Some remarks on problem U23

Dorin Andrica and Mihai Piticari

Abstract
We give three different proofs to identity (2). Some applications are also
presented.

1 Introduction
In [3] we proposed the following problem: Evaluate the sum
n−1
X 1
 . (1)
2 kπ
k=0 1 + 8 sin
n
In the first issue of the journal ”Mathematical Reflections” no solutions were
given to this problem. The main purpose of this note is to present three different
proofs to the following general result (see also [4]).

Theorem. For each real number a ∈ R \ {−1, 1} the following equality holds:
n−1
X 1 n(an + 1)
= . (2)
2kπ (a2 − 1)(an − 1)
k=0 a2 − 2a cos +1
n

Let us remark that the special case n = 7 and a ∈ (−1, 1) makes the object of
Problem 49 in the Longlisted Problems of IMO1988 (see [5] page 217).
In the last section we present four applications of our main result.

2 Three proofs to the theorem

Proof 1. (Dorin Andrica and Mihai Piticari) Let P ∈ R[X] be a polynomial with
real coefficients of degree n − 1, P = a0 + a1 X + · · · + an−1 X n−1 . If α ∈ Un is an
nth root of unity, then we have
 
1
|P (α)|2 = P (α) · P (α) = P (α) · P (α) = P (α) · P
α
 
n−1 a1 1
= (a0 + a1 α + · · · + an−1 α ) a0 + + · · · + an−1 n−1
α α
n−1 n−1
X X 1
= a20 + a21 + ··· + a2n−1 + Ak α +k
Bj ,
αj
k=1 j=1

Mathematical Reflections 4 (2008) 1

where coefficients Ak , and Bj are different from zero. From relation (see [2, Propo-
sition 3, page 46]) 
X
k n, if n|k
α =
0, otherwise
α∈Un

we get the following nice formula

X
|P (α)|2 = n(a20 + a21 + · · · + a2n−1 ). (3)
α∈Un

In order to prove (2) we consider the polynomial

an X n − 1
P = 1 + aX + · · · + an−1 X n−1 = .
aX − 1
Applying formula (3) it follows that
X a2n − 1
|P (α)|2 = n(1 + a2 + · · · + a2n−2 ) = n (4)
a2 − 1
α∈Un

On the other hand,

 a α − 1 2
 n n
(an − 1)2 (an − 1)2

|P (α)|2 =   = = 2
aα − 1  (aα − 1)(aα − 1) a − 2Re α · a + 1

and formula (2) follows.

Proof 2. (Gabriel Dospinescu, Ecole Normale Superieure, Paris, France) We
will use the so called Poisson kernel formula
+∞
1 − r2 X
= r|m| z m , where |r| < 1, (5)
1 − 2r cos t + r2 m=−∞

and z = cos t + i sin t. Applying it in our case we have

n−1 n−1 +∞
!
X 1 − a2 X X
im 2kπ
= a|m| e n
2kπ
k=0 1 − 2a cos + a2 k=0 m=−∞
n
+∞ n−1
!
X X 2πim
k X
= a|m| e n = na|m|
m=−∞ k=0 m∈Z
X 1 − a2n 1 + an
=n an|j| = n = n ,
(1 − an )2 1 − an
j∈Z

and formula (2) follows.

Mathematical Reflections 4 (2008) 2

 Proof 3. (Dorin Andrica) Consider the polynomial P ∈ C[X] having the fac-
n
Y
torization P = (X 2 + ak X + b). Then
k=1

n n
P0 X 2X + ak 1 X 2X 2 + ak X + b − b
= =
P X 2 + ak X + b X X 2 + ak X + b
k=1 k=1
n n
X 1 n b X 1
=X 2
+ − 2
X + ak X + b X X X + ak X + b
k=1 k=1
2 n
X −b X 1 n
= + ,
X X2 + ak X + b X
k=1

and we derive the formula

n
XP 0 − nP X 1
2
= 2
. (6)
(X − b)P X + ak X + b
k=1

For the polynomial

n−1
Y 
n 2 2 2kπ
P = (X − 1) = X − 2X cos +1
n
k=0

we have P 0 = 2nX n−1 (X n − 1), hence

XP 0 − nP 2nX n (X n − 1) − n(X n − 1)2 Xn + 1

= = n ,
(X 2 − 1)P (X 2 − 1)(X n − 1)2 (X 2 − 1)(X n − 1)

and (2) follows from (6).

3 Applications
Application 1. In order to evaluate the sum (1) we take a = 2 in identity (2) and
get
n−1
X 1 n(2n + 1)
= ,
2kπ 3(2n − 1)
k=0 4 − 4 cos +1
n
that is
n−1
X 1 n(2n + 1)
 = . (7)
2 kπ 3(2n − 1)
k=0 1 + 8 sin
n

Mathematical Reflections 4 (2008) 3

 Application 2. Let us use the identity (2) to prove the equality
n−1
X 1 (n − 1)(n + 1)
 = . (8)
kπ 3
k=1 sin2
n

Indeed, the identity (2) is equivalent to

n−1
X 1 n(an + 1) 1
= − .
2kπ (a − 1)(a − 1) (a − 1)2
2 n
k=1 a2 − 2a cos +1
n
Taking in the right hand side the limit for a → 1 we get
n(an + 1)
 
1
lim −
a→1 (a2 − 1)(an − 1) (a − 1)2

1 (n − 1)an+1 − (n + 1)an + (n + 1)a − n + 1

= lim
2n a→1 (a − 1)3
1 (n + 1)(n − 1)an − n(n + 1)an−1 + (n + 1)
= lim
2n a→1 3(a − 1)2
1 (n + 1)(n − 1)nan−2 (a − 1) (n − 1)(n + 1)
= lim = .
2n a→1 6(a − 1) 12
It follows that
n−1
X 1 (n − 1)(n + 1)
lim = ,
a→1 2kπ 12
k=1 a2 − 2a cos +1
n
that is
n−1
X 1 (n − 1)(n + 1)
 = .
kπ 12
k=1 4 sin2
n
Remarks. 1) Using
 
2 kπ (n − k)π
sin = sin2 , k = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1,
n n

from identity (8) we get:

a) If n is odd, n = 2m + 1, then
m
X 1 2m(2m + 2) m(2m + 2)
 = =
kπ 6 3
k=1 sin2
2m + 1

Mathematical Reflections 4 (2008) 4

 This is equivalent to
m
X kπ m(2m − 1)
cot2 = . (9)
2m + 1 3
k=1

b) If n is even, then
n
−1
2
n2 − 1 n2 − 4
 
X 1 1
 = −1 = . (10)
2 kπ 2 3 6
k=1 sin
n

2) A different method to prove (9) is given in [1, page 147]. Consider the trigono-
metric equation sin(2m + 1)x = 0, with roots
π 2π mπ
, ,...,
2m + 1 2m + 1 2m + 1
Expressing sin(2m + 1)x in terms of sin x and cos x, we obtain
   
2m + 1 2m + 1
sin(2m + 1)x = cos2m x sin x − cos2m−2 x sin3 x + . . .
1 3
    
2m+1 2m + 1 2m 2m + 1 2m−2
= sin x cot x − cot x + ...
1 3
kπ
Set x = , k = 1, 2, . . . , m. Because sin2m+1 x 6= 0, we have
2m + 1
   
2m + 1 2m 2m + 1
cot x − cot2m−2 x + · · · = 0.
1 3

Substituting y = cot2 x yields

   
2m + 1 m 2m + 1 m−1
y − y + · · · = 0,
1 3

an algebraic equation with roots

π 2π mπ
cot2 , cot2 , . . . , cot2
2m + 1 2m + 1 2m + 1
Using the relations between coefficients and roots, we obtain
 
2m + 1
m
X kπ 3 m(2m − 1)
cot2 = =
2m + 1 2m + 1 3
k=1
1

Mathematical Reflections 4 (2008) 5

 Application 3. We use now the result in our Theorem to prove the following
identities:
If n is odd and n ≥ 3, then
n−1
2
X 1 n2 − 1
 = (11)
kπ 2
k=1 cos2
n

If n is even and n ≥ 4, then

n
−1
2
X 1 n2 − 4
 = (12)
kπ 6
k=1 cos2
n

This is Problem O71 and three solutions to it are proposed in ”Mathematical

Reflections”. Here we present a different one directly derived from (2).
In order to prove the identity (11) we note that from (2) we have
n−1
X 1 n(an + 1)
= lim
2kπ a→−1 (a2 − 1)(an − 1)
k=0 2 + 2 cos
n
n an + 1 n2
= lim = .
4 a→−1 a + 1 4
That is
n−1
X 1
  = n2 ,
kπ
k=0 cos2
n
therefore
n−1
X 1
  = n2 − 1.
kπ
k=1 cos2
n
Using    
2 kπ 2 (n − k)π
cos = cos , k = 1, . . . , n − 1,
n n
the identity (11) follows.
To prove identity (12) by the same method is much more complicated. From (2)
we have
n−1
n(an + 1)
 
X 1 1
= lim −
2kπ a→−1 (a2 − 1)(an − 1) (a + 1)2
k=0 n
2 + 2 cos
k6= 2 n

Mathematical Reflections 4 (2008) 6

 n[(t − 1)n + 1]
 
1
= lim −
t→0 t(t − 2)[(t − 1)n − 1] t2
1 n[(t − 1)n + 1]t − (t − 2)[(t − 1)n − 1]
= − lim
2 t→0 t2 [(t − 1)n − 1]
 
n(n − 1) 2 3
nt 2 − nt + t + t f (t)
1 2
= − lim  
2 t→0 2 n(n − 1) 2 3
t −nt + t + t h(t)
2
 
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 4
(t − 2) −nt + t − + t + t g(t)
2 6
−  
n(n − 1) 2
t2 −nt + t + t3 h(t)
2
n2 (n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2) n(n − 1)
1 −2 − n2 − 1
=− · 2 6 2 = ,
2 −n 12
since f, g, h are polynomials in t, and so f (0), g(0), h(0) are finite. It follows that
n−1
X 1 n2 − 4
 =
kπ 3
k=1 cos2
k6= n
2 n
and then using again
   
2 kπ 2 (n − k)π
cos = cos , k = 1, . . . , n − 1,
n n
we get identity (10). Let us remark that the previous limit was proposed in Problem
U72.
Remark. It is possible to derive the relation (12) directly from (8) by using
n 
kπ

π kπ

(n − 2k)π − k π n
cos2 = sin2 − = sin2 = sin2 2 , k = 1, . . . , .
n 2 n 2n n 2
Application 4. If x ∈ R and |x| > 1, then
 √  h √ n i
n−1 2n x + x2−1 x + x2−1 + 1
X 1
=  √ √ (13)
2kπ 2  h n i
k=0 x − cos x + x2 − 1 − 1 x + x2 − 1 − 1
n
Indeed, we have
n−1 n−1
X 1 1 X 1
= .
2kπ
 
2a 1 1 2kπ
k=0 a2 − 2a cos +1 k=0 a+ − cos2
n 2 a n

Mathematical Reflections 4 (2008) 7

 √
 
1 1
Let x = a+ . Then a = x + x2 − 1, and from identity (2) we get
2 a
n−1
1 X 1 n(an + 1)
= ,
2a 2kπ (a2 − 1)(an − 1)
k=0 x − cos
n
that is the relation (13).
Taking x = 2 in (13), x = 2, we get
√
h √
n i
n−1 2n 2 + 3 2 + 3 + 1
X 1
 = √
h √
n i . (14)
2 kπ 3 + 3 3 2 + 3 − 1
k=0 1 + 2 sin
n

References
[1] Andreescu, T., Andrica, D., 360 Problems for Mathematical Contests, GIL
Publishing House, 2003.

[2] Andreescu, T., Andrica, D., Complex Numbers for A to... Z, Birkhauser Verlag,
Boston-Berlin-Basel, 2005.

[3] Andrica, D., Piticari, M., Problem U23, Mathematical Reflections 4(2006).

[4] Andrica, D., Piticari, M., On some interesting trigonometric sums, Acta Univ.
Apulensis Math. Inform. No. 15(2008), 299-308.

[5] Djukić, D., a.o., The IMO Compendium. A Collection of Problems Suggested
for the International Mathematical Olympiads: 1959-2004, Springer, 2006.

Dorin Andrica
”Babeş-Bolyai” University
Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
E-mail address: dandrica@math.ubbcluj.ro

Mihai Piticari
”Dragoş-Vodă” National College
Câmpulung Moldovenesc, Romania

Mathematical Reflections 4 (2008) 8