Plant Tissues

 The individual cells of multicellular organisms are arranged into groups that function collectively as
tissues. In plants, tissues work together for the organ and organ systems to function well.
 Plant tissues may be classified based on their origin, structure, and function.
 The two major types of plant tissues, based on origin, are:
 1. Meristematic or embryonic tissues-tissues in which cells actively divide. They are responsible
for the production of more cells. Old cells come from these groups of young cells. The new cells
produced are typically small, each with a proportionately large nucleus at the center and tiny
vacuoles or no vacuoles at all. As they mature, they assume different shapes and sizes related to
the cells' ultimate function.
 2. Permanent tissues - tissues derived from the meristems that have already assumed various
shapes and sizes related to their specific functions as they develop and mature. They are usually
non-dividing cells, with a few exceptions.
Meristematic tissues
Meristematic tissues based on their location in the body of the plants are:
 a. Apical meristems
o found at the tips of shoots and roots.
o They increase in length
o Three primary meristems develop from each
apical meristem, namely: the protoderm,
ground meristem, and procambium. The tissues
produced are called primary meristems.
 b. Lateral meristems or cambia meristems
o that increase the girth or diameter of the plant.
o They are found along the sides of some roots and stems.
o Two types of lateral meristems are usually present in dicot
plants. These are the vascular cambium and cork cambium.
 c. Intercalary meristems
o usually found in the vicinity of nodes (leaf attachment
areas).
o Just like the apical meristems, they also increase the length of
stems.
o These are short-lived meristems since they are eventually
transformed into permanent tissues.
Permanent tissues based on the type of cells present are:
a. Simple permanent tissues -tissues that are mostly composed of only one kind of cell. These cells are
uniform in function and structure.
b. Complex permanent tissues - tissues that are composed of several kinds of cells working together to
perform a specific function in the body.
Simple permanent tissues
1. Parenchyma
 the most abundant of all the tissue types found in almost all major parts of higher plants. The cells are
more or less spherical in shape when newly produced, but when they mature, they push against each other,
and their thin, pliable walls are flattened at the points of contact. As a result, they assume various shapes.
They are usually big and thin-walled, with large vacuoles and air spaces in between the cells.
  Parenchyma tissues with extensive connected air spaces are referred to as aerenchyma, while parenchyma
cells containing numerous chloroplasts are called chlorenchyma.
 Parenchyma tissues generally function for food and waste
storage. The edible parts of most fruits and vegetables
consist largely of parenchyma.
2. Collenchyma - composed of thick-walled cells of uneven
thickness. Collenchyma cells often occur just beneath the
epidermis. Typically, they are longer than they are wide, and their
cell walls are pliable and strong. They are usually smaller than
parenchyma cells.
3. Sclerenchyma - characterized by cells that are thick and tough-
walled. These are normally impregnated with lignin. Most
sclerenchyma cells are dead at maturity; however, they function as
supporting tissues in plants.
Two types of sclerenchyma cells are:
a. Sclereids
o are short, isodiametric or
irregular in shape
o Often dead and have highly
thickened cell walls
o They have more pits than
fibers
o The gritty texture in chico
and pears is due to sclereids
present in the fruit
b. Fibers - may be found in association with different tissues. They are usually much longer than broad and
have a tiny cavity, or lumen, in the center of the cell.

4. Epidermis
 the outermost layer of cells found in all young plant organs.
 Most epidermal cells secrete a fatty substance called cutin.
It forms a protective layer called the cuticle.
 Hairs or trichomes of different nature occur on the epidermis
of above-ground plants. They may consist of one or several cells.
Some may be glandular in nature, just like the trichomes found in
oregano plants.
 Leaves also have numerous small pores, or stomata,
bordered by pairs of specialized epidermal cells called guard cells.
 Some epidermal cells may also be modified as glands that
secrete protective coverings

5. Cork - serves as the outermost covering of old stems and old roots of woody
dicot plants. This consists of several layers of dead cells when it matures. Their
cell walls are impregnated with a waxy substance called suberin, which renders
them impermeable to substances such as water. This results in their death upon
maturity.
6. Secretory tissues - composed of secretory cells that produce hormones or
waste products that are no longer important to the plant. Among the most common
secretory tissues are those that secrete nectar in flowers, oil in citrus, menthol in
mint leaves, and mucilage, latex, and resin in pine trees.
COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUES

These tissues are located in specific areas of a plant's structure and are linked to particular functions.
Types:
o Xylem: Transport of water and minerals from soil to plant parts.
o Phloem: Translocation of food produced by leaves to all parts of the plant. It is responsible for
transporting sugars, organic compounds, and other nutrients from the leaves (where they are
produced) to other parts of the plant, such as roots, fruits, and seeds.

Xylem
o These are the tissues that occur in definite positions in a plant's body and are associated with definite
functions. There are two types of complex tissues in the body of a plant: xylem and phloem.
o The xylem is concerned primarily with the transport of water and minerals from the soil to the various
parts of the plant.
o The phloem is responsible for the translocation of food manufactured by the leaves to all parts of the plant.

Xylem
 This is composed of four cell types, namely:
 1. Xylem fibers - similar in appearance to ordinary
sclerenchyma fibers; provide mechanical support to the plant
 2. Xylem parenchyma - smaller in size than ordinary
parenchyma cells.; involved in the storage of nutrients.
 3. Vessels-long tubes made up of individual cells that are
open at each end and are joined end to end to form the tubes.
 4. Tracheids - more or less elongated cells with oblique and
tapering end walls. They are angular in cross-section and are
dead at maturity.
Tracheids and vessel elements make up the
so-called tracheary elements of the xylem, allowing
water to travel upwards against gravity from the
roots to the leaves and other aerial parts of the plant.

Xylem: Tracheary elements are grouped into five types

based on structure. They are the following:
a. Spiral-helical or spiral appearance of the
thickening
b. Scalariform-thickenings appear ladder-like
c. Pitted type - with rounded depressions or pore-
like structures called pits
d. Reticulate thickenings appear webbed or net-like
e. Annular-cell wall thickenings in ring-like forms
Phloem
This is a complex permanent tissue composed of:
1.Companion cells - small, nucleated
parenchymatous cells that are usually associated with sieve
tubes; play a supporting role
2.Phloem fibers - resemble ordinary sclerenchyma
fibers.
3.Phloem parenchyma - appears like ordinary
parenchyma cells.
4.Sieve tube elements - elongated cells joined end to
end, forming sieve tubes. Their end walls or cross walls have
a large number of small pores called sieve plates. Sieve tubes
are living cells that do not have nuclei. Aiding in their
metabolic functions.
ROOTS
EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
FUNCTIONS
 Anchorage – to locate water and minerals, roots permeate the soil. In doing so, they anchor the plant in
one place for its entire life
 Absorption – root absorb large amounts of water and dissolved minerals (nitrates, phosphates, and
sulfates) from the soil
 Conduction – water and minerals upward into the stem and food from leaves to storage regions of roots
 Storage – roots store large amounts of energy reserves, initially produced in the leaves of plants via
photosynthesis, and transported in the phloem, as sugar, to the roots for storage, usually as sugar or starch,
until they are needed.
 Reproduction
 Photosynthesis
There are three major types of root systems in plants, namely:
 Taproot system - originates
from the seed radicle and
consists of one main root,
generally growing
straightforward, with
smaller lateral or branch
roots.. Dicot plants generally
have this type of root system.
 Fibrous root system - consists of numerous fine roots similar in diameter. It also originates from the seed
radicle. Monocot plants generally have a fibrous root system.
 Adventitious root system - the roots that grow from any part of the plant other than the radicle. They may
develop from the base of stems, nodes, internodes, and, in some
cases, from leaves.
Types of Root
1. Primary root - the first root that emerges from a germinating seed. It is
also called the radicle.
2. Secondary root - roots arising from the primary root
3. Tertiary root - roots arising from the secondary root
4. Adventitious root – roots arising from parts other than the radicle. They
may arise from leaves, nodes, stems, and internodes.

INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
 In a cross-section of a young dicot root, the following regions are
present:
 1. Epidermal region - the outermost layer of cells, which is only
one cell thick. Most of the cells here have extensions and form root
hairs.
 2. Cortex region - consists of many layers of thin-walled
parenchyma cells with intercellular spaces. The cortex functions
primarily for food storage.
 3. Endodermis - the innermost layer of the cortex, consisting of a
single layer of barrel-shaped cells that are closely packed and have
no intercellular spaces. Opposite the protoxylem, the cells are thin-
walled and are called passage cells. The rest of the cells are
impregnated with suberin. These suberin bands are called Casparian
strips.
 4. Stele or vascular cylinder - occupies the central portion of the
root and consists of the pericycle and vascular tissues. The pericycle
lies internal to the endodermis and generally consists of a single
layer of thin-walled parenchyma cells. Lateral roots originate from
 the pericycle because it displays its meristematic characteristics. The pericycle on its inner surface is
directly in contact with the xylem and phloem strands.

 In transverse section, the xylem may appear star-shaped, with

"arms or wedges" extending toward the pericycle.
 The xylem cells closer to the pericycle are smaller in size and
are called protoxylem, while those toward the outer and bigger
in size are called metaxylem.
 The number of protoxylem groups in the roots (whether one,
two, three, or many) is expressed by the terms monarch,
diarch, triarch, and polyarch.
 The phloem is less easy to observe than the xylem but occurs
in distinct strands between the xylem arms.

Basically, the structures of a typical monocot root and dicot root are similar;
however, they differ in three respects:

DICOT MONOCOT
the number of protoxylem groups varies the number is generally more than 10 (polyarch).
from two to five (i.e., they are either diarchs,
triarchs, tetrarchs, or pentarchs)
there is generally no pith. The metaxylem a parenchymatous pith is found at the center.
occupies the center of the root
exhibit a siphonostele have a protostele
Parts of monocot root
Just like the young dicot root, monocot roots also have three regions:
the epidermis, the cortex, and the stele (or vascular cylinder).
The basic structure of a dicot root is similar to that of a
monocot root; however, they differ in two respects, namely,
the number of protoxylem and the presence of
parenchymatous pith.
 The epidermis and the cortex regions of a young monocot
root are similar in parts to a young dicot root.
 The stele is composed of:
 1. Pericycle - has a structure similar to that of a young dicot
root.
 2. Xylem - polyarched and has a center occupied by
parenchyma and not by tracheary elements.
 3. Phloem - occupies the spaces between the radial arms of the
xylem.
 4. Pith - composed of parenchymatous cells found at the
center.
ANATOMY OF A DICOT ROOT
 Generally, three regions are recognizable in young roots.
Starting from the root tip upward, they are the region of cell
division, the region of elongation, and the region of
maturation or differentiation.

 1. The Region of Cell Division or Meristematic Region -

the growing apex of the root. It is covered and protected at
the tip by loosely arranged parenchymatous cells that form
what is called a root cap. The root cap is thimble- shaped.
The cells in this region are small, cube-shaped, thin-walled,
and have large, centrally located nuclei. It is called the
meristematic region since the cells here are actively dividing.
 2. The Region of Elongation - found above the meristematic region. The cells here elongate several
times their original length and push the root tip through the soil. This region is responsible for the
increase in the length of the root.
 3. The Region of Maturation - lies above the region of elongation and extends upward. The cells here
are elongated. This region is responsible for the increase in length of the root into various distinctive cell
types. This is also called the region of differentiation or root hair zone. This region can be seen clearly in
a young root because of the presence of numerous root hairs that increase the absorptive area of the cell.
The cells in this region are already mature and perform specific functions such as protective covering,
transport, and support, among others.
SPECIALIZED ROOTS
Some plants have roots that are specialized to perform functions other than their primary function of water
absorption and anchorage. These functional modifications include the following:
 Some plants have roots that are specialized to perform functions other than their primary function of
water absorption and anchorage. These functional modifications include the following:

 1. Food storage - enlarged

roots with large quantities of
starch and carbohydrates

 2. Water storage -
fasciculated roots; enlarged
fleshy and succulent roots

 3. Reproduction/propagation - formation of adventitious root buds

4. Gas exchange - presence of pneumatophores, especially in mangrove plants

  5. Support
 a. Buttress roots - big roots that look like they arise from the base of the tree trunk
 b. Prop or stilt roots - aerial roots arising from branches
 c. Brace roots - aerial roots arising from the main stem that penetrates the ground
 d. Clinging root – aerial roots that cling to some kind of support

 6. Protection - presence of spines or thorns

 7. Photosynthesis - green aerial roots

Euphorbia milii