is the study the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution
and distribution of living organisms.
3998.Bacteriology is the study of bacteria and their relation to medicine.
3999.Batrachology is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of
amphibians including frogs and toads, salamanders, newts, and
caecilians.
4000.Biochemistry is the branch of science concerned with the chemical
and physico chemical processes and substances that occur within living
organisms.
4001.Biometrics is the technical term for body measurements and
calculations.
4002.Biotechnology is study of the exploitation of biological processes for
industrial and other purposes, especially the genetic manipulation of
microorganisms for the production of antibiotics, hormones, etc.
4003.Bryology is study of mosses and liverworts.
4004.Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods
and software tools for understanding biological data.
4005.Biomedical research is the study of various chemicals and
substances
used to develop and improve medicines that are used to treat disease.
4006.Biological psychology is the study of physiological, genetic, and
developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals.
4007.Biosematics is the study of prelinguistic meaning-making, or
production and interpretation of signs and codes in the biological realm.
4008.Botany is the scientific study of plants.
4009.Building Biology is the holistic study of the man-made environment,
human health and ecology.
4010.Bioclimatology is studies the interactions between the biosphere and
the Earth's atmosphere on time scales of the order of seasons or longer.
4011.Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and
ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.
4012.Biometrology is study of the effects of natural or artificial
atmospheric conditions, as temperature and humidity, on living
organisms.
4013.Bionic is study of having or denoting an artificial, typically
electromechanical, body part or parts.
4014.Cytology is the branch of biology and medicine concerned with the
structure and function of plant and animal cells.
4015.Ctetology is the branch of biology that studies the origin and
development of acquired characteristics.
4016.Cytogenetics is the study of inheritance in relation to the structure
and function of chromosomes.

4017.Carcinology is a branch of zoology that consists of the study of

crustaceans, a group of arthropods that includes lobsters, crayfish,
shrimp, krill, barnacles and crabs.
4018.Cardiology is the branch of medicine that deals with diseases and
abnormalities of the heart.
4019.Chondrology is the branch of medical science that studies cartilages.
4020.Chromatology is the scientific study of colour.
4021.Cnidology is the study of coelenterates.
4022.Conchology is the study of mollusc shells.
4023.Craniology is the scientific study of the shape and size of the skulls of
different human races.
4024.Cryobiology is the study of biological material or systems at
temperatures below normal.
4025.Conservation biology is the management of nature and of Earth's
biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and
ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction.
4026.Carcinomalogy is study of Cancer.
4027.Cryobiology is the branch of biology that studies the effects of low
temperatures on living things within Earth's cryosphere or in science.
4028.Chronobiology is the branch of biology concerned with cyclical
physiological phenomena.
4029.Cell biology is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves
around the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life.
4030.Chirology is telling fortunes by lines on the palm of the hand.
chiromancy, palm reading, palmistry. fortune telling, soothsaying,
foretelling, divination.
4031.Cosmology is a branch of astronomy that involves the origin and
evolution of the universe.
4032.Chondrology is a branch of anatomy concerned with cartilage.
4033.Dendrology the scientific study of trees.
4034.Dermatology is the branch of medicine dealing with the skin, nails,
hair and its diseases.
4035.Dysteleology is the philosophical view that existence has no telos - no
final cause from purposeful design.
4036.Desmology is the branch of ligaments.
4037.Embryology is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal
development of gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos and
fetuses.
4038.Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the relations of
organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings.
4039.Ecobiology, the study of the relationships of organisms to their
natural environments, has come into its own, especially in aging and age
related diseases.
4040.Endocrinology is the branch of physiology and medicine concerned
with endocrine glands and hormones.
4041.Entomology is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of
insects.
4042.Enzymology is the study of enzymes, their kinetics, structure, and
function, as well as their relation to each other.
4043.Ethnology is the study of the characteristics of different peoples and
the differences and relationships between them.
4044.Ethology is the study of human behaviour and social organization
from a biological perspective.
4045.Etiology is the cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a
disease or condition.
4046.Eugenics is the study of all agencies under human control which can
improve or impair the racial quality of future generations.
4047.Euphenics is the science of making phenotypic improvements to
humans after birth, generally to affect a problematic genetic condition.
4048.Euthenics is the study of the improvement of human functioning and
well-being by improvement of living conditions.
4049.Evolutionary is the study of this process, which can occur through
mechanisms including natural selection, sexual selection and genetic drift.
4050.Exobiology is the branch of science that deals with the possibility and
the likely nature of life on other planets or in space.
4051.Epidemiology is the branch of medicine which deals with the
incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors
relating to health.
4052.Epigenetics is the study of changes in organisms caused by
modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code
itself.
4053.Esthesiology is the science concerned with sensory phenomena.
4054.Ecophysiology is the study of how the environment, both physical
and biological, interacts with the physiology of an organism
4055.Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the traditional knowledge and
customs of a people concerning plants and their medical, religious, and
other uses.
4056.Floriculture is the cultivation of flowers.
4057.Forestry is the art, science, and practice of studying and managing
forests and plantations, and related natural resources.
4058.Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes,
genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.
4059.Gerontology is the scientific study of old age, the process of ageing,
and the particular problems of old people.
4060.Gynaecology is the branch of physiology and medicine which deals
with the functions and diseases specific to women and girls, especially
those affecting the reproductive system.
4061.Genecology is a branch of ecology which studies genetic variation of
species and communities compared to their population distribution in a
particular environment.
4062.Histology is the study of the microscopic structure of tissues.
4063.Haematology is the branch of medicine involving the study and
treatment of the blood.
4064.Helminthology is the study of parasitic worms.
4065.Hepatology is the branch of medicine that incorporates the study of
liver, gallbladder, biliary tree, and pancreas as well as the management of
their disorders
4066.Herpetology is the branch of zoology concerned with reptiles and
amphibians.
4067.Hypnology is the scientific study of sleep and hypnotic phenomena.
4068.Histochemistry is the branch of science concerned with the
identification and distribution of the chemical constituents of tissues by
means of stains, indicators, and microscopy.
4069.Horticulture has been defined as the culture of plants, mainly for
food, materials, comfort and beauty.
4070.Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the
passing on of traits from parents to their offspring.
4071.Ichnology is the study of the tracks, burrows, and other traces made
by living organisms on and within a substrate.
4071.Immunology is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune
systems in all organisms.
4072.Ichthyology is the branch of zoology that deals with fishes.
4073.Kalology is the study of facial beauty and the way in which our
beauty affects our lifestyle and role in society.
4074.Karyology is a branch of cytology dealing with the structure of cell
nuclei, especially chromosomes.
4075.Koniology is the study of atmospheric dust and its effects.
4076.Kinesiology is the scientific study of human or non-human body
movement.
4077.Lepidopterology, is a branch of entomology concerning the scientific
study of moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies.
4078.Lichenology is the branch of mycology that studies the lichens,
symbiotic organisms made up of an intimate symbiotic association of a
microscopic alga with a filamentous fungi.
4079.Limnology is the study of inland waters - lakes (both freshwater and
saline), reservoirs, rivers, streams, wetlands, and groundwater.
4080.Leprology is the study of leprosy and its treatment.
4081.Limnobiology is A branch of biology that deals with freshwater
animals and freshwater plants.

4082.Morphology is the study of the forms of things.

4083.Malacology is the branch of zoology that deals with molluscs.
4084.Mammology is the branch of zoology concerned with mammals.
4085.Mastology is the study of breasts.
4086.Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi,
including their genetic and biochemical properties.
4087.Myrmecology is the branch of entomology that deals with ants.
4088.Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular,
multicellular, or acellular.
4089.Myology is the study of the structure, arrangement, and action of
muscles.
4090.Neonatology is a subspecialty of pediatrics that consists of the
medical care of newborn infants, especially the ill or premature newborn.
4091.Nephrology is the study of normal kidney function and kidney
disease, the preservation of kidney health, and the treatment of kidney
disease.
4092.Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the
nervous system.
4093.Nidology the study of birds' nests.
4094.Nosology is the branch of medical science dealing with the
classification of diseases.
4095.Nanobiology is the study of the complexity of living systems.
4096.Nematology the scientific study of nematode worms.
4097.Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system.
4098.Nothology - the study of evolution from nothing, creed of faith for
evolutionists.
4099.odontology is the scientific study of the structure and diseases of the
teeth.
4100.Olericulture is the science of vegetable growing, dealing with the
culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants for food.
4101.Oncologgy is the study and treatment of tumours.
4102.Oneirology is the scientific study of dreams.
4103.Ontogeny is the branch of biology that deals with ontogenesis.
4104.Oology is the study or collecting of birds' eggs.
4105.Ophthalmology is a branch of medicine and surgery which deals with
the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders.
4106.Organicology The study of a sustainable food future.
4107.Organology is is the science of musical instruments and their
classifications.
4108.Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds.
4109.Osteology is the study of the structure and function of the skeleton
and bony structures.
4110.Otorhinolaryngology is the study of diseases of the ear, nose, and
throat.
4111.Ophilogy is a branch of herpetology concerned with the study of
snakes.
4112.Physiology is the branch of biology that deals with the normal
functions of living organisms and their parts.
4113.Paleontology is the study of the history of life on Earth as based on
fossils.
4114.Pedology is the study of children's behavior and development.
4115.Palaeozoology is the branch of palaeontology concerned with the
study of animals throughout geological time, as revealed by their fossil
remains.
4116.Palynology is the study of pollen grains and other spores, especially
as found in archaeological or geological deposits.
4117.Parasitology is the branch of biology or medicine concerned with the
study of parasitic organisms.
4118.Pathology is the study of the causes and effects of disease or injury.
4119.Parazoology is the study of sponges.
4120.Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment
4121.Pharmacognosy is the branch of knowledge concerned with
medicinal drugs obtained from plants or other natural sources.
4122.Pharmacology is the branch of medicine concerned with the uses,
effects, and modes of action of drugs.

4123.Phenology is the study of cyclic and seasonal natural phenomena,

especially in relation to climate and plant and animal life.
4124.Phrenology is the study of skull size, weight and shape, and
physiognomy, the study of facial features.
4125.Phycology is the scientific study of algae.
4126.Phylogeny is study of evolution, diversity, and the way different
organisms and species are related to each other.
4127.Physiology is the branch of biology that deals with the normal
functions of living organisms and their parts.
4128.Pisciculture involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures
such as fish ponds, usually for food.
4129.Pomology is the science of fruit-growing.
4130.Plant physiology is the study of how different parts of plants
function.
4131.Plant taxonomy is the science that finds, identifies, describes,
classifies, and names plants.
4132.Plant ecology is studies the distribution and abundance of plants.
4133.Plant geography is the study of the spatial distribution of plants and
vegetation and of the environmental relationships which may influence
these distributions.
4134.Plant pathology/Phytopathology is the study of organisms and
environmental conditions that cause disease in plants.
4135.Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits of plants in order
to produce desired characteristics.
4136.Plant Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and
using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land reclamation.
4137.Proctology is the branch of medicine concerned with the anus and
rectum.
4138.Protistology is a scientific discipline devoted to the study of protists,
a highly diverse group of eukaryotic organisms.
4139.Pteridology is the study of ferns and related plants.
4140.Phytogeograophy is the branch of botany that deals with the
geographical distribution of plants.
4141.Protozoology is the study of protozoa.
4142.Psychobiology is the branch of science that deals with the biological
basis of behaviour and mental phenomena.
4143.Primatology is the study of the behavior, biology, evolution, and
taxonomy of nonhuman primates.
4144.Psychology is the science of behavior and mind.
4145.Physiotherapy is a specialist branch of medicine that helps
remediate impairments in movement, and promote patients.
4146.Protology is the study of origins and first things.
4147.Palaeobotany is the study of fossil plants.
4148.Rainology is study of nose and olfactory organs.
4149.Rhinology studies the nose and its diseases.
4150.Saurology is the study of lizards.
4151.Sericulture is the production of silk and the rearing of silkworms.
4152.Serology is the scientific study or diagnostic examination of blood
serum, especially with regard to the response of the immune system to
pathogens or introduced substances.
4153.Serpentology is a branch of zoology that studies snakes.
4154.Silviculture is the growing and cultivation of trees.
4155.Sitology is the scientific study of food, diet, and nutrition.
4156.Speciology is The science of the study of all earth's species
4157.Syndesmology is the study of ligaments
4158.Spermology is the study of seeds.
4159.Spermatology is the study of sperm.
4160.Splanchnology is the study of the visceral organs,digestive, urinary,
reproductive and respiratory systems.
4161.Stomatology is a specialty focused on the mouth and nearby
structures.
4162.Synecology is the ecological study of whole plant or animal
communities.
4163.Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to examine and explain
social behavior in terms of evolution.

4164.Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as

sand, silt, and clay.
4165.Sarcology is the study of the soft parts of the body.
4166.Speleology is the study or exploration of caves.
4167.Taxonomy is the branch of science concerned with classification,
especially of organisms; systematics.
4168.Taxidermatoilogy is Study of skin and stuffing.
4169.Teratology is the scientific study of congenital abnormalities and
abnormal formations.
4170.Torpedology bis study of fishes.
4171.Toxicology is the branch of science concerned with the nature, effects,
and detection of poisons.
4172.Traumatology is the study of wounds and injuries caused by
accidents or violence to a person.
4173.Trichology is the branch of medical and cosmetic study and practice
concerned with the hair and scalp.
4174.Trophology is science of nutrition.
4175.Torentology is study of disease of embryos.
4176.Taphonomy is the branch of palaeontology that deals with the
processes of fossilization.
4177.Therapeutic si the branch of medicine concerned with the treatment
of disease and the action of remedial agents.
4178.Urology is the branch of medicine that focuses on surgical and
medical diseases of the male and female urinary-tract system and the
male reproductive organs.
4179.Virology is the branch of science that deals with the study of viruses.
4180.Zoogeography is the branch of zoology that deals with the
geographical distribution of animals.
4181.Zoophytology is study of drifting organisms such as diatoms.
4182.Zoology is the scientific study of animals
4183.Zootechny is science of breeding and domesticating animals.
4184.Zymology is study of fermentation.