First Trimester Bleeding:​​

Evaluation and Management

Erin Hendriks, MD, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Honor MacNaughton, MD, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
Maricela Castillo MacKenzie, MD, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Approximately one-fourth of pregnant women will experience bleeding in the first trimester. The differential diagnosis
includes threatened abortion, early pregnancy loss, and ectopic pregnancy. Pain and heavy bleeding are associated with
an increased risk of early pregnancy loss. Treatment of threatened abortion is expectant management. Bed rest does not
improve outcomes, and there is insufficient evidence supporting the use of progestins. Trends in quantitative β subunit of
human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG) levels provide useful information when distinguishing normal from abnormal early
pregnancy. The discriminatory level (1,500 to 3,000 mIU per mL) is the β-hCG level above which an intrauterine pregnancy
should be visible on transvaginal ultrasonography. Failure to detect an intrauterine pregnancy, combined with β-hCG levels
higher than the discriminatory level, should raise concern for early pregnancy loss or ectopic pregnancy. Ultrasound find-
ings diagnostic of early pregnancy loss include a mean gestational sac diameter of 25 mm or greater with no embryo and
no fetal cardiac activity when the crown-rump length is 7 mm or more. Treatment options for early pregnancy loss include
expectant management, medical management with mifepristone and misoprostol, or uterine aspiration. The incidence of
ectopic pregnancy is 1% to 2% in the United States and accounts for 6% of all maternal deaths. Established criteria should
be used to determine treatment options for ectopic pregnancy, including expectant management, medical management
with methotrexate, or surgical intervention. (Am Fam Physician. 2019;​​​99(3):​​166-174. Copyright © 2019 American Academy
of Family Physicians.)

Approximately 25% of pregnant women experience bleeding. Bleeding equal to or heavier than a menstrual
bleeding before 12 weeks’ gestation.1,2 The differential diag- period and bleeding accompanied by pain are associated
nosis includes nonobstetric causes, bleeding in a viable with an increased risk of early pregnancy loss.2,7 Patients
intrauterine pregnancy, early pregnancy loss, and ectopic should be assessed for signs and symptoms of hypovole-
pregnancy. Physical examination findings, laboratory test- mia. Vital signs indicating hemodynamic instability or
ing, and ultrasonography can be used to diagnose the cause peritoneal signs on physical examination require emergent
of first trimester bleeding and provide appropriate manage-
ment. A glossary of terms used in this article is available in
Table 1.3-6 WHAT IS NEW ON THIS TOPIC

History and Physical Examination

First Trimester Bleeding
Vaginal bleeding in early pregnancy requires prompt
A meta-analysis evaluating the accuracy of a single proges-
attention. A review of the menstrual history and prior
terone test to predict pregnancy outcomes for women with
ultrasonography can help establish gestational dating first trimester bleeding showed that a progesterone level
and determine whether the pregnancy location is known. less than 6 ng per mL (19.1 nmol per L) reliably excluded
Patients should be asked about pain and the amount of viable pregnancy, with a negative predictive value of 99%.

Guidelines for ultrasound diagnosis of early pregnancy loss

have been established to decrease the likelihood of false
CME This clinical content conforms to AAFP criteria for
diagnosis and of intervening in a desired viable pregnancy.
continuing medical education (CME). See CME Quiz on
page 157. Oral mifepristone (Mifeprex), 200 mg, followed 24 hours
Author disclosure:​​​ No relevant financial affiliations. later by misoprostol, 800 mcg vaginally, is the most effec-
Patient information:​​ A handout on this topic, written by the tive regimen for medical management of early pregnancy
authors of this article, is available at https://​​w ww.aafp.org/ loss and, when available, should be recommended over
afp/2019/0201/p166-s1.html. misoprostol alone.

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 FIRST TRIMESTER BLEEDING

evaluation. A speculum examination can help identify non- abortion. A 50- or 120-mcg dose is recommended before
obstetric causes of bleeding, such as vaginitis, cervicitis, 12 weeks’ gestation, although 300 mcg can be administered
or a cervical polyp. If products of conception are visible if lower doses are not available.3 After 12 weeks, a 300-mcg
on speculum examination, the diagnosis of incomplete dose should be given.12
abortion can be made and treatment offered. Further eval-
uation is needed unless a definitive nonobstetric cause PROGESTERONE
of bleeding is found or products of conception are seen Measurement of serum progesterone may be useful in
(Figure 1).8 distinguishing between an early viable or nonviable preg-
nancy, especially in the setting of inconclusive ultrasonog-
Laboratory Testing raphy. A meta-analysis evaluating the accuracy of a single
β-HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN progesterone test to predict pregnancy outcome in women
The β subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG) with first trimester bleeding showed that a level less than
can be detected in the plasma of a
pregnant woman as early as eight days
after ovulation.9 Quantitative β-hCG TABLE 1
levels can provide useful information
in early pregnancy. The rate of β-hCG Definition of Terms Related to First Trimester Bleeding
increase is less rapid as the level and Early Pregnancy Loss
increases. For symptomatic women Term Definition
with a viable intrauterine pregnancy,
Anembryonic gestation Ultrasonography shows gestational sac with mean
initial β-hCG levels of less than 1,500 diameter ≥ 25 mm and no yolk sac or embryo
mIU per mL, 1,500 to 3,000 mIU per
mL, or more than 3,000 mIU per mL Complete abortion Complete passage of all products of conception
will increase over 48 hours by at least Early pregnancy loss Nonviable intrauterine pregnancy within the first
49%, 40%, or 33%, respectively.10 A 12 6/7 weeks of gestation
slower rate of increase suggests early
pregnancy loss or ectopic pregnancy. Ectopic pregnancy A pregnancy outside the uterine cavity (most com-
monly in a fallopian tube)
By approximately 10 weeks’ gestation,
the β-hCG level typically plateaus or Embryonic demise Ultrasonography shows embryo with crown-rump
decreases, after which serial ultraso- length ≥ 7 mm and no cardiac activity
nography is the preferred diagnostic Incomplete abortion Some, but not all, of the products of conception
tool.11 have passed

RH FACTOR Intrauterine pregnancy Transvaginal ultrasonography shows intrauterine ges-

of uncertain viability tational sac with no embryonic cardiac activity (and
Rh factor testing should be performed no findings of definite pregnancy failure [Table 2])
if Rh status is not known at the time
of presentation. Rho(D) immune glob- Nonviable pregnancy Pregnancy that cannot result in live birth (e.g., ecto-
ulin (Rhogam) is indicated within pic pregnancy, early pregnancy loss)
72 hours for all Rh-negative patients Pregnancy of unknown Positive urine or serum pregnancy test with no intra-
with abdominal trauma or ectopic location uterine or ectopic pregnancy shown on transvaginal
pregnancy, and in those who undergo ultrasonography
uterine aspiration. Rho(D) immune Recurrent pregnancy loss More than two consecutive pregnancy losses
globulin can also be administered
within 72 hours of early pregnancy Spontaneous abortion Spontaneous loss of pregnancy before 20 weeks’
loss, especially later in the first trimes- gestation
ter, although the risk of alloimmuni- Threatened abortion Bleeding before 20 weeks’ gestation in the presence
zation is estimated to be 1.5% to 2% in of an embryo with cardiac activity and a closed cervix
this setting.12 There is insufficient evi-
Viable pregnancy Pregnancy that can potentially result in a live birth
dence for or against the use of Rho(D)
immune globulin in Rh-negative Information from references 3 through 6.
patients who present with threatened

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 FIRST TRIMESTER BLEEDING
FIGURE 1

Bleeding at < 12 weeks’ gestation

Physical examination

Peritoneal signs Nonobstetric cause Products of conception Patient stable, no products

or hemodynamic of bleeding identified visible on examination of conception or other
instability causes of bleeding identified

Diagnose and Incomplete abortion,

Resuscitate and treat as indicated treat as indicated Perform transvaginal
consider immediate ultrasonography and
surgical intervention obtain β-hCG level

Ectopic pregnancy or Viable intrauterine Nonviable intra- Intrauterine pregnancy, No intrauterine or

signs suggestive of pregnancy uterine pregnancy viability uncertain ectopic pregnancy
ectopic pregnancy

Threatened abortion; Discuss treat- Repeat transvaginal ultra- Intrauterine pregnancy

Presumed ectopic preg- repeat transvaginal ment for early sonography in seven to seen on previous trans-
nancy; refer for high-level ultrasonography if pregnancy loss 14 days; consider obtain- vaginal ultrasonography?
transvaginal ultrasonog- bleeding continues ing progesterone and/or
raphy and/or treatment serial β-hCG levels
No Yes

Pregnancy of unknown Completed abortion;

location (Figure 2) expectant management

Evaluation of first trimester bleeding. (β-hCG = β subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin.)

Adapted with permission from Reproductive Health Access Project. First trimester bleeding algorithm. November 1, 2017. https://​​www.reproductive​
access.org/resource/first-trimester-bleeding-algorithm/. Accessed November 10, 2017.

6 ng per mL (19.1 nmol per L) reliably excludes viable preg- DISCRIMINATORY LEVEL
nancy, with a negative predictive value of 99%.13 A low pro- The discriminatory level is the β-hCG level above which an
gesterone level cannot distinguish intrauterine pregnancy intrauterine pregnancy is expected to be seen on transvag-
from ectopic pregnancy.13 inal ultrasonography.14 When combined with β-hCG lev-
els greater than the discriminatory level, ultrasonography
HEMOGLOBIN that does not show an intrauterine pregnancy should raise
A baseline hemoglobin level should be documented for concern for early pregnancy loss or ectopic pregnancy. The
all women with bleeding during pregnancy. All patients discriminatory level varies with the type of ultrasound
should be instructed to seek care if they have symptoms of machine used, the sonographer, and the number of gesta-
anemia or heavy bleeding, quantified as soaking through tions. A recent study found a 99% probability that an intra-
more than two sanitary pads per hour for two consecutive uterine gestational sac will be detected at a β-hCG level of
hours.3 3,510 mIU per mL.14 Currently, a discriminatory level of
1,500 to 3,000 mIU per mL is typically used.10,15 However,
Ultrasonography ultrasonography can be diagnostically useful in symptom-
The embryologic events of early pregnancy occur in a pre- atic women at any β-hCG level. Signs of ectopic pregnancy
dictable, stepwise fashion. Deviations from this established (e.g., adnexal mass, fluid in the cul-de-sac) can be seen on
pattern should raise suspicion for early pregnancy loss or ultrasonography well below the discriminatory level.
ectopic pregnancy (Table 2).4,5 Guidelines have been estab-
lished for ultrasound diagnosis of early pregnancy loss to Pregnancy of Unknown Location
decrease the risk of false diagnosis and intervention in a Pregnancy of unknown location describes the scenario in
desired viable intrauterine pregnancy. which a pregnancy test is positive, but neither intrauterine

168  American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 99, Number 3 ◆ February 1, 2019
 FIRST TRIMESTER BLEEDING
TABLE 2

Ultrasound Findings in Normal Early Pregnancy and Early Pregnancy Loss

Ultrasound finding Normal early pregnancy Suspicious for early pregnancy loss* Diagnostic of early pregnancy loss

Gestational Appears four to five Mean sac diameter of 16 to 24 mm and no Mean sac diameter ≥ 25 mm
sac (measured weeks after last men- embryo and no embryo
by mean sac strual period Absence of embryo with cardiac activity Absence of embryo with
diameter) seven to 13 days after ultrasonography cardiac activity ≥ 2 weeks after
shows gestational sac without yolk sac ultrasonography shows gesta-
Small gestational sac relative to size of tional sac without yolk sac
embryo (< 5 mm difference between mean
sac diameter and crown-rump length)

Yolk sac Appears 5.5 weeks Absence of embryo with cardiac activity Absence of embryo with
after last menstrual seven to 10 days after ultrasonography cardiac activity ≥ 11 days after
period shows gestational sac and yolk sac ultrasonography shows gesta-
Enlarged yolk sac (> 7 mm) tional sac and yolk sac

Embryo (measured Appears six weeks Crown-rump length < 7 mm and no Crown-rump length ≥ 7 mm
by crown-rump after last menstrual embryonic cardiac activity and no embryonic cardiac
length and period;​​​ embryonic Absence of embryo ≥ 6 weeks after last activity
embryonic cardiac cardiac activity menstrual period
activity) appears at 6.5 weeks
Empty amnion (amnion seen adjacent to
yolk sac with no visible embryo)
Embryonic heartbeat ≤ 85 beats per minute

*—Ultrasonography should be repeated in seven to 10 days to assess viability.

Information from references 4 and 5.

nor ectopic pregnancy is shown on ultrasonography. In Threatened abortion should be managed expectantly.
stable patients, close monitoring of symptoms, serial quan- There is insufficient evidence to support the use of proges-
titative β-hCG testing, and ultrasonography are recom- tin for the prevention of early pregnancy loss.3,18 Bed rest
mended 4 (Figure 2 8,10,14,15). Pregnancy of unknown location does not improve outcomes and may cause psychological
can be diagnostically challenging because the increase in harm in patients with subsequent early pregnancy loss.19
β-hCG level can be similar among women with an early Patients should be reassured that nothing they did caused
viable pregnancy, ectopic pregnancy, or early pregnancy the bleeding.
loss.10 Because pregnancy of unknown location does not
exclude ectopic pregnancy, and because rupture of ectopic Early Pregnancy Loss
pregnancy can occur at any β-hCG level, serial measure- Expectant management, medical management, and uterine
ments should be obtained until a definitive diagnosis is aspiration are safe and effective treatments for early preg-
made or until the level is undetectable.16 Patients should nancy loss. Patient satisfaction, mental health outcomes,
be counseled about warning signs of ectopic pregnancy, infection rates, and future fertility are similar between
including shoulder pain, pelvic pain, and dizziness. these treatments.20-22 Mental health outcomes are better
when patients are included in the decision-making process,
Threatened Abortion and shared decision making should guide management.23
The diagnosis of threatened abortion should be made in
patients with bleeding and an ultrasound-confirmed via- EXPECTANT MANAGEMENT
ble intrauterine pregnancy. The rate of early pregnancy loss Watchful waiting is recommended as first-line treatment for
is approximately 11% after a live fetus has been detected patients with incomplete abortion;​​​more than 90% of these
on ultrasonography.17 The risk of early pregnancy loss is patients will complete the process spontaneously within four
increased when subchorionic hemorrhage (Figure 3 6) and weeks.24 Watchful waiting is less effective in patients with
bleeding are present. When an intrauterine pregnancy is an anembryonic gestation or embryonic demise, with com-
detected on ultrasonography but viability is uncertain, pletion rates at one month of 66% and 76%, respectively.24
repeat ultrasonography should be performed in seven to Patients who choose expectant management over uterine
10 days to confirm viability.3,5 In these cases, a normal aspiration experience more days of bleeding, longer time to
increase in the β-hCG level or a normal progesterone level completion, and higher rates of unplanned surgical inter-
can be reassuring. vention.20,21 Serious complications are rare, and patients who

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 FIRST TRIMESTER BLEEDING
FIGURE 2

No intrauterine or ectopic pregnancy seen on transvaginal ultrasonography

Intrauterine pregnancy seen on prior transvaginal ultrasonography?

Yes No

Completed abortion; expectant management Pregnancy of unknown location

Initial β-hCG level > 3,000 mIU per mL* Initial β-hCG level < 3,000 mIU per mL*

Ectopic precautions; repeat β-hCG level in 48 hours

Bleeding history not con- Bleeding history consis-

sistent with having passed tent with having passed
products of conception products of conception
Repeat β-hCG level Repeat β-hCG level
< 3,000 mIU per mL* > 3,000 mIU per mL*
Ectopic precautions; repeat β-hCG level in 48 hours

Repeat transvaginal ultrasonography

to evaluate for intrauterine pregnancy

Repeat β-hCG level Repeat β-hCG level

decreased < 50% decreased ≥ 50%
or increased
Repeat β-hCG level Repeat β-hCG level decreased Repeat β-hCG level
decreased > 50% ≤ 50% or increased ≤ 40% increased > 40%†
Concerning for ectopic pregnancy but
does not exclude early intrauterine preg-
nancy or retained products of conception Suggests resolving pregnancy Suggests early pregnancy Viable pregnancy, early
Perform high-level transvaginal ultraso- of unknown location; ectopic loss or ectopic pregnancy; pregnancy loss, or ectopic
nography and obtain serial β-hCG levels precautions; follow β-hCG obtain serial β-hCG levels pregnancy possible
level weekly to < 5 mIU per mL‡ with or without high-level Follow β-hCG level until
Consider urgent referral for evaluation
transvaginal ultraso- > 1,500 to 3,000 mIU per
and treatment of ectopic pregnancy
nography until definitive mL,* then perform trans-
diagnosis is made or β-hCG vaginal ultrasonography
level < 5 mIU per mL‡ for definitive diagnosis

*—The β-hCG level at which an intrauterine pregnancy should be seen on transvaginal ultrasonography is called the discriminatory level and varies
from 1,500 to 3,000 mIU per mL.10,14,15
†—In a viable intrauterine pregnancy, there is a 99% chance that the β-hCG level will increase at least 33% to 49% in 48 hours, depending on the
initial level.6 Ectopic pregnancy can also present with this rate of increase, so use clinical judgment in combination with β-hCG values.
‡—The β-hCG level should be followed to zero only if ectopic pregnancy has not been excluded. If definitive diagnosis of complete abortion has
been made, there is no need to obtain additional β-hCG levels.

Evaluation of first trimester bleeding in pregnancy of unknown location. (β-hCG = β subunit of human chorionic
gonadotropin.)
Adapted with permission from Reproductive Health Access Project. First trimester bleeding algorithm. November 1, 2017. https://​​www.reproductive-
access.org/resource/first-trimester-bleeding-algorithm/. Accessed November 10, 2017, with additional information from references 10, 14, and 15.

opt for expectant management should be informed that it does not improve rates of completed abortion or decrease
is safe to wait as long as they wish as long as there are no the need for unplanned surgical procedures compared with
signs of infection or hemorrhage. Patients may switch to expectant management.22 In contrast, medical management
medical management or uterine aspiration at any time. is more effective than expectant management for the treat-
ment of anembryonic gestation or embryonic demise.25 The
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT most effective regimen for medical management is 200 mg
A Cochrane review found that medical management with of oral mifepristone (Mifeprex) followed 24 hours later by
misoprostol (Cytotec) in women with incomplete abortion 800 mcg of vaginally administered misoprostol.26 Success

170  American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 99, Number 3 ◆ February 1, 2019
 FIGURE 3

rates at two days with this regimen are 84% vs. 67% in those
treated with misoprostol alone. Many regimens for using
misoprostol alone have been studied, and none has been
proven optimal.22 One common regimen is 800 mcg vagi-
nally, with a repeat dose in 24 to 48 hours if the first dose
is unsuccessful.27 Besides the expected cramping and vag-
inal bleeding, common adverse effects include nausea and
diarrhea.22

UTERINE ASPIRATION
Uterine aspiration is the preferred procedure for surgical
management of early pregnancy loss. Compared with sharp
Subchorionic hemorrhage (SCH) appears as a sonolu-
curettage, vacuum aspiration is associated with decreased
cent area adjacent to the gestational sac, which con- pain, shorter procedure duration, and less blood loss.28
tains an embryo (E) and yolk sac (YS). Office-based uterine aspiration is safe, less expensive, and
Reprinted with permission from Deutchman M, Tubay AT, Turok D.
often more convenient than treatment in the operating
First trimester bleeding. Am Fam Physician. 2009;​​​79(11):​​989. room.29,30 Choices about analgesia during the aspiration
procedure should be made with the patient’s input.

SORT:​​KEY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Evidence
Clinical recommendation rating References

The initial β-hCG level should be considered when following the rate of β-hCG increase in early B 10
pregnancy. In viable intrauterine pregnancies with initial β-hCG levels of less than 1,500 mIU per
mL, 1,500 to 3,000 mIU per mL, or greater than 3,000 mIU per mL, there is a 99% chance that the
β-hCG level will increase by at least 49%, 40%, and 33%, respectively, over 48 hours.

Rh o(D) immune globulin (Rhogam) should be administered to Rh-negative women with early preg- C 12
nancy loss, especially when it occurs later in the first trimester.

Early pregnancy loss can be definitively diagnosed in women with ultrasound findings of a mean C 4, 5
gestational sac diameter of 25 mm or greater and no embryo or embryonic cardiac activity when
the crown-rump length is at least 7 mm.

Clinicians should expect to see a gestational sac on transvaginal ultrasonography when β-hCG B 10, 15
levels reach 1,500 to 3,000 mIU per mL.

Bed rest or progestins should not be recommended to prevent early pregnancy loss in patients with C 3, 18, 19
first trimester bleeding because these interventions have not been proven effective.

Expectant management, medical management, and uterine aspiration are safe methods for treating A 20-23, 28
anembryonic gestations and fetal demise. Patient preference should guide treatment decisions.

Oral mifepristone (Mifeprex), 200 mg, followed 24 hours later by misoprostol, 800 mcg vaginally, is A 26
the most effective regimen for medical management of early pregnancy loss and, when available,
should be recommended over misoprostol alone.

Treatment for incomplete abortion should rely on shared decision making. Patients should be A 22, 24
informed that expectant management is more than 90% effective.

β-hCG = β subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin.

A = consistent, good-quality patient-oriented evidence;​​​B = inconsistent or limited-quality patient-oriented evidence;​​​C = consensus, disease-
oriented evidence, usual practice, expert opinion, or case series. For information about the SORT evidence rating system, go to https://​​www.aafp.
org/afpsort.

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 FIRST TRIMESTER BLEEDING

FOLLOW-UP medical treatment with systemic methotrexate, as well as no

Completed early pregnancy loss should be confirmed differences in tubal patency or subsequent fertility rates.40
by one of the following:​​visualization of products of
conception on examination or after uterine aspiration;​​​ MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
ultrasonography showing the absence of an intrauterine Medical management is safe and effective in carefully
pregnancy after previous ultrasonography documenting selected patients. There are different treatment proto-
an intrauterine pregnancy;​​​or a decrease in β-hCG levels cols, but the single-dose regimen is most common.15 This
by at least 50% at two days or 87% at seven days.31 Once includes an intramuscular injection of 50 mg of metho-
completion is confirmed, the β-hCG level does not need trexate per m2, followed by close monitoring of symptoms
to be followed to zero, except in women with pregnancy of and measurement of β-hCG levels four and seven days after
unknown location, or if gestational trophoblastic disease injection. β-hCG levels should decrease by at least 15% from
is being considered because of abnormal uterine bleeding days 4 to 7;​​​once this occurs, levels should be monitored
or symptoms of malignancy. 32 weekly until undetectable, which may take five to seven
Patients who wish to use contraception after early preg-
nancy loss can start immediately. All women who may
conceive should be counseled to take folic acid. It is safe TABLE 3
to try to conceive again immediately;​​​those who attempt
Criteria for Management of Ectopic
to conceive within the first three months after early preg-
Pregnancy
nancy loss have higher rates of pregnancy and live birth
compared with those who wait longer.33,34 Although a Expectant management
Cochrane review found insufficient evidence that psycho- β-hCG level < 1,000 mIU per mL and decreasing
logical support after pregnancy loss improves well-being, Ectopic or adnexal mass < 3 cm or not detected
the decision to refer for counseling should be made on an Minimal pain or bleeding
individual basis.35 No embryonic cardiac activity
No evidence of tubal rupture
Ectopic Pregnancy Patient reliable for follow-up and has no barriers to
The incidence of ectopic pregnancy is 1% to 2% in the United accessing health care
States.36 Ruptured ectopic pregnancies account for 6% of all Medical management with methotrexate
maternal deaths, with a higher rate in black patients.36 Risk Absence of embryonic cardiac activity
factors include pelvic inflammatory disease, previous tubal β-hCG level < 2,000 mIU per mL
surgery, previous ectopic pregnancy, and in utero expo-
Ectopic mass ≤ 3.5 cm
sure to diethylstilbestrol.37 Criteria for surgical, medical, or
No medical contraindication (hematologic dysfunction;​​​
expectant management are described in Table 3.6,15,38,39 liver, kidney, or pulmonary disease;​​​ immunodeficiency;​​​
peptic ulcer disease;​​​ breastfeeding;​​​ sensitivity to metho-
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT trexate;​​​ alcohol abuse)
Surgical management is indicated for patients with contra- Patient reliable for follow-up and has no barriers to
indications to medical treatment or failed medical treat- accessing health care
ment, and for patients who are hemodynamically unstable. Stable vital signs and few symptoms
Ruptured ectopic pregnancy is associated with peritoneal Unruptured ectopic pregnancy
signs and requires emergency surgery, although most
Surgical management
patients present with bleeding or pain before rupture.39
Advanced ectopic pregnancy (high β-hCG level, large
Surgical treatment options include salpingectomy or salp- mass, embryonic cardiac activity)
ingostomy, which are appropriate if the location of the preg- Contraindications to observation or methotrexate
nancy is the fallopian tube, but not if there is a less common
Patient unreliable for follow-up or has barriers to access-
location. Salpingostomy is preferred for patients who wish ing health care (individualization of intervention)
to preserve fertility;​​​however, it may result in inadequate Uncertain diagnosis
evacuation of products of conception and a recurrence of
Unstable vital signs or signs of hemoperitoneum
symptoms. Laparoscopy is the preferred surgical approach.
Laparotomy is reserved for patients who are hemodynam- β-hCG = β subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin.
ically unstable. A Cochrane review found no difference Information from references 6, 15, 38, and 39.
in success rates between laparoscopic salpingostomy and

172  American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 99, Number 3 ◆ February 1, 2019
 FIRST TRIMESTER BLEEDING

weeks. Treatment failure is assumed if the β-hCG level pla- References

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Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound 2012 consensus panel recom-
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FOLLOW-UP sician. 2009;​​​79(11):​​985-994.
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1 1. Barnhart KT, Sammel MD, Rinaudo PF, Zhou L, Hummel AC, Guo W.
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