1.

INTRODUCTION
In the present day world, energy consumption has been increased to a point
where using only the conventional sources of energy is not sufficient. Also, owing
to the growing environment concerns due to the detrimental effects of using
conventional energy sources, it has become important to develop and harness
renewable energy sources, also called non-conventional energy sources, which
are continuously replenished by natural processes. For example, solar energy,
wind energy, bio-energy - bio-fuels grown sustain ably), hydropower etc.

Owing to the geographical position of India, solar energy is a good choice as

alternative source of energy. Solar energy is one of the cleanest sources of
energy. India receives a solar energy equivalent of 5,000 trillion kWh/year with a
daily average solar energy incidence of 4-7 kWh/m2. This is considerably more
than the total energy consumption of the country. Further, most parts of the
country experience 250-300 sunny days in a year, which makes solar energy a
viable option in these areas.

1.1 SOLAR ENERGY

Sun is the primary source of this energy. The earth receives 1.6 ×10 18 units
of energy from the Sun annually, which is 20,000 times the requirement of
mankind on the earth. Some of the solar energy causes evaporation of water,
leading to rains and creation of rivers etc. Some of it is utilized in photosynthesis
which is essential for sustenance of life on earth. Man has tried, from time
immemorial, to harness this infinite source of energy, but has been able to tap
only a negligibly small fraction of this energy, till today.

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 The sun creates its energy through a thermonuclear process that converts
about 650,000,0001tons of hydrogen to helium every second. The process creates
heat and electromagnetic radiation. The heat remains in the sun and is
instrumental in maintaining the thermonuclear reaction. The electromagnetic
radiation (including visible light, infra-red light, and ultra-violet radiation) streams
out into space in all directions. Only a very small fraction of the total radiation
produced reaches the Earth. Much of the world's required energy can be
supplied directly by solar power. More still can be provided indirectly.

Due to the nature of solar energy, two components are required to have a
functional solar energy generator. These two components are a collector and a
storage unit. The collector simply collects the radiation that falls on it and
converts a fraction of it to other forms of energy (either electricity and heat or
heat alone). The storage unit is required because of the non-constant nature of
solar energy; at certain times only a very small amount of radiation will be
received. At night or during heavy cloud cover, for example, the amount of energy
produced by the collector will be quite small. The storage unit can hold the excess
energy produced during the periods of maximum productivity, and release it
when the productivity drops. In practice, a backup power supply is usually added,
too, for the situations when the amount of energy required is greater than both
what is being produced and what is stored in the container.

Three broad categories of possible large scale applications of solar power are:

(i) The heating and cooling of residential and commercial buildings;

(ii) The chemical and biological conversion of organic material to liquid, solid and
gaseous fuels; and
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(iii) Conversion of solar energy to electricity.

i. RESIDENTIAL COOLING AND HEATING

A typical solar energy scheme is shown in Fig1.1. A flat plate collector is

located on the roof of a house, which collects the solar energy. The cooling
water is pumped through the tubes of the solar collector. The heat is
transferred from the collector to the water and the hot water is stored in a
storage tank which may be located at ground level or in the basement of
the house. Hot water is then utilized to heat or cool the house by adjusting
the automatic valve. A separate circuit is there to supply hot water. Thus all
the three requirements i.e., space cooling, heating and water heating are
met.

FIG 1.1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF RESIDENTIAL COOLING AND HEATING WITH SOLAR ENERGY

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 The efficiency of solar heating/cooling installation depends on the
efficiency of collection of solar energy and its transfer to the working fluid (e.g.
water, air etc.). There are two main classes of collectors. The flat plate collector is
best suited for low and intermediate temperature applications (40°–60°, 80°–
120°C) which include water heating for buildings, air heating and small industrial
applications like agricultural drying etc. The concentrating collectors are usually
employed for power generation and industrial process heating.

ii. GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY

Besides being used for heating and cooling, solar energy can be
directly converted to electricity. The solar collectors that convert radiation
into electricity can be either flat-plane collectors or focusing collectors, and
the silicon components of these collectors are photovoltaic cells. There are
two main classes of collectors. The flat plate collector is best suited for low
and intermediate temperature applications (40°–60°, 80°–120°C) which
include water heating for buildings, air heating and small industrial
applications like agricultural drying etc. The concentrating collectors are
usually employed for power generation and industrial process heating.

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Solar concentrators are the collection devices which increase the flux on
the absorber surface as compared to the flux impinging on the
concentrator surface. Optical concentration is achieved by the use of
reflecting refracting elements, positioned to concentrate the incident flux
onto a suitable absorber.

FIG1.2: SOLAR INVERTER SCHEMATIC

Photovoltaic cells, by their very nature, convert radiation to electricity.

Most of the photovoltaic cells on the market today operate at an efficiency
of less than 15%; that is, of all the radiation that falls upon them, less than
15% of it is converted to electricity. The maximum theoretical efficiency for
a photovoltaic cell is only 32.3%, but at this efficiency, solar electricity is

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very economical. Most of our other forms of electricity generation are at a
lower efficiency than this.

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 2. SOLAR INVERTER

A solar inverter, or PV inverter, converts the variable direct current (DC) output of
a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC)
that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid
electrical network. It is a critical component in a photovoltaic system, allowing the
use of ordinary commercial appliances. Solar inverters have special functions
adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point
tracking and anti-islanding protection.

Conventionally, there are two ways in which electrical power is transmitted.

Direct current (DC) comes from a source of constant voltage and is suited to
short-range or device level transmission. Alternating current (AC) power consists
of a sinusoidal voltage source in which a continuously changing voltage (and
current) can be used to employ magnetic components. Long distance electrical
transmission favors AC power, since the voltage can be boosted easily with the
use of transformers. By boosting the voltage, less current is needed to deliver a
given amount of power to a load, reducing the resistive loss through conductors.

The adoption of AC power has created a trend where most devices adapt AC
power from an outlet into DC power for use by the device. However, AC power is
not always available and the need for mobility and simplicity has given batteries
an advantage in portable power. Thus, for portable AC power, inverters are

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needed. Inverters take a DC voltage from a battery or a solar panel as input, and
convert it into an AC voltage output.

2.1 TYPES OF SOLAR INVERTER

Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types.
1. Stand Alone Inverters
2. Grid Tie Inverters
3. Battery Backup Inverters

1. STAND ALONE INVERTERS

Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its
DC energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone
inverters also incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery
from an AC source, when available. Normally these do not interface in any
way with the utility grid, and as such, are not required to have anti-
islanding protection.

FIG 2.1: STAND-ALONE INVERTER

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2. GRID TIE INVERTERS
Grid-tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave.
Grid-tie inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of
utility supply, for safety reasons. They do not provide backup power during
utility outages.

FIG 2.2: GRID-TIE INVERTER

3. BATTERY BACKUP INVERTERS

Battery backup inverters, are special inverters which are designed to draw
energy from a battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger,
and export excess energy to the utility grid. These inverters are capable of
supplying AC energy to selected loads during a utility outage, and are
required to have anti-islanding protection.

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 FIG 2.3: BATTERY BACK-UP INVERTER

2.2 DIFFERENT TOPOLOGIES OF INVERTER

There are many topologies or circuit designs for creating higher power AC
from low voltage DC sources. Two common topologies are the Push-Pull
and H-Bridge. The Push-Pull topology is suitable for producing square and
modified square wave inverter while the H-Bridge is useful for producing
modified square wave and sine wave inverter.

Low Frequency
Solar panel /
Battery output 12v DC Transistor Bridges (Push-
Pull or H-Bridge)

6V
AC

AC loads Step up Transformer

230v AC

FIG 2.4: GENERAL FLOW OF AN INVERTER

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 1. PUSH PULL TOPOLOGY

The basic theory of Push-Pull topology is shown in Fig 2.5. There are two
transistor switches in this design. If the top switch closes, it will cause current to
flow from the battery negative through the transformer primary to the battery
positive. This induces a voltage in the secondary side of the transformer that is
equal to the battery voltage times the turn’s ratio of the transformer.

FIG 2.5 – PUSH-PULL TOPOLOGY FOR SQUARE WAVE OUTPUT

This phenomena flow is shown in Fig 2.6(a). Only one switch is closed at a time.
The switches flip-flop after a period of approximately 8ms which is one-half of
50Hz AC cycle. The top switch opens and then the bottom switch closes allowing
current to flow in the opposite direction as illustrate in Fig. 2.6(b). The continuing

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of closes and opens switch will produce a square wave output waveform which is
higher voltage AC power.

The addition of an extra winding in the transformer along with a few other parts
allows output of a Modified Square Wave.

FIG 2.6 – (A) TOP SWITCH CLOSING STATE (B) BOTTOM SWITCH CLOSE STATE

2. H- BRIDGE TOPOLOGY

The operation of H-Bridge topology is similar to Push-Pull topology. The term H-

Bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit. An H-
Bridge is built with four transistor switches. The transistors are divided into four

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groups with the transformer primary connected across the middle of the bridge as
illustrate in Fig 2.7

The transistors are switched on and off in a specific pattern to produce each part
of the waveform. If the switch 1 and 4 are closed, current will flow from the
battery negative through transformer primary to the positive terminal of the
battery. This current induces a current flow in the secondary of the transformer,
which has a peak voltage equal to the battery voltage times the turn ratio of the
transformer. The switch 1 and 4 open after a period of time and the switch 2 and
4 close providing off time shorting . The length of the on and off time is
determined according to the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) controller.

Then, the switch 2 and 3 are close and allow current flow through the transformer
in a direction opposite to the current flow. The switch 2 and 4 are close after this
cycle is complete for off time shorting. This cycle will continuous to produce AC

power.

FIG 2.7– H BRIDGE TOPOLOGY

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2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR INVERTER

2.3.1 ADVANTAGES

1. Constant and uninterrupted supply.

2. There is no requirement of electricity and manpower to operate the device.

3. With no moving parts involved, its efficiency is further enhanced.

4. It acts as a power back up solution.

5. Circuit can be checked with 12 volt (DC) universal power supply.

6. It is one of the methods of renewable generation.

7. This is an eco-friendly means of power generation.

8. It can be used in distant villages where transmission cost is much high.

9. Reduction in consumption from conventional sources of energy

2.3.2 DISADVANTAGES

1. Initial cost of installation is very high.

2. Area required for installation is large.

3. It will be less effective in rainy days.

4. Protection system installment is very high.

5. Cause problems to eye sight because of solar reflectors.

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2.4 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR INVERTER

2.4 .1 DC POWER SOURCE UTILIZATION

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar

panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required
voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation,
or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

2.4 .2 UNINTRRUPTABLE POWER SUPPLY

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC

power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a
rectifier supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.

2.4 .3 HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power
is transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static
inverter plant converts the power back to AC.

2.4. 4 THE GENERAL CASE

A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the

same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from
any voltage, AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired
frequency. The output power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies
can be high, with a small proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.

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 3. BATTERY CHARGER

A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or

rechargeable battery by forcing an electric current through it. The charge current
depends upon the technology and capacity of the battery being charged. For
example, the current that should be applied to recharge a 12 V car battery will be
very different from the current for a mobile phone battery.

The solar battery recharger as the name suggests, it is in fact a battery charger
which charges a sealed rechargeable battery of 6V 4.5 AH in this case. The solar
battery charger derives its power from the 12V 500mA solar panel, which in turn
converts the sunlight to electrical energy. The charger converts the raw 12V from
the solar panel to a regulated voltage feed for the sealed rechargeable battery.

The solar battery charger features are:

1. Custom controllable voltage regulation.

2. Auto cut-off when battery is fully charged.

3. Filtered input from the solar panel.

4. No current back flows from the battery.

5. Very simple, compact and efficient.

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The battery charger circuit shown in Fig 3.1 , harvests solar energy to charge a
6volt 5 Ah rechargeable battery for various applications. The charger has voltage
and current regulation and overvoltage cut-off facilities .

U1
D1 LM317H D2 R3
Vin Vout

1N4007 ADJ 1N4007 10Ω

V1 D3
12 V R1 6.8 V
180Ω

R4
Q1
R2
1kΩ
50%
Key=A 1kΩ
BC548A

FIG 3.1– BATTERY CHARGER CIRCUIT

The circuit uses a 12 volt solar panel and a variable voltage regulator IC LM 317.
The solar panel consists of solar cells each rated at 1.2 volts.
12 volt DC is available from the panel to charge the battery. Charging current
passes through diode D1 to the voltage regulator IC LM 317. By adjusting its
Adjust pin, output voltage and current can be regulated.

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Voltage Regulator is placed between the adjust pin and ground to provide an
output voltage of 6 volts to the battery. Resistor R3 Restrict the charging current
and diode D2 prevents discharge of current from the battery.

Transistor T1 and Zener diode ZD act as a cut off switch when the battery is full.
Normally T1 is off and battery gets charging current. When the terminal voltage of
the battery rises above 6.8 volts, Zener conducts and provides base current to T1.
It then turns on grounding the output of LM317 to stop charging.

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 4. MULTISIM
4.1 MULTISIM

Multisim is an advanced, industry-standard, best-in-class SPICE simulation

environment used by educators, researchers, and engineers worldwide. It is the
cornerstone of the NI circuits teaching solution to build expertise through
practical application in designing, prototyping, and testing electrical circuits. The
Multisim design approach helps to save prototype iterations and optimize printed
circuit board (PCB) designs earlier in the process.

Multisim for Educators

With powerful learning features and laboratory hardware integration, Multisim
teaches students foundational concepts in analog, digital, and power electronics
throughout engineering and science curriculum.

Multisim for Circuit Designers and Researchers

Multisim simulation and circuit design software gives engineers the advanced
analysis and design capabilities to optimize performance, reduce design errors,
and shorten time to prototype. Intuitive NI tools result in saved printed circuit
board (PCB) iterations and significant cost savings

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Applications of NI MULTISIM

1. Aerospace and National Research Applications

Multisim has proven success in a wide range of aerospace and national
research applications including avionics equipment for data acquisition,
communication applications, and the design of electronics for defense
systems.

2. Semiconductor Analysis Applications

Multisim combines an industry-leading simulation engine with a library of
accurate devices from semiconductor manufacturers such as Analog
Devices, Maxim, Infineon, EPC, and more for in-depth analysis of a broad
range of applications.

3. Life Science, Medical Devices, and Bioinstrumentation Applications

Multisim and NI Ultiboard provide domain experts and researchers with an
intuitive, yet advanced platform to rapidly prototype regardless of design
experience.

4. Energy and Power Applications

Power and energy applications have an increasing need for the advanced
and accurate simulation technology provided by Multisim and NI LabVIEW
system design software.

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5. Low-Frequency Circuit Design for RF Applications
Multisim and Ultiboard provide RF engineers with easy-to-use tools to
quickly complete complex designs and prototypes with microwave and
high-frequency components.

6. Automotive Electronics Applications

Leading worldwide car manufacturers, multinational automotive part
suppliers, as well as small and medium enterprises develop car electronics
faster with Multisim and Ultiboard.

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4.2 MULTISIM SIMULATION RESULTS

A. INVERTER CIRCUIT

The simulation of the inverter circuit using Multisim is as shown in Fig4.1.

D1
1N1200C D4
Q5 Q6
1N1200C

XSC1
2N7000 2N7000
Ext T rig
V1 +

6V B
_
A
+ _ + _

Q7 XSC2
Q8
Ext T rig
D2 +

2N7000 1N1200C D3 XMM1 _

2N7000 1N1200C A B
+ _ + _

XMM2
V3 L1 R1
0 V 10 V 27 Ω C1
100mH
10msec 20msec 100uF

V2
0 V 10 V
10msec 20msec

Fig 4.1: INVERTER CIRCUIT

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 The simulation results for the inverter circuit are obtained as shown in Fig
4.2.

Fig 4.2 : OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF INVERTER CIRCUIT WITH RLC FILTER

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B.INVERTER CIRCUIT WITH TRANSFORMER

The simulation of the inverter circuit along with step up transformer using
Multisim is as shown in Fig4.3.

D1
1N1200C D4
Q5 Q6
1N1200C

XSC1
2N7000 2N7000
Ext T rig
V1 +

6V B
_
A
+ _ + _

Q7
Q8

D2
2N7000 1N1200C D3 XMM1
2N7000 1N1200C

XSC3

Ext T rig
V3 L1 R1 +
_

0 V 20 V 27 Ω C1 A B
100mH _ _
10msec 20msec 100uF + +

XMM3
U1

V2
0 V 20 V
0.026087
10msec 20msec

Fig 4.3: INVERTER CIRCUIT WITH STEP UP TRANSFORMER

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 The simulation results for the inverter circuit along with step up
transformer are obtained as shown in Fig 4.2.

Fig 4.4: OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF INVERTER CIRCUIT WITH STEP UP

TRANSFORMER

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C.BATTERY CHARGER CIRCUIT

The simulation of the battery charger circuit using Multisim is as shown in

Fig4.5.

U1
D1 LM317H D2 R3
Vin Vout XSC1
1N4007 ADJ 1N4007 10Ω
V1 D3 Ext Trig
+
12 V R1 6.8 V _
180Ω A B
+ _ + _

R4
Q1
R2
1kΩ
50%
Key=A 1kΩ
BC548A

Fig 4.5: BATTERY CHARGER CIRCUIT

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The simulation results for the battery charger circuit are obtained as shown
in Fig 4.6.

Fig 4.6: OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF BATTERY CHARGER CIRCUIT

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D.COMBINED CIRCUIT OR STANDALONE INVERTER CIRCUIT

The simulation of the stand alone inverter circuit using Multisim is as shown
in Fig4.7.

U2
D5 LM317H D6 R4
Vin Vout

1N4007 ADJ 1N4007 8Ω

R2 D7
180Ω 6.8 V
V4 XSC4
12 V
Ext T rig
R5 Q1
+

Q5 D1 R3 B
_
A
1N4007GP D4 1kΩ + _ + _
Q6 1kΩ
1N4007GP Key=A 5% XMM4
BC548A
2N7000

2N7000

Q7
XSC1
D2 Q8
1N4007GP D3 Ext T rig
+
2N7000 1N4007GP _
A B
2N7000 + _ + _

XMM1
V3
0 V 10 V
XSC3
10msec 20msec
Ext T rig
+
XSC2
V2 _
L1 R1 A B
+ _ + _
Ext T rig
0 V 10 V 100mH 24 Ω + XMM3
C1
10msec 20msec 100uF
_
U1
A B
+ _ + _

XMM2 0.026087

Fig 4.7:STAND-ALONE INVERTER CIRCUIT

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 The simulation results for the stand alone inverter circuit along with step up
transformer are obtained as shown in Fig 4.8.

Fig 4.8: OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF STAND-ALONE INVERTER CIRCUIT WITH STEP

UP TRANSFORMER

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 5. HARDWARE

5.1 COMPONENTS

S.NO COMPONENT RATING/SPECIFICATION

1 SOLAR PANEL 12V,

RECHARGEABLE
2 6V,5 Ah
BATTERY

3 STEP UP TRANSFORMER 6V/230V

4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR LM 317H
5 MOSFET 2N7000
6 DIODE IN4007
7 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
8 ZENER DIODE 6.8V

9 RESISTOR
10 CAPACITOR
11 INDUCTOR
12 TRANSISTOR
OTHER AUXILIARY COMPONENTS LIKE FUNCTION GENERATOR,VOLTAGE SOURCE,
DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE etc…..,

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1. SOLAR PANEL
A solar panel (also solar module, photovoltaic module or photovoltaic
panel) is a packaged, connected assembly of solar cells, also known as
photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger
photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and
residential applications.

Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power,
many installations contain several panels. A photovoltaic system typically
includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and
interconnection wiring.

.
Fig 5.1: SOLAR PANEL

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Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a
module can either be the top layer or the back layer. The majority of
modules use wafer- based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on
cadmium telluride or silicon. The conducting wires that take the current off
the panels may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive
transition metals.

The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of
the system. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and
moisture. Most solar panels are rigid, but semi flexible ones are available,
based on thin-film cells. Electrical connections are made in series to achieve
a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current
capability.

Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity

from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire
solar range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light).
Hence much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar panels, and
they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic
light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different
wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those
ranges. This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%.

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2. RECHARGEABLE BATTERY
The battery used in this project is a rechargeable sealed lead sulphate
battery rating 6V 4.5AH.

A rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more

electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their
electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries
come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything from a button
cell to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution
network. Several different combinations of chemicals are commonly used,
including: lead– acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH),
lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Fig 5.2: RECHARGEABLE BATTERY

Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental
impact than disposable batteries. Rechargeable batteries have higher initial
cost, but can be recharged very cheaply and used many times.

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3. STEP UP TRANSFORMER
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy
between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. It offers
the much required capability of changing the current and voltage levels
simply. The main function of the transformer is that to increase (step-up) or
decrease (step-down) AC voltages.

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic

induction, that is, mutual inductance between 2 circuits that is linked by a
common magnetic flux. Transformer converts an electrical energy from one
circuit to another circuit with the help of mutual induction between the 2
windings without electrical connection between them, and also converts
power from one circuit to another circuit without changing the frequency
however with a different voltage level.

Fig 5.3:A) TRANSFORMER

In a step up transformer, secondary winding contains a lot of winding than
the first coil. Returning to a transformer, it has more windings in the
primary than the secondary winding. These are one of the main reasons we

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 use AC current in our homes and not DC. DC voltages can’t be modified
using transformers.

Fig 5.3:B) STEP UP TRANSFORMER SCHEMATIC

4. VOLTAGE REGULATOR

In this project, LM 317h voltage regulator is used. The LM317 is an

adjustable 3−terminal positive voltage regulator capable of supplying in
excess of 1.5 A over an output voltage range of 1.2 V to 37 V.

The LM317 has three pins: INPUT, OUTPUT, and ADJUSTMENT. The device
is conceptually an op amp with a relatively high output current capacity.
The inverting input of the amp is the adjustment pin, while the non-
inverting input is set by an internal band gap voltage reference which
produces a stable reference voltage of 1.25 V.

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 Fig 5.4: VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A resistive voltage divider between the output and ground configures the
op amp as a non-inverting amplifier so that the voltage of the output pin is
continuously adjusted to be a fixed amount, the reference voltage, above
that of the adjustment pin. Ideally, this makes the output voltage:
Vout = Vref (1 + RL/RH)
[Vref is the difference in voltage between the OUT pin and the ADJ pin. Vref is
typically 1.25 V during normal operation.]
This voltage regulator is exceptionally easy to use and requires only two
external resistors to set the output voltage. Further, it employs internal
current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe area compensation, making it
essentially blow−out proof.
5. MOSFET
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET,
or MOS FET) is a type of field-effect transistor (FET). It has an insulated
gate, whose voltage determines the conductivity of the device. This ability
to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for
amplifying or switching electronic signals

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 Fig 5.5: A) MOSFET 2N7000 B)SYMBOL

Fig 5.5: C) MOSFET CHARACTERISTICS

The MOSFET has certain advantages over the conventional junction FET, or
JFET. Because the gate is insulated electrically from the channel, no current
flows between the gate and the channel, no matter what the gate voltage
(as long as it does not become so great that it causes physical breakdown of
the metallic oxide layer). Thus, the MOSFET has practically infinite
impedance. This makes MOSFETs useful for power amplifiers. The devices
are also well suited to high-speed switching applications. Some integrated
circuits contain tiny MOSFETs and are used in computers. The main
advantage of a MOSFET over a regular transistor is that it requires very little
current to turn on (less than 1mA), while delivering a much higher current
to a load (10 - 50A or more).

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6. DIODE
The 1N4007 series (or 1N4000 series) is a family of popular 1.0 amp general
purpose silicon rectifier diodes commonly used in AC adapters for common
household appliances. Blocking voltage varies from 50 to 1000 volts. This
diode is made in an axial-lead DO-41 plastic package.
Diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in
one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally
zero) resistance to the current in one direction, and high (ideally
infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common
type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n
junction connected to two electrical terminals. Semiconductor diodes begin
conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is
present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to
be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies
only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect
can be used as a temperature sensor or as a voltage reference.

Fig 5.6: A) DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

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 Fig 5.6: B) DIODE FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS MODES

7. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is

a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a
suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine
with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form
of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the
energy band gap of the semiconductor.

A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional

electric current. The same process is reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction
emits light when electrical energy is applied to it). This phenomenon is
generally called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the emission
of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field. The
charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons
cross from the N-region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-
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region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while
holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will
be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the
energy must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the
holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and light.

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including

lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness,
smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in
applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, and lighted
wallpaper. As of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or
cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
They are also significantly more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer
environmental concerns linked to their disposal.

Fig 5.7 LED SYMBOL AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

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8. ZENER DIODE
A Zener diode allows current to flow from its anode to its cathode like a
normal semiconductor diode, but it also permits current to flow in the
reverse direction when its "Zener voltage" is reached. Zener diodes have a
highly doped p-n junction. Normal diodes will also break down with a
reverse voltage but the voltage and sharpness of the knee are not as well
defined as for a Zener diode. Also normal diodes are not designed to
operate in the breakdown region, but Zener diodes can reliably operate in
this region.

Fig 5.8: ZENER DIODE SYMBOL AND CHARACTERISTICS

Some of the applications of zener diode are as voltage stabilizers or

regulators (in shunt mode), surge suppressors for device protection, peak
clippers, switching operations, reference elements and in meter protection

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 applications. The constant reverse voltage of a zener diode renders it a very
useful component in regulating the output voltage against variations in the
load resistance or variations in the input voltage from an unregulated
power supply. The current through the zener diode will change in order to
keep the voltage within the threshold limits of zener action and the
maximum power that it can dissipate.

9. TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with
at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or
current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current
through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power
can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a
signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more
are found embedded in integrated circuits.

Fig 5.9: A) TRANSISTOR SYMBOL

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 Fig 5.9: B) TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small
signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger
signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. It can
produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, which is
proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier.
Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit
as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is
determined by other circuit elements.

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10.RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. High-power resistors
that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as
part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads
for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly
with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used
to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity. In
electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal
levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission
lines, among other uses.

Fig 5.10 : VARIOUS TYPES OF RESISTORS

Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance;

these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In
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 a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may
be an issue. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of
concern in some precision applications.

11.CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a passive two terminal electrical device that stores
electrical energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known
as capacitance. While capacitance exists between any two electrical
conductors of a circuit in sufficiently close proximity, a capacitor is
specifically designed to provide and enhance this effect for a variety of
practical applications by consideration of size, shape, and positioning of
closely spaced conductors, and the intervening dielectric material. A
capacitor was therefore historically first known as an electric condenser.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor
to the potential difference between them. The unit of capacitance in
the International System of Units (SI) is the farad (F), defined as
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V).
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks,
they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they
tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property
of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in early
digital computers.

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 Fig 5.11: VARIOUS TYPES OF CAPACITORS WIH SYMBOLS

12.INDUCTOR

An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the

form of a magnetic field. In its simplest form, an inductor consists of a wire
loop or coil. The inductance is directly proportional to the number of turns
in the coil. Inductance also depends on the radius of the coil and on the
type of material around which the coil is wound.

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Inductors are used with capacitors in various wireless communications
applications. An inductor connected in series or parallel with a capacitor
can provide discrimination against unwanted signals. Large inductors are
used in the power supplies of electronic equipment of all types, including
computers and their peripherals. In these systems, the inductors help to
smooth out the rectified utility AC, providing pure, battery-like DC.

Fig 5.12: VARIOUS TYPES OF INDUCTORS WITH SYMBOLS

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5.2 MODELLING OF THE SOLAR INVERTER

5.2.1 INPUT DATA REQUIRED

Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according

to the system type, site location and applications. The major components for solar
PV system are solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliary energy
sources and loads (appliances). The following data is required beforehand to start
modeling of the solar inverter.

1) Size and Rating of Solar Panel – converts sunlight into DC electricity.

2) Solar charge controller – regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV
panels going to battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the
battery life.

3) Size of Inverter – converts DC output of PV panels into a clean AC current for

AC appliances or fed back into grid line.

4) Size of Battery Bank – stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when
there is a demand.

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5) Load – electrical appliances that are connected to solar PV system such as
lights, radio, TV, computer, refrigerator, etc.

6) Type of Connection of Solar Panel

7) Energy from Solar Panel as per Daily Sun lights

8) Select Type of connection of Batteries in Battery Bank

A successful design involves accurate knowledge of daily electrical load

calculation and accounts for all worst case scenarios which might possibly occur
during operation. A good designer will be pragmatic and keep the costs down by
cutting on unnecessary over sizing the system.

5.2.2 SELECTION OF BATTERY SIZE AND SOLAR PANEL

Suppose we have to design an inverter for load of 10 Watts and required backup
time for batteries is 1 Hour and we have to model a Solar Inverter then Inverter
ratings, Required No of Solar Panel and No of batteries are calculated as follows:

Inverter should be greater than the total Load by 25%

i.e 10 x (25/100) = 2.5
10+2.5 = 12.5 Watts
This is the rating of the UPS (Inverter)
Now, let the required Back up Time in Hours = 2 Hours

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If we are going to install batteries of rating 6v 5Ah,
Energy stored per battery =6V x 5Ah = 30Wh
Now for One Battery ,
The Backup time of one battery is given by
back up time =30Wh / 10W = 3 Hours
But our required Backup time is 2 Hour.
Therefore, a single battery of rating 6v, 5 Ah is sufficient for required back up
time.
So this is a 6 V inverter system.

If this is a 6V inverter System, and if we connect two batteries in parallel, then

the Voltage of batteries 6V remains same, while it’s Ah (Ampere Hour) rating will
be increase
1. In parallel Connection, Voltage will be same in each wire or section, while
current will be different i.e. current is additive e.g. I1+I2+I3…+In = 5Ah +5Ah = 10Ah

2. In Series Circuits, Current is same in each wire or section while voltage is

different i.e. Voltage is additive e.g.V1+V2+V3….Vn. For The above system if we
connect these batteries in series instead of parallel, then The rating of batteries
become V1+V2 = 12V while the current rating would be same i.e. 5Ah.

Now Required Charging Current for this battery is calculated as follows:

Since Charging current should be 1/10 of battery’s Ah → 5Ah x (1/10) = 0.5A

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Now the required Number of Solar Panels is obtained as follows:

The power rating of the panel should be ,

P = VI
P = 6V x 0.5 A
P = 3 Watts

This is our required watts for solar panel (only for battery charging, and then
battery will supply power to the load), Now
3W/3W = 1Solar panel.

5.2.3 SELECTION OF TOPOLOGY

The Push-Pull topology was the first step in electronic inverter technology. The
advantage of this topology is the simplicity of the overall circuit design and cost
effective in manufacturing. But, the major problem is the current in the
transformer has to suddenly reverse directions. This will causes a large reduction
in efficiency. The disadvantages of this topology are complexity of the
transformer design and higher transformer losses in square wave design.

For small load applications in PV system, the inverter can be design by using the
Push-Pull topologies. This topology is simple and easy to design. This kind of
inverter can run the lamp and fan. However some modification of the design is
needed for this topology.

The square wave inverter is the simplest and cheapest form of inverter. But, the
output waveform of square wave inverter has high total harmonic distortion
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(THD). Motor will generate excess heat and most of electronic equipment will not
operate well from square wave inverter. Modified square wave inverters have
better improvement over square wave types. It has good voltage regulation,
lower total harmonic distortion and better overall efficiency. The operation of
electric motor is better from a modified square wave and most electronic
component will operate without problems.

The advantage of H-Bridge topology is the simplicity of needing only one primary
winding on the transformer. The efficiency of this design based on the quality of
the transistors used and the number of transistors in parallel. Mostly, the losses in
this topology are at the transistor switches. The performance of this design will
improve as transistors improve and become available.

The next step is to continue with further improvement in the circuit design and
simulation of this topology in order to improve and modify the circuit design.

5.2.4 MODELLING THE INVERTER CIRCUIT

The main inverter circuit in H-bridge topology is drawn using MOSFETs. The
next major step in modeling the inverter is to choose a method to trigger
the MOSFETs. The trigger schedule should be such that two of the MOSFETs
are triggered simultaneously and other two are triggered with a phase shift
of 1800. This is achieved by using a function generator with square wave
output of required trigger voltage as magnitude to turn ON first set of
MOSFETs and inverting the same signal to trigger the other set of MOSFETs.

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 This inversion of the output from function generator can be achieved using
a simple not gate. The not gate can be an IC, or a Common Emitter
transistor configuration, or an Op-Amp used as an inverting amplifier. In
this project we have used the CE transistor Fixed bias configuration as
shown in the fig 5.13.

8.2

1K
9V

OUTPUT
INPUT

Fig 5.13: NOT GATE CIRCUIT USING FIXED BIAS C E CONFIGURATION

In this circuit the values of the resistors are obtained by analysis of the transistor.

The input equation is written as

Vi  IbRb  VBE ……………………………………………………………….(1)

Where Vi is the input voltage,

Ib is the base current,

Rb is the base resistance and

Vbe is base -emitter voltage

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VBE = 0.7 for Si transistors and

0.3 for Ge transistor

And the input from function generator is taken as required. Rb is fixed at 1kΩ.

Ib= Vi - VBE , Ic= βIb …………………………………………………………………..(2)

Rb

Now the value of Rc , collector resistance is obtained by the output equation,

Vcc  IcRc  VCE ……………………………………………………….….(3)

Where Vcc is the collector voltage,

Ic is the collector current,

Rc is the collector resistance and

Vce is collector -emitter voltage

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Fig 5.13: B) OUTPUT AND INPUT WAVEFORMS OF NOT GATE CIRCUIT USING
FIXED BIAS C E CONFIGURATION

5.2.5 THE FILTER CIRCUIT

The filter circuit used to convert the square wave output of the inverter to
sinusoidal waveform is as shown in fig 5.14.
24Ω 47mH

INPUT 100µF OUTPUT

Fig 5.14: SQUARE WAVE TO SINE WAVE CONVERTER

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 5.3 HARDWARE RESULTS

A.BATTERY CHARGER CIRCUIT

The connection of battery charger circuit on bread board is as shown in Fig 5.15

Fig 5.15: BATTERY CHARGER CIRCUIT

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The DC output from the battery charger circuit is observed in a DSO as shown in
the Fig5.16.

Fig 5.16: DC OUTPUT OF BATTERY CHARGER

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B.INVERTER CIRCUIT

The breadboard connections of the inverter circuit without filter are as shown in
fig 5.17.

Fig 5.17: INVERTER CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS WITHOUT FILTER

The output waveforms of the inverter circuit without and with filter are as shown
in fig 5.18 A) and B).

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Fig 5.18 : A)OUTPUT OF INVERTER CIRCUIT WITHOUT FILTER

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B)OUTPUT OF INVERTER CIRCUIT WITH FILTER

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 6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
6.1 FUTURE OF SOLAR ENERGY
Solar power has two big advantages over fossil fuels. The first is in the fact that it
is renewable i.e. it is never going to run out. The second is its almost negligible
effect on the environment.

 POLLUTION FREE ENERGY

While the burning of fossil fuels introduces many harmful pollutants into
the atmosphere and contributes to environmental problems like global
warming and acid rain, solar energy is completely non-polluting. While
many acres of land must be destroyed to feed a fossil fuel energy plant its
required fuel, the only land that must be destroyed for a solar energy plant
is the land that it stands on. Indeed, if a solar energy system were
incorporated into every business and dwelling, no land would have to be
destroyed in the name of energy. This ability to decentralize solar energy is
something that fossil fuel burning cannot match.
 REDUCTION IN GREEN HOUSE GASES
Global warming and energy policies have become a hot topic on the
international agenda in the last years. Developed countries are trying to
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. For example, the European Union
has committed to reduce their greenhouse gas to at least 20% below 1990
levels and to produce no less than 20% of its energy consumption from
renewable sources by 2020. In this context, photovoltaic (PV) power
generation has an important role to play due to the fact that it is a green
source.

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 The only emissions associated with PV power generation are those from
the production of its components. After their installation they generate
electricity from the solar irradiation without emitting greenhouse gases. In
their life time, PV panels produce more energy than that for their
manufacturing. Also, they can be installed in places with no other use, such
as roofs and deserts.
 ENERGY PRODUCTION ON REMOTE LOCATIONS
They can produce electricity for remote locations, where there is no
electricity network. The latter type of installations is known as off-grid
facilities and sometimes they are the most economical alternative to
provide electricity in isolated areas. However, most of the PV power
generation comes from grid-connected installations, where the power is
fed in the electricity network. In fact, it is a growing business in developed
countries such as Germany which is world leader in PV power generation
followed by Spain, Japan, USA and Italy.
As the primary element of construction of solar panels, silicon, is the
second most common element on the planet, there is very little
environmental disturbance caused by the creation of solar panels. In fact,
solar energy only causes environmental disruption if it is centralized and
produced on a gigantic scale. Solar power certainly can be produced on a
gigantic scale, too.
Among the renewable resources, only in solar power do we find the
potential for an energy source capable of supplying more energy than is
used.

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6.2 CONCLUSION

From this project, the importance of using renewable sources of energy especially
solar energy, for generating electric power and promoting their use is
understood. The other motto of this project is to develop a model of a solar
inverter in order to supply light loads.

Though the high cost of PV installations still forms an obstacle for this technology,
the fact that it requires only a one time fixed investment along with all its other
advantages, this technology has a wide scope of utility in near future. The project
described is valuable for the promising potentials it holds within, ranging from the
long run economic benefits to the important environmental advantages.

The project shows how the solar energy is collected by a solar panel and DC
voltage from solar panel is converted to AC voltage through an inverter to supply
ac loads and also to charge a battery which in turn can be used to supply the
inverter circuit in the absence of solar radiation.

The solar inverter made is just a prototype for making future projects which
should incorporate advanced technologies like micro controlled solar tracking,
charge control, etc. This is to show that solar inverters are very cheap and easy to
install so that the energy demands are shifted towards using renewable sources
of energy.

With the increasing improvements in solar cell technologies and power

electronics, efficient photo voltaic power systems can be installed that will
revolutionize the energy stream. This project helps to add value to the existing
techniques and to receive more attention and support for PV systems.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

The reference of the books and websites, we have referred in order to complete
our project report are as follows:-

[1] Umanand, L: Introduction to Non-Conventional Energy Systems, NPTEL

courses, NCES/M1/V1/2004

[2] Wadhwa, C L : Generation Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy ,

Former Prof. & Head, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi.

[3] Bimbhra, P.S. : Power Electronics, Khanna Publishers, edition 4,2007

[4] Gupta, J.B. : Electronics Devices & Circuit, 3/e, S.K. Kataria & Sons, 2009

[5] Nayar, P.M.: Photovoltaic development and use in India, Electrial India, vol 43
no 7, July 2003

[6] Mohan Kumar, D.: Battery charger for solar inverter, 2011

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