CAPSULE

VOL.7, No.2

TURBOPUMPS

SSME Fuel TP SSME Oxidizer TP

DOCUMENTATION AND INFORMATION SERVICES

LV- PROJECTS
May, 2010
 Preface

The typical launch vehicle uses a turbopump to pump the fuel into the rocket
engine at high pressure. The turbopump is the key feed system component of
medium to large liquid propellant rocket engines (LPREs) and it is highly effective
in raising the propellants’ pressure from the low pressure in the propellant tanks to
the high pressure needed for the injection of propellants into the engine’s
combustion chamber. Its power per unit inert mass is higher than any other known
feed system of a combustion engine. Compared to a pressurized feed system, a
turbopump feed system will usually allow a significant increase in flight vehicle
performance.

This issue of CAPSULE is on “TURBOPUMPS”. An overview of Turbopumps

especially of Cryogenic engines and a collection of good references is provided.

Your suggestions for improvement are welcome.

(V S GEETHARANI)
 Contents

Sl.No. Title Page

1 Introduction 1

2 Development History 1

3 Basic Turbopump elements 4

4 Function 5

5 Configuration / Design 6

6 Testing 12

7 Booster Turbopumps 12

8 Turbopump of various Launch vehicles 13-36

9 Conclusion 37

10 Bibliography 38-48
1. Introduction

Turbopump is a compo und word selected to describe the rotating

machinery used to pump the liquid propellants in a rocket engine, and consists of
one or more pumps driven by a turbine. A turbo pump (abbreviated as TP) is a
high precision, high speed, relatively complex piece of rotary machinery, where a
turbine drives one or two liquid propellant pumps. It is a key component in many
major liquid propellant rocket engines (LPREs) and its function is to raise the
pressure of liquid propellants, taken from the tanks in a flight vehicle, and feed
them under pressure into the thrust chamber(s) of a rocket engine.

The largest number of applications of turbopumps, which have flown,

have been with rocket engines of reasonably long duration (one or more minutes)
and of moderate to high thrust (typically with thrusts from perhaps 3,000 lbf {13.3
kN} up to 1,575,000 lbf {~7,000 kN}. These engines were usually installed in the first
or second stage of space launch vehicles or ballistic missiles. In some missions
LPREs were in the third stage and also in the fourth, fifth and sixth stage of
planetary or lunar exploration vehicles. Engines with TPs were also used in the
early days of LPREs ( 1945 to 1960) in aircraft applications, either as the principal
aircraft power plant, an auxiliary engine supplementing an air-breathing engine,
or as an assisted take-off unit. Some were then also used in sounding rocket
vehicles. They and their TPs are now obsolete.

This issue of Capsule gives an overview of “Turbopumps”, especially of

Cryogenic engines”.

2. Development history

The turbopump were conceived independently and early in three

countries, namely USA, Russia and Germany. The other countries, which
developed TPs, had the advantage of seeing or learning about turbopumps
developed earlier by the three countries.

The American Professor Robert H. Goddard was the first to develop and ground
test (in 1933 and 1934) a turbopump for a rocket engine intended for a high
altitude sounding rocket vehicle. He selected centrifugal pumps after
unsatisfactory experiments with several types of positive displacement pumps.

It was in 1939 that the very first rocket engine with a TP was flown. This LPRE was
designed and produced by the Hellmuth Walter Kommanditgesellschaft (limited
partnership) in Kiel, Germany. It had a thrust of 750 kg (1,650 lbf) and a specific
impulse of 145 to 150 seconds.

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 All the countries learned from the German V-2 and Me- 163 rocket engines,
when data and hardware became available after the war in 1945. In France TPs
were introduced and first flown around 1969; however propellant pumps driven
by a jack shaft from the aircraft engine (not really a TP) flew as early as 1952. In
the United Kingdom (Britain) several German Walter TPs (all using hydrogen
peroxide as an oxidizer) were obtained and tested. The pumps of their first TP used
straight vanes, because this offered an improvement in efficiency at low flow.

The Peoples Republic of China obtained engines and TPs from the Soviet
Union (R-2 missiles) before they developed their own designs. The first Chinese TP
of indigenous design used nitric acid and UDMH (unsymmetrical dimethyl
hydrazine) and was tested in the 1950s. Their upper stage LOX/LH2 engines with
TPs came later and American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics showed
an advanced state of the art. Japan obtained some US Thor engines and US
Delta upper stage engines and licenses to build them, before they started their
own engine and TP developments. Their indigenous engines with TPs were
operating with LOX/LH2.

Since the first TP was flown in 1939 the design and development of
turbopumps have changed a lot. They have been developed for different
propellant combinations with several storable or cryogenic propellants. The power
level of TPs has increased tremendously. The power level has been increased
progressively with higher thrust LPREs and with higher chamber pressures. This
increase was made possible by new bearings, capable of higher loads at high
speed. The highest known TP power level of a flying LPRE was the Russian RD-170
with approximately 250,000 hp (186 MW), several orders of magnitude more than
Goddard’s TPs. This engine was developed between 1976 and 1987.

The shaft speeds of early TPs were typically between 3,000 and 30,000 rpm.
For some smaller TPs it has later exceeded 160,000 rpm. Higher shaft speed have
usually allowed smaller diameters in the rotating assembly and the TP housings

The table below shows the first indigenous TP development of each country.

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 Table-1 Earliest indigenous Developments of Turbopumps different Countries

Country and Engine and Propellants TP development time

organization application and /or first flight data
USA, Robert Sounding LOX/gasoline First ground tests 1934
H. Goddard rocket First flight with TP 1940
Germany RII-203 Hydrogen peroxide Development 1937-1938
H.Walter Co. Experimental monopropellant with First flight 1939
Aircraft liquid catalyst
Soviet Union RD-2M, RD- Nitrogen tetroxide/ Component tests 1936-
Institute for 2M-3 Unsymmetrical 1943 Tested LPRE with TP
Reaction dimethyl hydrazine; in 1944; did not fly. First
Propulsion; used hydrogen flight with a new TP 1947
L.S. Dushkin peroxide
decomposition gas
generator
Britain Royal Beta; for Hydrogen peroxide/ TP Developed 1947-
Aircraft experimental 57% alcohol, 30% 1948 with straight vane
Establishment launch hydrazine hydrate pump;
at Westcott vehicle and 13%water first LPRE with TP was
flown in1949
France, M-40 Nitrogen tetroxide/ Developed TP 1966-
LRBA Experimental unsymmetrical 1969; ground tested;
Engine dimethyl hydrazine was never flown
People’s YF-1 Nitric acid (27%NTO) TP development
Republic of single and unsymmetrical 1956/60 First flight of 4
China engine dimethyl hydrazine engine-configuration
(YF-2) in 1964
Japan, LE-5 upper Liquid oxygen and TP developed 1977-1983
Ishikawa stage liquid hydrogen first flight 1986
Harima Heavy
Industries

Gear cases on turbopumps (in engines with gas generator engine cycles) were
common in the USA between the 1950s and the 1990s, because efficient pumps
and turbines gave a small increase in engine performance (specific impulse) and
reduced the amount of propellant needed for the TP. TP with gear cases were
also developed and flown in Germany and France. Recent engines, mostly
running on LOX/LH2 have a separate simpler LOX TP, separate simpler hydrogen
TP, and no gear case.

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3. Basic Turbopump elements

Fig.1.Components in TP

Any turbopump requires components such as bearings, seals, gears and

the suction and discharge ducts. There are two kind of bearings, rolling elements
and fluid film ones and they have to perform three primary functions, radial
control of the rotor to prevent rubs and to maintain clearance, axial control of the
rotor to maintain rotor control during transient mechanic and thermal loads and
to react residual thrust loads and third, control of rotor dynamics to provide for
adequate radial stiffness and damping. They are usually cooled by the fluid,
which quite often doesn’t provide for lubrication, operate at high speeds and are
exposed to high transient radial and axial loads.

Seals are needed in TPs to prevent or minimize leakage between the two
propellants between the “warm” turbine gas and the propellants, and between
interior TP cavities and the outside. Static seals (between non-moving
components) for preventing leaks between components or stationary parts are
usually found in every TP. This includes O-rings, gaskets between flanges, and
some special static seal designs. Dynamic seals are those between a stationary
part and a moving part (such as shaft, valve stem, or gimbal actuators).

While static seal design in rocketry generally doesn’t exceed standard

procedures, dynamic seals, which separate stationary and rotating parts, are

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 critical. Dynamic seals just must not fail. There are different types of seals,
labyrinth, face contact or shaft contacting, floating ring or hydrodynamic face seals.
Major design problems are fluid compatibility, thermal gradients and dynamic loads.

Static and dynamic seals are employed to preclude mixing of propellants within
the turbopump which would result in burning and catastrophic failure.

In a cryogenic turbopump brush seals may be used to seal either liquid hydrogen
or liquid oxygen at locations near the pump or the bearings, or they may be used
to seal hot gaseous hydrogen, warm gaseous oxygen, or helium at locations near
the turbine or purge seals. In this environment large temperature gradients,
oxygen compatibility, and hydrogen embrittlement are concerns. Also, the shaft
speeds attained in cryogenic turbopumps for rocket engine systems are high, up
to 200,000 rpm for a liquid hydrogen turbopump.

The turbine must supply the required power to drive the pump utilizing the
drive gas provided by the selected engine cycle. Overall performance of the
turbine depends upon three variables: the available energy content per pound
of drive gas, the blade tangential velocity, and the number of turbine stages.

4. Function

The function of the rocket engine turbopump is to receive the liquid

propellants from the vehicle tanks at low pressure and supply them to the
combustion chamber at the required flow rate and injection pressure. The energy
to power the turbine itself is provided by the expansion of high pressure gases,
which are usually mixtures of the propellants being pumped.

The liquid rocket engine turbopump is a unique piece of rotating machinery

in comparison to turbo-jets, turbo-fans and turbo-props, since it is typically
pumping cryogenic liquids while being driven by high temperature gases, posing
large temperature differentials between the pump and turbine. The pump must
avoid cavitation while pumping relatively high density fluids at low inlet pressures,
and deliver them to the thrust chamber at very high pressures over a relatively
wide throttling range. The turbopump is optimized for performance and weight
within the minimum possible envelope size to facilitate engine packaging.
Bearings normally operate in the propellants being pumped which have minimal
lubrication characteristics.

The need for turbopump is directly related to the velocity and mission
requirements.

Liquid rocket engines are either pressure-fed or pump-fed, depending on the

mission requirements. If the mission velocity and payload are low, the propellants

5
are fed to the thrust chamber by pressurizing the vehicle tanks. As the mission
velocity requirement increases, the chamber pressure must be increased to raise
the thrust from each pound of propellant in order to increase the vehicle thrust-to-
weight ratio. This justifies the added complexity of the turbopumps to minimize the
vehicle tank weight.

5. Configuration/Design

The turbopump configuration is highly dependent on the engine cycle and the
mission requirements for flow and pressure. Probably the most common TP
configuration was to put the turbine, the fuel pump, and the oxidizer pump on the
same single shaft with two bearings.

The physical phenomena and the loads in TPs include more accurate and realistic
hydraulic loads or pressure distributions in the flow passages, distribution of the
thrust, accelerations from vibrations, effects of flight maneuvers, and control of
excessive cavitation. A better understanding of the cavitation phenomena in TPs
has allowed the designers to avoid debilitating cavitation. The use of inducers,
alternatively ejectors or booster pumps (beginning circa 1960) has been fostered
by the need to eliminate or control cavitation at the leading edges of the main
pump impellers.

The type of engine cycle selected also influences the turbopump

requirements and configuration. Generally, three types of engine cycles have
been used in liquid rocket engines: the gas generator cycle, the staged
combustion cycle and the expander cycle. The engine cycle terminology refers
to the source of energy to drive the turbine.

5.1.Gas Generator Cycle

In a gas generator cycle engine, the turbine flow is in parallel with the
thrust chamber and is not used to develop thrust. Sufficient propellants to drive
the turbine are removed from the pump discharge, combusted in the gas
generator, and expanded through the turbine to atmospheric pressure. The
required pump discharge pressure is established by the combustion chamber
injection pressure and establishes the available pressure to drive the turbine.
Hence, the required pump flow rate is equal to the combustion chamber flow
plus the flow required to drive the turbine). Prior gas generator cycle engines built
by Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne (now Rocketdyne Propulsion and Power, a part of
The Pratt & Whitney Company) included the Redstone, Thor, Jupiter, H-l, F-l, and
the J-2. Current active gas generator cycle engines built by Pratt & Whitney
Rocketdyne include the Atlas, RS-27, and the XLR-132.

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5.2. Staged Combustion Cycle

In the staged combustion cycle engine, the turbine flow is in series with the
thrust chamber. Most of the fuel flow and enough of the oxidizer flow to
accomplish the desired turbine temperature are removed from the pump
discharge, combusted in a preburner, and expanded through the turbine to the
combustion chamber injection pressure. The remainder of the oxidizer flow is
added in the main combustion chamber to complete the combustion process. A
staged combustion cycle engine maximizes the engine's specific impulse by
passing the turbine flow through the thrust chamber to develop thrust. The Space
Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) is a staged combustion cycle engine.

5.3.Expander Cycle

In the expander cycle engine, the turbine flow is also in series with the
thrust chamber. However, the turbine available energy is limited only to the fuel
flow, which is preheated in the thrust chamber coolant passages instead of being
combusted with liquid oxygen in the preburner. The expander cycle engine also
maximizes the engine's specific impulse for a given chamber pressure by passing
all the propellants through the thrust chamber. The pump-required discharge
pressure is equal to the thrust chamber injection pressure plus the turbine pressure
drop. Energy available to drive the turbine limits the expander cycle engine to
relatively low thrust chamber combustion pressures, moderate pump discharge
pressures, and low turbine operating temperatures. The cryogenic Orbital Transfer
Vehicle engine is an expander cycle engine.

5.4. Other engine factors that significantly influence the turbopump configuration
selection are the types of propellants, the propellant inlet conditions and the
engine throttling requirements. Typical propellants include RP-1, LH2, LO2, MMH,
NTO, and other liquids with wide density ranges and temperatures. The variations
in density produce significantly different pump head rise (pressure) requirements
and large differences in volumetric flow. The variations in the combined
propellant available energy have a significant influence on the turbine design.

The propellant inlet condition, which is expressed as the pump-inlet net

positive suction pressure, dictates the pump's suction performance requirements.

The engine throttling requirements define the range of flow and discharge
pressure that the turbopump must deliver with stable operation. The engine start
and shutdown characteristics must also be considered to prevent unstable
turbopump operation due to cavitation or stall.

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Table 2

Qualitative turbopump characteristics of three different engine cycles

Engine cycle Gas Generator Expander Cycle Staged
Cycle Combustion
Cycle
Turbine flow as% 1 to 5% 85 to 100% of the 45-100%
total propellant coolant flow
flow
Pressure across 50 to 90 5 to 30 5 to 20
turbine, as % of
chamber
pressure
Propellant type All types Cryogenic for All types
cooling
Pump discharge 125 to 180 140 to 200 150 to 250
pressure, % of
chamber
pressure
Thrust control Regulate flow Control bypass Regulate
and/ or mixture of some gasified preburner
ratio in gas fuel flow around mixture ratio and
generator turbine main propellant
flows
Maximum Relatively low Higher Highest
pressure in feed
system
First ground tests Goddard 1934 1960 Pratt & RNIL 1958
Whitney
First flight H. Walter Comp. 1963 (Part & Korolev Design
operation 1939 Whitney) Bureau (1961)

With the engine requirements established, the turbopump configuration is

selected based on optimizing the pumps for each propellant, the turbine for the
drive gas available energy, and the mechanical design arrangement for life,
weight and producibility considerations.

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Fig.2.cutaway view of turbopump(Mark-3 used in Atlas Fig.3.Mart 49F used in the OTV

Thor,Jupiter and H-1 engines)

Fig.4. Mark 15 F used in J-2

Pumps for engines with similar density fuel and oxidizer propellants such as
RP-1/LOX and similar discharge pressure requirements will typically be optimum at
approximately the same speed. This permits the fuel and oxidizer pumps to be
placed on a common shaft and driven by a common turbine (Redstone, Atlas,
RS-27, F-1, and XLR-132). Maximum pump speed is generally limited by the suction
performance requirements to avoid cavitation. Optimum turbine efficiency
requires a certain pitch line velocity, which is a product of the shaft speed and
the turbine diameter. The minimum weight turbine has the highest speed and
smallest diameter within the structural and mechanical arrangement limitations.

When the Atlas booster and sustainer turbopumps were designed, the
speed of the pumps and the turbine were optimized independently and linked
together with a speed reduction gearbox. This required the development of a

9
highly loaded gear train to minimize the turbopump weight, but was considered
the best design selection based on suction performance, turbine performance
and material technology at that time.

When the F-1 turbopump was designed, canted inducer technology had
been developed to increase the pump suction performance capability. This
permitted designing the pumps and turbine to operate at the same speed on a
common shaft and eliminated the need for a 60,000-hp reduction gearbox,
which was probably not feasible anyhow.

The J-2 was the first gas generator cycle engine to use liquid hydrogen
(LH2) as the fuel and liquid oxygen (O2) as the oxidizer. The low-density liquid
hydrogen introduced the need to operate the fuel pump at a much higher speed
than the LO2 pump in order to develop the high head required. High solidity
inducer technology had been developed which permitted optimizing the LH2
pump at a higher speed and driving the pumps with separate turbines. The
turbines were arranged in series to best utilize the large pressure ratio available
energy and maximize the turbine efficiencies at their respective speeds.

Selecting a 3,000-psi chamber pressure and staged combustion cycle for the
SSME to maximize the specific impulse significantly increased the turbopump
requirements compared to the F-1 or J-2 engines. Adding preburner and turbine
pressure drops in series with the high combustion chamber pressure resulted in
discharge pressure requirements of 8,500 psia and 7,000 psia for the LO2 and LH2
pumps, respectively.

Propellant tank pressures were also minimized to optimize the Space Shuttle
vehicle weight. The combination of low inlet pressures and high required
discharge pressures introduced the need for separate boost pumps to optimize
the turbomachinery weight.

The rocket engine turbopump, in addition to being a high energy/weight

ratio machine, must be designed to operate with the pump at cryogenic
conditions and the turbine at high temperature. This requires design concepts that
provide thermal growth flexibility while reacting large torques, separating loads
and external ducting loads. Radial pins, axial cylinders and curvic couplings are
typically used to perform this function.

5.5.Materials

Aluminum alloys, stainless steels, high strength steels, nickel base alloys,
cobalt base alloys and titanium alloys are all used in the design of
turbomachinery.

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 Significant changes have occurred in some of the materials of construction
of TP components. Most of the early pump housings and pump impellers were
made of aluminum castings. For low chamber pressure applications aluminum is
still used today. With higher pressures came housings made of alloy steel and then
super alloys such as inconel. With the stronger materials and higher allowable
stresses, the inert TP mass per unit power has gone down. In the last 10 years some
TP parts were made by powder metallurgy processes. For example the pump
impeller in the European Vinci TP uses a synthetic metallic material made by
powder metallurgy. While the improvements in strength of these new synthetic
materials is not large, it has other advantages such as very smooth reproducible
surface finish on its inside flow passages. The Russians claim to have developed
new or improved powder metallurgy materials for turbine and pump
components, but details could not be found in the literature.

Complex pressure vessels for applications of up to approximately 2,000 psia

are typically cast of aluminum to utilize its high strength-to-weight ratio and to
avoid weld joints. Nickel-base super alloys such as Inco 718 are used to cast
pressure vessels where higher strength is required. The high strength-to-weight ratio
of titanium is utilized to obtain the high tip speeds required for LH2 impellers and
inducers.

Hydrogen environment embrittlement effects of gaseous hydrogen limit the

materials selected for turbine components. High-strength super alloys typically
must be protected from the environment by copper or gold plating. Turbine
blades are directionally solidified and thermally coated to survive heat fluxes ten
times the typical turbojet and blade loads of up to 600 hp per blade.

Silver and Kel-F are used in LO2 pumps where contact with the inducer or impeller
could result in ignition due to local heat generation. These materials are also used
for potential contact with titanium impellers to preclude the formation of titanium
hydrides due to heat generation.

Turbopumps for liquid rocket engines are designed for maximum

performance and minimum weight. Their operating environment includes extreme
temperature and pressure ranges, rapid starts and exposure to propellants with
unusual characteristics. The advancement in the state of the art of rocket engine
turbomachinery over the past 35 years has been driven by lower inlet pressures to
decrease vehicle tank weight, the use of LH2 as a fuel to increase the engine
specific impulse, stage combustion cycle engines with higher chamber pressures
to increase specific impulse and the need for throttleable, reusable engines.
Space application engines with high chamber pressures and low flow rates are
requiring small turbopumps with operating speeds in excess of 200,000 rpm.

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The continued advancement in the state of the art of rotating machinery will be
highly dependent on bearing and dynamic seal technology, Fabrication
methods, material development, and a better understanding of the dynamic flow
conditions within the turbopump through the development of three-dimensional
computational fluid dynamics and special instrumentation.

6. Testing

Launch vehicles use turbopumps which are expensive, difficult to design and
difficult to test. Intact the Space Shuttle main engine turbopump has never been
tested to its limits because it must be tested while bolted to the engine.

The testing of TPs and their components is an integral and necessary part of all TP
efforts. It is done somewhat differently by different organizations and sometimes in
a different sequence or with a different set of tests. The test equipment, test
facilities and sensors are usually not the same. It usually includes component tests
(such as pressure tests of housings, electrical test of shaft speed indicator), pump
tests, turbine tests, bearing tests, seal tests, spin tests to disintegration of impellers
or turbine wheels, and complete tests of the turbopump over the range of
anticipated operating conditions.

The testing is more extensive, more intensive, varied and sophisticated during the
development program, because it is necessary to validate the design, assure
repeatable, safe and reliable functioning and meet the intended performance
under all likely operating conditions. The number and types of tests depends on
the confidence the developers have in the specific design features, on prior data
or experiences, and other factors. With good analytical simulations it is now
possible to compare actual (measured) parameters with predicted parameters
and quickly terminate the test, if they do not agree with each other. This method
has saved considerable hardware and reduced the number of tests.

7. Booster turbopumps
Booster turbopumps have been used usually with engine operating on a staged
combustion engine cycle. They are most effective in raising the suction pressure
to the main pump. They are typically a low speed, low power separate set of two
turbopumps and they provide generally 5 to 12 % of the pressure rise and
consume about the same percentage of the total turbine power. It allows the
propellant tank pressure to be lowered and/or the speed of the main pumps to
be increased, thus making the main TP smaller and lighter.

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8. Turbopump of Various Launch vehicles

8.1.Ariane

HM-7B, Vulcain are the cryogenic engines developed and flight tested in
Ariane launch vehicle. Vinci engine is under development.

8.1.1HM-7B

The HM7B is a gas generator rocket engine fed with liquid oxygen and liquid
hydrogen. It has no restart capability: the engine is continuously fired for 950
seconds in its Ariane 5 version (780 s in the Ariane 4). It provides 62.7 kN of thrust
with a specific impulse of 444.2 s. The engine's chamber pressure is 3.5 Mpa

The HM7 engine, built upon the development work of HM4, first flew in 1979,
powering the third stage of the Ariane 1. The evolved HM7B, with higher specific
impulse, powered the third stages of Ariane 2, 3 and 4. It was first used in the
Ariane 5 in 2002, when the first ECA version of the launcher flew, although the
launch failed before first stage separation, so the first time an HM7B actually
powered the upper stage of an Ariane 5 was in 2005. The switch to a cryogenic
engine is responsible of more than half of the overall payload increase of the
Ariane 5 ECA versus its previous version, the Ariane 5G. The HM 7, HM7B Engine
family has 5 failures during its use in Ariane 1 - 4 rockets.

Fig.5.HM-7B Turbopump

60,500 rpm, 380 kW single turbine powered by gas generator requiring 0.25 kg/s
propellants. Single-stage hydrogen pump raises pressure from 3 atm to 55 atm;
single-stage oxygen pump 2.5-50 atm. Gas generator exhaust temperature 800-
900K.

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Failures (Turbopump)

The 3rd stage of the Ariane-44LP (V63) was malfunctioned. The vehicle and
two communication satellites reentered the atmosphere, disintegrated, and
plunged into the Atlantic Ocean, 1,200 km (746 mi) southwest of Africa. Ariane
V63 (Jan 1994) was lost because of abnormal heating of the immersed LOX pump
bearing. Insufficient cooling and aggravating factors resulted in failure. The
solution was installation of a purge line in the bearing cavity to enhance cooling
and helium purging, and fitting the bearing with a self-lubricating MoS_2 coating
to decrease its sensitivity to possible aggravating factors.

The 1st- and 2nd-stage burns were normal. The ignition of the 3rd stage occurred
at 348.3 sec after Ist-stage ignition. But at 60 sec into the 3rd-stage ignition,
temperatures on a bearing in the liquid oxygen (LOX) turbopump began to climb
rapidly. At 428.3 sec after Ist stage ignition the turbopump's chamber pressure,
outlet pressure, and rotation speed dropped sharply, resulting in cutting off the
oxygen flow and shutting down the 3rd-stage engine at 170 km (105 mi) altitude,
30 km (18.6 mi) short of the payload separation point. The nominal burn time for
the improved engine with lightened propellant tanks of third stage is 750sec.

Shutdown of the 3rd-stage engine probably resulted from a generally insufficient

precooling of the immersed bearing on the oxygen pump, combined with a
series of aggravating factors which overloaded the bearing. The aggravating
factors include penetration of moisture during the oxygen purge process at
ground level and/or gas trapped inside the bearing cavity. Insufficient precooling
of the LOX turbopump bearing could be due either to a penetration of moisture,
filter obstruction, on-line thermal blockage (a flow blockage produced by
abnormal thermal condition), or residual fluid left from the purging operation. The
overheating and failure of the LOX turbopump bearing resulted in the LOX circuit
opening, interruption of LOX supply chamber and gas generator, and shutdown
of the 3rd-stage engine at 80 sec after 3rd-stage ignition.

Ariane V70 failed because stage 3's gas generator was starved of LOX. The
engine stabilized at 70% and shut down 40 s early. As a result, a filter was added
to the oxygen line upstream of the generator to prevent blockage in future and
more stringent contamination prevention measures introduced. By end-1995, HM-
7B had made 898 firings totaling 180,225 s (48,240 s in-flight). Firing trials of an HM-
7B equipped with a Novoltex-reinforced SEPCarbinox 25 kg composite nozzle
were made in 1989 as part of a technology programme.

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8.1.2. Vulcain

Vulcain is the cryogenic engine of the core stage for the European launcher
Ariane 5.

VULCAIN is a gas generator cycle engine, the thrust chamber is fed by separate
turbopumps with turbines in parallel and separate gas exhausts. The gas
generator and the combustion chamber are ignited at low pressure by
pyrotechnic igniters, and a solid propellant cartridge starts the turbopumps. To
qualify the TP they have conducted 120 TP tests and manufactured 13 TP units.

The engine is started by use of a single pyrotechnic device located upstream

of the turbines. The pyrotechnic starter gives a short pulse, which gives a rapid
increase of the turbine inlet temperature and pressure thus forcing the turbine to
rotate.

Turbopump
Main turbopump milestones:

1984-1986 : concept studies and definition of the

turbopump, preparation of component tests,
1986-1988 : component tests, fabrication of turbopump units,
1988-1990 : component tests and turbopump tests,
1990-1992 : component tests and qualification, turbopump
tests and engine tests,
1992-1995 : turbopump tests and qualification and engine tests

Hydrogen turbopump is composed of a titanium three-stage pump (one axial

inducer and two centrifugal impellers) in an Inconel 718 housing, and a two-stage
supersonic turbine in Waspalloy for blades and discs and in Inconel 718 for the
casing.

Characteristics-LH2 turbopump
Mass 240 kg
Rotation Speed 33,500 rpm
Turbine power 12 M W
Pump inlet pressure 3 bar
Pump outlet pressure 161 bar
Flow rare 43 kg/s
Turbine gas inlet pressure 75 bar
Turbine inlet temperature 900 K

15
 The Oxygen turbopump is composed of a K Monel two- stage pump (one axial
inducer and one centrifugal impeller) in an Inconel 718 housing, and a single-
stage high supersonic turbine Waspalloy for blades and Inconel 718 for discs and
casings.

Characteristics-LOX turbopump

Mass : 185 Kg
Rotation Speed : 13,800 rpm
Turbine power : 3,8 MW
Pump inlet pressure : 3 bar
Pump outlet pressure : 155 bar
Flow rate : 231 Kg/s
Turbine gas inlet pressure : 60 bar
Turbine inlet temperature : 875 K

8.1.3.Vulcain 2 engine

The Vulcain 2 engine is an evolution of the Vulcain engine, which was qualified
1994.

Inlet Pressure, from 78 to 91 bar

Inlet Temperature, 873 K
Pressure ratio, from 17.4 to 15.5
Shaft speed, from 34070 to 35680 rpm
Power output from 11410 to 14290 kW

Fig.6.Hydrogen turbopump of Vulcain-2 engine

16
Fig.7.LOX turbopump of the Vulcain 2 engine

8.1.4. VINCI engine

Vinci is a European Space Agency cryogenic rocket engine currently under

development. It is designed to power the new upper stage of Ariane 5, ESC-B,
and will be the first European re-ignitable cryogenic upper stage engine, raising
the launcher's GTO performances to 12 t.

Vinci is an expander cycle rocket engine fed with liquid hydrogen and liquid
oxygen. Its biggest improvement from its predecessor, the HM-7B (which powers
the ESC-A), is the capability of restarting up to five times. It is also the first
European expander cycle engine, removing the need for a gas generator to
drive the fuel and oxidizer pumps. It features a carbon ceramic extendable nozzle
in order to have a large, 2.15 m diameter nozzle extension with minimum length:
the retracted nozzle part is deployed only after the upper stage separates from
the rest of the rocket; after extension, the engine's overall length increases from
2.3 m to 4.2 m.

The engine is characterized by a high performance hydrogen turbopump, an

optimized combustion chamber cooling circuit, the use of advanced
manufacturing processes (powder metallurgy impellers, cooling channel high
speed milling) and a constant use of a design to cost approach.

The engine has two separate turbopumps mounted close to one another in a
"power pack" kit. Turbines are set "in serial", and a set of two by-pass valves adjusts
their flow rates. This set allows tuning the engine operating point, in terms of thrust

17
and mixture ratio. Both turbopumps have integral inducers, which lead to low
NPSP with the objective to avoid the use of boost pump.

Fig.8.Hydrogen turbopump

A H2/O2 gas fed torch, electrically initiated by a spark system, is used for engine
ignition. This igniter is fed by gaseous oxygen and hydrogen contained in high-
pressure bottles operating in a blow down mode.

Vinci reference configuration

18
Fig.9.Titanium turbine blisk made by radial milling for Vinci hydrogen turbopump

8.2. CHINA

China obtained engines and TPs from the Soviet Union (R-2 missiles) before they
developed their own designs. The first Chinese TP of indigenous design used nitric
acid and UDMH (unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine) and was tested in the 1950s.
Their upper stage LOX/LH2 engines with TPs came later and showed an
advanced state of the art.

8.2.1. YF-73

The YF-73 is China's first successful, cryogenic, gimballed engine, using liquid
hydrogen (LH2) fuel and liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer. It was developed in the
early 1980s and first flight was in 1984. It is a pumpfed engine with gas generator
power cycle. Propellants are fed to four combustion chambers by one
turbopump. Each combustion chamber can gimbal ± 24° in a tangential direction
to provide attitude control moment for the flight of the third stage. The engine has
restart ability. The total burn time is about 800 sec in two burns. The coast duration
between two burns can be varied in accordance with mission requirement.

Specifications

• Vacuum thrust: 44.15 kN

• Vacuum specific impulse: 10 s
• Burn time: 100 s
• Engine weight: 236 kg
• Exit to Throat Area ratio: 40 to 1
• Propellants: LOX & LH2
• Mixture ratio: 9.00

19
 • Design: Gas-generator cycle
• Height: 1.48 m
• Diameter: 2.2 m
• Chambers: 10
• Chamber Pressure: 25.98 bar
• Thrust to Weight Ratio: 18.62(total)
• Restartable: Yes (1 time)

LH2 pump and LOX pump is single stage centrifugal pump with helical inducer.
The hydrogen pump and turbine share common shaft, LOX pump is driven via
reduction gears. A pair of high pressure nitrogen spheres initiates the two starts.
Pyrotechnic igniters are used to ignite combustion chambers and gas generator.
For thermal insulation, LH2 pump, LOX pump, cryogenic valves and some lines are
covered by polyurethane foam.

Failures

On January 29, 1984, the first flight test of LM- 3(Long march) vehicle was
conducted in Xichang Space Launch Center (XSK). The first and second stages
worked normally. The first firing of the YF-73 engine and coast flight were normal,
too. After the second ignition, the engine thrust reached only 90% rated value.
Three seconds later, the thrust quickly decayed. According to a predetermined
flight test program, the test result was defined as partly successful.

The failure was related to the engine restart condition in high-vacuum, low-gravity
environment. The failure modes might be: (1) The atmospheric pressure in an
altitude of 200 km above sea level is lower than triple point pressure of
propellants. While bleeding, propellant might drop into solid state, which blocked
the bleeding line and resulted in an insufficient chilldown. (2) Because of low
gravity in coast period, content of gaseous hydrogen in two- phase flow
increased, which caused a decrease in hydrogen mass flow rate. Then the
temperature in gas generator was too high, and the wall burnt through.

8.2.2. YF-75 Engine

YF-75 is the second LOX/ LH2 rocket engine developed in China. It is composed
of two single engines in parallel. Each of them can work independently.

20
YF-75 characteristics

The engine is Gas generator power cycle; two turbopump, one is for liquid
hydrogen, the other for liquid oxygen. Two turbines are driven in series by hot gas
from a gas generator. The turbopumps are started by solid propellant cartridge.

During the engine development, some problems were faced in turbopump.

The turbopump rotates at a speed between the second and the third critical
speeds. Rotor dynamic stability is a serious problem. In some engine tests, the
turbopump was damaged by severe vibration. The problem was solved by means
of selecting a reasonable stiffness coefficient of elastic supports and ensuring a
more accurate rotor dynamic balance. Other problem encountered in the
development was over wear of ball bearing and dynamic seals, etc. The first flight
was successful with engine.

On Feb. 8,1994, the newly developed LM-3A vehicle made its first flight, which
successfully launched a scientific satellite and a simulated satellite into space.
Nine months later, on Nov. 30,1994, a new telecommunication satellite (DFH-3)
was put into a geosynchronous transfer orbit by the second LM-3A vehicle.

21
8.3. Japan

LE-5 and LE-7 are the cryogenic engines developed and flight tested by Japan.

8.3.1. LE-5

The LE-5 was the first cryogenic engine developed by completely country ' s
technology in Japan. After ten years effort, development of t h e LE-5 had
completed. The success of the LE-5 implied that Japan’s cryogenic engine
technologies in a thrust of 100 KN class had reached the world class level. The
high overall reliability objective have justified by the successful launch of nine
satellites. A difficult hurdle in the development of the LE-5 engine was only a
problem of turbopump shaft oscillation. This problem was resolved by modifying
the design. Other difficulties met during development tests were leakage outside
burning of hydrogen, damage of various parts, misfiring at a start sequence etc.
Many lessons in cryogenic propulsion were realized through the development of
LE-5.

The LE- 5 is a pump-fed engine with rated thrust of 103 KN in vacuum.

Combustion pressure is 3.65Mpa. A gas generator is used to drive separate LOX
and LH2 turbopumps. Hot gas from the gas generator first drives the LH2
turbopump and then the LOX turbopump. The development of t h e LE-5 started
in 1977 and completed 1985. During the development, eleven engines had tested
for a total of 368 tests and duration of 31,700 seconds.

8.3.2. LE-7 engine

The first stage of the H-2 rocket used a 110-ton thrust liquid oxygen, liquid
hydrogen, pump-fed engine, the LE-7. To obtain high performance, a two-stage
combustion cycle was employed in the engine. The LE-7 engine required high
pressure and high-power liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen turbopumps to
achieve the two-stage combustion cycle in which the c ombustion pressure is
around 13MPa. Furthermore, it was very important to operate both turbopumps at
higher rotational speeds to obtain a smaller, lighter-weight engine because the
LE-7 engine had no low-speed, low pressure pumps ahead of both the main
pumps. The rotational speeds of the liquid oxygen and hydrogen turbopumps
were 18,300 and 42,500 rpm, respectively.

The liquid oxygen turbopump of LE-7 consists of a main pump and a preburner
pump that are driven by a single-stage gas turbine,

22
Fig. 10. LE-7 engine

Major specifications of LE-7 LOX turbopump.

Rotational speeds, rpm 20,000

Main pump 30
Required NPSH,m
Mass flow, kg/s 229.1
Pressure rise, MPa 20.9
Efficiency, % 75
Preburner pump
Mass flow,kg/s 43.8
Pressure rise, Mpa 11.4
Efficiency, % 65
Turbine
Power, kW 6,400
Gas Inlet pressure,Mpa 23.5
Pressure ratio 1.43
Inlet temperature, K 970
Efficiency, % 48.5

23
Fig.11.LE-7

8.4. USA

The USA built and tested the very first TPs, made the first flights of a
bipropellant TP, the first bearing cooled and lubricated by liquid oxygen and the
first bearing cooled and lubricated by liquid hydrogen.

8.4.1.J2 ENGINE

The Rocketdyne J-2 engine is a high performance, upper stage,

propulsion system utilizing liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
propellants and develops a maximum vacuum thrust of 225,000
pounds.

All J-2 engines are identical when delivered and may be allocated to
either the second or third stage. Each engine is equipped to be
restarted in flight. However the restart capability will be utilized only in
the third stage.

24
Turbopump

The fuel turbopump, mounted on the thrust chamber, is a turbine-

driven, axial flow pumping unit consisting of an inducer, a seven-
stage rotor, and a stator assembly. It is a high-speed pump operating
at 27,000 rpm, and is designed to increase hydrogen pressure from 30
psia to 1,225 psia through high pressure ducting at a flow rate, which
develops 7,800 brake horsepower.

Power for operating the turbopump is provided by a high-speed,

two-stage turbine. Hot gas from the gas generator is routed to the
turbine inlet manifold, which distributes the gas to the inlet nozzles
where it is expanded and directed at a high velocity into the first
stage turbine wheel.

After passing through the first stage turbine wheel, the gas is
redirected through a ring of stator blades and enters the second
stage turbine wheel. The gas leaves the turbine through the exhaust
ducting. Three dynamic seals in series prevent the pump fluid and
turbine gas from mixing. Power from the turbine is transmitted to the
pump by means of a one-piece shaft.

Oxidizer turbopump

The oxidizer turbopump is mounted on the thrust chamber

diametrically opposite the fuel turbopump. It is a single-stage
centrifugal pump with direct turbine drive. The oxidizer turbopump
increases the pressure of the liquid oxygen and pumps it through
high-pressure ducts to the thrust chamber.

The pump operates at 8,600 rpm at a discharge pressure of 1,080 psia

and develops 2,200 brake horsepower. The pump and its two turbine
wheels are mounted on a common shaft.

Power for operating the oxidizer turbopump is provided by a high-

speed, two-stage turbine, which is driven by the exhaust gases from
the gas generator. The turbines of the oxidizer and fuel turbopumps
are connected in a series by exhaust ducting that directs the
discharged exhaust gas from the fuel turbopump turbine to the inlet
of the oxidizer turbopump turbine manifold. One static and two
dynamic seals in series prevent the turbopump oxidizer fluid and
turbine gas from mixing.

25
Fig.12. J2 axial fuel turbopump assembly

Beginning the turbopump operation, hot gas enters the nozzles and,
in turn, the first stage turbine wheel. After passing through the first
stage turbine wheel, the gas is redirected by the stator blades and
enters the second stage turbine wheel. The gas then leaves the
turbine through exhaust ducting, passes through the heat exchanger,
and exhausts into the thrust chamber through a manifold directly
above the fuel inlet manifold. Power from the turbine is transmitted by
means of a one-piece shaft to the pump. The velocity of the liquid
oxygen is increased through the inducer and impeller. As the liquid
oxygen enters the outlet volute, velocity is converted to pressure and
the liquid oxygen is discharged into the outlet duct at high pressure.

Bearings in the liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen turbopumps are

lubricated by the fluid being pumped because the extremely low
operating temperature of the engine precludes use of lubricants or
other fluids.

The J-2 was a major component of the Saturn V rocket. Five J-2 engines were
used on the S-II, the second stage of the Saturn V. One J-2 engine was used on
the S-IVB, the third stage of the Saturn V, and the second stage of the Saturn IB.

26
8.4.2.RL-10 ENGINE

The RL-10 was the first liquid hydrogen / liquid oxygen engine to fly in space. The
RL-10 is a turbopump-fed, regeneratively cooled engine with a thrust of 15,000
punds (66,750 newtons). The RL-10 powered the Saturn I S-IV stage and the
Centaur stage of the Atlas-Centaur and Titan-Centaur rockets.

Fig.13.RL-10A

The fuel and oxidizer pumps were driven in a "boot strap" arrangement from a
turbine assembly rated at 479 to 513 kilowatts. The propellant pumps consisted of
a two-stage centrifugal fuel pump and a single-stage centrifugal oxidizer pump.
General Dynamics/ Astronautics described the engine's turbopump as the key to
operating the RL-10 production version, in which the "boot strap" sequence used
gaseous hydrogen. At the start, liquid hydrogen trickled through the turbopump
and down through the thrust chamber tubes of the regeneratively cooled engine.
Even before the ignition sequence and main stage operation, the flowing liquid
hydrogen became gaseous, and could be forced back through the turbopump
with enough pressure to start it. This pressure set the hydrogen fuel pump in
motion, and a gear train from the hydrogen turbine's main shaft began to drive
the liquid oxygen pump-the "boot strap" sequence. After the start of combustion,
the heat produced enough gas in the chamber walls to drive the high-speed
turbine and also to maintain the combustion level.

27
Fig.14.Single shaft TPA of RL10 engine

Fig.15. Rotor of single shaft turbopump hydrogen pump

FAILURES
Atlas AC-70 FAILURE

It was the 18th of April in ’91, when an Atlas 1 launch vehicle, AC-70,
lifted off from Cape Canaveral Air Station with a commercial communications
satellite. The Centaur separated from the Atlas and was to start its burn at T+361
sec. Then came a problem, a big one. The Centaur and its payload spun out of
control, and less than a minute and a half later, at T+441 sec, Eastern Test Range
Safety sent the destruct command that destroyed the vehicle. Examination of the
telemetry data revealed that one of the Centaur’s RL-10 engines had started
normally but that the other had failed to do so. There was no debris available to
examine, so figuring out what went wrong would have to be based entirely on
analysis and ground testing of similar hardware.

The General Dynamics and Pratt and Whitney team figured out what
went wrong. The RL-10 was unique among US engines in that it was turbopump-
fed but burned no propellant to power the pumps. Instead, some of the hydrogen

28
fuel itself was allowed to heat up on its way to the combustion chamber, and the
resultant expanding gas was harnessed to drive the turbopump. This was
incredibly clever and marvelously efficient, but during start-up there was not a lot
of heat available to warm the hydrogen. It did not take much to stop the start-up
process.

The cleaning procedure for the propellant ducts involved scrubbing them with
plastic scouring pads, pads exactly like those used to clean pots and pans in the
home kitchen. The investigation concluded that small particles from the pads had
gotten down into the expansion bellows for the ducts and lain there, unknown,
until propellant began to flow. The particles had then gotten stuck in the
turbopump, and while not offering much resistance; it was enough to stop the
critical start-up procedure. The corrective action adopted was to change the
procedures to require baking the propellant ducts at an elevated temperature
after cleaning but before final installation on the vehicle. The plastic scouring pad
particles would be vaporized by the high temperatures and thus no longer
present a problem during engine start-up.

ATALS AC-71 Failure

On August 22, 1992, Atlas 1 AC-71 was launched from the Cape, carrying the
Galaxy 1R commercial communications satellite.

Just like AC-70 from the year before, all looked good during the first stage burn.
And just like AC-70, the Centaur stage spun out of control and the destruct signal
had to be sent. And just like AC-70, one of AC-71’s RL-10 engines failed to start.

A new investigation was convened. Clearly, baking the inlet ducts to eliminate
any plastic particles had not solved the problem. Perhaps it was a new problem
that yielded a similar effect? Ground tests of an RL-10 engine initially failed to yield
an answer.

Further tests showed that one of the valves used on the flight hardware was prone
to leak and allow nitrogen to enter the ducts during ascent, but that was not
enough to cause the failure by itself. The extra factor that tipped the scale was
due to the heavier payloads that Atlas had to carry in order to remain
competitive. GD engineers had figured out a way to wring more performance out
of the Centaur by increasing the cool down of the engine prior to the actual start.
The air leak likely had been there for a long time, but it took the more efficient
cool-down process to make it a mission killer. Sophisticated thermodynamics
modeling confirmed this was the cause of both the AC-70 and AC-71 failures.

29
The Titan Centaur propulsion system uses two RL10A-3-3A Pratt & Whitney Engines.
Each engine produces 16,500 lbf of thrust, a 444.4 sec nominal Isp at 5.0:1 MR and
an area ratio of 61:1. This series of engines has been used successfully since 1963
on the Saturn and Atlas/Centaur vehicles. The RL10 uses an expander cycle,
where all of the LH2 is burned in the combustion chamber, except for a small
amount used for autogenous pressurization and pump bearing cooling/gear box
pressurization. The turbine working fluid is the supercritical hydrogen heated in the
regeneratively cooled thrust chamber. Solenoid valves which control the flow of
vehicle helium to pressure actuated valves provide engine control for prestart,
start and shutdown. Engine gimbaling on Titan Centaur is provided by pitch and
yaw actuators powered by a hydraulic power unit mounted on the RL10 LO2
pump shaft.

8.4.3. RS-68

The Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne RS-68 (Rocket System 68) is a liquid-fuel rocket
engine that burns LH2 with LOX. It is the largest hydrogen-fueled engine in the
world. Development of the engine started in the 1990s with the goal of producing
a simpler, less-costly, heavy-lift engine for the Delta IV launch system. The engine
has three versions: the original RS-68, the improved RS-68A, and the RS-68B for
NASA.

The engine itself is a gas generator cycle engine with two independent
turbopumps. The combustion chamber uses a channel-wall design to reduce
cost. This design, pioneered in the Soviet Union, features inner and outer skins
brazed to middle separators, forming cooling channels. This method is heavier,
but much simpler and cheaper than the tube-wall design (using hundreds of
tubes, bent into the shape of the combustion chamber and brazed together)
used in other engines.

The RS-68 was certified for use on Delta IV in December 2001. The first successful
launch using the new engine and launch vehicle occurred on November 20,
2002.

Turbopumps are single-shaft with direct drive turbines. Boost pumps are not
required. High-pressure hot gases from the gas generator power in parallel the
turbines, which employ integral machined bladed disks.

30
Fig.16 .RS-68 components

Fig.17.RS-68

8.4.4. Space Shuttle Main Engine

The Space Shuttle Main Engines The three Space Shuttle Main Engines are
clustered at the aft end of the Orbiter and have a combined thrust of more than
1.2 million pounds. They are high performance, liquid propellant rocket engines
whose thrust can be varied over a range of 65 to 109 percent of their rated power
level. They are the world’s first reusable rocket engines and are 14 feet long and
31
7.5 feet in diameter at the nozzle exit. The Main Engine weighs approximately
7,000. Propelled by liquid hydrogen (fuel) and liquid oxygen (oxidizer), the engines
operate during the entire eight-and-one-half-minute ride to orbit.

Fig.18. SSME

Engine includes a new high-pressure fuel turbopump, modified to eliminate welds

using a casting process for the housing and an integral shaft/disk with thin wall
blades and ceramic bearings. The SSME high-pressure fuel turbopump generates
100 horsepower for each pound of its weight; The SSME high-pressure fuel
turbopump main shaft rotates at 37,000 rpm.

The discharge pressure of an SSME high-pressure fuel turbopump could send a

column of liquid hydrogen 36 miles in the air.

Three pairs of high-pressure turbopumps (three hydrogen fuel turbopumps and

three liquid oxidizer turbopumps) serve as key components of the upgraded Block
II SSMEs on each of the orbiters. The small but powerful turbopumps each transmit
76,000 horsepower to deliver liquid hydrogen or 26,800 horsepower to deliver
liquid oxygen to the shuttle engines' main combustion chambers for ignition. The
turbopumps operate in extreme temperatures that range from minus 420 degrees
to 1,400 degrees Fahrenheit.

32
 The SSME program experienced four HPOTP explosions. Internal design flaws
caused two of them.

Fig.19. SSME Powerhead with preburners, turbopumps and thrust chamber assembly

Fig.20.SSME propellant flow

33
Fig.21. High-Pressure fuel Turbopump

Fig.22. Components of high performance turbopump

34
8.5. Russia

The Soviet Union (Russia) conducted early component tests, developed the first
tri-propellant gas generator, the highest pressure TPs, the highest power level TP,
the first kick pump and undertook the largest mass production of TP.

In the USSR, three LOX-LH2 liquid-propellant rocket engines (LRE) engines of

particular interest were developed. The RD-56 engine of 7.5 tf thrust level was
developed by Konstruktorskoe Buro Khimicheskoe Mashinostroenie (KBKhM,
Korolev) in early 60-s. The RD-57 engine of 40 tf thrust level was developed in the
“Saturn” Design Bureau («Saturn» DB, Moscow), at the same time. Both engines
were developed for the USSR Moon program. The RD0120 engine with 200 tf thrust
level was developed in Konstruktorskoe Buro Khimavtomatiki (KBKhA, Voronezh) in
70-s for «Energia-Buran» program. All three engines are staged combustion cycle
engines. In the 90-s, the RD-56 engine was modified into the KVD1 engine for LV
upper stages. The work on the RD-57 engine was stopped in 70-s and the work
was stopped on the RD0120 – in early 90-s due to the Energia-Buran project
stoppage.

After 10 years, the Russian rocket companies returned to the expander cycle of
LOX-LH2 engine. In 1999, M. Khrunichev Center awarded a technical specification
to KBKhA for the RD0146 expander cycle LOX-LH2 engine of 10 tf thrust level for
Proton and Angara LV upper stages. Russian development of a new generation
expander cycle engine attracted Pratt & Whitney’s interest that later resulted in a
contract award for the RD0146 engine development.

8.5.1.RD-0120 engine

The RD-O120 engine is a flight-qualified liquid oxygen/hydrogen staged

combustion engine that has flown twice on the Energia heavy-lift launch vehicle,
supplying the main propulsion for the sustainer core stage. Under a typical flight
profile it is ignited at sea level and operates about 460 s, producing a nominal
vacuum thrust of 2000 kN at 106% of engine thrust, and a vacuum-delivered
specific impulse of 4448 Ns /kg. The chamber pressure is 219 bar. Development
was begun in 1976, and prior to its inaugural flight in 1987, the RD-O120
completed extensive qualification testing; 163,000 s of testing accumulated on
more than 90 engines. It has a demonstrated reliability of 0.992 at 90%
confidence.

35
Fig.23.RD-0120 engine

There are boost pumps for both oxygen and hydrogen to increase suction
pressure to the main pumps. The oxygen boost pump has two stages with
different rotational speeds, actuated by a hydraulic turbine. The fuel boost pump
has one shaft actuated by a gas turbine.

Fig.24.KV-D1

36
9. Conclusion

Turbopumps are high precision, high speed pieces of mechanical

rotating machinery, have a high cost per unit mass, and are engineering
intensive. At various times in its history turbopumps have experienced major
changes in their technology. This includes the addition of inducer impellers; the
development of high speed, high load precision ball bearings; major changes in
the materials of construction, better seals, the avoiding of cavitation in the pump
impellers, the addition of kick pumps, in-line dual shafts, and better
instrumentation for measuring performance and key parameters. New TPs are
optimized to fit the specific requirements of the flight mission, the flight vehicle
requirements and the engine requirements.

Many of the most common turbopump failure modes (including

bearing wear out) are preceded by changes in the frictional losses in the turbine-
pump combination. Because friction is not a directly measurable quantity, these
changes must be inferred from the performance measurements. One approach
to making this inference is to estimate the parameters of a set of equations that
accurately model the pressure, temperature, flow and rotating machinery
dynamics of the system.

37
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