Science 8 Teachers Guide

UNIT 1 Force, Motion, and Energy
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UNIT 1: Force, Motion, and Energy
Overview
In Grade 7, students learned that energy exists in different forms and it can be
transformed from one form to another. They also learned that energy can be
transferred from one object or place to another in different ways. In Grade 8,
students deepen their understanding of the different forms of energy by describing
how the energy transferred affects, or is affected by, objects. This unit has six
modules. The first two modules discuss the effects of energy at the macroscopic
level while the next four modules tackle these effects at the particle level.
Module 1 focuses on the idea that if a net or unbalanced force acts on an object,
the motion of the object will change. Module 2 picks up this idea and explains how
the application of force can do work on an object with a corresponding transfer of
energy. Module 3 describes the effects of heat on objects involved in energy
transfer and explains these effects at the particle level. Module 4 deals with how
energy affects the movement of charges in electrical circuits. Module 5 discusses
how energy propagates through solids, liquids, and gases. It also describes how the
speed of the energy transferred varies with some factors, such as temperature.
Module 6 describes how the different colors of light differ in terms of their
frequency and energy. Most of the topics in this module are dealt with
qualitatively in order for students to have a basic understanding of the concepts.
Some tasks include measurements and computations in order to illustrate the
relationship among quantities. Through the activities included in each module, it
is also aimed to make students gain interest in these topics and motivate them to
learn more in the succeeding grade levels. The following ideas are expected to be
developed among the students:  Energy is transmitted in the form of heat from one
place to another due to temperature differences or in the form of mechanical work
(potential and kinetic energy). Energy affects objects. The effects are manifested
in the changes that objects undergo. For example, energy can cause changes in the
motion of objects, particles, or charges. It can also cause changes in some
properties of matter such as temperature. The amount of change depends on the
amount of energy transferred. The energy transferred can also be affected by the
nature or kind of materials involved.
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Unit 1 MODULE
FORCES AND MOTION
After learning about the ways by which the motion of an object can be described and
represented in grade 7, students will now study the motion of objects using the
concept of force. They will describe the effects of forces on an object and
determine the relationship between the net force acting on an object and its
acceleration due to this force.
Key questions for this module

Do forces always result in motion? What are the conditions for an object to stay at
rest, to keep moving at constant velocity, or to move with increasing velocity? How
is force related to acceleration?
This module aims to address the following misconceptions related to force and
motion: 1. If an object stays at rest, there is no force acting upon it. 2. An
object continues to move at constant velocity because a constant force acts on it.
3. If the speed of an object increases, its acceleration also increases. 4. Objects
move because they have a force; they stop when their force is already used up.
(Force is thought to be a property of a material)
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Start the module by eliciting students’ prior knowledge of force and motion.
Questions such as the following may be asked:    What makes objects move the way
they do? Why do objects move in different ways? Why are some objects faster than
the others? What makes objects stay in place?
Note that there are no correct or wrong answers yet at this point. Just take note
of their answers and go back to some of them after they finish the module.
Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

1. To introduce the concept of FORCE, place a ball or any object on top of a table
and ask: a) b) c) d) e) Will this object move by itself? How can we make this
object move? While it is moving, how can we make the object speed up or slow down?
How can make it stop? How can we make it change its direction?
Ask students to describe or demonstrate how they can achieve the given conditions
above. This will lead them to realize that to make the object move, speed up, slow
down, stop, or change its direction, it has to be pushed or pulled. The motion of
an object can be changed if we apply FORCE on it 2. Pose another question: Consider
again this ball here on top of the table. Since this ball stays at rest (meaning it
does not change its motion) can we say that there is/are no force/s acting on it?
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Activity
Forces on objects at rest
In this activity, students are asked to identify the forces acting on objects at
rest. This is a very simple activity and the materials are readily available, so
students can work on it individually or in pairs. This is to ensure that everybody
is participating during the activity proper. At this point, students need not to
explain why the objects stay in place. They may explain this after they finish
doing Activity 2. During the post activity discussion, students can be asked to
recall what they learned in the previous grades about the force of gravity. They
may be asked to show or cite examples that demonstrate the presence of the force of
gravity on Earth. If there is enough time, discuss more about gravitational force.
Emphasis should be given on the following ideas: Gravitational force is the
attraction between any two bodies with mass. Gravitational force increases with
mass. If the mass of either object increases, the gravitational force between them
also increases. As the Earth attracts objects around it, these objects also attract
the Earth. But the Earth is much more massive than them that is why their
attraction is not as great as the gravitational pull of the Earth. All things on
Earth fall (or are attracted) towards the center of the Earth.
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Answers to Questions
Situation 1: Hanging pen Q1. Q2. The pen is at rest. Yes. The forces acting on the
pen are the tension force (the force exerted by the string on the pen) and the
force of gravity.
Tension force
Force of gravity
Hanging pen
Q3.
When the string was cut, the pen falls to the ground. The force of gravity makes
the object fall down.
Situation 2: Book on a table Q4. Q5. The book is at rest. Yes. The forces acting on
the book are the force exerted by the table on the book and the force of gravity.
No, the book stays at rest. The book may be moved by pushing it on one side only.
Normal force / Force exerted by the table on the book
Force of gravity
Q6.
Book on a table
Activity
Balance of forces
The aim of this activity is to help the students understand how the forces acting
on the objects in Activity 1 prevent them from moving.  In case the number of
spring balance is not enough, each group can work on the first part of the activity
first using two spring balances. Then they can be asked to
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join with another group to complete the 4 spring balances needed for the four holes
around the board.  During the post activity discussion, the students must realize
that there are still forces acting upon objects at rest. But these forces balance
each other thereby causing the objects to stay in place. Emphasize the following
ideas: If two forces acting on an object are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction, they are considered as balanced forces. These forces must lie along the
same line. If the forces acting on an object are balanced, the object either stays
at rest or continues to move at constant velocity. If the forces acting on an
object are unbalanced, the motion of the object will change. This concept was
discussed in the module using the rolling ball as an example. Emphasize that the
ball slowed down and eventually stopped not because its force was already used up
nor the force acting on it was continuously decreasing (misconceptions). The ball
slowed down and stopped because an unbalanced force caused it to change its motion.
That unbalanced force is friction. This can be reiterated when Newton’s First Law
of Motion is discussed.
Q7. Q8. The forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. If the lines
of action of the forces are extended, they meet at a single point.
Note: At this point, the term “concurrent forces” may be introduced. When the lines
of action of the forces acting on an object meet at a single point, they are
considered as concurrent forces. When the forces acting on an object are
concurrent, the object does not move nor rotate.
Concept check:
1. 2. 3. Fnet = 20 units Fnet = 5 units. The object will move in the direction of
the 10-unit force (larger force). Fnet = 0. The object will not move.
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Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
 If needed, introduce first Isaac Newton to the class. Discuss briefly some of his
significant contributions especially in the field of physics. e.g. Newton combined
his idea and the ideas of the other scientists like Galileo to give us a more
unified picture of how our universe works. He formulated the laws of motion and
gravitation. Through his three laws of motion, we can describe and predict the
movement of everything around us.
Activity
Investigating inertia
This activity demonstrates how the inertia of an object affects its motion. Inertia
is the tendency of the body to resist changes in its state of motion. This is
described through Newton’s First Law of Motion, also ref erred to as Law of
Inertia.
Teaching Tips
 After discussing the result of the activity, relate the Law of Inertia to the
previous discussion on balanced and unbalanced forces. Emphasize that if an object
is acted upon by balanced forces, its motion or its velocity will not change. Since
acceleration is defined as the change in velocity over time, then we can say that
the object will not accelerate. It will only accelerate if the forces acting on it
are unbalanced. This is what the Law of Inertia is all about. It states that, “An
object will stay at rest or move at constant velocity unless an unbalanced external
force acts on it.” If time permits, discuss also the effect of mass on inertia: the
greater the body’s mass, the greater will be its inertia. For the application part,
relate the concept of inertia to students’ experiences while riding a vehicle. Then
discuss the importance of using a seatbelt.
 
Answers to Questions Coin Drop

Q9. When we slowly pulled the cardboard, the coin on top moved with the cardboard.
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The frictional force acting between the coin and the cardboard caused the coin to
stay on top of the cardboard and move with it. Q10. When the coin was flipped
quickly, the cardboard moved forward but the coin did not move with it. When the
cardboard was removed from underneath it, the coin dropped into the glass. The coin
did not move forward with the coin because of the tendency of the coin to stay at
rest (inertia).
Stack of Coins
Q11. When we hit the bottom coin with the edge of the ruler, it moved out from the
pile of coins but the other coins stayed in place. The inertia of the coins has
caused them not to move out with the coin that was hit by the ruler.
Activity
Force and acceleration
In this activity, students will describe the relationship between the unbalanced
external force acting on an object and its acceleration by analyzing tape charts. 
If the materials are available, try to demonstrate how the data or tape charts were
obtained. Hang four identical rubber bands from one end of a wooden bar as shown in
Fig. 1. Then mark on the wooden bar the position where the rubber bands should be
stretched (Fig. 2). When the rubber band is stretched, it pulls with it the cart.
Make sure that the person holding the wooden board with rubber bands is free to
move and ready to run, if needed to maintain the length by which the rubber band is
stretched while pulling the cart. This is to ensure that the force acting on the
cart is constant. The number of rubber bands used to pull the cart is related to
the amount of force acting on the cart. If the number of rubber bands is changed,
say doubled, the force acting on the cart is considered also to be doubled.
Figure 1 Figure 2
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
Since they do not need to perform the activity, students can be asked to work on
the tape charts (Figure 3) individually or in pairs. Note that their measurements
may differ even if they are provided with the same copies of the tape charts. This
is why they are asked to compute for the acceleration of the cart at least three
times using different values of average velocity. Then they will just get the
average. Relate Newton’s Second Law of Motion, also called Law of Acceleration, to
the previously discussed topics, particularly on the effects of unbalanced forces
on the motion of objects. Since the law of acceleration quantifies the relationship
among mass, force, and acceleration, it is but necessary to discuss also the effect
of mass of the object on its acceleration. As the mass of the object increases,
with the same amount of force applied, its acceleration also increases. To state in
another way, if the same force acts on two bodies of different masses, the
acceleration of the body with lesser mass is greater than the acceleration of the
body with greater mass.
Tape chart analysis Q12. We noticed that the lengths of the strips in all the tape
charts are in increasing order. In terms of the difference, we noticed that the
amount of change in length of the strips differs among the tape charts. It is
greatest in F=4 units. Q13. The increase in lengths of the strips suggests that the
average velocity of the cart at equal time interval increases. The cart is
accelerating. This is also true to all other tape charts. Q14. The increase in
length of each strip from one strip to another is of equal size. This indicates
equal changes in the velocity of the cart at equal periods of time when the force
acting on it is constant. Yes, this is also true with the other tape charts. Q15.
The increase in length of the strips varies among the four tape charts. The amount
of change increases as the units of force increases. The increase in length is
greatest in F = 4 units and least in F = 1 unit. Q16. When the dots on top of the
strips are connected, a straight line was formed. Yes, the same pattern exists for
the other tape charts.
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Quantitative analysis Q17. Q18. The computed values of vave are increasing. The
cart is accelerating. The computed values of ∆v are equal (or almost equal or very
close). This means that the cart is accelerating uniformly or its acceleration is
constant. Q19. Q20. The computed values of acceleration are equal (or almost
equal). The acceleration of the cart increases with the net or unbalanced force
applied on it. Or as the amount of force applied on the cart increases, the
acceleration of the cart also increases.
Activity
Action-reaction
The Newton's third law of motion, or sometimes called as Law of ActionReaction,

describes the relationship between the forces that two bodies exert on each other.
In this activity, students should realize that these forces are equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction.  Make clear the difference between this pair of forces
and the previously discussed balanced forces. Emphasize that this pair of forces
are acting on different bodies, so they do not cancel each other out.
Q21. (answer may differ, but the values should be equal) These values represent the
amount of pulling force that we exerted on each other. Q22. Q23. Q24. Q25. Q26. The
forces that we exerted are in opposite directions. (The readings this time should
be greater than the previous ones) We increased the force that we exerted on each
other. (readings may vary) The forces are of opposite directions.
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Figure 3: Tape charts
14 F=1 unit F= 2 units F= 3 units F= 4 units

Solutions: For F = 1 unit V1 = 2.5cm/0.10s = 25 cm/s V2 = 3.0cm/0.10s = 30cm/s V3 =
3.5cm/0.10s = 35cm/s V4 = 4.0cm/0.10s = 40cm/s V5= 4.5cm/0.10s = 45cm/s Solving for
a
2 v 2  v 1 30cm/s  25cm/s   50cm/s t 0.10s v 3  v 2 35cm/s  30cm/s 2 a2   
50cm/s t 0.10s
For F = 2 units V1 = 4.5cm/0.10s = 45 cm/s V2 = 5.5cm/0.10s = 55cm/s V3 =

6.5cm/0.10s = 65cm/s V4 = 7.5cm/0.10s = 75cm/s V5= 8.5cm/0.10s = 85cm/s Solving for
a
2 v 2  v 1 55cm/s  45cm/s   100cm/s t 0.10s v 3  v 2 65cm/s  55cm/s 2 a2  
 100cm/s t 0.10s
a1 
a1 
aave  50cm/s 2
a ave  100cm/s 2
For F = 3 units V1 = 8.5cm/0.10s = 85 cm/s V2 = 10cm/0.10s = 100cm/s V3 =

11.5cm/0.10s = 115cm/s V4 = 13cm/0.10s = 130cm/s V5= 14.5cm/0.10s = 145cm/s Solving
for a
a1  v 2  v1 t 
For F = 4 units V1 = 14.5cm/0.10s = 145 cm/s V2 = 16.5cm/0.10s = 165cm/s V3 =

18.5cm/0.10s = 185cm/s V4 = 20.5cm/0.10s = 205cm/s V5= 22.5cm/0.10s = 225cm/s
Solving for a
100cm/s  85cm/s 2  v 2  v 1  165cm/s  145cm/s  200cm/s 2  150cm/sa 1 t 0.10s

0.10s
a2 
v  v 2 185cm/s  165cm/s 2 2 v 3  v 2 115cm/s  100cm/s   200cm/s   150cm/s a

2  3 t 0.10s t 0.10s
a ave  200cm/s 2
aave  150cm/s2
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Data for Table 1 Force F = 1 unit F = 2 units F = 3 units F = 4 units # of rubber
bands 1 2 3 4 Acceleration 50 m/s2 100 m/s2 150 m/s2 200 m/s2
200 0 150 0 100 0 50
Acceleration
3 4 Force
Figure 4: Graph of force vs acceleration
References UP NISMED. (2002). Practical Work on High School Physics: Sourcebook for
Teachers. UP NISMED. Quezon City
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Unit 1 MODULE
WORK AND ENERGY
In this module, students will learn about motion from the perspective of work and
energy. The concept of energy is one of the most important concepts in physics. The
students have been studying about it since Grade 3 up to Grade 7. They have learned
that energy takes many forms; there are different sources and uses of energy; and
energy can be transferred. The module starts with a discussion about work. In the
first activity, they will explain whether a situation represents an example of
work. It is followed by a discussion about work and energy, and then about kinetic
and potential energy. In the second activity, students will construct a toy that
demonstrates how a rubber band ‘stores’ energy. The last activity puts together the
concepts of work, energy and power.

What is work? What is energy? How are work, energy and power related?
What is work?
Figures 1 to 3 in the student’s module shows different situations. Ask the students
to identify the one doing the work and on which object the work is done. The
students should be able to arrive at the concept that work is done on an object
when the force applied to it covers a distance in the direction of the applied
force.
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Activity
Is there work done?
In this activity, students will analyze the situations shown in the illustrations.
For them to explain if the situations represent examples of work they should be
able to identify the one doing the work and on which object the work is done. They
should also look into the direction of force exerted relative to the direction of
the movement of the object or the distance covered by the applied force.
Teaching Tips
1. Ask the students what’s the first thing that comes to their mind when they hear
the word work. 2. Let them look for the meaning of work in a dictionary. 3. Recall
the lesson about force in Module 1.
 A girl is pulling her toy car. Yes, the situation is an example of work. The work
is done by the girl on the cart. The force exerted by the girl in pulling the toy
car is in the same direction as the distance covered when the force is applied. A
man is lifting a box to be placed on a table. Yes, the situation is an example of
work. The work is done by the man on the box. The force exerted by the man is
upward and the box is displaced upward. A girl carrying a bag walks down the
street. No, the situation is not an example of work. There is force (the shoulder
pushes up the bag) and there is displacement (the bag is moved horizontally).
However, the line of action of the force and the displacement are not parallel but
perpendicular. The distance covered is not along the direction of the applied
force. 18


A mango fruit falling from the branch Yes, the situation is an example of work. The
work is done by the force of gravity on the mango. In this case, the mango loses
energy as you will find out in the discussion of potential energy.
Calculating work
The students are given the equation of work in their module. However, the equation
can only be used if the force is applied horizontally (pushed across the floor or
ground) or vertically (lifted above).
force force
d
Figure 1. Equation for solving work
The equation of work for forces at an angle is not introduced to the students
because they have not yet taken up trigonometric functions in their mathematics
class. However, if the students ask how to solve for work if the force is at an
angle, you may also show the equation.
force
Figure 2. Equation for solving work if the force is at an angle
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Answer to the problem:
A book which has a mass of 1 kg is on the floor. If the book is lifted from the
floor to the top shelf which is 2 meters from the floor, how much work is done?
Work is a Method of Transferring Energy

 In Grade 7, students learned that there are different ways by which energy can be
transferred from one place to another. This time, they will learn that work is a
means of transferring energy from one object to another.
Is there work done on the ball? In the bowling game described in the student’s
material, the work is done by the person on the ball to just start it moving.
Because of the work done to the ball, it gained ‘something’ that enables it to
move. That ‘something’ that was transferred to the ball is called energy. The
energy became energy of motion of the ball.
What can a moving ball do? A moving ball has energy. When it strikes the empty
plastic bottle, it can push it through a distance. Thus, work is done by the ball
on the empty plastic bottle. Since work is done on the bottle, energy is
transferred to it.
If energy can be transferred, what happens to the energy of the one doing the work
and to the object on which work is done? The one doing the work loses energy and
the object on which work is done gains energy. When work is done by an object, the
object loses energy; when work is done on an object, the object gains energy. In
the bowling game the students played, the one rolling the ball loses energy while
the ball gains energy. When the moving ball strikes the empty plastic bottle it
loses energy while the plastic bottle gains energy.
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
Clarify to the students that it is energy and not force that is transferred when
work is done.
You may also show or demonstrate a billiard game wherein one ball hits another
ball.
Kinetic Energy
 The energy of a moving object is called energy of motion or kinetic energy (KE).
How the equation of KE is derived is shown in the student’s module. The KE of an
object depends on its mass and velocity. What will happen to the KE of an object if
its mass is doubled but the velocity remains the same? The KE will be doubled. How
about if the velocity is doubled but the mass remains the same? The KE is
proportional to the square of the speed, thus if the speed is doubled, the KE will
be quadrupled.

A 1000 kg car has a velocity of 17 m/s. What is the car’s kinetic energy?
Potential Energy
Work is done in lifting an object. When work is done on an object, energy is
transferred to it. Thus, an object lifted from the ground gains energy. Since the
work is done against the force of gravity, it is called gravitational potential
energy or simply potential energy (PE). The force of gravity also acts on objects
falling to the ground. As an object falls, the potential energy decreases because
it is transformed to become the kinetic energy of the object.
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The gravitational potential energy is the energy due to its position. This energy
depends on the mass and height of the object. The height can be measured relative
to an assigned level. But usually, the common reference level is the ground.
Teaching Tips
1. Point out that the higher the object is from the ground, the greater is its
potential energy. The more massive an object is, the greater is its potential
energy. These concepts were demonstrated in the problems.
2. Compare the potential energy of an object/s for different reference level.

If the same 1.0 kg book is lifted 0.5 m above the table, but the table top is 1.0 m
above the floor, what would be the potential energy of the book if the reference
level were the floor?
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Activity
2

Rolling toy
Prepare a sample toy made of a can instead of the transparent plastic container.
This way the students cannot see the mechanism inside the can. Rotate the barbecue
stick beforehand before asking them what they think will happen to the can when
placed on the floor. After the activity, ask the students to demonstrate the game
they played using a rubber band. Ask them how the rubber bands ‘store’ energy and
what this energy can do once transformed to kinetic energy.
Answers to the questions:

Q1. Q2. Q3. Q4. It rolls. Potential energy Kinetic energy Potential to kinetic
energy
Work, Energy and Power

People possess energy. They get their energy from the food they eat. As shown and
demonstrated in the previous lesson, this energy can be transferred to objects.
When people do things such as walking or running, they expend energy. The rate at
which they expend energy is called power. Power is the rate of doing work or the
rate of using energy.
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Activity
How POWER-ful am I?
In this activity, the students will relate the concepts of work and energy to
power. The energy expended in climbing a flight of stairs is equal to the
gravitational potential energy, PE = mgh or weight x height.
Sample data for Table 1

Name Weight (N) Height of stairs (m) Time taken to climb the stairs (s) Energy
expended (J) Power (J/s)
Bella Troy Mae Elijah
441 490 392 441
5 5 5 5
10 8 10 9
2205 2450 1960 2205
220 306 196 245
Answers to the questions (based on the sample data for Table 1):
Q5. Troy
Q6.
Q7.
Mae
Q8.
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Q9.
Each member performed different amounts of work except for Bella and Elijah who
performed the same amount of work because they weigh the same. Power output is
determined by the amount of work done or energy expended and the time taken to do
the work.
Q10.
Summary
Below is a list of concepts or ideas developed in this module.

Work is done on an object when the force applied to it covers a distance in the
direction of the applied force. Work is a way of transferring energy. When work is
done by an object it loses energy and when work is done on an object it gains
energy. The energy of an object enables it to do work. A moving object has energy
called energy of motion or kinetic energy. An object above a specified level has
energy due to its position called potential energy. An elastic object that is
stretched or compressed or twisted has energy called potential energy. Power is the
rate of doing work or the rate of using energy.
 
  
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References Henderson, Tom. (21 January 2013). Retrieved from
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/ Hewitt, P.G. (2002). Conceptual
physics. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Saddle River, New Jersey. Kirkpatrick, L.D. and
Wheeler, G.F. (1998). Physics a world view. USA: Saunders College Publishing
Ostdiek, V.J. and Bord, D.J. (1987). Inquiry into Physics. USA: West Publishing
Company DepEd. Science and Technology IV. SEDP Series. (1992). Philippines: Book
Media Press, Inc.
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Unit 1 MODULE
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
In Grade 7, students learned about the conditions necessary for heat transfer to
occur and the ways by which heat transfers from one place to another. This time,
they will explore what happens to the object when heat is transferred to or from
it. They will also learn about the factors that affect the amount of heat that an
object can transfer. Students are also expected to understand the difference
between heat and temperature. Furthermore, this module hopes to address the
following misconceptions on heat and temperature: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Heat is a
substance. Heat is not energy. Heat and temperature are one and the same. The
temperature of an object depends on its size or volume. The amount of heat
transferred is determined always by the change in temperature.

What happens to solids, liquids, or gases when they absorb or release heat? Does
heat affect all kinds of materials in the same way? Are heat and temperature one
and the same?
Notes:  This module is good for 6 days. The experiments were made simple so that
students will be able to finish them early and the discussion of the results can be
done also on the same day.
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
The word heat in the module is written in italic form to emphasize that it
represents the quantity of thermal energy that is transferred to or from an object.
Since the students will be using a laboratory thermometer in all the experiments,
it is advised that the guides on how to use the device properly are discussed at
the beginning of the chapter.
Activity
Explaining hotness or coldness
In this activity, students will describe the hotness or coldness of water in terms
of its temperature. They will also compare the amount of heat transferred to the
water in terms of the changes in its temperature and describe the relationship
between these two variables. The first part of the activity requires the students
to recall their previous lesson on heat transfer. Since this is just a review of
their previous lessons, students may be allowed to discuss their answers within
their group. Make sure that the following concepts are made clear among the
students:  Heat is a transfer of (thermal) energy between objects or places due to
temperature difference.  Heat transfers from an object of higher temperature to an
object of lower temperature.
When determining the hotness or coldness of the water, make sure that students use
different fingers for each water sample. Sample Data Temperature Initial Container
1 Container 2 Container 3 12°C 12°C 12°C 28 Final 56°C 20°C 12°C Change in
temperature 44C° 8C° 0C°
Container
Q1. Q2. Q3. Q4. Q5. Q6. Q7. Q8. Heat was transferred from my finger (higher
temperature) to the cold water (lower temperature). The water was cold. The energy
was released from my hand to the water. (Answers may vary, depending on how close
the students’ answers are to the measured value) Container 1 or the container that
was added with hot water Container 3 or the container that was added with cold
water The water added to the containers are of different temperatures. Heat
transfer was taking place in containers 1 and 2. There was a change in the
temperature of water in these containers. Greater amount of heat was transferred in
container 1. There was greater change in the temperature of water. The amount of
heat transferred is proportional to the change in temperature. The greater the
amount of heat transferred to an object, the greater the increase in its
temperature.
Activity
Dye in water
The aim of this activity is to explain why the temperature of water in Activity 1
increases when heat was added to it. Also, by observing the behavior of the dye
through the water, students will describe the effect of heat transferred to the
particles of water. The greater the amount of heat transferred to an object, the
greater the increase in the kinetic energy of the particles and the greater the
increase in the temperature of the object.
Teaching Tips
1. At this point, students should be made to realize that everything is made up of
moving particles. 29
2. In Table 2, last column, students’ observations must focus on the scattering of
the dye through the water. Ask them to make comparisons, like the dye scatters
faster (or slower) or the dye scatters the most (or the least). They will later
relate these observations to the speed of the moving particles. 3. At the end of
the discussion, students should be able to recognize that “hotness or coldness”
indicates how fast the particles move. “Hot” may be considered as faster movement
of the particles or higher kinetic energy of the particles. Sample data for Table
2: Container Container 1 (cold) Temperature (0C) 12 0C
0
Observations Dye scattered the slowest Dye scattered slower than in hot water or
faster than in cold water The dye scattered the fastest in this container
Container 2 (tap)
26 C
Container 3 (hot)
76 0C
Hot water
Water at room temp
Cold water
Figure 1. Scattering of the dye among the three water samples
Q9. Q10. After putting drops of dye into the water, the dye scattered throughout
the water. The rate of scattering of the dye differs in each container. Hot water.
Cold water.
30
Q11. Q12. Q13. Q14.
The higher the temperature of the water, the faster the scattering of the dye. The
particles are moving fastest in the container with hot water. The particles are
moving slowest in the container with cold water. The higher the temperature of the
water, the greater the speed of the moving particles. The higher the temperature,
the greater the kinetic energy of the particles.
Thermal Expansion
 Explain how liquid thermometers work using the concept of thermal expansion.
Demonstrate the activity described or suggested in the module to explain thermal
expansion of solid. Emphasize that objects or materials expand when heated and
contract when cooled. But emphasize also that different materials expand or
contract to different extents when heated or cooled. If time permits, ask the
students to research more on the applications of thermal expansion to real life.
Phase Change
Activity
3.1
What happens when ice melts?
Teaching Tips
1. If the materials are available, some groups or students may be allowed to use a
burner to heat the beaker of ice. Then let them compare their results and explain
the difference in terms of the effect of the amount of heat absorbed by the ice to
the time the ice takes to melt completely.
31
2.
Students can be allowed to use an iron stand with clamp to hold the thermometer to
ensure that it will not touch the bottom of the container. At this point, some
guides in constructing graphs might be needed. Note that the independent variable
(heating time) is plotted along the horizontal axis while the dependent variable
(temperature) is plotted along the Y-axis. Try out the activity first to determine
the amount of ice that will allow the students to finish their activity on time.
3.
4.
Q15. Q16. Q17. The ice melts because the heat from the surrounding (higher
temperature) was absorbed by the ice (lower temperature). The dependent variable is
the ‘temperature’ while the independent variable is the ‘time’. Descriptions may
vary depending on how the graphs of the students look like. The accepted one should
have a straight horizontal line like in the graph shown in Figure 2 below
(melting). The temperature of the water while the ice was melting remains the same.
After the ice has melted the temperature of the water increases with time.
Temperature
Q18. Q19.
Vaporization
100°C (Boiling point) W ater

Melting
Steam (vapor)
0°C (Melting point) Ice Time Heat Figure 2
32
Activity
3.2
What happens to the temperature of water as it boils?
Q20.
Descriptions may vary depending on how the graphs of the students look like. The
accepted one must have a straight horizontal line like in Fig. 2 (vaporization).
Both graphs have a straight horizontal line but the temperature level corresponding
to these lines differ.
Q21.
Activity
What is the relationship between the mass of a material and the amount of heat it
can transfer?
After students learned about the relationship between the temperature of the object
and the amount of heat it can transfer, this time they will try to investigate on
their own the relationship between the mass of the object and the amount heat it
can transfer. In this activity, students are asked to plan and design their own
investigation, including the steps on how they will gather and analyze data to come
up with an answer to this question: How does the mass of an object affect the
amount of heat it can transfer? Example: Students may fill identical containers
with different amounts of water of the same temperature, say hot water. Then they
pour both contents into two containers with water of the same amount and
temperature. Then they measure the increase in temperature of water in both
containers. The amount of increase in the temperature of water can be related to
the amount of heat transferred to the object.
33
Activity
Comparing heat capacities
Teaching Tips
1. Make sure that the liquid samples are stored in the same room before the
experiment to ensure that they will be of the same room temperature when they are
used in the activity. 2. Aside from water and cooking oil, other samples of liquids
can also be used. 3. If there are enough thermometers available, it is better to
use a separate thermometer for each liquid sample. 4. During the post activity
discussion, provide the class with the table containing the specific heat
capacities of some materials. This will confirm their findings that different
materials have different heat capacities. 5. During the post lab discussion,
include some real life applications of specific heat capacity.
Q22. Q23. Q24. The water requires more time to increase in temperature. The water
requires more heat to increase in temperature. The water has greater heat capacity.
Link http://www.biol.wwu.edu/donovan/SciEd491/HeatTempUnit.pdf
34
Unit 1 MODULE
ELECTRICITY
In the previous modules, students learn about charges and how their charges
determine the forces that exist between them. In this module, they will study
charges as moving through conducting materials. Students will be dealing mostly on
terms like voltage, current and resistance in studying electricity. In the first
activity, they will determine how changing the voltage affects the current in an
electric circuit. The second activity deals with how resistance affects the current
in a circuit. The next activity talks about the two types of connection (series and
parallel connections) and how the charges flow in these connections. The last
activity of this module deals with the effects of too much current in the circuit
on conducting materials, and how its effect can be useful in practicing safety
practices in using electrical appliances in order to prevent accidents like fires
or electric shock. The topics covered in this module are relevant because of the
applicability of the lesson in preventing accidents like fires caused by unsafe use
of electricity.
How do voltage and resistance affect electric current? What are the safety
precautions needed in using electricity?
35
Current and Voltage
Electric charges can be made to move through a conducting material. The electric
charges are the electrons of the conducting materials. Materials such as copper,
steel, and aluminum have a lot of loosely held electrons which made them good
conductors of electricity. Current is a measure of the number of charges passing
through a cross-section of a conductor in a given time. What is the direction of
current? A battery has terminal marks “ +”and “-“. The plus (+) sign indicates
surplus or excess of charge and the negative (-) sign means deficiency. The
movement of charges from the positive side of the battery to the negative side is
called conventional current or simply current. However, this is not the actual
motion of electrons in a circuit. The direction of the flow of electrons is from
the negative terminal to the positive terminal. This is called electron current.
The direction of current does not affect what the current does. An ammeter measures
electric current. Because the device measures how much charges flow in a certain
cross section at a given time, it has to be connected in series. Take note how the
positive and negative signs of the ammeter and the terminals of the battery are
oriented as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Ammeter connected in a circuit
Energy is needed to make the charges move. In Module 2, the students learned that
when work is done on an object, energy is transferred. The voltage of a battery
does the work on charges to make them move. Batteries are energy sources. The
chemical energy in the battery is transformed to electrical energy. This electrical
energy moves the charges in a circuit. The work done on the charges as it passes
through a load is measured as the voltage across the load. 36
A voltmeter measures voltage. The voltmeter must be connected parallel or across
the load as shown in Figure 2. The positive terminal of a voltmeter is connected to
the positive terminal of the bulb while the negative terminal is connected to the
negative terminal of the bulb as shown in Figure 2.
negative terminal of the bulb
positive terminal of the bulb
Figure 2. Voltmeter connected across the load
Activity
1
 
Current and voltage
In this activity, students will determine how voltage and current are related.
Students will use voltmeters and ammeters to measure the current and voltage in a
circuit. Make sure that they follow the correct way of connecting the ammeter and
voltmeter. If the school cannot provide voltmeters and ammeters, they can modify
the activity by just relating the number of dry cellsor increase in voltage with
the brightness of the bulb. The brighter the bulb, the bigger the current. The dry
cells must be connected in series which means the positive terminal of one cell is
connected to the negative terminal of the other. Ideally a switch must be included
in the circuit so that they can turn off the circuit to avoid wasting energy. The
teacher can make an improvised switch using illustration board and aluminum foil as
shown in Figure 3. 37

Figure 3. An improvised switch
Be sure also to use new batteries for this activity especially when the brightness
of the bulb is being asked. For the bulb, use a flashlight with a voltage rating of
2.5 V. In case no battery holders, use a cardboard to wrap two batteries tightly
like a cylindrical holder. Tape the cartolina to secure the tightness of the
connection of the batteries.
Answers to Questions:
Q1. Q2. Q3. Q4. Q5. Q6. Q7. Q8. Q9. (This will depend on the reading they get from
the ammeter.) The bulb glows brighter when two batteries are used. (This will
depend on the reading obtained in the ammeter.) The current is higher for two dry
cells as compared to one dry cell. (This will depend on the readings obtained on
the voltmeter.) The bulb glows brighter. This will depend on the readings obtained
on the voltmeter.) The voltage is bigger for two dry cells as compared to one dry
cell. For a constant load (one bulb), when the voltage increases the current also
increases.
38
Sample Data No. of batteries 1 2 Voltage (V) 1.5 2.5 Current (A) 0.2 A 0.3 A
Activity 1 Discussion The dry cell provides the energy that moves the charges in a
circuit. The dry cell must be connected by conducting wires to a load to form a
complete circuit. Adding dry cells in series increases the voltage in a circuit. In
the activity, adding dry cells increases the current in a circuit as shown by the
ammeter readings. The brightness of the bulb also indicates the amount of current
passing through it. The bigger the current through the bulb, the brighter it glows.
Both the meter readings and the brightness of the bulb show that voltage and
current are related. The activity shows that as the voltage increases, the current
also increases.
Current and Resistance

Another variable that can affect current is the resistance. As the term implies,
the resistance of the material opposes the flow of charges. Resistance can also be
measured and they are expressed in units called Ohms. A lower resistance would mean
that there is less opposition in the flow of charges and therefore bigger current.
Different materials have different amounts of resistance. Conductors definitely
have very little resistance and therefore allow more charges to pass through.
Insulators are materials that have very high resistance and therefore flow of
charges would be difficult. The length and thickness of the conducting wire are
factors that affect resistance encountered by current. The longer the wire the
greater will be its resistance and the greater the cross sectional area (a measure
of the thickness of the wire), the lower will be its resistance.
39
The resistance of an object also changes when the object becomes wet. Dry human
skin for instance has a resistance of 100,000 ohms but when it gets wet its
resistance is reduced to 1,000 ohms. That is why it is important to dry the hands
when plugging an electrical appliance to reduce any chance of getting a lot of
current if an accident occurs. Understanding the relationship between current and
resistance is important in protecting oneself from electric shock. The table below
shows the physiological effects that happen when a certain amount of current passes
through the human body.
Source: Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Activity
Current and resistance
In this activity, the students must be able to determine how resistance affects the
current through the circuit.
40
 
The purpose of the activity is to find if a relationship exists between current and
resistance. If there is no ammeter available, the students can just compare the
brightness of the bulb since the brightness is also associated with the current
passing through them. In the last part of the activity, the students were asked to
connect the ammeter at different points in the circuit. This is to show to them
that current is the same anywhere in the circuit.
Answers to Question
Q10. The current decreases as the resistance increases or when the resistance
increases the current decreases. Sample data: No. of bulbs 1 2 3 Current (A) 0.3 A
0.25 A 0.2 A
Q11. Q12.
The current reading at different points of the circuit is constant. The readings
indicate that current is the same anywhere in the circuit.
Electrical Connections
Series Connection Circuit A in Activity 3 is a series circuit. In a series circuit,
loads form a single pathway for charges to flow. A gap or a break anywhere in the
path stops the flow of charges. When one bulb is removed from the socket, a gap is
created. The other bulb turns off as there is no longer current in the circuit.
41
The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances of the load (bulb). Current is the same in every part of the circuit.
The current is equal to the voltage divided by the total resistance. As more load
(bulb) is added in a series circuit, the smaller the current as reflected by the
brightness of the bulb. The voltage across each load depends on the load’s
resistance. The sum of the voltage across each load is equal to the total voltage.
Parallel connection Circuit B in Activity 3 is a parallel circuit. In a parallel
circuit, loads form branches; each provides a separate path for charges to flow. A
gap or a break in any branch will not affect the other branches. Thus, when one
bulb is removed from the socket, a gap is created only for that branch. The other
bulbs still glow as their path is still complete. In a parallel connection the
voltage is the same across each load. The total current is equal to the sum of the
currents in the branches. The amount of current is inversely proportional to the
resistance of the load.
Activity
3

What’s the connection?
In this activity students will find out how series and parallel connections are
constructed. Giving them a situation to figure out how to do it stimulates problem
solving skills of students. Be sure that when you let them do circuit A there
should only be three wires for each group. For circuit B only four wires should be
given. If the number of wires is not limited, they will not be able to execute the
simplest way to demonstrate connections of bulbs in series and parallel. Tell the
class to show them what they have constructed and check if it fits to the condition
(one bulb unscrewed, then other one turns off for Circuit A; one bulb is unscrewed
and the other bulb remains lighted for Circuit B). Usually the series connection is
easier for the students. For parallel connections, students will experience some
challenge in doing it. Most textbooks show parallel connections shown in Figure 6:
42
Figure 4 A parallel circuit
However, students might have another way of connecting the bulbs and these possible
outputs shown below are also in parallel.
Figure 5 Parallel circuits  In the last part of the activity, the students were
asked to measure the voltage across the two bulbs and the voltage drop across each
bulb in circuits A and B. Sample data is shown below: Table 3 Circuit
Voltage drop (V) Bulb 1 Bulb 2 1.5 2.5 1.0 2.5
Voltage across the two bulbs (V) 3 3
A B
43
Circuit A shows that the voltage of the dry cell is divided between the two bulbs.
The voltage depends on the resistance offered by the bulbs. If the bulbs are
identical, the measurement should be the same. Circuit B shows that the voltage
across each bulb is almost equal to the voltage of the dry cells. This shows that
in this type of connection, voltage is the same across any two points in the
circuit.
Q13. Q14. There is only one path for current in Circuit A. Because there is only
one pathway for the current, when one bulb is removed from the holder, it made a
gap or a break in the path. A gap or a break anywhere in the path stops the flow of
charges. All bulbs connected will go out. There are two paths for current in
Circuit B. Since only the path of the unscrewed bulb has the gap, the other bulb
shines because its path is complete. The current can still pass in the path of the
bulb with a complete pathway. Circuit B has brighter bulbs. The current in Circuit
A becomes smaller as more bulbs are added because the bulbs glow dimmer. The
brightness of the bulbs in Circuit B remains the same as bulbs are added in the
circuit. The current in Circuit B is bigger than in Circuit A.
Q15. Q16.
Q17. Q18.
Safety in Using Electricity

Fires can happen when the wires start heating up causing combustible parts of the
house to be set on fire. The wires heat up when the current passing is more than
what the wires can carry. In this case there is an overloading of the circuit. An
example of how the circuit gets overloaded is by plugging a lot of appliances in a
common outlet like an extension cord. Another instance of overloading of the
circuit is the presence of short circuits. Short circuits happen when wires with
defective rubber insulation touch each other so the current does not pass to the
supposed path it should take. It is a circuit where the current encounters very
little resistance and therefore the amount of current will increase rapidly. Such
increase in the amount of current leads to the overloading of the circuit and can
lead to fires.
44
But why do wires heat up when there is too much current? In the wires the electrons
that flow in a closed circuit collide with the atoms of the conducting wire. As the
collisions take place the kinetic energy of the metal atoms increases. The
increased kinetic energy of the atoms is dissipated as heat. You learn in the
module on heat that temperature is related to the kinetic energy of the moving
particles. The higher the kinetic energy of the particles, the higher will be its
temperature. The higher the current passing through the wire, the more collisions
between the electrons and the atoms of the wire take place. In the end the wire
will become hot. So just imagine how much heat will be generated from an overloaded
circuit.
Activity
Stay safe!
There are two tasks in Activity 4. The first part shows how increasing the current
can cause the wires to heat up. The second task shows how a short circuit happens.
The fine copper wire to be used can be obtained from stranded electric wires.
Remove the rubber insulation and get these fine copper wires for this activity
Figure 6 Strands of copper wires  The first task shows the wire heats up melting
the candle. The hotter the wire the deeper will be the cut made on the candle. 45

The second task is a simulation of a short circuit. Supervise the students making
sure that they don’t let touching of the exposed parts of the wire take too long as
the wires get hotter afterwards.
Q19. Q20. Q21. Q22. Q23. Q24. Q25. Q26. Q27. Q28. Q29. The candle touching the wire
melts. The current in the circuit increases. Heat is produced along the wire. The
bigger the current in the circuit, the wire becomes hotter, and the more the candle
will melt. The light goes off when the wires touch each other. The current took the
path of the exposed part of the wire touching each other. The resistance
encountered in the short circuit where the charges flowed is lower. The current in
the short circuit increases. Short circuits cause fire when the nearby materials
near the wires becomes so hot and starts to burn. Resistance decreases as more
appliances are connected to one outlet. The total current increases. Overloading
the circuit can make the wires hot setting combustible materials on fire.
References and Links Henderson, Tom. (21 January 2013). Retrieved from
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/ Hewitt, P.G. (2002). Conceptual
physics. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Saddle River, New Jersey. Kirkpatrick, L.D. and
Wheeler, G.F. (1998).Physics a world view. USA: Saunders College Publishing
Ostdiek, V.J.and Bord, D.J. (1987).Inquiry into Physics. USA: West Publishing
Company DepEd.Science and Technology IV.SEDP Series. (1992). Philippines: Book
Media Press, Inc. http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_3/4.html
46
Unit 1 MODULE
SOUNDS
This unit deals with the propagation of sound through solid, liquid, and gas. In
the course of discussion, wave characteristics and properties particularly
reflection and refraction will be taken into account. From the activities, students
will be able to identify also the factors that affect the speed of sound. At the
end of the unit, students should be able to: 1. compare the speed of sound through
solids, liquids and gases; 2. infer how the molecular structure of a material
affect speed of sound moving through it; and 3. investigate the effect of
temperature on speed of sound through fair testing
Related Misconceptions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sounds can be produced without using any

material objects. Hitting an object harder changes the pitch of the sound produced.
Sounds can travel through empty space (a vacuum). Sounds cannot travel through
liquids and solids. Sound travels slower in less dense medium. The greater the
density of the medium the faster the sound is transmitted.
47
On which medium does sound travel fastest? Solid, Liquid, or Gas? How does the
temperature of the medium affect the speed of sound? How are reflection and
refraction manifested in sound?
WORKSHEET 1: Solids, Liquids, and Gases Direction: Using several resources and
references, compare the different characteristics of solids, liquids and gases by
completing the table below:
Comparing Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Characteristics Intermolecular spacing Solid very close Liquid Slightly farther Gas
Far from one another
Volume
Has definite shape
Takes the shape of the container
Takes the shape of the container
Ability to flow
Cannot flow
Able to flow
Able to flow
Compressibility
Not compressible
Not compressible
Highly compressible
Density
densest
dense
Low density
48
Facilitating Learning
Motivation  The facilitator may start with the popular songs of popular artists
like maroon 5, Justin Bieber, and Taylor Swift. Students may be asked to sing some
of the popular tunes and ask them who are fun of watching concerts? Also ask them
why concerts are usually done during night time and not during day time. Probe
further until the concept of sound as a wave is deduced.
Facilitating Learning  Introduce Activity No. 1 to arrive at the objectives: (1)

to infer that sound waves are vibrations that travel through the air and (2) to
infer that sound is transmitted in air through vibrations of air particles. Since
Activity No. 1 includes two parts, emphasize the focus of each part so as to guide
the students while on task. Data processing may be done by group presentation and
class discussion of the guide questions to probe the concept that sound waves are
vibrations that travel through the air and that sound is transmitted in air through
vibrations of air particles. Discussion should also be extended to cover the
differences and similarities of longitudinal and transverse waves and introduction
to the characteristics of longitudinal waves. Then introduce Activity No. 2:
Characteristics of Waves: Comparing Longitudinal Waves and Transverse Waves. In
this activity the students will use a metal slinky to (1) distinguish the different
characteristics of waves; (2) determine the frequency and wavelength; and (3)
compute the wave speed based on the frequency and wavelength. Data processing may
be done by group presentation. Class discussion of the data in tabular form and
guide questions to the characteristics waves. Extend the discussion to emphasize
that sound waves are also called pressure waves. From here, introductory discussion
on factors affecting sound may be included.
 
49

Then introduce Activity No. 3: Sound Race…Where Does Sound Travel Fastest?. In this
activity the students should be able to distinguish which material transmits sound
the best. Data processing may be done by group presentation and class discussion of
the data and results in tabular form and guide questions to speed of sound in
different media. Extend the discussion to include characteristics of other media
like solids and liquids then let them do worksheet 1 and Activity No. 4:
Chimes...Chimes...Chimes... In this activity, they will have to design their own
chime and use this chime to determine how density of the material or medium affects
the speed of sound. Ask where does sound travel faster? In hotter medium or cooler
medium? Introduce Activity No. 5: Faster Sound...In Hotter or Cooler? In this
activity the students will be able to determine how temperature affects the speed
of sound. Extend the discussion to include calculation of the speed of sound with
respect to the temperature of the medium. Let them do Worksheet No. 2. Summarize
Lesson 1 by going back to the key questions particularly questions 1 and 2. Use the
question posted in the motivation to introduce the concept of properties of sound.
Then introduce Activity No. 6: Reflecting and Refracting Sound... Data processing
may be done by group presentation and class discussion of the data and results in
tabular form and guide questions to refraction and reflection of sound waves.
Extend the discussion to include practical application of sound reflection and
refraction. Summary of the whole module may be probed by asking the 3rd key
question and by asking for insights and experiences they had during the
preparation, presentation and post-presentation discussion of their outputs.
50
Activity
The dancing salt and the moving beads!
In this activity, students will be able to infer that sound is KE of vibrations

that travel through the air; and sound is transmitted in air through vibrations of
air particles.
Q1. Q2. Q3. Q4. Q5. Q6. Q7. Q8. Q9. Q10. Q11. The salt bounced up and down. When
the small can is tapped loudly or forcefully. Sound was produced when the small can
is tapped. Yes the salt bounced up and down the plastic top while tapping the small
can. The sound produced in the small can made the plastic top of the large can
vibrate making the salt bounce up and down. Sound waves are vibrations of air
particles. The rock salt bounced higher the loudness of the sound is increased. The
amplitude of the wave. The other colored beads collided with the blue bead. Yes Yes
Sound wave is classified as a longitudinal wave.
Activity
Characteristics of waves: Comparing longitudinal and transverse waves
In this activity, students will be able to distinguish the different

characteristics of waves; determine the frequency and wavelength; and compute the
wave speed based on the frequency and wavelength)
51
Q12. Q13. frequency Wavelength is decreased provided the frequency of shaking or
disturbing the medium is the same or constant.
Activity
Sound race... Where does sound travel fastest?
In this activity, students will be able to distinguish which material transmits

sound the best.
Q14. Q15. Q16. Q17. Q18. Q19. Yes / Yes/ Yes Yes / Yes / Yes Wood/Water/Metal/Metal
The sound seems louder in the string as compared to air. Yes Yes
Activity
Chimes...Chimes...Chimes...
In this activity, students will be able to infer using improvised chimes that
closely spaced particles of the medium are best transmitters of sound.
Q20. Q21. Chime 2 Chime 2
52
Q22. Q23. Q24. Q25. Q26.
Chime 3 Chime 3 / Chime 3 The chime with packed string objects produces sound that
reached the farthest distance. Chime 3 The more closely distanced the stringed
objects in the chime, the better the sound is transmitted.
Activity
Faster sound...In hotter or cooler?
In this activity, students will be able to be able to determine how temperature

affects the speed of sound.
Q27. Q28. Q29. Q30. Q31. HOT cylinder HOT cylinder HOT cylinder HOT cylinder The
higher the temperature, the faster the sound travels.
Activity
Reflecting and refracting sound
In this activity, students will be able to be able to observe how longitudinal

waves reflect and refract.
53
Q32. Q33. Q34. Q35. Q36. Q37. Q38. Q39. The compressions or rarefactions bounce off
after hitting the wall No they are not found on the same positions Sound will also
bounce off when it strikes a fixed end or the wall The frequency of the wave
increases Increase in frequency of the sound is manifested as change in pitch
Amplitude increases Louder sound is observed Faster waves
References http://www.hk-phy.org/iq/sound_night/sound_night_e.html
http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age1114/Sound/text/Refraction_of_sound/index.html
54
Unit 1 MODULE
COLORS OF LIGHT
This unit is concerned with the demonstration of understanding of the some

properties and characteristics of light. Among the characteristics and properties
of light, we focus on refraction and specifically dispersion of light. We will try
to find out through simple activities on how light disperse to form the colors of
light. We will also try to find the hierarchy of colors of light in terms of
frequency, wavelength, and energy. The different activities provided in this module
will make us realize the beauty of everything with light. At the end of the unit,
students should be able to: 1. demonstrates the existence of the color components
of visible light using a prism or diffraction grating; 2. infers that color is a
manifestation of visible light’s frequency or wavelength; 3. explains that red is
bent the least and violet is bent the most according to their wavelengths or
frequency; and 4. explains the hierarchy of colors in relation to energy.
How are refraction and dispersion demonstrated in light? In the different colors of
light, which is bent the most and the least? Why do we see spectacular events in
the sky like rainbows, red sunset and blue sky?
55
Facilitating Learning
Description of Activities
Activity 1: The Colors of the Rainbow...The Colors of Light.. (The students will be
able to infer that white light is made up of many different colors of light and
each of these colors of light bends differently.)
Activity 2: Red vs. Blue (Students will be able to infer that Violet light bends
more than red light when dispersed; and Bending depends on the refractive index,
frequency and energy of the color of light.)
Activity 3: Which Color has the MOST energy? (Students able to infer that the
energy of the colors of light increases as one goes towards the right side of the
color spectrum and red light has the least energy and blue light has the most
energy.)
Activity 4: The Spectrum Wheel....Revisited... (Students will be able to infer that

light is composed of colors of light of different frequencies and wavelength; the
frequencies of the colors of light are inversely proportional the wavelength; the
product of frequency and wavelength of the color lights is a constant; and the
arrangement of colors of light shows the hierarchy of the color of light’s
corresponding energy.)
56

Activity 5: Scientific Explanations behind my Beliefs... (Students should be able

to come up with a presentation of the scientific explanations of certain
superstitious beliefs related to observable phenomena in the sky.)
Motivation  The facilitator may introduce a character named Roy G. Biv. Ask
students whether they are familiar with the character. Ask them also if there is a
connection between the character and the lessons. Ask the students if they could
guess some information or concept from the name of the character. If the students
recognize the colors of light then ask key question no. 3. Follow it up by the 1st
2 key questions.
As a brief review, introduce the concept of apparent depth and the concept of
refraction of light. Have a recall of the equation for index of refraction.
Introduce the concept of dispersion as a special kind of refraction. Let them

perform Activity 1 which will give students more information about how
visible light refracts in different optical densities resulting to different colors

of light. This activity is composed of two parts. One makes use of locally
available materials while the other makes use of the standard materials like prism
and artificial source of light. A comparison of the two may be highlighted during
the discussion of results.
57

The facilitator may let the students present their outputs per group and processing
be done after all the groups have presented by culling ideas and concepts from the
presented data and probing students to arrive at the concept of colors of light.
From the students’ outputs in Activity 1, the facilitator may ask why a certain
hierarchy of colors of light is observed. Then introduce Activity 2 and let the
students perform the activity to determine which is really more bent: the red light
or the violet light. This will be explicitly described by the students during the
processing when they present their outputs which would include the relation of the
bending and the index of refraction of the color of light.
The facilitator may let the students present their outputs per group and processing
be done after all the groups have presented by culling ideas and concepts from the
presented data and probing students to arrive at the concept that blue is bent more
or violet is bent more than red light.
Then ask the students which color of light gives the most energy. Let them predict
– red or violet light. Let them perform Activity 3. The facilitator may let the
students present their outputs per group and processing be done after all the
groups have presented by culling ideas and concepts from the presented data and
probing students to arrive at the concept that blue or violet has the highest
energy and red has the least.
58

Ask the students on which other characteristics of color of light does energy of
colors depend on to introduce Activity 4. This activity was already done in Grade
7. The focus of the activity in Grade 7 was to identify the corresponding frequency
and wavelength of the each color of light and the computation of the speed of each
of the colors of light. This time the focus is on how energy relates to the
frequency of the colors of light. From the given materials, students will be able
to determine the relationship between frequency and the energy of the colors of
light. Then the facilitator may ask which is really more bent the red light or the
violet light?
Then ask them some inferences on how rainbows are formed. Ask them also some
superstitious beliefs that the students are familiar of related to the existence of
rainbows.
Let them identify all the major concepts they were able to grasp from activity nos.
1, 2, 3, and 4 to build a concept on how rainbows are formed. Then let them do
Activity 5.
Let the students present their outputs per group. Then go back to the key questions
to be able to summarize the concepts on visible light.
59
Activity
1
Q1. Q2. Q3.
The colors of the rainbow... The colors of light
RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, VIOLET From Top to Bottom: Red, Orange, yellow,
Green, Blue, Violet The refractive index of prism varies with the wavelength or
color of the light used. This causes the different colors of light to be refracted
differently. Then leave the prism at different angles, creating an effect similar
to a rainbow Some colors visible in the prism were not observed in the water Small
value for refractive index is observed in red and large refractive index for red
The refractive indices of the different color of light indicate that light of
different colors travels at different speeds in the prism which accounts for the
different amounts of bending. Thus, blue light with greater refractive index
refracts more and appears at the bottom of the red light
Q4. Q5.
Q6.
Activity
2
Q7. Q8. Q9. Q10. Yes
Red vs Violet...
RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, VIOLET BLUE LIGHT The greater the refractive
index of the color of light, a greater bending is also observed.
60
Activity
Which color has the most energy?
Q11. Q12. Q13. Q14. Q15. Q16.
RED Violet Violet RED RED Violet
Activity
4
Q17. Q18. Q19.
The color spectrum wheel revisited
VIOLET, VIOLET RED, RED The wavelengths and frequencies of the colors of light
vary. The wavelength decreases from red to violet while the frequency increases
from red to violet. White light separates into color light because it refracts with
different refractive indices while passing through a medium like a prism. YES As
the frequency of the color of light increase, the energy also increases. Red has
the least frequency with the least energy and Violet has the highest frequency and
the highest energy. The higher the frequency of the color of light, the greater is
its energy.
Q20.
Q21. Q22.
Q23.
61
References Hewitt, Paul. (1989). Conceptual physics (6th Ed.) London: Scoot,
Foresman and Company http://users.hal-pc.org/~clement/Simulations/Mixing
%20Colors/rgbColor.html
http://www.cs.brown.edu/exploratories/freeSoftware/repository/edu/brown/cs/explorat
ories/applets/combinedColorMixing/combined_color_mixing_java_plugin.html
http://www.shs.d211.org/science/faculty/MJP/s369/light/docs/RayDiagrams.htm
62
UNIT 2 Earth and Space
63
64
UNIT 2: Earth and Space
Overview
What will students learn about Earth and Space in Grade 8? As in the previous
grade, there will be three modules in this quarter: Module 1 is about Earthquakes
and Faults. Module 2 is on Understanding Typhoons, and Module 3 will be about the
Other Members of the Solar System. In Module 1, we continue to emphasize the idea
that our location on the globe is intertwined with what we experience in our daily
lives. For instance, the Philippines is located along the Ring of Fire. This means
that earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are normal occurrences in our country. We
share the same fate with other countries that surround the Pacific Ocean, including
Indonesia to the south and Japan to the north. They too have faults in their land
where energy is locked for some time before it is unleashed in devastating
earthquakes. Similar to our two neighboring countries, we are surrounded by the
sea. And whenever the seafloor is suddenly jolted by a strong earthquake, a tsunami
is generated and our coastal areas are swamped with deadly waves. Mindanao and
Mindoro have been victims in the not-so-distant past. In Module 2, we find out why
we are prone to typhoons, too. In fact, The Philippines is hit by about 20 tropical
cyclones each year. This number is an average, so sometimes we get more than that.
What conditions in the vicinity of our country favor the formation of tropical
cyclones? Our country is located near the equator, surrounded by bodies of water.
This combination means there is heat to warm up the waters of the ocean and produce
a lot of water vapor. The rising warm air will soon turn into a lowpressure area
that may intensify into a tropical cyclone. If only the Philippines were at a
higher latitude, it would suffer less tropical cyclones because the surrounding
waters would be colder. Or if the Philippines were at the equator, it would likely
be free of tropical cyclones because there is no Coriolis force to make the air
spin.
65
Or if only there was a landmass in the way that would dull the edge of a tropical
cyclone that came in from the Pacific. Alas, there is no such luck. The Philippines
is located right where tropical cyclones form and there is nothing to do but learn
how to survive their annual onslaught. In Module 3, we will take up comets,
asteroids, and meteors. Luckily, the Philippines is not a favored target. But even
without a direct hit, everyone will be affected if a really large chunk of rock
came crashing from outer space. The last time that happened, it ended the reign of
the dinosaurs. So studying these foreign objects may pay off in the long run.
66
Unit 2 MODULE
EARTHQUAKES AND FAULTS
In Grade 7, the students learned that the Philippines is one of the countries
located along the Ring of Fire. The Ring of Fire refers to the region around the
Pacific Ocean that are commonly hit by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Earthquakes will be covered in this grade level while volcanic eruptions will be
tackled in the next. Every now and then, a strong earthquake hits the Philippines,
leading to numerous deaths and widespread destruction. We cannot stop this natural
event from occurring. And up to now, scientists have not found a way to predict
when an earthquake will occur. Thus, students must learn about earthquakes in order
to survive.
Why do earthquakes occur? What is the relationship between earthquakes and faults?
What is a Fault?
Earthquakes occur when rocks along a fault suddenly move. The first thing to do
then is to learn what a fault is. A fault is a break in the Earth’s crust along
which significant movement has taken place. Let us go through the definition in
more detail. The word “break” refers to a crack in the ground. The word “crust”
refers to the outermost layer of the Earth. We live on the surface of the crust.
“Significant movement” means that the rocks have been displaced or shifted
considerably.
67
Activity
A fault-y setup
Activity 1 is short and easy to do. All that is needed are sand and two pieces of
cardboard and the students are ready to go. Tell the students to work on top of the
newspaper to avoid sand spilling everywhere. The activity is supposed to simulate
what the ground looks like as rocks move along a fault.
Teaching Tips
1. Figure 1A is the starting point. Lay the two sheets side to side. Make the sand
top flat so everything can be seen clearly. The two parallel lines are there so
that the displacement will be obvious to the observer. Figure 1B, C, and D shows
how a crack forms in the sand.
Figure 1A-D. Sheets are moved in the direction shown by the arrows. A crack forms
in the sand and the lines are displaced.
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2.
Before doing this activity, experiment with sand of different sizes. If the sand
size is too big, the expected crack in the sand may not form or may be hard to see.
Look at Figure 1B, C and D. See the crack that goes from left to right? The
students are supposed to see that.
3.
After the activity, direct the students to Figure 4 in the student module. (This is
Figure 2 in this guide.) Ask the students to compare what they saw in the activity
to what is shown in the picture. The students are supposed to see that the crack in
the sand is similar to the break across the road in the picture. You can then tell
them that that is how a fault may look out in the field.
Figure 2. An example of a fault (Image courtesy of the GEER Association and

National Science Foundation)
Answers to questions
Q1. As you move the sheets, what is formed in the sand? Answer: A crack, ‘line’ or
break is formed in the sand. What happens to the lines? Answer: The lines are
shifted or displaced.
Q2.
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For advanced classes
In Activity 1, the movement along the “fault” is in the horizontal direction. That
is, the “ground” moves sideways. You can also demonstrate movement in the vertical
direction. The ground will be observed to move up or down. All that is needed is
sand and a narrow box cover.
Figure 3. Sand and a narrow box cover cut into two pieces
1.
Get the box cover and cut it so that the length of one piece is twice the other
(Figure 3). If you cannot find a box cover, make one using cardboard. Place the
shorter box cover within the longer one (Figure 4, left photo). Put sand in the
nested box covers. Shake the box side to side so the surface of the sand will
become level (Figure 4, right photo).
2.
Figure 4. (Left) The short box cover is put within the long box cover. (Right) Sand
is poured into the nested covers.
3.
Now, slowly pull the sides of the box covers as shown in Figure 5. Ask the students
to observe carefully.
70
Figure 5. The box covers are pulled outward.
As you can see in Figure 6, two parallel cracks form in the sand. If you continue
to pull, the sand in the middle of the cracks will subside (move down), forming a
depression. This simulates what happens when the ground is pulled apart by forces
within the Earth. Faults form, a portion of the land sinks, and a valley is formed.
Figure 6. (Left) As the box covers are pulled outward, cracks form in the sand.
(Right) With more outward pulling, the sand subsides.
5.
Now, re-assemble the box covers as before. Do not forget to make the surface of the
sand flat. This time, push the sides of the box covers toward each other (Figure
7). Let the students observe what happens.
Figure 7. The box covers are pushed toward each other.
71
As can be seen from Figure 8, the opposite happens. Instead of the sand sinking,
the sand forms a tiny ridge. Unfortunately, this model does not show a crack in the
sand that would represent a fault. In the real world, a fault is formed when the
ground is squeezed by forces from inside the Earth. A portion of the land is pushed
up, and mountains are formed.
Figure 8. (Left) A tiny hump is formed in the sand. (Right) The hump as seen from
another angle.
Note: Use fine sand when performing this demonstration. Coarse sand does not work
as well. Experiment using different materials.
How do faults produce quakes?

Now that students have an idea of how faults look, let us show them how earthquakes
occur along faults. To answer this question, the students will perform two short
activities.
Activity
Stick ‘n’ slip
In this activity, two small boxes are needed. The cartons that fruit juice drinks
are packaged in are perfect. Setting it up is simple (Figure 9, left photo). The
activity can be performed in groups, or as a class demo if you are pressed for
time. The activity is supposed to show the sudden jerk that occurs when rocks move
along a fault in an earthquake. 72
Teaching Tips
1. The students may find it tricky to attach the rubber band to the box. Just punch
two holes in the box, close enough so you can loop a paper clip (or a thin wire)
through them. Then attach the rubber band to the clip. Look at the photos in Figure
9 so you know how it should be done. The student is supposed to pull on the rubber
band attached to one box while holding the other box in place. The rubber band
should be pulled forward and horizontally, not sidewise, upward or downward.
Expected result: The box will not move at first because it is taped to the other
box which is being held. The rubber band will stretch. The tape will suddenly come
off. The box attached to the rubber band will jerk forward and the house will
topple over (Figure 9, right photo). This simulates the sudden movement that occurs
along a fault. The success of this activity depends on the tape, which represents
friction in real life. If it is too sticky, the tape will never come off, no matter
how much the rubber band is pulled. Tape it on just enough for the rubber to
stretch a bit before the box jerks free from the tape.
2.
3.
4.
Figure 9. (Left) Setup before simulated earthquake (Right) After simulated

earthquake.
5.
In real world terms, this is what happens. Energy from inside the Earth exert a
force on the rocks along faults. But the rocks do not move right away because of
friction. The roughness of the rocks keeps them from slipping past each other. But
when the limit is reached, the rocks suddenly slip—earthquake!
73
Q3. What happens to the rubber band? Answer: The rubber band stretches. What
happens to the box attached to the rubber band? Answer: The box jerks forward. What
happens to the “house”? The “house” falls over. Which is the “fault” in this setup?
The “fault” is the boundary between the two boxes.
Q4.
Q5.
Q6.
While Activity 2 simulates the sudden movement along a fault, it does not show the
shaking that accompanies the sudden movement. Activity 3 will demonstrate this.
Activity
Stick ‘n’ shake
This activity needs the simplest of materials: just two plastic rulers and some
clay. The activity is supposed to demonstrate the shaking that occurs when the
rocks along a fault suddenly jerk free from being locked in place.
Teaching Tips
1. Even if this activity is simple, it should be tried out first before doing it in
class. What is expected to happen? The rulers are held together at the ends by a
bit of clay (Figure 10). The rulers are then bent into an S-shape. When the bending
goes beyond a certain limit, the rulers separate, vibrating in the process.
74
Figure 10. The right ruler is pushed away while the left one is pulled back until
the rulers are bent into an S.
2.
Choose rulers that vibrate nicely. If the plastic rulers are stiff, they will not
vibrate. If the rulers are too soft, they will bend without separating. It is best
if the rulers are of the same kind and length. The rulers must be held tightly. If
they are held loosely, the rulers will not vibrate.
3.
Experiment to find out the right amount of clay and how much the rulers should be
pressed together. If you use too much clay, it will take a long time before the
rulers separate. But if you use too little, they will separate before there is any
bending, and vibration will be less.
4.
It is challenging for students to transfer what they learned in an activity to real

life. You could use the following drawings (Figure 11) to make this activity more
concrete. Let the students imagine the rulers to be rocks making up the ground.
Drawing A shows the land before fault movement. In B, the rocks have undergone some
bending. In C, friction has been overcome and the rocks have snapped straight from
their bent position. This “snap and shake” motion is not possible to show in a
drawing or picture. It is this motion that is demonstrated by the vibrating rulers.
75
Figure 11. A, before fault movement. B, rocks bend, storing energy. C, friction is
overcome, rocks snap straight, releasing energy in the form of earthquakes.
Q8. What happens when bending becomes too much? Answer: The rulers separate and
vibrate (Figure 11).
Figure 11. When bending is too much, the rulers snap straight and vibrate.
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Focus and Epicenter
The students now know what a fault looks like. They also know that forces from
inside the Earth make the rocks along a fault move. But friction prevents the rocks
from moving right away. The rocks are stuck together. When a certain limit is
reached, the rocks suddenly slip and shake, and an earthquake is born. But where
exactly does the earthquake begin?
Activity
Where does an earthquake start?
In this activity, the students will make a paper model of a fault. They will learn
the meaning of focus and epicenter. The latter term is always mentioned in news
reports about earthquakes. But do students know what it means? They will also
manipulate this model to explore the different ways that fault movement can occur.
Teaching Tips
1. For easier handling, the Fault Model may be pasted on a folder or cardboard
before cutting it out. The model is made of two pieces that fit each other. Each
piece has a top and sides but no bottom. When the model is assembled it will look
like Figure 12 (left photo).
Figure 12. (Left) The Fault Model consists of two pieces that fit together. (Right)
The planar surface where the focus is located is the fault plane.
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2.
Just go through activity with the students, providing clues and guide questions
along the way. It should be clear to the students that the model represents a
portion of the ground. The upper surface of the model represents the surface of the
Earth. To emphasize this, you may cut a small human figure and paste it on top of
the model. Let the students read the definition of a fault line (it is in the
activity) and ask them to point it out in the model. The “break” between the two
pieces of the model is the “fault.” But we can only see the part of the fault that
is exposed at the Earth’s surface. That is the broken line at the top of the model.
That represents the fault line (Figure 13). Next, ask the students to identify the
fault plane. The definition provided in the activity will serve as a clue. If you
separate the two pieces, the “fault plane” can be seen. This is the flat surface
where the focus is (Figure 12, right photo). Fault movement occurs along the fault
plane. Next, ask the students to point out the focus and explain what it is. The
focus is the place where the first break happens, where the fault starts to slip,
where first movement takes place. It is the starting point of the earthquake. Next,
ask the students to locate the epicenter. The epicenter is on the surface of the
Earth directly above the focus. Figure 13 shows the location of the epicenter
(marked with a star) in the model. If a person stood on the epicenter, the focus
would be directly below him at the fault plane. Use Figure 15 to show how the focus
and epicenter are related in space.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Figure 13. The epicenter (marked with a star) is the spot on the surface of the
Earth directly above the focus.
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Figure 14. Fault Model
79
Figure 15. The place where the earthquake starts is called the focus. The focus is
underground, along the fault plane. The spot on the surface of the Earth that is
directly above the focus is called the epicenter. The trace of the fault is also
known as fault line.
Q9. Use your model to show different types of movement along a fault. How would the
surroundings be affected? Answer: See Figure 16. Models A and B show horizontal
movement. Suppose a road is built across the fault, sooner or later, it would be
displaced sideways. Models C and D show vertical movement. In Model C, a portion of
the “ground” dropped down, forming a low area. In Model D, part of the “ground” was
raised, forming a high region.
Figure 16. Using the model to show different fault movements.
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How Strong is the Earthquake?
Scientists use two different ways to describe how powerful an earthquake is. One
way is by noting the effects of the earthquake on people, structures, and the
surroundings. This is called the intensity of the earthquake. The Philippine
Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) uses the following scale to
describe the intensity of earthquakes in the Philippines.
Table 1. PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
Intensity Scale
Description Scarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people under favorable

circumstances. Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still water in
containers oscillates slowly. Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest
indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still water in containers oscillates
noticeably. Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of
buildings. Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck. Dizziness and
nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging objects swing moderately. Still
water in containers oscillates moderately. Moderately Strong - Felt generally by
people indoors and by some people outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration
is felt like a passing of heavy truck. Hanging objects swing considerably. Dinner,
plates, glasses, windows, and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood framed
buildings creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are
slightly disturbed. Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound may
sometimes be heard. Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors.
Many sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors. Strong
shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging objects swing violently.
Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are broken. Small, light and unstable
objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open containers. Standing
vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are noticeable.
II
III
IV
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VI
Very Strong - Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people lose their
balance. Motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy objects or furniture move
or may be shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old or
poorly built houses and manmade structures are slightly damaged though well-built
structures are not affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly
to mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.
VII
Destructive - Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it difficult
to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or topple. Big
church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built structures suffer considerably damage.
Some well-built structures are slightly damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes,
fish ponds, road surface, or concrete hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction,
lateral spreading and landslides are observed. Trees are shaken strongly.
(Liquefaction is a process by which loose saturated sand lose strength during an
earthquake and behave like liquid). Very Destructive - People are panicky. People
find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many well-built buildings are
considerably damaged. Concrete dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed by
ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken. Tombstones may be
displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and monuments may tilt or
topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction and
lateral spreading cause manmade structure to sink, tilt or topple. Numerous
landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders are thrown
out from their positions particularly near the epicenter. Fissures and faults
rupture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or slop over
dikes or banks of rivers. Devastating - People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many
cry and shake with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. Bridges and elevated
concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Numerous utility posts, towers and
monument are tilted, toppled or broken. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or
broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings and sandboils are
widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken very
violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown out. River
water splashes violently or slops over dikes and banks.
VIII
IX
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X
Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive

landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence and uplift of land forms and
many ground fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches
in large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.
When an earthquake occurs, different places will have different intensities. That
is because different areas will experience different degrees of shaking. Near the
epicenter, shaking is great, so the intensity there will be high. Away from the
epicenter, the intensity is less. The intensity also depends on the type of
material that makes up the ground. If the ground is made of solid rock, it will
shake less. In comparison, loose materials such as sand and silt will undergo
greater shaking and will result in more damage. Scientists have another way of
describing how strong an earthquake is. They measure the energy that is released in
an earthquake. This is called the magnitude of the earthquake. Magnitude scales use
Hindu-Arabic numerals while intensity scales use Roman numerals. Magnitude 2
earthquakes are weak. Only instruments are sensitive enough to “feel” them.
Magnitude 4 quakes are strong enough to be felt by most people. Magnitude 6
earthquakes can cause a lot of damage in populated areas. Magnitude 9 quakes are so
powerful they can destroy whole communities at the epicenter.
Do You Live Near an Active Fault?

In this part of the module, the students are taught how to use a map to find out if
there is an active fault near their community. Active faults are those that have
moved and caused earthquakes in the past and are expected to do so again in the
future. In relation to this exercise, the students must participate in an
earthquake drill to be arranged by the school.
Teaching Tips
1. Now that students know that earthquakes originate from faults, the obvious
question is, where are these quake-producing faults? Where are they located? These
faults have been mapped by PHIVOLCS and the map is available to the public (Figure
17). The first thing to do is to familiarize the students with the map of the
Philippines. The students should be able to point out the different provinces in
their own region.
2.
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3.
Next, the students must know what the lines on the map mean. Solid lines tell us
exactly where the active faults are. Heavy dashed lines tell us the approximate
location of active faults. The meanings of the other symbols are found in the
legend but they will be discussed in detail in Grade 10. The task of students is to
use the map to locate the nearest active faults that may affect their town. Those
who live close to active faults must be extra prepared for earthquakes. PHIVOLCS
recommends doing the following: Before the earthquake Prepare homes or schoolrooms
by strapping heavy furniture to the walls. Check the stability of hanging objects.
Breakable items, harmful chemicals and flammable materials should be stored
properly. Know exit routes. Know where fire extinguishers and first aid kits are
located. Prepare an emergency supply kit that includes water, canned food, can
opener, clothing, blanket, battery-operated radio, flashlight, and extra batteries.
Participate in regular earthquake drills. (Note: Earthquake drills should be led by
school authorities.) During the earthquake Stay calm. If you are at home or inside
a building, stay there. Duck under a sturdy desk or table and hold on to it. Stay
away from glass windows, cabinets, and heavy objects. Beware of falling objects. If
you are outside, move to an open area. Stay away from trees, powerlines, and
concrete structures. Move away from steep slopes which could be affected by
landslides. If you are near the shore, move quickly to higher grounds. Tsunamis may
follow. After the earthquake Do not use elevators or enter damaged buildings. Check
yourself and others for injuries. Check for spills of chemical, toxic, and
flammable materials. If you need to evacuate, leave a message and bring your
emergency kit. Listen to the radio for updates.
4.
What to do before, during, and after an earthquake is part of the Earthquake

Preparedness Guide which can be downloaded from the PHIVOLCS website. How to
conduct an earthquake drill is too long to reproduce here and can be downloaded
from the same site. If this is not possible, please request assistance from the
local PHIVOLCS station and other government agencies.
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Figure 17. Active Faults and Trenches
85
Earthquakes and Tsunamis
Faults are found on land as well as at the bottom of the sea. When an underwater
fault suddenly moves, a tsunami may be formed. But not all fault movements generate
tsunamis. If the fault moves sideways, the water above it will not be disturbed.
The movement has to be in the vertical sense, a sudden upward or downward motion.
Activity
Tsunami!
In this activity, the students will simulate the sudden upward movement of rocks
along a fault at the seafloor. The sudden push upward will disturb the water,
forming a wave.
Teaching Tips
1. The materials needed for this activity are simple. A laundry tub or batya can be
a substitute for the plastic tray shown in the photos. A piece of plywood can be
used instead of the plastic panel.
Figure 18. (Left) Setup for the tsunami activity. (Right) The plastic panel is
jerked upward.
2.
Make sure the students will observe the following: a) When the plastic panel is
jerked upward, a wave is formed; b) the wave travels toward the rock; c) the wave
runs up the side of the rock.
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Figure 19. (Left) Before the wave reaches the rock, the water level by the rock
goes down. (Right) When the wave reaches the rock, the water level rises.
3.
Find the best way to jerk the plastic panel up so that a nice wave is formed.
Between jerks, wait until the surface of the water is calm. People often use the
term tidal waves when they talk about tsunamis. This is not right. Tsunamis are due
to the sudden upward (or downward) movement of rocks along a fault at the seafloor.
Tsunamis are not related to tides, which are caused by the action of gravity. The
reason a tsunami is so powerful is because the wave involves the whole depth of the
ocean, not just the water on the surface. And why does a tsunami rise to such great
heights when it reaches the shore? The wave is long, about 100 km or so. When the
“front” end reaches the shore, it slows down. But the “tail” end keeps on coming at
great speed. So the water piles up and grows to dangerous heights, destroying
everything in its path.
4.
5.
6.
The Philippines is no stranger to tsunami. Mindanao had been affected by a

devastating tsunami in 1976; Mindoro was struck in 1994. For more information about
tsunamis, visit the PHIVOLCS website.
Q10. What was formed in the water by the sudden push of the plastic panel? Answer:
A wave was formed by the sudden push. How was the water level by the rock affected
by the wave? The water level went up. What does the water represent? How about the
rock? The water represents the sea. The rock represents land. What does the plastic
panel represent? The plastic panel represents the rocks that suddenly move along an
underwater fault.
Q11.
Q12.
Q13.
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What’s Inside the Earth?
Earthquakes are always linked with death and destruction. Is there anything good at
all about earthquakes? Well, scientists have used earthquake waves to figure out
the internal structure of the Earth. When an earthquake occurs, vibrations or
seismic waves start off from the focus and travel in all directions. The seismic
waves travel through the Earth and carry information from the interior to the
surface. For instance, when seismic waves encounter a layer within the Earth, they
are reflected. Like an echo, seismic waves are bounced back. They are also
refracted or bent. This is how we know that the Earth has a crust, mantle, and
core. We know that the rocks get more dense with depth because the seismic waves
speed up as they pass through these rocks. We know too that there are partially
molten regions in the mantle because seismic waves slow down in those areas.
Scientists have found out that one type of seismic wave, s-waves, cannot travel
through liquids. Since s-waves disappear when they reach the core, that means the
outer core must be molten (liquid). Thus, scientists know about the Earth’s
interior because of the occurrence of earthquakes. But a more detailed description
of the Earth’s internal structure will be made when plate tectonics is taken up in
Grade 10.
References
Brady, J.E., & Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its changes (4th ed.).
River Street Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Links
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2uJN3Z1ryck&feature=player_embedded (Tsunami in
Japan 3.11 first person full raw footage)
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Unit 2 MODULE
UNDERSTANDING TYPHOONS
In the lower grades, we have taken up the following so far: types of weather; how
to measure weather components; characteristics of some weather disturbances;
patterns in the weather; and why we have seasons. In this grade level, we are
focusing on one of the weather disturbances that takes place in the Philippines
every year: tropical cyclones. A lot of people are not familiar with the term
tropical cyclone. This is the reason why we are using the common word typhoon at
the start to serve as a jumpoff point. Hopefully, the students will see the
distinction right away, that a typhoon is just one category of tropical cyclones.
There are three activities in this module: a) Plotting the Philippine Area of
Responsibility; b) Tracking a Tropical Cyclone; and c) Dissecting a Tropical
Cyclone. The module ends with the signals that the Philippine Atmospheric,
Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) uses in warning the
people during severe weather.
Why is the Philippines prone to typhoons? What conditions favor the formation of
typhoons?
What is a Typhoon?
First, we have to clear up the meaning of some terms. Begin by asking the students
what they commonly experience during typhoons. Floods and landslides may come up.
But we will focus on two answers: excessive rain and strong winds.
89
Then show the students a picture of a typhoon taken from a satellite high above the
Earth. (Figure 1 shows a supertyphoon but a typhoon looks the same.) The students
are expected to see that the clouds are going around the center of the typhoon in a
spiral. Explain that the clouds are being blown by strong winds.
Figure 1. Supertyphoon Melor, 2009 Image by NASA Earth Observatory
Thus, apart from rain clouds, typhoons are characterized by winds that go around a
center. To support the point, show the students some newspaper clippings or let
them listen to recordings of radio or tv advisories about typhoons. The
weatherperson always states the speed of the wind. At this point, introduce Table
1. Explain that we call bagyo is called tropical cyclone by scientists. A tropical
cyclone is just a system of thunderstorms that move around a center. The public
uses the word bagyo for all types of tropical cyclones. But scientists have
subdivided tropical cyclones into four categories depending on the speed of the
wind. Thus, when a tropical cyclone has a low wind speed, no more than 64
kilometers per hour (kph), it is called a tropical depression. If the wind speed is
from 65 to 118 kph, then it is a tropical storm. If the tropical cyclone has a wind
speed from 119 to 200 kph, it is called a typhoon. And if the wind speed is more
than 200 kph, it is categorized as a supertyphoon (Table 1).
90
Table 1. Tropical cyclone categories Category Tropical Depression Tropical Storm
Typhoon Supertyphoon Maximum Wind Speed kilometers per hour (kph) 64 118 200
greater than 200
Demonstration
At this point, show a video or animation of a tropical cyclone where the clouds are
moving around the center, so the students will get a more concrete idea of how this
happens. Alternatively, you can give a demonstration that will simulate the
movement of winds around a center in a tropical cyclone. You will need two plastic
bottles with caps, masking tape, and a drill.
Figure 2. Bottles, caps, and masking tape
Place the two caps back to back. Wrap them with masking tape (Figure 2). Wrap the
tape around several times to make the connection strong and leak-proof. Drill a
hole through both of them. If you do not have a drill, use a heated nail to make a
hole. Fill one bottle with water. Then screw one of the caps onto the bottle. Then
screw the other bottle onto the other cap. You should get the setup in Figure 3,
left photo.
91
Figure 3. (Left) One bottle filled with water. (Right) Water swirls around as it
spills into the other bottle.
Now, turn the whole setup so the filled bottled is on top. Shake the filled bottle
with a circular motion (counter-clockwise) until a whirlpool is formed in the water
(Figure 3, right photo). In this simulation, the water represents the wind going
around the center of a tropical cyclone. In the northern hemisphere, the winds blow
in a counter-clockwise direction. In the southern hemisphere, the winds spin around
in the opposite direction, clockwise. The “funnel” in the center of the spinning
water represents the “eye” of a tropical cyclone. When scientists talk about the
location of a tropical cyclone, they are referring to the location of the eye.
Philippine Area of Responsibility

PAGASA starts monitoring tropical cyclones even before they enter the Philippine
Area of Responsibility (PAR). But everything shifts into high gear when the weather
disturbance is already inside the PAR. The PAR includes a big area east of the
Philippines because this is where most tropical cyclones come from.
Activity
Plotting the PAR
In the following activity, the students are required to plot the PAR on a map. They
already learned how to plot latitude and longitude in Grade 7. If the students are
a bit rusty, perform some drills.
92
Teaching Tips
1. Activity 1 can be done in groups or as a class activity. Have the map enlarged
and post it on the board. Call on students to come to the front and plot the
points. There are six points to plot, meaning there are six pairs of latitude and
longitude. So each point may be plotted by two students, one will find the latitude
and the other the longitude. Note that the eastern boundary of the PAR is much
farther from the country than the western boundary. That is because most tropical
cyclones that hit the Philippines come from the Pacific Ocean. The wide area gives
us more time to prepare before the tropical cyclone hits land.
2.
In the map below, the bold line marks the boundary of the Philippine Area of
Responsibility. The latitude and longitude of each corner is also shown.
Figure 4. Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR)
93
Q1.
If a typhoon is located at 15°N, 138°E, is it within the PAR? Answer: No, the
typhoon is outside the PAR. How about if the typhoon is at 19°N, 117°E, is it
inside the PAR? Answer: No, the typhoon is outside the PAR.
Q2.
Under What Conditions do Tropical Cyclones Form?

Now that the students know where PAR is, it is time for them to learn why tropical
cyclones keep on developing near our country. What conditions are present in the
vicinity of the Philippines that allow the development of tropical cyclones? Show
the following maps to the students. The maps are from the PAGASA website. They show
the tracks or paths of four tropical cyclones that entered the PAR in the early to
mid-2000s. Guide the students in answering the following questions: Where did the
tropical cyclones form? On land or in the ocean? Before asking the question, make
sure that the students still remember the landmasses and bodies of water in the
vicinity of the Philippines. If the students have already forgotten, a short review
may be in order. It is clear from the maps that all four tropical cyclones started
out in the Pacific Ocean. Tropical cyclones usually form where there is warm water.
The temperature should be 26.5°C or more. The warm ocean water heats up the air
above it. The warm air then rises. The rising warm air results in a low-pressure
area. Air in the surroundings will then move toward the area. This was taken up in
Grade 7. Now, there is water vapor in the rising warm air. The water vapor soon
condenses and heat is given off. The heat makes the air rise even more, and air in
the surroundings will keep coming in. The air starts to spin, and a tropical
cyclone is born. What can you say about the temperature of the bodies of water in
the vicinity of the Philippines? Is the water warm or cold? Our country is located
near the equator. Thus, it is warm in the vicinity of the Philippines, both on land
and in the surrounding bodies of water. The warm water supplies the water vapor
that a tropical cyclone needs to keep it going. In what direction did the tropical
cyclones move? From the map, the students can see that the tropical cyclones move
in a northwest direction. Not all tropical cyclones move this way. But this is the
general rule for those that start from the Pacific Ocean. 94
But look at the track of Yoyong. At the end of its path, it curves to the
northeast. Many tropical cyclones in the PAR do that. Instead of going straight
toward Mainland China, they veer to the northeast and go toward Taiwan and Japan.
There are different reasons why this happens. One, there could be a lowpressure
area in that region. So the wind in the surroundings move toward that region and
the tropical cyclone is carried along. Remember, winds blow toward lowpressure
areas. Another reason is there could be a high pressure area in the path of the
tropical cyclone. So the tropical cyclone cannot proceed and is diverted along a
different way. Which part of the Philippines was hit by the four tropical cyclones?
All the four tropical cyclones hit northern Philippines or the island of Luzon.
Note where the tropical cyclones start: at the latitude of the Visayas and
Mindanao. So when a tropical cyclone moves to the northwest, it ends up in Luzon.
This is the reason why Mindanao is not commonly hit by tropical cyclones. Unless
the following happens: a) the tropical cyclone starts at a latitude closer to the
equator, or b) the tropical cyclone moves directly to the west, instead of moving
to the northwest. This is what happened in Mindanao in recent years. In the case of
Agaton, Yoyong, and Huaning, where did they die out? Near land or in the middle of
the ocean? Tropical cyclones weaken when they hit land. They die out over land
because they need warm water to sustain them. They need water vapor to keep them
going. Even when the tropical cyclone is still in a body of water, it may weaken
and die out if the water is cold.
95
Figure 5. Tracks (paths) of selected tropical cyclones
In the following activity, the students will work again with latitude and
longitude. But this time, they will apply their skill in plotting the track of a
tropical cyclone as it passes through the PAR.
96
Activity
Tracking a tropical cyclone
Unlike Luzon, Mindanao is not hit by tropical cyclones every year. This is why
people in Mindanao were caught by surprise when Sendong and Pablo came one after
the other in recent years. In this activity, the students will plot the track of
Tropical Storm Sendong (International name: Washi). The students will use the map
where they plotted the PAR in Activity 1.
Teaching Tips
1. Ask the students to indicate which points are not within the PAR. The points
that are located at longitudes less than 115°E and more than 135°E will lie outside
the map. But even when a storm is still outside the PAR, PAGASA is already
monitoring it. And even when it has already left the PAR, there is still a chance
that it will return. Like all tropical cyclones, Sendong formed in the Pacific
Ocean from a lowpressure area (LPA). It did not yet have a name at that point.
Names are not given to LPAs. Then the winds became stronger and the LPA became a
tropical depression. In other parts of the world, tropical depressions are not
given names; they may be given a designation such as 27W, for instance. On the
other hand, PAGASA gives names to tropical depressions. Before Sendong crossed into
the PAR, it had already become a tropical storm. That means its winds have speeded
up. Since it was already within the PAR, PAGASA used its prepared list of names and
called the tropical storm Sendong. 3. Ask the students what was the effect on
Sendong when it hit Mindanao. Expected answer: Sendong weakened because it was cut
off from the sea. Ask the students further what was the effect on Sendong when it
reached the Sulu Sea. Expected answer: Sendong intensified again. Sendong then
headed for Palawan. But when it encountered cold air beyond Palawan, Sendong
finally died out.
2.
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Figure 2. Bottles, caps, and masking tape
Figure 6. Track of Tropical Storm Sendong, 2011
Q3.
Is it possible to plot all the points in the table on the map from Activity 1?
Answer: No, it is not possible. The points west of 115°E and east of 135°E are
beyond the coverage of the map from Activity 1. Where did Sendong form? Answer:
Sendong formed in the Pacific Ocean. When did Sendong enter the PAR? Answer:
Sendong entered the PAR on December 15, 2011. When did Sendong leave the PAR?
Answer: Sendong left the PAR on December 18, 2013. In what direction did Sendong
move? Answer: Sendong moved in a westward direction.
Q4.
Q5.
Q6.
Q7.
98
If you have the means, visit the following webpage and download the tracking data
of other powerful tropical cyclones such as Typhoon Pablo (International name:
Bopha): http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/w_pacific/2011H/index.php. Tracking
data include the latitude and longitude needed for plotting. The plotted tracks can
be used as basis for discussing all sorts of questions such as, Where do tropical
cyclones commonly form? Or conversely, where do they seldom develop? What paths do
they take? Which provinces are usually hit? Where do tropical cyclones intensify?
Where do they weaken and die out?
Inside Tropical Cyclones

The strong winds brought by a tropical cyclone are very dangerous. Many people have
been hurt or killed by flying objects blown by powerful winds. And unlike
earthquakes, tropical cyclones cause a lot of agricultural damage, destroying
plants, trees, and crops that cost up to hundreds of millions of pesos. In the
following activity the students will look inside a tropical cyclone and find out
where the winds are strongest and therefore most unsafe.
Activity
Dissecting a tropical cyclone
In this activity, the students will compare the air pressure and wind speed at
different places within a tropical cyclone. They will see that within the eye, the
winds are slight. But at the eyewall, the winds blow at deadly speeds.
Teaching Tips
1. Many students are challenged when they have to imagine objects in three
dimensions. Before the students proceed to answer the questions, make sure that
they understand the drawing in Figure 7.
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Figure 7. (Top) View of a tropical cyclone at an angle. (Bottom) Drawing of a
tropical cyclone in cross-section. (Top image by NASA Earth Observatory)
The top image is a tropical cyclone as seen from above but at an angle. The drawing
below it is a cross-section of a tropical cyclone. It is like cutting a cake in
half and looking at it from the side. But in this case we are looking at a tropical
cyclone and the clouds that make it up. 2. If the students need guidance in finding
out the relationship between the table of air pressures and the drawing, let them
write the numbers in the table on the drawing itself. For example, let them write
930 mb near letter A in the drawing; 960 mb near letter B; and so on. Then ask them
if the air pressure is increasing or decreasing toward the eye. If the students
need guidance with the table of wind speeds, let them do the same as in the
previous number. Help the students imagine “wind speed.” The wind is invisible so
it is hard to imagine how fast it is. Compare it to something they know, such as
the speed of a car on the highway—about 100 km/h. If it is possible, bring an
anemometer to class and let the students see how it spins faster when wind speed
increases. 100
3.
4.
Q8. Compare the air pressures at A, B, C and D. What do you notice? Answer: The air
pressure at A (within the eye of the typhoon) is less than the air pressures at
locations away from the eye. Compare the wind speed within the eye and at the
eyewall. What can you say? Answer: The wind speed at the eyewall is much greater
than the wind speed at the eye.
Q9.
The activity is supposed to show that the air pressure is lowest at the eye of a
tropical cyclone. This is the reason why the surrounding air blows toward the eye.
A barometer will show decreasing air pressure as a tropical cyclone approaches. In
contrast, as a tropical cyclone comes nearer, the wind speed increases. The wind
speed is greatest at the eyewall, at the dense clouds surrounding the eye. When
PAGASA quotes a wind speed, it is referring to winds at the eyewall. But at the eye
itself, the wind is light. So when the eye is over an area, people there think the
weather has turned for the better. They may relax and lower their guard. But the
tropical cyclone is far from over. As the tropical cyclone leaves, the other side
of the eyewall can still do much damage. That is because structures have already
been battered earlier. It is just a matter of time before something worse will
happen.
Are You Prepared?

Tropical cyclones by themselves are already dangerous. But they also cause other
hazards. Those who live near hill and mountain slopes are susceptible to landslides
during stormy weather. Those who live near the coast are vulnerable to storm
surges. And those who live in low-lying areas are helpless against flash floods.
Remind students to always listen to advisories and obey the authorities. We end the
module by familiarizing the students with the early warning signals that PAGASA
uses in their bulletins and advisories. There are four levels of Public Storm
Warning Signals. (Visit the PAGASA website for the complete texts.) The phrase is
rather long, so PAGASA shortens it to PSWS # 1, PSWS # 2, etc. Each signal refers
to a certain wind speed that will affect the locality. To acquaint the students
with the storm signals, collect some newspaper clippings and let the students read
these in class. Then ask them what corresponding wind speed is expected given a
certain signal. (If it is possible, record some radio broadcasts and play them in
class.)
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When a signal is raised for the first time, that means that the effect of the
tropical cyclone is still in the future. When PSWS # 1 is announced over a certain
area, the effect is expected within 36 hours. That is still one and a half days in
the future. People have time to prepare. With PSWS # 2, the lead time (the time
people have to prepare) is 24 hours; PSWS # 3, 18 hours; and PSWS # 4, 12 hours.
But the lead time is applicable only when the signal is announced the very first
time. If at a later time, the same signal is broadcast, the lead time is now less
because the tropical cyclone has already moved closer. To round up the lesson, ask
the students to put together an emergency kit for use at home. Water is the most
important thing that should be included in the kit. That is because during tropical
cyclones, floods are likely to happen. And floods will contaminate our usual water
sources, especially in rural areas. Thus, clean drinking water will be very hard to
find during such times.
References and Links

Tarbuck, E.J., & Lutgens, F.K. (2004). Earth Science (10th ed.). First Lok Yang
Road, Singapore: Pearson Education (Asia) Pte Ltd. http://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/
http://www.ready.gov/hurricanes http://www.noaawatch.gov/themes/tropical.php
http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/w_pacific/2011H/index.php
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Storm_Washi
http://people.cas.sc.edu/carbone/modules/mods4car/tropcycl/index.html
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=40584
102
Unit 2 MODULE
COMETS, ASTEROIDS, AND METEORS
Recent advances in space technology have allowed scientists coming from different
background like physics, chemistry, biology, and geology to collaborate on studying
Near-Earth Objects (NEO) like comets and asteroids. With more powerful telescopes
and space probes, the study of comets and asteroids provides more clues about the
origins of our solar system. Over the past three years, amateur and professional
astronomers have discovered several NEO’s that came close to Earth, the most recent
asteroid being Asteroid 2012 DA14. It made a very close approach to Earth as it
orbited the Sun on February 16, 2012. On the morning of February 16, 2012, a
meteoroid exploded in Earth’s atmosphere over Lake Chebarkul in Russia hurting
about 1,000 people in the process. These two events triggered superstitions, fears,
and doomsday prophecies held by different cultures. But do these things have
scientific basis?

Has Earth ever been hit by a comet or an asteroid? If yes, how have such impacts
affected Earth? How often does a comet or an asteroid hit Earth?
Introduction
The pre-assessment activity will take 30-35 minutes of one class period. After the
pre-assessment activity, give an introduction about comets and asteroids for the
last 25-30 minutes of the period. In the introduction, focus on the comparison of
key characteristics of a comet and an asteroid. Use the Student Learning Material
as a guide for preparing your introduction.
103
Pre-assessment Activity (Eliciting Prior Knowledge) 1. Give a pre-assessment of
what students know about comets, asteroids, and meteors. The following activities
can be done. Choose the activity/ies which you think would best match the ability
and interest of your class. a. Guessing game Variation 1:  Show three pictures (a
comet, asteroid, and a meteor) to the class and ask them if they recognize what
these objects are. If the students cannot recognize any of these three objects,
tell them that one of the pictures is a comet, an asteroid, and a meteor. Make them
guess which object corresponds to each picture.  After the students give their
guesses, tell them that in the course of the unit, they will learn if their guesses
are correct. Also, at the end of the lesson, the group will be awarded points as
part of their recitation grade for every celestial object that they correctly
identified. Variation 2:  Divide the class into smaller groups. Distribute to them
three blank strips of paper and a crayon (for writing).  Tell the class that you
will post a picture of a celestial object. The groups’ goal is to identify what
this object is. They have 15 seconds to discuss as a group to come up with their
guess, and then they will write their answer on the strip of paper.  After 15
seconds, ask for a representative from each group to post their paper strip on the
board, just beneath the photo of the celestial object.  Do this for the other two
celestial objects (asteroid and meteor shower).  After the students give their
guesses, tell them that in the course of the unit, they will learn if their guesses
are correct. Also, at the end of the lesson, the group will be awarded points as
part of their recitation grade for every celestial object that they correctly
identified. b.   Brainstorming Divide the class into smaller groups. Give each
group ½ Manila paper/whole cartolina/old, big calendar and a crayon (for writing).
Tell the groups to prepare a table with three columns (as shown below) and write
the following words on each column: comet, asteroid, and meteor. Group ________
What we know about… Comets Asteroids Meteors
104
   
Tell the groups to list down everything they know about these terms in the
appropriate column. Give the class five (5) minutes to finish this. After five (5)
minutes, call a representative from each group to post their output on the board.
Tell the class to examine the output of the other groups. Ask them if they see
similarities in the things they have listed about each term, and to point out these
things. Tell the class that in the course of the unit, they will learn if the
things they have listed under each term are correct. From time to time, you will
ask them to revise the things they have listed about each term as they learn more
about them. Filling up a Venn Diagram Give the Venn Diagram activity found in the
Pre/Post test part at the end of this TG. Call representatives from each group to
present their answers and explain as necessary. Story telling Call three to four
volunteers to share about what they know or a past experience about comets,
asteroids, or meteors based on recent events.
c.  
d. 
Activity
What happens when a comet or an asteroid hits Earth?
This activity is a simulation of a comet or asteroid hitting Earth. Explain to the

class, while briefly going over the materials for the activity, what is being
represented by the materials. The coloured flour or starch represents Earth’s
crust. The pebble represents a comet, asteroid, or fragments coming from either a
comet or an asteroid. Remind the class that the activity is a group work. The group
must arrive at a common answer so they must all observe and take turns in making
“pebble craters”. Students may throw the pebble into the coloured flour at any
angle and position they want as long as the pebble hits the flour.
Teaching Tips
4. If you have internet access, there are many photos and video clips available
which you can download and save to show to the class. Some of them are shown below.
105
   
Module on Comets, Asteroids, and Meteors from the Canadian Space Agency:
http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/educators/resources/astronomy/module5/content.asp#5 A
Naked-eye Comet in March 2013: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZlenAvqLCI Asteroid
4179 Toutatis: http://echo.jpl.nasa.gov/asteroids/4179_Toutatis/toutatis.html What
Exploded over Russia? http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-
atnasa/2013/26feb_russianmeteor/
5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
10.
11. 12.
Try out the student activity before performing it in class. Prior to performing the
activity, prepare materials for each group. Prepare colored flour by mixing
ordinary flour or starch with powdered food coloring, plant extract, or dye (e.g.,
jobos). Adding color to the flour is done to make observations of “pebble craters”
easier to see. The rectangular container should have the dimensions of at least
22.86 cm (9 inches) wide, 30.48 cm (12 inches) long, and 7.62 cm (3 inches) high.
If a rectangular container is unavailable, a round one can be used, about 30.48 cm
(12 inches) in diameter and 7.62 cm (3 inches) high. Encourage the groups to repeat
the activity several times to allow every member the chance to perform the
activity. Make sure that the students make observations and discuss their answer to
the questions based on their observations. Before asking the groups to share their
observations and results, ask them reflect on the activity they performed if they
think they were able to do enough trials, make good observations, had a genuine
exchange of ideas to come up with answers; and if their answers can be supported by
evidence. During the presentation of observations of all groups, encourage the
students to compare their observations and constructively scrutinize the
observations made by other groups. Give feedback on the quality of their group
work, focusing on delegation, discussion, and team work at the end of the activity
(oral or written). Remind the students that they do not need to memorize names of
comets and asteroids.
Drawings a & b will depend on the students’ actual observations. They should be
assessed for the accuracy of the drawing. More or less, the pebble crater should
have a rounded shape but a slight oblong shape is also correct. Q1: The answer will
depend on the students’ actual observations. More or less, they should see that the
shape of the crater is similar to the ones shown in the photos. The plants and
animals living in that area are most likely to have died on impact. An asteroid
because it has a shorter orbital period and its origin is most likely from the
Asteroid Belt which is nearer than the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud.
Q2: Q3:
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Discussion on the Activity
During the discussion of the activity, highlight the similarities and differences
of the two guided by Table 1 found in the Student LM. In addition, mention that
comets and asteroids rotate in their own axes. In addition, mention that while
asteroids usually come from the Asteroid Belt, some may originate from other parts
of the solar system. Tell the class that while a comet or asteroid orbits the Sun,
some parts may break off from the comet or asteroid. These fragments are called
meteoroids. Comets, asteroids, or their fragments come from very distant places
within and beyond the Solar System. Stress that when a comet or asteroid enters and
passes through Earth’s atmosphere, it will be changed physically and chemically.
Usually, the fragments from space are completely burnt and only cosmic dust reach
Earth. But when these fragments do survive passing through Earth’s atmosphere, the
fragments can be as small as a sand grain or as big as a boulder. The impact
releases great amounts of energy that can damage hundreds of miles from the point
of impact. In fact, the discovery of an impact crater at the Yucatan peninsula in
Mexico is being touted by scientists as the strongest evidence to support the
Impact Theory which explains the extinction of dinosaurs and other species of
animals in plants 65 million years ago. Include in the discussion that an asteroid
impact 65 million years ago is being considered by scientists as the most probable
cause of extinction of dinosaurs and other plants and animals that ended the
Cretaceous Period. This was based on an initial study of sediments in marine layers
by Luis and Walter Alvarez (father-and-son team of geologist). Emphasize to the
class that the scientific community does not just accept new findings easily.
Rather, further studies by different groups of scientists proposing supportive or
competing theories about mass extinction, findings compared, and then discussed and
decided on by an international community of experts just like how the Alvarez
Hypothesis was finally endorsed in March 2010 as the most probable cause of the
mass extinction that killed the dinosaurs and other plants and animals 65 million
year ago (refer to the Student LM). Similarly, students should also exhibit the
same scientific attitude of critical thinking and scepticism in face of new or
differing observations, and to openly discuss and validate findings with that of
other groups before arriving at conclusions in class.
Suggested Investigation (for advance sections):

1. Guide the class in identifying possible factors that can affect the shape and
size of an impact crater. Take up each characteristic one at a time. 2. After the
class has enumerated several factors that can affect the shape of the crater, tell
each group to choose one factor to investigate (i.e., size of the meteoroid, angle
of contact with Earth’s surface, speed of the approaching meteoroid). 107
3. Guide each groups in formulating an investigable question based on the factor
they have chosen. 4. Then, instruct the groups to come up with an illustration of
their experimental setups using the materials listed in the activity sheet. Ask
each group what variable or factor they will make the same, and what they will make
different. 5. Remind them to make their own data table and label appropriately. 6.
Remind the group’s to have at least three setups and conduct three trials for each.
Activity
Meteor, meteoroid, and meteorite: How are they related?
This activity will allow the students to know the difference among meteor,
meteoroid, and meteorite and how these three are related. By this time, the
students should know the difference between a comet and an asteroid. Review of
these concepts by making the students compare and contrast the characteristics of a
comet and an asteroid.
Teaching Tips
1. Look for three different objects (found in the classroom or anywhere in the
school grounds) that have the approximate size of a meteoroid and a meteorite. You
will use this in helping the students visualizing the size of a meteoroid and a
meteorite. 2. Depending on your assessment of your class’ reading skills, choose to
give Activity 2 as an individual, paired, or group activity. 3. Remind the students
that they do not need to memorize the names of the meteorites and the comet or
asteroid source of the meteor showers.
Q1: Q2: Q3: Q4: Q5: A meteor is a light phenomenon or a streak of light as observed
from Earth when a meteoroid passes through Earth’s atmosphere. A meteoroid is a
fragment from a comet, an asteroid, Moon, or even Mars that orbits around the Sun,
following the orbit of its parent or source. Meteoroids can come from comets,
asteroids, the Moon, and Mars. A meteor is observed when a meteoroid passes through
Earth’s atmosphere and burns up in the process. When viewed from Earth, a meteor
moves fast while a comet moves slow. Also, a comet is very difficult to see with an
unaided eye due to its distance from Earth. A meteor is more readily seen on a
cloudless night. Use the following symbols for each:  meteor;  meteoroid; and 
meteorite. 108
Q6:
Outer Space
 
Atmosphere (Earth)
Note: Dimensions are not drawn to scale.
Crust (Earth)
The placement of the legends need not be exact but the meteoroid should be just a
little above the atmosphere (white space), the meteor in Earth’s atmosphere (white
space), but the meteorite should be on the crust (line). Q7: A meteoroid is the
space rock fragment before it enters Earth’s atmosphere. When it enters the said
atmosphere and burns up, a light phenomenon is observed and is called a meteor.
When a meteoroid or part of a meteoroid survives passing through Earth’s
atmosphere, the space rock fragment that lands on Earth’s crust is now called a
meteorite. A meteor shower is an annual light phenomena characterized by many
meteors appearing in the sky in a short period of time. A meteor shower happens
when Earth passes through the orbit of a comet (or an asteroid) where fragments and
dust remain in orbit and orbits the Sun as well while Earth goes around the Sun.
Since there are more dust and fragments, there are more meteoroids that may burn up
in Earth’s atmosphere as Earth passes the orbit of the parent comet or asteroid.
The meteors in a meteor shower seem to come from one point in the sky because they
are travelling in parallel paths with the same velocity.
Q8: Q9:
Q10:

Emphasize to the class that a comet or an asteroid may break apart while orbiting
the Sun. When this happens, the fragments from comets or asteroids still orbit the
same path as their mother comet or asteroid. These smaller fragments are called
meteoroids. Use real-life objects to approximate and visualize the size of
meteoroids (some can be as big as an asteroid or as small as a grain of sand).
Stress the concept of a meteor and a meteor shower as light shows or light
phenomena in the sky. Refer to the report on a meteoroid explosion in Russia in 109
February 2013 which was reported as a meteor crashing on Earth; with the class,
correct the terms used in the said report. Highlight how the scientific community
made use of meteorites collected in Earth, as well as newer studies made on
orbiting comets and asteroids in learning more of Earth’s past, including how past
impacts with Earth changed the climate the planet leading to mass extinctions of
plants and animals including the dinosaurs; and contributed to the variety and
abundance of certain rare metals in impact crater’s area, and the implications of
such to astro mining in the near future.
Activity
Do superstitions about comets, asteroids, and meteors have scientifc basis?
This activity aims to address existing superstitions that the students have or
superstitions that they will discover through library research. Stress to the class
that since the activity is a group work, they must plan a way to make their library
research, online research, and interview with elders effective and efficient.
Suggest that they distribute members to do each of the research tasks. After giving
general instructions, accompany the students to the library. Observe how they work
in groups so that you can give feedback to the group on the following day. They
will utilize the rest of the period to do the research needed. Those who will be
doing interviews will be doing it as homework. The results of their research will
be consolidated, discussed, and finalized on the next day.
Teaching Tips
1. 2. Teach the students how to properly cite references found from different
books, magazines, or journals in the library, as well as how to cite online
resources. Teach the students on how to search in the library for books using the
card catalogue (you can ask the school librarian to do the orientation) or how to
use key words in searching for references online (if computers with internet access
are available). For example, key words would include “superstitions + Philippines +
comets”, “comets + superstitions”, etc. Facilitate the presentation of group
outputs in such a way that there is a free exchange of ideas happening in the
class. Ask the class why they think these superstitions are hard to change and why
people believe in them despite scientific evidence that says otherwise.
3.
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All the answers to the activity will depend on the students’ research. The rubric
below is a guide for assessing their output. You may change the percentages, add
more criterions, or revise the description of the related criterion.
Table 4 Sample Rubrics Weight/ Percentage 25% 25% Criterion Quality of research
Evidence-based stand Description All possible sources of information were exhausted
(library, internet, people interviews) Evidence gathered to support the group’s
stand is well supported by accurate scientific facts and information (latest or up-
to-date information whenever possible). Proposed actions are doable, suited to the
target audience, and effectively lessened the superstitious beliefs of the target
audience. Tasks are well delegated among members; everyone participated in doing
research or interviewing people; everyone participated and carried out their task
well in implementing the proposed actions.
25%
Impact of proposed actions Group work
25%

Point out to the class that the need for evidence-based stands and arguments are
important in the scientific community to highlight that information we now know
changes as more information come into light after sufficient data gathering,
sharing of data, and discussion of results and inferences. This highlights the
nature of science as being tentative and evidence-based. More so, remind the class
that in the course of addressing the superstitions of other people, they must also
exercise sensitivity towards the religious and cultural background of the people
they are trying to reach.
References
Bely, P. Y., Christian, C., & Roy, J. R. (2010). A question and answer guide to
astronomy. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Jones, T. & Stofan, E.
(2008). Planetology: Unlocking the secrets of the solar system. U. S. A.: National
Geographic Society. Plait, P. (2002). Meteors, meteoroids, and meteorites: Oh my!
The impact of meteors and asteroids. Bad Astronomy. U. S. A.: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
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Links
American Meteor Society. (2013). Meteor FAQs. Retrieved from
http://www.amsmeteors.org/meteor-showers/meteor-faq/#1 Burns, P. R. (2009, May 12).
Meteors, meteoroids, and meteorites. Retrieved from
http://www.pibburns.com/catastro/meteors.htm Canadian Space Agency. (2004). Module
5: Comets, meteors, and asteroids. Retrieved from
http://www.ascCsa.gc.ca/eng/educators/resources/astronomy/module5/content.asp#5
Lawrence Hall of Science. (2013). Hands-on universe program: Cosmic cataclysms.
Retrieved from http://www.globalsystemsscience.org/studentbooks/acc/ch1 Lunar and
Planetary Institute. (2012). About comets. Retrieved from
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/explore/comets/background/ Mihos, C. (1997-2006).
Asteroids. Retrieved from http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/stu/asteroid.html National
Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2004). Asteroid 4179 Toutatis. Retrieved
from http://echo.jpl.nasa.gov/asteroids/4179_Toutatis/toutatis.html National
Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2004). What exploded over Russia. Retrieved
from http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-atnasa/2013/26feb_russianmeteor/
Notkin, G. (2005-2013). Types of meteorites and classification. Retrieved from
http://geology.com/meteorites/meteorite-types-and-classification.shtml Phillips, T.
(2012). Big asteroid tumbles harmlessly pass earth. Retrieved from
http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2012/12dec_toutatis/ The
Meteoritical Society. (2002-2012). Meteorites from the Philippines. Retrieved from
Meteoritical Bulletin Database http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meteor/metbull.php
University of California Regents. (2000). The comet’s tale: Characteristics.
Retrieved from http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/cometstale/
frame_characteristics.html University of California Regents. (2000). The comet’s
tale: Orbits. Retrieved from
http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/cometstale/frame_orbits.html
University of California Regents. (2000). Asteroid. Retrieved from
http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/cometstale/glossary/glossary_6
th_new/asteroid.html
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UNIT 3 Matter
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UNIT 3: Matter
Overview
In Grade 7, the development of ideas about matter began with learning about common
properties of solutions and becoming aware of materials in terms of the components
they are made of—substances, elements, and compounds. These concepts were
encountered by the students in the contexts and life situations that they were most
familiar with. The focus was more on the ‘macro’ view (the tangible and visible).
Such approach is how science concepts should be taught initially. As students move
to Grade 8, they will now delve into what matter is made of and will go beyond what
their eyes can see. In this unit, students will begin to explain some everyday
situations at the sub-microscopic level (atomic level). There are three modules in
this unit: Module 1 is about the Particle Nature of Matter, Module 2 is about
Atoms: Inside Out, and Module 3 is on The Periodic Table (PT) of the Elements. A
variety of visual, multimedia, physical, and conceptual models to develop students’
understanding will be used to teach about atoms, molecules, and elements.Many
properties of matter as well as its changes in state can be explained in terms of
the arrangement and motion of atoms and molecules. In the long term, students must
grasp the particle model of matter to have a meaningful understanding of topics in
the physical, life, and earth sciences. While one view of learning science involves
the mastery of content knowledge and science inquiry skills, another view sees
students as taking an active role in building their own knowledge by modifying
their existing conceptions of science ideas through the process of conceptual
change. Students need to be engaged in a process of restructuring their conceptual
understanding. The first important step in doing so is to determine their initial
or prior ideas. Research has shown that students must undergo a conceptual change
for them to move to a submicroscopic view of matter. The approach taken in the
first module of this unit is for students to observe more closely different
everyday phenomena that will help them gradually understand the particle model of
matter. The activities in Module 1 provide opportunities for students to think,
draw, represent, talk about, and explain ordinary changes of state such as
evaporation, boiling, condensation, melting, and freezing using the particle model
of matter. This strategy enables the teacher to take note of students of students’
misconceptions and give them the opportunity to deal with them as teaching goes on.
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It is hoped that after the first module, students are ready to examine the
structure of the atom and explain how ions are formed In Module 2. They will have a
number of opportunities to appreciate the atom’s structure through the use of
multimedia and other strategies. In Module 3, students will gain a better
understanding of how the periodic table was developed and appreciate the value of
the periodic table as an organizing tool in terms of knowing the properties of the
elements. Most of the activities in this unit are by themselves formative
assessment. As you collect students’ answers to questions, the results will
indicate how far they have learned and what misconceptions they still hold. At
certain portions of the module, you may use their outputs as part of your summative
assessment for one module.
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Unit 3 MODULE
THE PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER
This module on the Particle Nature of Matter shifts students’ thinking from the
macroscopic view of materials, which was emphasized from Grades 3 to 7 to the sub-
microscopic view of matter.
Key question for this module

What is matter made of? How does the particle model of matter explain some observed
properties and changes in matter?
Students’ understanding of the particle nature of matter is crucial to how they

will understand much of what is taught in the life, physical, and earth sciences.
In addition, understanding the particle nature of matter helps students explain
concepts such as chemical bonding, chemical reactions, the effects of pressure,
temperature, and volume on gases, changes in state of matter, properties such as
density and compressibility, and topics in life science such as osmosis and
diffusion.
What Research Says about Teaching and Learning the Particle Nature of Matter
Research gives evidence that one of the most difficult concepts for students to
understand is that of the particle nature of matter. One reason why students find
this difficult is that books and instructional materials simply present the idea to
students without helping them develop these concepts. Often, the particle nature of
matter is introduced either as a short paragraph or as a chapter on the atom and
the history of the atom (Harrison & Treagust, 2002). After a brief explanation of
the particle nature of matter, students are not given the opportunity to apply and
reapply these ideas to explain everyday situations. A number of research studies
(Nakhleh,1992; Novick, S.& Nussbaum, J., 1978&1981; Lee, O., Eichinger, D.C.,
Anderson, C.W., Berkheimer, G.D., and Blakeslee, T.D., 1993) have shown that 117
students at the elementary and high school levels fail to fully understand the
important aspects of the particle model of matter. These aspects of the model
include the following: (1) matter is composed of tiny particles, (2) these
particles have spaces between them, (3) the particles are moving all the time, and
(4) the particles of matter attract each other. Students find these aspects of the
model difficult since these they are more familiar with the observable properties
of matter based on their “sensory perception.” Students find it difficult to learn
the particle nature of matter is because it is represented at a level which is not
observable to them. According to Johnstone (1991), concepts in chemistry should be
learned at different levels of representation. These are the (1) macroscopic level,
which refer to students’ observable everyday experiences; (2) sub-microscopic or
particulate level, which can be used to describe the structure of atoms and
molecules, as well as the movement of particles and electrons; and (3) symbolic
level, which includes the various pictorial representations, algebraic and
computational forms. However, at the elementary and junior high school levels,
students still do not have a sub-microscopic or particulate view of matter. They
think of particles as smaller parts or pieces of a bigger object (Skamp, 2009). In
particular, students cannot imagine the empty space in matter, including that of
gases.Thus, it is very important for teachers to properly guide students so they
can build their ideas about the sub-microscopic particles, like atoms and
molecules.
Building Ideas Through the Use of Models

To help students better understand the particle nature of matter, a number of
researchers (Harrison & Treagust, 1996; Harrison & Treagust 1998; Harrison &
Treagust 2002) have recommended the use of scientific models. Scientific models (1)
are used to think about, explain, and predict scientific phenomena, (2) represent
objects, systems, events or ideas, (3) describe or predict the behavior of objects,
systems, or events, and (4) may be physical, mathematical, or conceptual, such as
the particle nature of matter and the nuclear model of an atom. Therefore, the use
of models help students make sense of their observations and visualize their ideas.
These studies have shown that students still hold misconceptions about the nature
of sub-microscopic particles, like atoms and molecules even if they can reproduce
the diagrams that teachers have taught them. Students fail to realize that
different models represent different aspects of the same situation. Teachers should
keep in mind that students do not see things the way adults do. Thus, students
should be assisted in visualizing ideas by letting them build pictures or models
step by step. 118
In particular, the particle nature of matter is an abstract concept, which can be
understood through the use of models. The teacher can monitor students’ way of sub-
microscopic thinking as the students talk about, draw or illustrate their ideas.
With this approach, it is possible for the teacher to notice misconceptions and
deal with them immediately as the teaching proceeds (Kabapınar, 2009). Teachers
need to develop and build the particle model of matter gradually among students
since understanding the model does not happen in a single step (Department for
Children, Schools & Families, 2008). It is in this context that this module is
developed. Since students have already been exposed to macroscopic, clearly
observable, and concrete situations and events, as well as hands-on experiences
from Grade 3 to Grade 7, it is important that teachers guide Grade 8 students to a
higher level of explaining ideas and concepts.
Activity
Which is matter? Which is not?
In this module, the development of the activities is geared towards building the
correct sub-microscopic view about matter. It starts with probing students’ ideas
about matter. This step is important to find out the nature of the students’
initial ideas and determine what they have understood so far from previous grade
levels (Smith, 2001). According to Stavy (1988), there is no point in teaching the
particle nature of matter when students do not know what we mean by matter. In
Activity 1, students are asked to distinguish which is matter from those which are
not. They will identify the common characteristics of matter.
Teaching Tips
1. Let the students do the activity first before initiating a class discussion
about what is and what is not matter. Your objective in Activity 1 is to uncover
students’ ideas and reasons for classifying what is matter and what is not matter.
Make sure that they give their reason for their classification. Research has shown
that most students agree that solids and liquids are matter. But, many students
think that gases, heat, and light are not matter.
2.
3.
119
4.
You have to spot areas of agreement and disagreements while students express their
ideas. Encourage students to share their ideas before coming to a consensus that
matter has mass and occupies space.
5.
Table 1. Identifying which is matter Is the sample matter? Sample Yes sugar
granules water stone air inside ball leaves smoke heat light         No Not
sure Reason for your answer
Q1. The mass of the first 6 samples (sugar granules, water, stone, air inside ball,
leaves, smoke) can be measured. Q2. The mass of heat and light cannot be measured.
Q3. Not all of the samples occupy space. Q4. If collected in a container and
covered afterwards, it will be observed that smoke occupies space and its mass can
be obtained.
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Q5. No, heat and light do not have mass. They do not occupy space because these are
not matter. Heat is energy in transit and light is a form of energy.
Activity
What is matter made of?
In Activity 2, students will infer from given situations or observable events what
matter is made of and then explain how these observed situations or events give
evidence that matter is made up of tiny particles. Based on the study of Novick and
Nussbaum (1978), three aspects of the particle model are least understood by
students because these “contradict their sensory perception of matter.” These
aspects include: empty space (or the vacuum concept), continuous motion of
particles, and interaction between particles. Research has demonstrated that many
students cannot visualize space which is “empty.” When students draw or represent
“empty space”, they fill the space with more particles, dust, or air. In their 1981
study, Novick and Nussbaum showed that most students even at the initial years of
university education” do not retain a uniform distribution picture of the particles
in a gas.” Their study also revealed that senior high school and university
students have difficulty imagining a vacuum or “empty space” between particles of
matter.
Teaching Tips
1. To maximize time, go around each group and interact with the students by asking
questions and clarifications regarding their observations, explanations and/or
drawings. 2. Make sure that their drawings have explanations written beside the
illustration. 3. You do not need to ask all the groups to share their explanations
or drawings to the whole class. What is important is for you to collect the
drawings of one or two representatives of each group.
121
Q1. The resulting mixture tastes sweet. Q2. The mixture is sweet because sugar is
still present but we cannot see it anymore. The sugar particles mixed well with the
water particles. Q3. (Expect students to give a volume less than 70 mL.) Q4. The
volume of the resulting mixture is less than the sum of the volumes of the unmixed
sugar and water. Q5. The combined volume is less than the sum of 20 mL sugar plus
50 mL water. This shows that water is made up of tiny particles with spaces between
them. The sugar particles are able to fit into these spaces because the sugar
particles that dissolved in water are very small. These could not even be observed
with the unaided eye. Q6. The food coloring flowed along the side of the bottle and
spread slowly towards the bottom of the container and began to spread through out
the water. Q7. After one day, the food coloring has totally spread through out the
water since the resulting mixture has a color almost the same as that of the food
coloring. Q8. Since both the food coloring and water are made up of particles, the
particles of food coloring are able to fit into the spaces of the water molecules.
Activity
Are the particles of matter moving? What is between them?
From Activity 2 until Activity 3, you are developing students’ understanding of the
particle model of matter. As previously mentioned, research has shown that students
cannot imagine the empty space in matter, including those in gases. Hence, they
have difficulty understanding compression and expansion of gases. According to Lee,
Eichinger, Anderson, Berkheimer, and Blakeslee (1993), “students believed that air
flows like water from one place to another and, thus, is unevenly distributed.”
When students compressed air in a syringe, some middle 122
school students thought that “air was pushed forward and moved to the opening of
the syringe.” Poor understanding of the four basic aspects of the particle nature
of matter will affect how students think about changes of state. In this module,
you are building the students’ present understanding of the particle model so that
they will form more connected ideas over time. Your goal is to let the students
understand the importance of using the particle model of matter to explain and
predict change of state when they do Activities 4 to 6. Eventually, they will be
able to use the particle model to explain situations or events they encounter in
daily life, specifically various phase changes.
Teaching Tips
1. Please refer to Teaching Tips numbers 1 to 3 of Activity 2. The same tips hold
true for Activity 3. 2. Emphasize that a gas can be expanded and compressed; it can
be added to or removed from a container with a fixed volume. 3. Make sure that
their explanations and/or drawings include the following aspects of the particle
nature of matter: a. Solids, liquids, and gases are made up of tiny particles which
are too small to observe with the unaided eye. b. There is nothing between the
particles. c. The particles move and collide with each other and with the walls of
the container. d. There are forces that act between the particles. 4. At this
stage, point out the general differences between a liquid from a gas. a. Gases are
easily compressed as they have observed Activity 3. b. Gases can expand to fill up
its container. c. Liquids take the shape of their container but do not expand to
fill them up. d. Liquids are not as easy to compress as gases because the spaces
between the particles in a liquid are much smaller than in gases.
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Q1. No, the plunger cannot be pushed all the way through the syringe. (The plunger
can be pushed until the 15-mL level of the syringe and then it goes back near the
26-27 mL level). Q2. The plunger of the syringe could be slightly pushed. The
springiness of the air inside the syringe can be felt. This gives a hint about the
distance between the particles of air. Q3. We cannot push the plunger in the
syringe with water inside. Q4. We were able to push the plunger of the syringe with
air in it but the plunger of the syringe with water in it could not be pushed. We
felt the resistance of the water to being compressed. Q5. Air, being a gas, can be
compressed because there are large spaces between the particles so the particles
can be made to come closer to each other. The plunger could not be pushed in the
syringe with water because water is not as compressible as air. The particles of
liquid water are closer to each other and it is difficult to push them even closer
to each other. Q6. Yes, water flowed freely as it is poured into another container.
Water maintained its volume and took the shape of the container. Q7. Water poured
on the flat surface of a dinner plate spread out to fill all the space available.
Q8. When the bottle cap inside the bottle was transferred to the dinner plate by
tilting the bottle, the bottle cap simply slid along the side of the bottle. The
bottle cap retained its shape and volume. Q9. The salt sample may or may not take
the shape of the container depending on the diameter of the container and the
amount of salt used. (But if the container has a narrow diameter, and there are
more salt used, then salt takes the shape of the container.) The little pieces of
salt or sand maintained their shape. As students construct and revise their models
while they discuss with you and their classmates, they realize that solids,
liquids, and gases are made up of tiny particles too small to see and they have
spaces between them. After doing Activities 2 and 3, they will be able to infer
that the particles move based on their observation that the drop of food coloring
slowly mixed with water even without being stirred.
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According to Novick and Nussbaum (1978), the particle model becomes significant to
the students if “several of the aspects are taken together and understood.”
Activity
What changes take place when water is left in an open container? In a closed
container?
Activity 4 allows the students to use the particle model of matter to explain
evaporation, the change that takes place when particles of a liquid are changed to
a gas. They will observe evaporation in two different situations: in an open
container and in another container which is covered.
Teaching Tips
1. Please refer to Teaching Tips numbers 1 and 3 of Activity 2. The same tips hold
true for Activity 4. 2. Point out that during evaporation, the water molecules
evaporate only from the surface of the liquid. 3. Students should realize the
difference between the open and the closed containers in terms of how evaporation
is taking place. Explain that in the open container, the molecules of water that
evaporate from the surface mix with the surrounding air and the chance that they
will return to the liquid is very small. All the water molecules will eventually
evaporate. 4. In the closed container, the water in the gaseous state (or what we
call vapor) accumulate above the liquid. They cannot escape. Some of these
molecules return to the liquid state. Over time, the amount of vapor increases
until the number of molecules that evaporate is equal to the number of molecules
that go back to the liquid state.
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Q1. The cover of container No. 1 had droplets of water on it. Q2. There is no more
water left on container No. 2. (In some cases, there may be a very small amount of
water left, depending on the area of the room where it was placed overnight.) Q3.
In container No. 2, the water from the watch glass turned from liquid to gas and
escaped to the air. (Some student may already know about evaporation. So, they
would write, “water evaporated to the air above the liquid water.” Q4. Yes, it will
be different if container No. 2 was heated. In a very short time, most of the water
on the surface of the liquid will turn from liquid to gas because the higher
temperature will cause the particles of water to move much faster and have more
energy to escape from the surface of the liquid.
Activity
What changes take place when water is heated or cooled?
The study by Vanessa Kind (2004) revealed that many students up to 18 years of age
still find it difficult to explain what happens when a gas is heated or cooled. She
found out that students do not realize that particles are constantly moving. In the
study of Novick and Nussbaum (1981), 40% of the 16-year olds thought that
“particles are forced apart” when a gas is heated. Further, Kind (2004) showed that
the idea that the motion of particles decreases when cooled seems to be harder to
understand than the fact that particle motion increases when heated. Activity 5
will give you the opportunity to observe the extent to which your students have
grasped the different aspects of the particle model of matter. While the activity
is commonplace, the students should be able to explain the phenomena of boiling and
condensation beyond what they could observe with their eyes.
126
Teaching Tips
true for Activity 5. 2. Point out that some differences between evaporation and
boiling. a. During evaporation, the water molecules evaporate only from the surface
of the liquid but during boiling, water molecules evaporate both from the surface
and within the liquid. b. Evaporation can occur even at low or high temperatures,
but boiling takes place at specific temperatures and pressures, depending on the
liquid that is used. 3. A common misconception that might arise in the discussion
within the groups or in class is that the temperature of a liquid increases as it
boils. If this misconception arises, recall what they did in Quarter 1 of Grade 7
or do a short class demonstration to show that the temperature of a liquid remains
constant when it has reached its boiling point.
Q1. There are bubbles formed at the bottom of the beaker and bubbles in the boiling
water. There is also steam observed above the liquid. Q2. The bubbles are water in
the gaseous state. (It is very common for students to say that the bubbles formed
are air. At the start of the heating process, however, the tiny bubbles that form
are due to the air dissolved in the water. This is not boiling.) Q3. The volume of
water in the beaker will decrease if water will be kept boiling for more than 10
minutes because there will be rapid evaporation of water. Q4. As the water is
heated and the temperature of the water rises, the molecules gain more kinetic
energy and they move faster. More molecules have the energy to overcome the forces
of attraction of the neighboring molecules. These molecules escape to the gaseous
phase. Q5. Students’ drawings will vary. What is important to note is how students
represent and explain the escape of fast-moving molecules of water from the surface
of the liquid to the air. Also, their representation or drawing of water in the
gaseous state should show that the molecules of water are very far apart. 127
Q6. As the water began to cool, droplets formed under the watch glass that covered
the beaker containing hot water. There are also drops of water formed on the inside
wall of the beaker. Some of these drops of water were observed falling to the water
inside the beaker. Q7. The water droplets at the bottom of the watch glass are the
molecules of water that escape from the liquid and go into the gaseous phase. These
water vapor rise and some molecules touch the glass. Q8. Students’ drawings will
vary. Their illustrations should show that the particles or molecules representing
water in the gaseous state should be very far apart and as the water begins to
cool, the particles should be drawn closer to each other. Q9. When a gas is cooled,
the motion of the particles slows down. If the particles lose enough energy, their
attraction for each other can overcome their motion and cause them to come closer
with one another to become a liquid.
Activity
What changes take place when ice turns into liquid water?
Activity 6 completes the common examples of changes of state observed in daily life
which can be explained by the particle model of matter. After performing Activities
4 to 6, students should be able to understand that the solids, liquids, and gases
differ because of the arrangement and motion of the particles in each state as well
as the attraction between them. It should also be clear to the students that the
same particles of matter are involved when these changes happen. No new substances
are formed.
Teaching Tips
true for Activity 6. 2. Since this is the last activity for the module, be on your
guard that students do not simply say or define the aspects of the particle model
of matter without supporting their statements with drawings or cartoons. As Liu and
Lesniak (2006) pointed out in their study, teachers must be aware of students’
ideas about matter.
128
At this stage, you should have bridged the students closer to the more scientific
model of matter. Liu and Lesniak (2006) said that “developing understanding of
matter needs to help students attend to all aspects of the matter concept and
develop meaningful relations among the aspects.”
Q1. After one to five minutes (depending on the room temperature), the ice begins
to turn into a liquid. (Some students may write that “the ice melted.”) When ice,
which is a solid, turns into a liquid, the particles or molecules of solid water
vibrate faster due to the higher temperature in the room compared to the freezer.
Eventually, the particles or molecules break away from their fixed positions and so
they turn to a liquid. Q2. The liquid will turn into solid when transferred to the
freezer.
References Brady, J.E.,& Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its changes (4th
ed.). River Street Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Frank, D. V., Jones, T.G.,
Little, J.G., Miaoulis, B., Miller, S., & Pasachoff, J.M. (2008) California focus
on physical science. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. Harrison, A.G.
&Treagust, D.F. (2002).The particulate nature of matter: Challenges in
understanding the submicroscopic world. In J.K. Gilbert, O.D. Jong, D. F. Treagust,
& J.H. van Driel (Eds.), Chemical Education: Toward research-based practice (pp
189-212). Dordrecht, The Netherlands:Kluwer. Harrison, A.G. & Treagust, D.F.
(1996).Secondary students’ mental models of atoms and molecules: Implications for
teaching chemistry. Science Education, 80 (5), 509-534. Johnstone, A. H. (1993).
The development of chemistry teaching: A changing response to changing demand.
Journal of Chemical Education, 70(9), 701-705. Kind, V. (2004). Beyond appearances:
students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas (2nded.). Retrieved
fromhttp://www.rsc.org/images/Misconceptions_update_tcm18-188603.pdf
129
Krajcik, J. S. (2012). The importance, cautions and future of learning progression
research. In A.C. Alonzo & A.W.Gotwals (Eds.), Learning progressions in science:
Current challenges and future directions (27-36)Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense
Publishers. Retrieved from https://www.sensepublishers.com/media/593-
learningprogressions-in-science.pdf. Lee, O., Eichinger, D.C., Anderson, C. W.,
Berkheimer, G. D., & Bladeslee, T. D. (1993). Changing middle school students’
conceptions of matter and molecules. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30
(3), 249-270. Merritt, J.D., Krajcik, J. & Shwartz, Y. (2008).Development of a
learning progression for the particle model of matter.ICLS’08 Proceedings of the
8th International Conference for the learning sciences, International Society of
the Learning Sciences 2, 75-81.Retrievedfromhttp://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?
id=1599881 Nakhleh,M. (1992). Why some students don’t learn chemistry, Journal of
Chemical Education, 69(3), 191-196. Nakhleh, M., Samarapungavan, A., & Saglam, Y.
(2005). Middle school students’ beliefs about matter. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 42 (5), 581612. Novick, S. & Nussbaum, J. (1978). Junior high
school pupils’ understanding of the particulate nature of matter: An interview
study. Science Education, 62 (3), 273-281. Novick, S. & Nussbaum, J. (1981).
Pupils’ understanding of the particulate nature of matter: A cross-age study.
Science Education, 65(2), 187-196. Skamp, K. (2009). Atoms and molecules in primary
science: What are teachers to do? Aust. J. Ed. Chem., 69, 5-10. Retrieved from
http://www.raci.org.au/sitebuilder/divisions/knowledge/asset/files/38/ausjecissu
e69(pdffile)[1].pdf United Kingdom. Department for Children, Schools & Families
(2008).Using models, science study guide. Retrieved from
http://www.iteach.ac.uk/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=wc0DUlOOxMQ%3D&tabid=10
06&mid=7745 Wilbraham, A.C., Staley, D. D., Matta, M.S., & Waterman, E.L.
(2007).Chemistry: Teacher’s edition for California. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
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Unit 3 MODULE
ATOMS: INSIDE OUT
In the earlier module, students learned about the particulate nature of matter.
They have learned that elements, the simplest form of matter, are made up of basic
units called atoms. In this module, the students will delve deeper into the atom
and look at its structure. It is imperative that the students recognize that the
atomic structure they are studying is a scientific model. It is not the real thing
as no one has ever seen what the atom really looks like, as pointed out in the
Teacher’s Guide for Unit 3 Module 1. However, several scientists design experiments
that may manifest the composition and structure of the atom which may lead them to
propose a model for the atom. Proposed models are tested further, sometimes by
other scientists, to determine their validity. If new evidence would disprove a
model, another model is proposed. In this module, students will realize that
scientific models may evolve and the one that is currently accepted may still
develop as modern scientists continue to investigate about the atoms. With the
discoveries about the atom that are yet to come, the students can be enjoined to
partake in this exciting possibility. They can start by equipping themselves with
knowledge as they explore the atoms inside out.
What makes up an atom? How do these components differ from each other? How are
these components arranged inside the atom? How are atoms different from ions? How
is the atom different from the ion?
131
Science Ideas
• Atom is regarded as the smallest, basic unit of matter. Even if it is the basic
unit of matter, it is still composed of parts. • The parts are the electrons (-),
protons (+), and neutrons (0). • An atom has equal number of protons and electrons.
This makes the atom neutral. • Protons and neutrons are relatively heavier than
electrons. They compose the nucleus and collectively called as nucleons. The mass
of an atom is mainly determined by the mass of the nucleus. • Several models have
tried to show how the subatomic particles are arranged in an atom. Thus far, the
accepted model places the protons and neutrons in the center of the atom; or the
so-called, nucleus. Moving rapidly around the nucleus are the electrons. • Atomic
number, or the number of protons of an atom distinguishes an element from the
others. This number is the same for all atoms of a particular element. • While the
number of protons is fixed for an atom of an element, the number of neutrons may
vary. Atoms having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are
referred as isotopes. The isotopes are identified through their mass number which
is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom. •
Information on the subatomic composition of an element may be represented through
shorthand notations.
132
Grade 7 scope Matter Compounds
may either be may either be
Grade 8 preceding module scope Grade 8 scope of this module
Substances
Mixtures
Elements
which can be distinguished by their
Macroscopic Properties
explained by their
Sub-microscopic composition
having the basic unit,
Atom
may combine to form
Molecule
may lose or gain
is almost empty space but is composed of three basic parts, bound together
differentiate
Protons
may not be equal in number as
Neutrons
have
Electrons
have a
(-) charge
have a
(+) charge
no charge
equal in number in a neutral atom in the massive part of the atom, called move
around the
forming
Ion
Nucleus
133
Figure 1. Concept map for atom

Activity
“Charge” it to experience!
The students might find it surprising that all objects contain charged particles;
not everything they touch gives them an electric shock. This activity provides
students an “experience” to deduce that even those objects that appear to be
neutral contain charges. In these objects the positive charge equals the negative
charge. To bring in this idea, the students are given this “experience” to remember
that neutral objects may be “charged”.
Teaching Tips
1. Let the students do the activity first before initiating a class discussion. 2.
Your objective in Activity 1 is to let students realize that objects contain
charges. This will be the jump-off point of the charged particles that compose the
atoms. Perhaps, after the activity, you can pose a rhetorical question such as
“where do all these charges come from?”. Expectedly, there will be no way for
students to see with their very own eyes these charged particles. However, the
experience they will have in this activity will show that objects contain charges.
3. You may access http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/balloons* for a simulation
of how charges are transferred between objects. This simulation also used balloons.
You may ask the students the net charge of the balloon after it was rubbed against
their hair. Moreover, ask them about the charges of their hair and the frame glass.
*Note: Some rights reserved. Please read about the organization’s terms and
conditions on the use of their software. You may access this in
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/about/licensing 4. Please take care of handling the
picture frame glass in Procedure 3. In case it is not possible to monitor each
student while performing the activity, it is advisable to make this part as a class
activity. You may prepare one setup for the whole class. Ask a representative to
perform this part of this activity for the whole class to observe.
134
5. This might be the students’ first time to encounter the word, relative. It might
be advisable to find an opportunity in giving them an idea on what relative means.
They will encounter this word several times in the module such as relative masses,
relative charges, size relative to-.
You may include the discussion below when Table 2 is presented to them.
Discussion: You may notice the word, relative, as part of the headings in Table 2.
What do you mean by relative? It simply means that you have considered the
relationship of something into a standard. Let us take for example the three
persons on the image on the right. Among these three, the height of the person in
the middle was chosen to be the standard or the basis for reference in comparing
the heights. Relative to that standard height, the person on the extreme left
(facing you) is shorter while the person on the extreme right is taller. What if
the height of the person in the extreme left is the standard or the basis for
comparison? Are the heights of the other two people relatively shorter or
relatively taller? Right, they are relatively taller than the person on the extreme
left. Take a look at the relative charges in Table 2. Charges are measurements
themselves. You use an instrument to know a measurement value. For example, you use
a ruler to measure the length of an object and report the measured length in units
such as meter. Similarly, an instrument is used to measure charges and the measured
units may be expressed in coulombs. For the electrons, the actual charge is -1.602
x 10-19 coulombs; while for the protons it is +1.602 x 10-19 coulombs. Now, try to
compare those values. What do you notice? How are the numerical values related? The
numerical values are just the same, isn’t it? The numerical value is 1.602 x 10-19.
With this, can you think why the relative charge of electron is -1, for proton is
+1, and the neutron is 0? 135
Q1. The balloons pushed away each other. They moved toward opposite directions. Q2.
The balloons acquired the same charge since they repelled one another; like charges
repel. Q3. The balloons moved toward the glass. Q4. The glass and balloon have
different charges since they got attracted with each other; unlike charges attract.
Activity
The big difference
In this activity, students will be able to visualize through different ways of

representation (bar graph, pie chart, seesaw), the big difference in mass of the
protons and neutrons compared to the electrons. The numbers, alone, especially
expressed in negative exponents might not give them enough idea on the said
difference. This activity will then give them a visual feel of the relative masses
of the subatomic particles. Transforming these values in different ways, including
converting it to number of particles (Q5), may give them a picture of this
difference. Moreover, the process skill of plotting and interpreting graphs are
enhanced. Ultimately, the students will deduce that the electrons do not contribute
significantly to the mass of the entire atom. Having this in mind, they will later
on connect this with the concept of mass number.
Teaching Tips
1. Student mathematical and graphing skills such as working with exponents and
plotting the values may be challenged in this activity. They might need some help
as they go about the activity.
Q1. Electrons Q2. Neutrons Q3. Neutrons and Protons
136
Q4. The masses of the protons and neutrons are almost the same. (Drawing: seesaw is
just a little lower in the neutron side) Q5. 1836 electrons Computation: no. of
electrons (mass of 1 electron) = mass of 1 proton no. of electrons (9.109 x 10-28
grams) = 1.672 x 10-24 grams no. of electrons = 1.672 x 10-24 grams / 9.109 x 10-28
grams no. of electrons = 1836 Q6. Neutrons and protons
Activity
Small but terrible
In the previous part of the module, students learned about the subatomic particles
that compose the nucleus. They will learn in this activity that the model of the
atom we currently hold true is a product of discoveries of different scientists.
However, the group given the greatest recognition is the team of Rutherford with
their discovery of the nucleus through their alpha scattering experiment. They
bombarded a very thin sheet of gold foil with heavy positively-charged alpha
particles. The observations were surprising! They never thought that there will be
a certain region in the atom that would be “small but terrible”. This very small
region of the atom is where most of the mass and all the positively-charged (+)
particles of the atom are situated. The effect of hitting it with another (+)-
charged particle was quite unexpected! In Rutherford’s words. “It was as if you
fired a 15-inch shell at a sheet of tissue paper and it came back to hit you.”
Teaching Tips
1. Advance preparation for Part A. Cut out different shapes (e.g., triangle, star,
U-shape) as the “mystery objects”. 2. As pointed out in Module 1, models are used
to represent things that are unobservable by the eyes. In this module, the model
that the students will learn about is on the structure of the atom. They will learn
some features of the current model of the atom such as:
137
a) at the center of the atom is the nucleus which is composed of protons and
neutrons; the nucleus is massive and very small relative to the entire atom b)
moving rapidly around the nucleus are the electrons; and c) most of the atom’s
volume is just empty space. 3. You may access
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/rutherford-scattering* for a simulation of
Thomson’s plum pudding (raisin bread) model and Rutherford’s alpha scattering
experiment. You may use the plum pudding (raisin bread) simulation to reinforce
your discussion after the students have finished Part B. Let them finish part C and
use this simulation again to add to your discussion. *Note: Some rights reserved.
Please read about the organization’s terms and conditions on the use of their
software. You may access this in http://phet.colorado.edu/en/about/licensing 4.
Students should realize that models may change over time. Emphasize that models may
evolve as new observations are made, much like how Thomson’s raisin bread model was
replaced by Rutherford’s nuclear model. 5. Below is a sample drawing for the
schematic representation of the alpha scattering experiment. The drawing of the
student may not be exactly the same. Important things to note are: a) Most of the
alpha particles were undeflected. b) Some alpha particles were deflected in an
angle. c) Few alpha particles deflected almost towards back to the source.
138
Part A Q1. Depends on the sample Q2. Depends on the sample Q3. Depends on the
sample Q4. Inside the box, the marble was rolled over and around. There are times
that the marble bumps the object inside the box. This gave helpful clues to infer
the size, shape and location of the “mystery object”.
Part B Q1. The coins came passing through the pieces of paper.
139
Part C Q1. It will be repelled causing the positively-charged alpha particle to
move at an angle away from the positively-charged nucleus. Q2. It will be repelled
but the repulsion will be stronger compared to the repulsion when the positively-
charged alpha particle only came close to the positivelycharged nucleus. The alpha
particle will be more strongly deflected since it hits a particle with a bigger
mass, the nucleus of the gold atom. Q3. The nucleus is much tinier than the ones
drawn in the diagram; therefore, there will be more alpha particles that will pass
through. Q4. There is a very small chance of hitting the target (the nucleus) since
it is very tiny.
Activity
What’s in a number?
In this activity, the students will deal with atomic number and mass number. They
will learn that both these numbers tell information about the subatomic composition
of an element. The atomic number, or the number of protons, distinguishes one
element from others. The mass number, or the total number of protons and neutrons,
distinguishes an isotope of a particular element to its other isotopes. The average
mass number of the element’s naturally occurring isotopes multiplied with their
abundance gives the atomic mass of the element. On the other hand, they will also
learn that the number of electrons of an atom may change resulting in the formation
of ions. Depending on the number of electrons, an atom can be a positive ion (fewer
electrons than protons) or a negative ion (more electrons than protons). Moreover,
they will learn to write all of these information in shorthand notations.
Teaching Tips
1. You may access http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-an-atom* to
reinforce the concepts of atomic number, mass number, and ions. This may provide
visual appeal on the inventory of subatomic particles they have done in Activity 4.
Moreover, the visual addition may give the students insights such as: 140
a) only a change in the number protons changes the identity of the element b) atoms
of an element may have different number of neutrons; and the net charge remains
zero c) ions are formed by the addition or removal of electron/s d) a positive ion
is formed when electrons are removed from an atom and the number of electrons
becomes less than the number of protons while a negative ion is formed when
electrons are added to an atom and the number of electrons becomes more than the
number of protons. e) electrons do not have anything to do with mass number since
their contribution to the mass of the atom is negligible f) adding electrons may
increase the size of the atom
Also, the students can assess their learning by clicking on the Game tab. *Note:
Some rights reserved. Please read about the organization’s terms and conditions on
the use of their software. You may access this in
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/about/licensing 2. You may access
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/isotopes-and-atomicmass* to reinforce the
differences in atomic mass of the element’s isotopes. Direct the students to notice
that the atomic mass of an element is closest in value to the mass number of its
most abundant isotope. *Note: Some rights reserved. Please read about the
organization’s terms and conditions on the use of their software. You may access
this in http://phet.colorado.edu/en/about/licensing 3. Post-activity Discussion. a)
Q5 and Q6. You may emphasize the difference in the number of neutrons of the
isotopes of an element. b) Q7. For simplicity and for this grade level only, you
may not include mole in expressing the atomic mass. The mole concept will be dealt
in Grade 9. Also, reinforce the students’ learning from Activity 2, i.e.,
electron’s mass is negligible with respect to the entire atom, by asking them the
reason
141
why it is only the protons and neutrons that are considered to contribute to the
atomic mass. c) Procedure 5. Let the students analyze the completed table. Direct
them to realize that: the number of neutrons may be different from the number of
protons and electrons there is a net charge when there is unequal number of
electrons and protons; in a positive ion (cation) there are less electrons than
protons while in a negative ion (anion) there are more electrons than protons
d) Procedure 6, Shorthand notations. Note that the subscripts which indicate the
atomic number are the same for all the isotopes of iron. They are isotopes of the
same element, iron.
Q1. Phosphorus Q2. 15 protons Q3. 13 protons Q4. Hydrogen Q5. 6 protons; 6 neutrons
Q6. 6 protons; 7 neutrons Q7. Mg: 24.30 grams; K: 39.10 grams Q8. 3 protons Q9. 4
neutrons Q10. 2 electrons
142
Table in Activity 4 Isotope B-6 N-14 F-19 Ne-20 Mg-24 Al-27 Si-28 S-32 K-35 Element
Name Boron Nitrogen Fluorine Neon Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Sulfur Potassium # of
p+ 5 7 9 10 12 13 14 16 19 # of e5 7 10 10 10 10 14 16 18 # of n0 1 7 10 10 12 14
14 16 16 Charge 0 0 -1 0 +2 +3 0 0 +1
Shorthand notation for the naturally occurring isotopes of iron, showing mass
number and atomic number 54 26
Fe
56 26
Fe Fe Fe
26 26
57
58
References Brady, J.E.,& Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its changes (4th
ed.). River Street Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Bucat, R.B. (Ed.). (1984).
Elements of chemistry: Earth, air, fire and water, Vol. 2. Canberra City, A.C.T.,
Australia. Elvins, C., Jones, D., Lukins, N., Miskin, J., Ross, B., & Sanders, R.
(1990). Chemistry one: Materials, chemistry in everyday life. Port Melbourne,
Australia: Heinemann Educational Australia. Hill, J.W. & Kolb, D.K. (1998).
Chemistry for changing times (8th ed.).Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Philippines. Department of Education. (2004).Chemistry: Science and technology
textbook for 3rd year. (Revised ed.). Quezon City: Author. Silberberg, M.S. (2007).
Principles of General Chemistry. McGraw-Hill: New York
143
Links
Interactive Simulations: http://phet.colorado.edu/ Some rights reserved. Please
read about the organization’s terms and conditions on the use of their software.
You may access this in http://phet.colorado.edu/en/about/licensing NISMED’s AgIMat
website: http://curriculum.nismed.upd.edu.ph
144
Unit 3 MODULE
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
The development of the Periodic Table could be traced back in 1817 with the work of
Johann Dobereiner, a German chemist who formed the triads of elements with similar
properties like the triad of calcium, barium and strontium. In 1863, John Newlands,
an English chemist proposed the Law of Octaves. He based his classification of
elements on the fact that similar properties could be noted for every eight element
in order of increasing atomic masses. Around 1869 two scientists determined a way
to put the elements in order. Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev both came up with
periodic tables that showed how elements should be grouped. Both scientists were
teachers living and working in different places. Meyer lived and worked in Germany
while Mendeleev in Russia. Both arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic
mass. Their arrangement made sense since such arrangement had the properties of
elements repeat periodically. Later, in 1914, Henry Moseley, an English physicist
observed that x-ray frequencies emitted by elements could be correlated better with
their atomic numbers. This observation led to the development of the modern
periodic law which states that the properties of elements are periodic functions of
their atomic numbers. In this module, the first activity is designed with a
historical perspective and will provide students an experience similar to those of
the early scientists who developed the periodic table. They would be able to come
up with ideas on how and why things could be periodically arranged. The information
which they would refer to on the element cards is the kind that Mendeleev and Meyer
would have had at their disposal and will assist them on how the elements would be
arranged. The second activity will make use of the periodic table to predict the
reactivity of the metals.
How did the Periodic Table develop? What information about elements can be obtained
from this organizing tool?
145
Science Ideas
• The periodic table is a chart containing information about the atoms that make up
all matter. • Early scientists developed the periodic table by arranging elements
in order of increasing atomic mass. • The modern periodic table shows elements
arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers. • A periodic property repeats
itself at regular intervals when elements are arranged according to a common
criterion. • The properties of undiscovered elements can be predicted based on
their position in Mendeleev’s table. • The modern periodic law states that the
properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers. • Elements
may be classified into groups. Members of the same group exhibit similar
properties. • The modern periodic table is divided into groups or families-
vertical columns and periods or series – horizontal rows. • There are two sets of
families: the representative elements and the transition elements. • The uses of
the different elements are based on their properties.
146
Activity
Tracking the path and constructing the Periodic Table
The periodic table was developed as a result of years of painstaking work by

different scientists. Its present form was a result of meticulous and thorough
study by scientists. The first activity provides you an experience similar to those
of the early scientists who developed the periodic table.
Teaching Tips
1. Advance preparation. Print out the element cards found in the appendix. 2. Let
students answer the following questions before doing the activity. a. What is an
element? How many different kinds of atom an element is made of? b. Define atomic
mass of an element. c. What is the atomic number of an element? 3. Arrange the
element cards on the board in one horizontal line and in the order of increasing
atomic mass. Instruct the class to perform Part A for at least 20 minutes. Make
sure that students identify what is recurring property did they use as basis for
moving the elements into groups. They should also know the operational meaning of
periodic to understand the concept of periodicity. Anticipate that the students may
find difficulty in placing the last two element cards, tellurium (Te) and iodine
(I). Let it be. Allow the students to think this over. You may discuss their
experience on this as Q4 is answered. 4. The table in page 5 shows the expected
arrangement of the element cards in Part A. Assuming that the element cards have
been arranged by the class this way, discuss the table as the whole class answers
Q1 to Q4. Expected answers are found in the succeeding pages. Discuss with the
class their experience in constructing their table of elements. Perhaps, it was
similar to what the early scientists have experienced, in terms of grouping
together elements with similar characteristics in rows and columns. Tell them also
that they were not given the entire element cards, rather just some of the elements
that had been discovered at the time Mendeleev and Meyer were working on their
periodic tables. When answering Q3, allow them to remember their experience with
the cards for Te & I. Guide them that similar properties have to take precedence
over atomic mass. Discuss that maybe Mendeleev made the same switch or adjustment.
Explain, too, that at present it is known that the atomic numbers, rather than
atomic masses of the elements form a better basis for ordering them in the 147
periodic table Mendeleev had no way of knowing this since protons had not yet been
discovered during his time. He thought that the masses of iodine and tellurium may
have been measured incorrectly and that eventually better measurements would show
iodine to be heavier than tellurium. In answering Q4, they may be able to guess
that these gaps represent elements not yet discovered in 1870. Discuss that
Mendeleev predicted that elements would be discovered in the future to fill these
gaps. The prediction was realized with the discovery of gallium by the French
chemist Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875 and of germanium by Clemens
Winkler, a German chemist, in 1886. 5. After telling students these facts,
introduce part B. Ask the groups to try to fit the cards of gallium and germanium
in their respective tables. Do the same with the cards for noble gases.
Part A Q1. There are 7 families in the table. The noble gases constitute the 8th
group but will be realized after doing Part B. Q2. The properties of the element
and the compounds formed Q3. Iodine and tellurium broke the trend in terms of
properties. The properties are quite dissimilar with the other elements belonging
to the same column or group. Q4. There are gaps in the family of boron and aluminum
and in the family of carbon and silicon. These gaps might indicate that there were
elements not yet discovered during Meyer’s and Mendeleev’s time. Part B Q1. Gaps
were filled. Gallium was placed in the family of boron and aluminum while germanium
was placed in the family of carbon and silicon. The noble gases, on the other hand,
were arranged into a new family. Q2. Our table of elements did not include the
transition elements like the modern periodic table. The table stops at xenon and it
is organized by atomic mass rather than atomic number. Q3. While tellurium has a
higher atomic mass than iodine, iodine has the higher atomic number. It is the
atomic number and not the atomic mass that is the organizing principle of the
periodic table.
148
149
150
Q4. The existence of aluminum and silicon gave Mendeleev an idea that gallium and
germanium should also exist. Since Mendeleev did not know about any member of the
noble gas family, he didn’t have an inkling that others might also exist. Q5.
Element 120 would be placed below radium and element 121 would be placed below
actinium. Q6. The new element would belong to the group or family of carbon,
silicon, and germanium.
Activity
Metal . . . Metal: How reactive are you?
This activity allows students to revisit metals. They will look at their chemical
property by comparing the reactivity of some common metals. Reactivity is the ease
and speed with which a metal reacts with other substances. Moreover, they will be
discussing ways to prevent corrosion of metals.
Teaching Tips
1. Do the following before the activity. a. Using the Periodic Table, identify the
portions corresponding to metals, nonmetals, and inert gases. b. Tell the students
that they will be using aluminum as one of the metals in this activity. They will
examine familiar objects made of aluminum such as a softdrink can, a disposable
plate, heavy-duty aluminum foil, and aluminum foil. Compare the shape, thickness,
and general appearance of the objects. Let them observe what happens if they bend
and unbend each object. Based on the properties they have observed, let the
students infer and explain why this metal was used to make each object. c. Proceed
with the discussion of the reactivity or non-reactivity with other substances. d.
Bring them back to their experience in Grade 7 Acids & Bases. Ask the students what
would happen if some metals like iron will continue to be reactive with some
substances in the environment? Can we stop reactivity of metals? How?
151
2. Students will perform the activity in groups and discuss answers to questions.
3. Remind students to be cautious when handling muriatic acid. Ask students to wash
their hands in running water and rub the affected part with baking soda. 4. Guide
the students to infer from the Activity Series of Metals that the more active metal
can react with other substances by displacing or replacing a less reactive element
from its compound. The activity series can be used as a reference to determine a
metals’ reactivity. 5. Important Ideas a) The metals in a group or family in the
periodic table have similar properties and these properties change gradually across
the table. The reactivity of metals tends to decrease from left to right across the
periodic table and increases from top to bottom in a family. b) The Group 1 metals,
from lithium to francium are called the alkali metals. These metals are so reactive
that they are never found as uncombined elements in nature. c) Group 2, the
alkaline earth metals are not as reactive as the Group 1 metals, but are more
reactive than most other metals. Like the metals in Group 1, they are also never
found uncombined in nature. d) Elements in Group 3 through Group 12 are called the
transition metals. They are less reactive than the metals in Groups 1 and 2. e)
Only some of the elements in Groups 13 and 15 of the periodic table are metals.
These metals are never found uncombined in nature. f) The 2 rows of elements placed
below the main part of the periodic table are the lanthanide series at the top row
and the actinide series, at the bottom row. Different lanthanides are usually found
together in nature and are always combined with other elements. 6. If there is a
shortage of glass graduated cylinder, an empty glass bottle or vial can be
calibrated to 10 mL and will be used as a measuring device.
Answers to Questions Q1. Iron, aluminium and zinc reacted with muriatic acid while
copper did not. Q2. Iron, aluminium and zinc, the metals that reacted with muriatic
acid (HCl), are higher than hydrogen in position in the activity series, hence they
are reactive. Copper on the other hand is below hydrogen in the activity series,
hence less reactive. This means that it cannot displace hydrogen. Q3. The
reactivity increases as it goes from top to bottom of the periodic table.
152
Q4. Yes, Group 2 metals followed the same trend for Group 1 metals in terms of
reactivity. Q5. The reactivity decreases as it goes from left to right of the
periodic table. Q6. a. Na is more reactive than Mg with HCl b. Al is more reactive
than Ag c. Zn is more reactive than Fe
Q7. When metals react with other substances, the gradual wearing away or corrosion
of a metal results. This may lead to the deterioration of metals. Q7. Give ways of
preventing corrosion of metals. Q8. There are several ways of preventing corrosion
of a metal: 1. Keep air and moisture away from the metal by covering the metal.
This is done by painting, plastic coating, greasing, chromium plating, zinc plating
or galvanizing and tin plating. Fix small pieces of a more reactive metal to its
surface.
2.
Table 1.Data for Activity 2 Observable Reactions with Muriatic Acid (Check and
describe the metal observed ) Violent Slow No Reaction
Reacts slowly to form rust; accompanied by formation of bubbles due to formation of
hydrogen gas No reaction. Reacts vigorously. The metal tarnishes; accompanied by
formation of bubbles due to formation of hydrogen gas Reacts vigorously. The metal
tarnishes; accompanied by formation of bubbles due to formation of hydrogen gas.
Metal iron
copper aluminum
zinc
153
References Elvins, C., Jones, D., Lukins, N., Miskin, J., Ross, B., & Sanders, R.
(1991). Chemistry one: Materials, chemistry in everyday life. Port Melbourne,
Australia: Heinemann Educational Australia. Frank, D., T. Griffith Jones, J. G.
Little, B. Miaoulis, S. Miller, & J. M. Pasachoff (2008). California focus on
physical science. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Hill, G.,
J. Holman, J. Lazonby, J. Raffan, & D. Waddington (1990). Chemistry, the salters’
approach.Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. Magno, M. et al. (1995).Science
and technology for a better life series (Chemistry) (2nded). Teachers Manual.Diwa
Scholastic Press Inc. Makati, Philippines. Magno. M. et al. (1990). Science and
technologyIII.Teachers Manual. Raquel Commercial Press. Philippines. Magno. M. et
al. (1991). Science and technology III. Book Media Press. Philippines. McDougal
Littell (2007). Science focus on physical science. Sacramento,CA: Houghton Mifflin
Company. Mendoza, E.E. &Religioso, T.F. (1997).Chemistry. Phoenix Publishing House,
Inc. Quezon City. PASMEP et al. (1991).Teaching resource package-chemistry.
Philippines. UPNISMED (1991).Science and technology textbook III. Quezon City,
Philippines: Instructional Materials Corporation. Pedregosa, E. F. (1982).
Secondary science for learning and living 3 - Chemistry. Quezon City, Philippines:
Phoenix Press, Inc. The American Chemical Society (1988).Chemistry in the
community. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. The Collins Paperback
English Dictionary (1986). William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. Great Britain. Links
http://www.slideshare.net/AmrHassaan/patterns-of-reactivity
http://amrita.olabs.co.in/?sub=73&brch=3&sim=59&cnt=1 2008 Chemical Heritage
Foundation.hhtp://www.gofoster.com/downloads/twe/chap06.pdf.
http://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Mark+Buchanan+Periodic+Table 154
Appendix: Element Cards for Activity 1 (you can make this bigger)
Part A
H
Hydrogen
Li
Lithium
Atomic Mass: 1.008 Description: odourless gas, very flammable Compounds: H2O, HCl
Atomic Mass: 6.941 Description: soft gray metal, reacts with water Compounds: Li2O,
LiCl
Be
Beryllium Atomic Mass: 9.012 Description: gray metal
B
Boron Atomic Mass: 10.81 Description: gray metalloid, semiconductor
Compounds: BeO, BeCl2
Compounds: B2O3, BCl3
155
C
Carbon Atomic Mass: 12.01 Description: black solid (graphite) or transparent
crystal (diamond) Compounds: CO2, CCl4
N
Nitrogen Atomic Mass: 14.01 Description: odorless gas, rather unreactive Compounds:
NH3, NCl3
O
Oxygen Atomic Mass: 16.00 Description: odorless gas, very reactive
F
Fluorine Atomic Mass: 19.00 Description: yellowish gas, extremely reactive
Compounds: HF, NaF, CaF2
Compounds: H2O
156
Na
Sodium
Mg
Magnesium
Atomic Mass: 22.99 Description: soft gray metal, reacts vigorously with water
Compounds: Na2O, NaCl
Atomic Mass: 24.31 Description: gray metal, flammable
Compounds: MgCl2, MgO
Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon
Atomic Mass: 26.98 Description: silvery metal
Atomic Mass: 28.09 Description: gray metalloid, semiconductor
Compounds: AlCl3, Al2O3
Compounds: SiCl4, SiO2
157
P
Phosphorus
S
Sulfur
Atomic Mass: 30.97 Description: white, red, or black, spontaneously flammable

Compounds: PH3, PCl3, PCl5
Atomic Mass: 32.07 Description: yellow solid powder
Compounds: H2S, SCl2
Cl
Chlorine Atomic Mass: 35.45 Description: greenish gas, extremely reactive
Compounds: HCl, NaCl, CaCl2
K
Potassium Atomic Mass: 39.10 Description: softgray metal, reacts violently with
water Compounds: K2O, KCl
158
Ca
Calcium
As
Arsenic
Atomic Mass: 40.08 Description: hard silvery metal, flammable
Atomic Mass: 74.92 Description: gray metalloid
Compounds: AsH3, AsCl3, AsCl5 Compounds: CaCl2, CaO
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Atomic Mass: 78.96 Description: gray or red solid
Atomic Mass: 79.90 Description: red-orange liquid, very reactive
Compounds: H2Se, SeCl2
Compounds: HBr, NaBr, CaBr2
159
Rb
Rubidium Atomic Mass: 85.47 Description: soft gray metal, reacts violently with
water Compounds: Rb2O, RbCl
Sr
Srontium Atomic Mass: 87.62 Description: soft silvery metal
Compounds: SrCl2, SrO
In
Indium
Sn
Tin
Atomic Mass: 114.8 Description: soft silvery metal
Atomic Mass: 118.7 Description: silvery- white metal
Compounds: InCl3, In2O3
Compounds: SnO2, SnCl4
160
Sb
Antimony
Te
Tellurium
Atomic Mass: 121.8 Description: bluish- white metalloid, semiconductor Compounds:

SbH3, SbCl3, SbCl5
Atomic Mass: 127.6 Description: silvery-white metalloid, Semiconductor Compounds:

H2Te, TeCl2
I
Iodine
Atomic Mass: 126.9 Description: dark-purple solid, reactive Compounds: HI, NaI,
CaI2
161
Element Cards for Part B
Ge
Germanium
Ga
Gallium
Atomic Mass: 72.59 Description: gray metalloid, semiconductor Compounds: GeO2,

GeCl4
Atomic Mass: 69.72 Description: silvery metal, melts at just above room temperature
Compounds: GaCl3, Ga2O3
He
Helium
Ne
Neon
Atomic Mass: 4.003 Description: odorless gas, very unreactive Compounds: none known
162
Ar
Argon
Kr
Krypton
Atomic Mass: 83.80 Description: odorless gas, very unreactive Compounds: KrF2
Xe
Xenon
Atomic Mass: 131.3 Description: odorless gas, very unreactive Compounds: XeF6, XeF4
163
164
UNIT 4 Living Things and Their Environment
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166
UNIT 4: Living Things and Their Environment
Overview
Science is about asking questions and looking for answers. Each of the five modules
on Living Things and Their Environment for Grade 8 starts with questions that guide
students in their journey of constructing the big ideas through activities that are
interspersed in the modules. The students are provided with opportunities to
develop the inquiry skills as well as their critical thinking, problem solving, and
communication skills. There are five modules in this quarter: Module 1: Module 2:
Module 3: Module 4: Module 5: . Module 1 starts with the big picture - the
diversity of organisms in various ecosystems. Module 2 follows which zeros in
energy-matter interconversion. Organisms then need to break down the complex
molecules during digestion (Module 3) to yield energy that leads to health and
wellness (Module 4). The nutrients takes in by organisms will provide the energy
for metabolic processes such as cellular reproduction (Module 5). Activities in the
Learning Materials are designed to help students connect the concepts and help them
construct the big ideas. Some of the activities may be performed as groupwork while
others may be performed individually. It is strongly urged that students read the
activities before performing them. It is also important that the students take note
of the safety measures. In the course of using these materials, it is important to
engage in effective classroom discussions. These discussions provide students the
necessary scaffolds to make connections and deepen their understanding of the
concepts. These discussions also provide formative assessment opportunities.
Feedback gained from these formative assessment opportunities will provide the
essential data to determine the succeeding strategies that may be employed to reach
the desired learning goals. Maintaining students’ curiosity about the world
requires making them confident that they can use the methods of inquiry to find
answers to their questions. The K to 12 curriculum spirals and increases in
difficulty at each grade level so as to provide challenges appropriate to the
students’ age. As they acquire the tools and habits of inquiry, they would develop
into effective and productive citizens of the 21st century. Biodiversity
Interactions The Digestive System Nutrition and Wellness Cellular Reproduction and
Genetics
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Unit 4 MODULE
BIODIVERSITY
The module will enhance what students already know about organisms found in almost
all places in the world. It will initially bring to mind in students what have been
previously learned in the lower grades, and connect these to what they are going to
study in Grade 8. This module will introduce students to the system by which
scientists have classified and named organisms for an organized and orderly keeping
of information about them. It will let students explore the similarities and
differences of the various groups of organisms and their representative examples.
Through the module, students will know more of the uses and harm these organisms
may bring to humans, other organisms and the environment. Activity 1 will make
students see that people from different places may call a particular organism with
different names. Thus, it will help them recognize the need to classify and name
them to avoid confusion. Activity 2 will give students the opportunity to see and
identify bacteria used in making food. At the same time it will make them adept in
using the microscope. Activity 3 will familiarize students with the life cycle of
an insect that spread dengue. It will further help them develop practices that
minimize the occurrence of this deadly disease. After students survey the different
groups of organisms, students will analyze situations which will enable them to
realize the advantages of high over low biodiversity in Activity 4. Activity 5 will
engage students in an activity towards the protection and conservation of their
community’s biodiversity. The discussions, thought and developmental questions, and
activities, will help students answer the key questions in the module. In addition,
this should encourage them to take seriously what they have learned and will still
learn about biodiversity. Hopefully, learning about the topic will culminate in
students’ realization of the importance of biodiversity in their lives and
participate actively in protecting and conserving it.
169
Why is biodiversity important? What human activities destroy or endanger the

existence of rate and economically important species?
Have students read page 1 of the module. Then, ask them to recall what they have
learned in Grade 7 about fungi and algae. You may need to pose questions like: Are
fungi or seaweeds/algae also plants? Are birds animals? Why do you say so? Accept
their answers and tell them they will be able to answer these and other questions
as they discover more about organisms on Earth through the module.
Activity
What’s in a name?
Activity 1 can be done by groups (8 groups per class) for convenience in procuring
pictures of different organisms. Animal pictures can be pasted on colored paper as
this will be more attractive to students.
Advanced Preparation
Gather pictures of any four of the following organisms. Paste each picture on a
piece of paper. Prepare pictures according to the number of groups in your class.
Shark Dove Periwinkle (tsitsirika) Eucheuma (gozo) Green algae: (lato or ar-arusep)
Hibiscus (gumamela) Coleus (mayana) Turmeric (Luyang Dilaw) Lagundi Sambong
170
Teaching Tips
1. Two days before Activity 1 you may suggest to students to communicate with
relatives and friends in other places (e.g., in other islands within the country)
through text or email on how birds, shark, or green algae (lato/ar-arusep) are
called in their area. During the activity, tell students to start with the name
used for an organism in their own locality. Accept all other names given by
different students to a particular organism. Inform them that there’s no need yet
to come to a consensus how these organisms are to be called. To save on time, you
may request only particular groups to present their outputs. After the activity,
discuss with the students how these organisms are named in different places in case
they will not be able to get information from other areas in the country: BIRD (as
a group): Ibon (Tag.), Pispis (P. Bis.), Langgam (C. Bis.), Mammanu (Ibanag) SHARK
Common/Local Names: Pating (Tag), Bagis (Bis., P. Bis), Iho (Surigao), ihotiqui
(Bohol) DOVE Common/local Names: Kalapati (Tag), Pating (P. Bis.) HIBISCUS
Common/Local Names: Gumamela (Tag), Kayanga (Ilokano, Bik.), Tapulanga (Negros)
COLEUS: Common/Local Names: Mayana/Malaina (Tag.) Lampunaya/Lapunaya/Daponaya
(Bis.), Saimayu (Sulu) PERIWINKLE Common/Local Names: Tsitsirika /Atay-bia/Amnias
(Tag.), Lubitos (Ivan.), Sirsirika (Bik.), Pinggan-pinggan(P. Bis.) GREEN ALGAE:
Caulerpa lentillifera or C. racemosa Common/Local Names: Ar-arusep (Ilokano),
Gulaman/Lato (Bis.) TURMERIC: Curcuma longa Linn. Common/Local Names: Luyang
Dilaw/Dilaw(Tag.), Kulyaw(Ilk.), Kalawag(Mbo., Bis.), Salampawyan(Bag.) BLUMEA
CAMPHOR Common/Local Names: Sambong(Tag .), Subsob/Subosob(Ilk), Alimon 171
2.
3.
Alibum/Alibhon (P. Bis.), Kaliban/Kalibura (Tagb.), Dalapot (C. Bis.) FIVE-LEAVED
CHASTE TREE Common/Local Names: Lagundi (Tag., Ibn., Bik., P. Bis.), Dangla/Limo-
Limo (Ilk.), Dagtan (If.) EUCHEUMA Common/Local Names: Gozo (Tag.) 4. Let students
proceed with the topics contained in the module clarifying points which they may
not understand or have questions. Discuss the inclusion of the three-domain
classification system. You may need to assist them in analyzing Table 1 or in
answering Questions 4 to 7. Students may wonder why scientific names are in the
Latin language. Explain that Latin is an unchanging language. Mention that the
genus-species name tells something about what the species is, where it is from and
who discovered it. Mention that scientific names are sometimes written with an
incomplete genus name like E. coli.
KINGDOM ARCHAEBACTERIA
Electron micrographs (Figures 1 and 2) are pictures of things and organisms
observed using the electron microscope. The cell walls of halophiles contain the
pigment carotenoids which are yellow and orange in color. This accounts for such
colors of salt ponds where they are present in large numbers. This can be observed
in certain areas in Bulacan, Pangasinan, Mindoro Occidental, Davao, and Misamis
Oriental where salt is produced. Encourage students to use the internet or library
books to be able to answer Q9.
KINGDOM EUBACTERIA
Spirilla may occur in three forms, namely spirillum, vibrio and spirochete.
Spirillum is thick, rigid and spiral shown in Figure 3 in the module. Vibrio is
curved or comma-shaped while a spirochete is thin, flexible, and spiral. In areas
where White cheese (kesong puti) is produced, local people use the term ”starter”.
It is rennet or coagulant which contains the lactic acid bacterium. Rennet is added
to fresh unpasteurized milk of cow, carabao or goat to produce kesong puti. Several
strains of Lactobacillus are added to milk during the production of yogurt. These
include Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus caseii and Lactobacillus reutri.
Bifidum bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium animalis and Bifidobacterium lactis, are
also used in making yogurt.
172
Activity
How do bacteria in yogurt look like?
Advanced Preparation
Two or three days before the activity, procure plain yogurt without flavour from
grocery stores or supermarkets and store in the refrigerator. Request methylene
blue from your laboratory technician or get from a scientific supply store ahead of
the class. To dilute yogurt, add two teaspoons of water to one-fourth (1/4)
teaspoon of yogurt. Prepare this just immediately before students do the activity.
Teaching Tips
1. Ask students if they have any idea what fermented foods or drinks are. According
to their response, you may mention that these are made using bacteria. Ask for
examples that they might know and the availability of these in their area. In
places like Sta. Cruz and Los Baños, Laguna, Bulacan, Isabela, Nueva Ecija and
Cagayan Valley, “kesong puti” is made. You may mention other products like yogurt,
Yakult, cheese and most recently Probiotic drinks. 2. Activitiy 2 is a good
activity for students to do for schools with microscopes. You can review students
on the proper way of using the microscope, if needed, especially if they have not
done it in Grade 7. Thoroughly washed droppers from infant medicines can be used if
no laboratory droppers are available. 3. If you still have time or if you have
advanced students in the class, you can also let them do the alternate activity
below using fermented milk like Yakult or any Probiotic drinks available in your
locality. For Probiotic drinks use the unflavored one. 3a. For areas where yogurt
is not available, any fermented milk (as mentioned above) can be used. You must be
aware that this is popular with kids. Introduce the use of bacteria in making
yogurt and fermented milk. Tell them that they will do an activity to observe
bacteria in fermented milk using the microscope. Give the following procedure for
students to do.
173
Activity
How do bacteria in fermented milk look like?

Materials Needed:
dropper glass slide methylene blue cover slip fermented milk microscope
Procedure:
1. 2. Place a drop of fermented milk on a slide. Add a drop of methylene blue and
cover with a cover slip.
Q1. What is the purpose of adding methylene blue to the specimen? 3. Observe under
the LPO and HPO of the microscope.
Q2. Describe what you see under the HPO. Q3. What is the name of the bacteria
involved in making this fermented milk drink?
Teaching Tips
1. Questions may arise regarding probiotic drinks. Probiotics refer to
microorganisms that naturally live in the intestinal tract. They are “friendly
bacteria” and believed to strengthen the immune system. It is helps in the overall
maintenance of good health. Explain that fermented milk/probiotic drinks are also
made by adding beneficial bacteria to skimmed milk. The process involved is the
same as that in making yogurt. It occurs because bacteria break down substances
into desirable products like food or drink. Tell students that they will understand
more of the fermentation process in Grade 9. For students to answer Q3, show them
the container of the fermented/probiotic drink you used. Sometimes the bacteria
used is in the list of ingredients found in the plastic package for 6 bottles of
the fermented milk. You can ask from the saleslady this plastic cover to show to
your students. Fermented drinks in the market may use Lactobacillus casei Shirota
strain or Lactobacillus paracasei. A bacterial strain is a subgroup of a species
having particular characteristics developed by breeders.
2.
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Answers to Questions in the Alternate Activity:
Q1. For clearer observation of the specimen. Q2. Possible answers:
Rodlike/cylindrical/long structures can be seen Q3. It depends on the fermented
milk used: Lactobacillus paracasei (in probiotics); Lactobacillus casei Shirota
strain (in Yakult) In case your school does not have microscopes, show the
following pictures of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus as
seen under the compound microscope.
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Streptococcus thermophilus x 1000
Bacillus thuringiensis protein crystals have been developed as an effective

biopesticide in tablet and powder form. It can be sprayed to crops to control corn
borers and diamond backmoth. It is also used to regulate increase in population of
mosquitoes carrying disease-causing organisms. Some bacterial cells are rich in
protein and are utilized as alternative sources of food. They are cultured in the
laboratory as Single Cell Proteins(SCP). SCP can be mixed with a food base to add
protein for cattle diet. Whether in urban or rural areas those who waded in
floodwaters or mud or stagnant waterlike farmers, veterinarians, pet shop owners
and sewage workers are at risk of contacting leptospirosis. This also includes
people who are into camping, hiking, rafting, canoeing. These people can swallow
contaminated food or water and through contact with broken skin or with mucosal
surfaces of the eyes or nose. Warn students of the danger of wading or playing in
floodwaters especially if they have cuts in the skin. If it cannot be avoided,
remind them to thoroughly wash hands or shower with soap. Leptospira bacteria are
killed by soap, disinfectants, and drying. They should use footwear especially when
walking in mud or moist soil. It is also safe to wear gloves while gardening.
Feeding raw offal to dogs must be avoided. Most importantly, homes and surroundings
must be clean. No food sources must be lying around uncovered so rats can be
controlled.
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Anthrax is endemic in the Philippines. It can be treated when detected early.
Students should help people understand about the danger of eating “double dead
meat.” They should be on the look-out for reports in the news on anthrax cases as
they provide excellent real-world connection and resources for learning more about
the disease-causing bacteria. Encourage them to consult the barangay health
officers on this matter.
Protists
Some books also refer to the group as Kingdom Protoctista. Chlorophyll in algae can
be masked, thus, other than green algae, there are golden, brown and red ones.
Caulerpa lentillifera is eaten as salad with tomatoes and onion. Clarify that
seaweed as a term applied to Caulerpa and other green algae can mislead people and
mistake it for a plant. Remind students to correct this misconception. Alginate,
the brown powder form of alginic acid, is naturally present in other brown algae.
It is used as stabilizing, thickening or gel-forming agents in ice cream, candy,
toothpaste, and cream cosmetics. Iodine can also be found in brown algae.
Carageenan, a complex carbohydrate from red algae, is used as a suspending agent in
foods, medicines, and cosmetics. It is also a filtering agent in beverages.
Microbiologists use agar as a solidifying agent in the growth medium for
microorganisms and plant tissue culture. If a prepared slide of euglena is
available in your school, have students view it under the microscope. You can get
your specimen from an aquarium or pond water. Humans develop malaria when infected
with any of the protozoan parasites from the genus Plasmodium. The four species
include: Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium
malaria.
Fungi
Certain fungi cause wilting of tomato, papaya, corn and banana. Fungi can also live
together with a single-cell alga forming a lichen. The figure below shows the
structure of a poisonous mushroom. Students must be reminded of not just eating any
kind of mushroom they find in the woods. A poisonous mushroom has a death cup,
white spores, and a ring on the stalk. It contains amatoxin, a deadly substance
which when ingested damages the kidney and the liver.
176
remnants of universal veil
cap gills ring stalk
death cup
(Adapted
from: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II.

Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation.
p. 266.)
Yeasts are also utilized as SCP.
THE PLANT KINGDOM

As students start to study the plant group, discover if there are still students
who think that all plants are colored green and that green algae are plants.
Clarify that pigments can mask the green color of chlorophyll. Clarify the term
“lumot.” In the Philippines it is applied to algae, cyanobacteria and mosses.
Students should be able at least to differentiate one from the other by Grade 8.
177
Vascular Plants Tracheophytes
Photo by: Alvin J. Encarnacion
Photo Courtesy of Michael Anthony B. Mantala
Asplenium nidus bird’s nest
Azolla sp.
Start with how ferns are called in your locality. Show pictures of other fern
examples. Or you can show them some species planted in flower pots that may be
found in your school. The giant fern of the genus Angiopteris (Figure 15a) in the
student module has grown to about 206 centimeters from the base to the highest
point of a leaf. In answering Q31, they should be able to see the height of
Angiopteris almost as high as the first floor of the building. Azolla can be
cultured so that it will be readily available for use in science classes. The
places you can ask about how and where you can get the plants are the Department of
Agriculture offices in your locality, commercial plant gardens, pet shops, aquarium
stores and the UP NISMED website. Here are the materials you need and the procedure
in raising and maintaining an azolla culture: In an artificial pond, medium sized-
basin or pail, put about 2 inches of loam soil. Add water from an existing aquarium
or pond, creek, river, artesian well or faucet. Add a handful or a few azolla
plants and if a pail or basin is used, place in a shady area. You may stir the soil
from time to time for the nutrients to be easily absorbed by the plants. These can
be left to grow and may reproduce fast and can soon fill up your whole container or
pond. During hot days, their leaves may turn brown or red but can recover during
the rainy or cooler season. You can mention that azolla is also used as food for
tilapia. Other members of the spore-reproducing plants include the whisk ferns,
club mosses and horsetails. Athyrium esculentum (Retz.) Copel or Diplazum
esculentum Retz. called “pako” is an edible fern. Some eat them raw as salad or
steamed with tomatoes. Dried nito stems are good sources of fiber and are made into
handicraft items.
178
Gymnosperms
If you or your school has internet connection, look for images of Welwitschia at
darkroastedblend.com., Dark Roasted Blend: The Strangest Plant on Earth.
Gymnospersms are excellent sources of timber. The bark of pine trees yield tannin
used in tanning animal skins in producing leather. Tannin is also used to make ink.
Angiosperms
Angiosperms are plants that belong to Phylum Anthophyta. Water plants like Quiapo,
water lily, duckweed, water hyacinth Hydrilla and Vallisneria which grow in
freshwater habitats may need to be introduced to students. Water hyacinth, is often
mistaken as water lily. Water hyacinths have green heart-shaped leaves, bladders
and smaller violet flowers. It also serves as a depollutant, being able to absorb
pollutants in water. In salt waters, seagrasses like the eel grass are found in
coastal areas. Students will see in the next module that aquatic plants play an
important role in food chains. Have students recall from the earlier grades about
aerial plants they know. Add that the endemic orchid Waling-waling is an endangered
species. There is also a move in congress to make it the second national flower. An
activity or project about medicinal plants can be done by students in this topic.
It will make students aware of the plants in their locality that may be used in
preventing or curing particular diseases.
Harmful Plants
People sometimes forget the importance of weeding. Remind students of the bad
effects of competition for nutrients between weeds and economically important
crops. Some plants harm animals. Young sorghum leaves contain a toxic substance
that can cause cyanide poisoning. Others like Kantutai/coronitas/baho-baho, and
Hantalakaw/malasili contain chemicals that can be fatal to animals. Morning glory
is also host to the snout beetle (sweet potato weevil) that greatly lessen sweet
potato harvest. Dieffenbachia maculata (dumbcane), an ornamental house and garden
plant, can be dangerous to children. The leaves and stem with its bitter and
poisonous juice burns the mouth. This causes swelling of the tongue that can affect
speech and block the air passage that may lead to death. Many cases of tuba-tuba
poisoning which led to death of some have been reported in several areas in the
country. Give warning to students about eating any part of unfamiliar plants. 179
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
To start the discussion on animals have students recall what they learned about
them in the lower grades. The first invertebrate that students will study are
members of Phylum Porifera, the sponges, also called pore-bearing animals ( from
porus meaning “pore,” and fere meaning “to bear” ).
Cnidarians
Most members of Phylum Cnidaria live in salt waters. Adult corals, sea anemone and
the freshwater hydra live attached to solid materials. Jellyfishes differ from them
as the young are attached but become free-swimming adults. Hydra may be observed
under the microscope using water from bottom portion of ponds or aquarium.
Encourage students to open internet links for more information about corals.
Mention that coral reefs once damaged take a long time to restore. Bring up
incidents of oil spills in Guimaras, General Santos/Sarangani areas and other
places and the latest damage to the Tubbataha reefs. Discuss the destruction of
coral reefs in relation to fish stock decline resulting to less fish catch,
increase in fish prices, less food supply and economic effects to fishermen.
Several cases of box jelly fish attacks and even deaths in the Philippines have
been reported in the news and feature shows on TV. The sting cause itchiness and
leave severe marks in the body. Warn students to be cautious while swimming in
beaches. If stung by jelly fish, wet cotton with vinegar and place in the affected
area. Ask for suggestions of ways to protect coral reefs.
Flatworms
Flatworms belong to Phylum Platyhelminthes (in Greek platys means flat, helmins
means worm). Encourage students to find out if their towns have slaughterhouses
where beef and pork meats are strictly checked for the presence of tapeworm cyts.
Livestock slaughtered by local people in their homes must be checked too.
Roundworms
Roundworms such as pinworms and Ascaris are notorious parasites in children.
Hygienic practices are important to avoid being parasitized by these worms. Young
ipi-ipil seeds are usually eaten to expel these worms.
Segmented Worms
Emphasize the role of earthworms in agriculture and of leeches in medicine. Care,
however, must be taken by farmers or researchers in muddy fields so as not to be
victims of the blood-sucking leeches. 180
Mollusks
Point out the thin and flexible skeleton of squids and the white “cuttlefish bone”
usually fed to birds to add calcium to their diet. A lot of mollusks are used as
food by humans and also by other animals. Many shells are collected for ornaments
while others produce pearls. The marine seashell Turris dollyae (synonymous to
Turris crispa), present in the Philippines and Queensland, Australia was found to
have medicinal value. Dr. Baldomero M. Olivera, its discoverer, has named it after
Dr. Dolores (Dolly) Hernandez, in honor of her outstanding contributions to
Philippine Science Education. Dr. Olivera is a Professor of Biology at the
University of Utah. Overcollection of mollusks for food as well as pollution caused
by pesticides used in farming that have reached bodies of water have killed some
mollusks have caused their populations to decline.
Photo: Courtesy of Dr. Baldomero M. Olivera
Echinoderms
The sea star is what was previously referred to as the “starfish.” Point out that
spines of the sea urchin are long while those of the sand dollar are short as shown
below.
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II.

Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation.
p. 293).
181
Arthropods
Students usually mistake spiders as insects. Point out the differences between
insects and arachnids, specifically, the number of body sections and legs. They
should also be able to distinguish a centipede from a millipede as they may be
bitten by a centipede which is painful and with venom. Aedes aegypti is the
principal carrier (vector) of the virus causing dengue. The disease is endemic to
the Philippines being a sub-tropical country. The activity will help students
understand the life cycle of this insect so occurrence of dengue can be controlled.
Point out that research has found out that young people are at greater risk of
getting sick with the disease because of their lifestyle, that is, wearing of
shorts and sleeveless shirts or blouses and staying in cool dark places.
Activity
3
Teaching Tips
What can you do to prevent dengue?
1. In studying the life cycle of A. aegypti, students should take note of what
happens in each stage for them to be able to answer the questions. 2. In answering
Q52, they should take note of the white spots, number of body sections, wings,
antenna and legs. For Q54, they must think of any place where nonflowing and clean
water exists. 3. Ask students what larva of mosquitoes are called in the locality.
In other places, they are called ”waya-waya.” 4. Other questions that may be asked
of students include: How many stages does Aedes aegypti go through in its life
cycle; how would you describe a pupa; in which stage does a young mosquito stop
eating and which stage/s is/are easy to destroy or eliminate? Emphasize that at
present there is still no cure nor vaccines for dengue. A person may also get sick
of the disease four times in his/her lifetime. The reason is there are four strains
of the virus that cause dengue. Remember, the next attack by another strain is more
critical. When a person is sick with dengue they are just given medicines to
relieve the symptoms and prevent complications brought by the disease. Early
detection is important in the recovery of dengue patients. When there is sudden
onset of fever that lasts for two days, extreme body and joint pains and chills or
rashes are observed, the patient should immediately be examined by the doctor. 182
Methods to prevent spread of the disease are: 1) control of the vector, that is,
preventing reproduction of the mosquito by removing breeding places, 2) avoiding
mosquito bites by using mosquito nets or installing screens in windows and door, 3)
using safe repellants, trapping and killing larvae and 4) employing biocontrol by
introducing predators of mosquitoes such as dragonflies. Have students recall the
use of Bacillus thuringiensis as microbial pesticide. Mention that it is also
applied to breeding places of mosquitoes that spread diseases. The Department of
Science and Technology- Industrial Technology Development Institute (DOST-ITDI) has
developed an Aedes Mosquito Ovi/Larvicidal Trap System which is a safe and cheap
way of controlling mosquito populations. For details please visit the following
websites: www.science .ph; www.dengueoltrappcti.com; youtube.com- type “Oltrap”. It
is also available in all Mercury Drug outlets. Or contact the licensee of the
technology, Heritage Veterinary Corporation. They can be reached at Tel. No. 921-
8978 and 579-9379. Another mosquito-born (A. aegypti) disease to watch out for is
Chikungunya. It affects anybody and exhibit the same symptoms but not as deadly as
dengue. It is distinguished from dengue by the presence of anti-CHK antibodies in
blood samples of patients. Cases of chikugunya have been reported in Metro Manila,
Laguna, Pangasinan, and some parts of Mindanao. The DOH has launched the 4-S
Campaign against dengue, namely: 1. Search and destroy breeding places of dengue
virus-carrying mosquitoes. This is done by removing all possible breeding places of
mosquitoes. Examples are: changing water in flower vases once or twice a week,
regular cleaning of roof gutters which can retain water, draining water from unused
old tires, flower pots, tin cans, bottles, and plastic cups and keeping them in
areas where they cannot collect water, and covering water containers like drums or
pails and draining water from tree holes, base of leaves like those of the
bromeliads, coconut shells and bamboo posts. Self-protection measures that include
wearing of long sleeves and pants, using mosquito nets and applying mosquito
repellants. Seek early consultation when symptoms appear, meaning when one has
fever for two days and begin to have rashes, he/she must immediately consult the
doctor at the nearest health center or hospital. Say no to indiscriminate fogging
unless there is an outbreak.
2.
3.
4.
Chordates
Not all members of Phylum Chordata have backbones. another chordate without a
backbone. Acorn worm is
183
Vertebrates
Vertebrates have an internal skeleton that gives them more flexibility in moving.
Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are members of the vertebrate
group.
Fishes
Students should know that not all sharks attack humans. Except for the great white,
tiger and bull sharks, whale sharks (Butanding) are friendly species. Studies have
discovered that sharks, attack people mistaking them for prey or food especially
those wearing silvery wetsuits. Seals, food to sharks have silvery covering. Some
shark species are attractions in zoos and ecotourism spots. Care, however, should
be taken that these fishes are not abused. Fish supply has also decreased because
of another fishing practice like use of big boats and fine nets. You can then ask
students how this method cause decrease in fish population. Emphasize the need for
people of all ages to be aware of conserving fish species by following rules set by
the government for marine sanctuaries and laws against dynamite and cyanide
fishing. For students living in fishing villages, they should help the Bantay-dagat
in their efforts to implement these laws. Those living in urban or mountain areas
may check the internet, listen to news or watch TV features and inquire from local
government officials on what these organizations are doing to protect and conserve
fish species.
Amphibians
Point out differences of frogs and toads which are the more familiar amphibians.
Mention that there was a time when toads were introduced to the Philippines to
control mosquito population. Mention too that in other places frog legs are eaten
with some restaurants serving them as exotic food. They should however be aware
that these vertebrates also suffer from population decline due to loss of wet or
moist areas where they live.
Reptiles
The large saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus are not a threatened species. They
are found in rivers, large lakes, coastal waters, mangroves and especially in
estuarine or brackish water. It can swim long distances. In the Philippines, they
have become extinct in certain areas where they abound before. “Lolong,” the
largest caught saltwater crocodile of Agusan Marsh in Mindanao, which died recently
should be teaching people a lesson on biodiversity. Check out the internet for an
article (http://www.rappler.com/move-ph/23498-lolong-angelalcala) written by a
Filipino expert on crocodiles. Because of this incident, a nongovernment
organization encourages government to ban capture of animals from the wild.
184
The smaller threatened Philippine crocodile can be found only in Philippine rivers,
freshwater lakes and creeks. This crocodile species should be given priority in
study and conservation activities.
Birds
Some members of the bird group have also become a major source of food to humans
like chickens and ducks (including their eggs). If you are in areas other than
those mentioned where Philippine Eagles live, ask students what they have read or
heard about causes of the destruction of the birds’ habitat. In 2010, the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has declared the
Philippine Eagle as critically endangered species. Aside from the causes of its
decline in number presented in the student module, add to these illegal hunting and
collection, lessening availability of food, pollution brought by mining and use of
pesticides in nearby farmlands close to where they live. Students should know that
pollution affect the eagles’ breeding. It causes the thinning of their eggshell
resulting to nonhatching of the eggs. Encourage students to read more about
activities of the IUCN.
Mammals The spiny anteater lives on land. It has spines in between the hairs all
over its body. Platypus on the other hand have thick water proof fur and lives both
in water and land.
Mention that whales are mammals that lack hair. Dugong is also called sea cow. Ask
students to give their observations regarding differences of humans and other
primates. Ask students if they are aware of television shows that teach about
biodiversity. Convince them that current technologies must be used for learning and
not just as entertainment. LOW AND HIGH BIODIVERSITY Tropical rainforests are found
mostly in Latin America. Others are in West Africa, the Pacific Islands and South
East Asia including the Philippines. Add that rainforests serve to trap rainwater
that flows into rivers and streams. Plants that abound in forests minimize soil
erosion, landslides and floods. They are also sources of crops that may resist
pests and diseases or produce more harvest and chemicals that can be made into
medicines. Discuss monocroping. Let them describe and classify it as to having low
or high diversity. This would help them in doing Activity 4.
185
Activity
4
Teaching Tips
What is the importance of biodiversity to ecosystems?
1. This is a group work. Make copies of the following photos depending on the
number of groups. If not, just provide names of ecosystems and have members discuss
each for them to be able to answer the questions in the activity.
A tropical rainforest
Rice Farm
Textbook
186
(Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 337 &
340)
Lake
Rotting Log
(Adapted from: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology

II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development
Corporation. p. 335)
Mangrove

Textbook (Rev. ed.).
Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 338)
2. Answers to Q69 will depend on the ecosystems you presented. 3. Students should
be able to recognize that a banana plantation is an example of monocroping. 4. In
answering Q75, have them recall the discussion about the sea star, crown of thorns.
5. In answering Q78, encourage students to think of familiar places that have low
biodiversity.
Protecting and Conserving Biodiversity

Pose the questions: What are your responsibilities towards biodiversity for a
sustained supply of food and other resources for all organisms? What actions must
you take to protect and conserve biodiversity? If some of the abundant species
present thirty or fifty years ago in your community are lesser now or have
disappeared, what would the future look like for these organisms? 187
Activity
I create the future
Teaching Tips
1. Have ready copies of the “Priority Pyramid” and the “Making it Happen” handout.
There should be one for each student and for each small group. 2. Part I: My Future
World. Brainstorm students’ ideas about the conditions that they want to see
present in the world they will live in the future. Direct students to answer the
questions, “What do you want the future world to be? “What things or conditions do
you want to see 50 years from now?” Give them time to individually list down about
five of such conditions. Then, get them to share their ideas to the class. Write on
the board students’ ideas. 3. Once students have shared their ideas, give them a
copy of the “Priority Pyramid” worksheet. Explain to them that they are going to
fill up the blocks in the pyramid with what they consider as important conditions
of the future that they want. Direct them to the ideas written on the board. Tell
students to rank the conditions from most important to the least. They are supposed
to write on the topmost block the most important condition, the second most
important conditions on the second level, and so on. Students may write down up to
ten conditions. Assist students so that they are able to arrive at a pyramid with
at least three levels (about six conditions). 4. Assign students to groups of four
or five. If students have previously been grouped, you can split their original
group into two. Have the students share their pyramids with their groupmates. They
should show their pyramid and explain how they arrive at the ranking. Then, have
students work together to arrive at a group pyramid. Be ready to help groups who
may have difficulty arriving at a consensus. 5. Then, call the small groups to a
whole-class sharing of their pyramids. Ask each team’s representative to share
their top three priorities. The representative can also briefly talk about how they
were able to reconcile their differences to come up with a group pyramid. As each
group presents their priorities, discuss with them what their priorities entail.
For example, if they prioritized “food for all people”, then they should see that
vast spaces with the appropriate environment and resources are needed so that a
great variety of plants and animals that serve as food can survive and grow.
188
As students discuss each condition, they should realize that everything they want
to see in their future world can be traced, at least in part, to a healthy
environment. 6. Part II: Making it Happen. Lead students to discuss strategies that
will help make their dream future to happen. Distribute copies of the “Making it
Happen” handout. The handout contains various projects, initiatives, legislations
that are on-going and in effect that may in one way or another already contribute
to the realization of the conditions that students wish to happen in the future. In
preparing the Project/Legislation descriptions, you can include projects that are
initiated by government agencies (local and national), non-government organizations
(national, regional and global), private sector, and even individuals. You can
farther help students to appreciate what other people are already doing and the
value of taking action by describing projects and legislations that affect their
community or locality. When choosing a law or policy on protected areas for
example, you can describe those that pertain to their locality or community. A
great site for information and resources on biodiversity conservation projects is
the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) of the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (http://www.pawb.gov.ph). 7. Part III: Future Log. Require
students to keep a future log for a week. Explain to them that they should use the
log as a diary, where they write all their activities, behaviors, conversations and
thoughts each day of the week. To make their log easier, instruct them to write
these in bullet form, instead of complete sentences and paragraphs the way they
would on a diary. Encourage students to realize that their actions, words and
thoughts can actually affect their future. At the end of each day, require them to
think and write about how each item in their bulleted list may affect the world
around them, either positively or negatively, and what the consequences could be
for the future. As students progress from day to day, encourage them to add more
ways, that is, engage in more actions, thoughts and words that will help them
contribute to the conservation of biodiversity in their locality. “Ocean
Treasures”, is a video lesson developed by UPNISMED that can be used as an
alternate activity. It identifies both plant and animal resources found in our
oceans. It also shows how these resources can be used wisely by protecting and
maintaining balance in the different shallow ecosystems in the ocean. The package
consist of a DVD and a Teacher’s Guide with emphasis on concepts, what questions to
ask, a short activity and some formative assessment items which teachers can give
as students view it. You can check out the UPNISMED website for details on how to
procure it.
189
Remind students that with understanding of what biodiversity can do for humans and
the whole world, there is no choice but to care for and conserve them. Encourage
them to help in promoting awareness of the importance of biodiversity, help
minimize threats to biodiversity and actively participate in programs and projects
for the protection and conservation of biodiversity. As a culminating activity, you
may have students have a field trip to just a nearby forest park, zoo or even your
school’s medicinal or botanical garden. They then, can make a report of the
biodiversity in such areas. To summarize the lesson, ask some students what they
have learned from it. Take note if they have alternative conceptions in any of the
topics taken up. Check if they are able to answer the key questions found at the
beginning of the module.
Q1. Answers may vary. It is possible that in their community organisms may have a
local name and thus, organism/s may be called with the same name. Or due to
parents’ background, may differ. Examples should be given for those with same
names. Q2. Answers may vary. Examples should be given for those which are
differently named. Q3. Students may say that they are confused which is really to
be used or they may wonder why organisms are called in different ways. Q4.
Domesticated cat, dog, wolf and lion. Q5. Dog and wolf. They belong to the same
category up to the genus level. Q6. No, they cannot produce a fertile offspring
because they belong to different species. Only organisms that belong to the same
species can breed and produce fertile offspring. Q7. The species row consist of two
words/names. Q8. The first name refers to the genus, the second one to the species.
Q9. Water in both is up to ten (10) times more salty than sea water or both are
very salty environments. Q10. Q11. Q12. Possible answers: dirty, small, disease,
harmful, present in some food, used in making medicine, vaccine. Cocci are
round/spherical/circular. Bacilli are cylindrical/long. Spirilla are
spiral/coiled/twisted. rod-like/narrow and
Avoid wading, swimming or playing in flood waters which may be contaminated with
animal urine, wear gloves in gardening, cover cuts on the skin while working in
farms, wear footwear in walking in mud, keep homes and surroundings clean,
thoroughly wash hands with soap, wash vegetables well before cooking.
190
Q13.
Farmers, veterinarians, people involved in raising carabaos, people who have the
practice of eating meat from animals which are suspected to die from the disease
(carabaos). For clearer observation of the specimen. Possible answers:
Rodlike/cylindrical and round structures/bacteria. The rod-shaped are
Lactobacillus, while the round ones are Streptococcus bacteria. Bacillus bacteria
are rod-like and cocci bacteria can form chains and called streptococcus. Crops
will be supplied with usable form of nitrogen for their growth and development.
Through the bladders brown algae would be able to capture light energy by
chlorophyll present in their cells. Light is important to algae because they need
it to produce food (for photosynthesis). These clams may have fed on the
dinoflagellate with poison causing paralysis of the diaphragm Foraminiferans have
threadlike extensions, radiolarians needlelike extensions while amoeba have blunt
extensions. have sharp
Q14. Q15. Q16. Q17. Q18. Q19. Q20. Q21. Q22. Q23.
They produce food for organisms, green algae serve as food, some brown algae are
source of alginic acid, some red algae are source of food and agar and carageenan.
Ascus, ascopores. Basidiospores, basidium. Many fungi would grow. In moist/damp,
humid, dark places. Liverworts are flat and ribbonlike. Mosses have many small
leaflike structures. Hornworts grow flat leaves on top of each other.
Q24. Q25. Q26. Q27. Q28.
Q29. They have no true roots, stems and leaves that can transport food and
materials to different parts. Q30. Q31. Q32. Q33. Q34. Q35. Q36. Q37. It has big
leaves and it is tall almost reaching 1st floor of the building They will provide
usable nitrogen to plants or serve as natural/organic fertilizer. Some serve as
food, or used in making handicraft items. In cool, elevated areas. Less oxygen will
be available. There will be erosion, less timber, no home for birds and other
animals. Alternate cashew, radial garlic, opposite coffee. Dicot. Monocot. 191
Q38. Q39. Q40. Q41. Q42. Q43. Q44. Q45. Q46. Q47. Q48. Q49. Q50. Q51. Q52.
Food (meat and juice), cleaning implements, oil, etc., (accept right answers of
students) Home for birds, provide seeds for food, nectar for butterflies, leaves
food to worms, etc. (accept other correct answers) Production of oxygen, food for
other organisms. Weeds, which often grow along with food crops, compete for
nutrients needed by the latter. Such competition results in decreased harvest.
Animals react quite rapidly to stimuli. (act fast, move fast) Sea fan, sea pen
(enumerate those in sand ). Jelly fish, etc.,(enumerate those floating in water).
They feed on digested food. Two. They have a single shell. Bivalves have two
shells. Bivalve, univalve, bivalve. Arthropods have exoskeleton, echinoderms have
endoskeleton. For protection. Arachnids. Arachnids have four pairs of legs, insects
have three pairs. The adult A. aegypti has white spots/bands on its body and legs.
It has three body parts: head, thorax and abdomen. It has a pair of wings, three
pairs of legs and pair of antenna. It breeds in clean, non-flowing or standing
water. Possible places in the home where Aedes mosquito can breed include:
containers with water placed under the table’s legs, flower vases, old tires left
outside which can collect rainwater, roof gutters which can retain rainwater,
containers placed under flower pots that collect excess water, tin cans, bottles,
and plastic cups left outside which can collect rainwater, uncovered water
containers like drums and pails, tree holes, bamboo posts of fences around the
house. Breeding places in the school can be flower vases, containers placed under
flower pots, plastic cups or bottles left in the grounds which collect rainwater,
and also tree holes and bamboo posts. In the surroundings, it can be animal food
containers, clean stagnant waters in canals, potholes, and any container or items
that can collect and retain water.
Q53. Q54.
Q55. Q56.
It will die. Water is important to Aedes mosquito because it is where they

reproduce. If there is no clean, nonflowing water available, no egg will develop
into adult mosquitoes.
192
Q57.
Reproduction of Aedes mosquito can be stopped by removing all possible breeding

places of mosquitoes. The following are some ways to do this:
     
changing water in flower vases once or twice a week, regular cleaning of roof
gutters which can retain water, draining water from unused old tires, flower pots,
tin cans, bottles, and plastic cups and keeping them in areas where they cannot
collect water, draining water from containers placed under flower pots or table
legs from time to time, covering water containers like drums or pails, and draining
water from tree holes or bamboo posts
Q58. Q59. Q60. Q61. Q62. Q63. Q64. Q65. Q66.
Insects because it has three body parts: head, thorax and abdomen. It has a pair of
wings, three pairs of legs and a pair of antenna. Skeleton of the shark is made of
cartilage, that of tilapia is made of bone. Toad and tree frog. Caecilian. Sharp
hooked beaks bite, cut or tear prey into pieces, Only the legs of birds have
scales. Possible answers: hunting for food or income, kaingin Whales, dolphins,
dugong and manatee live in salty waters. Some answers are: humans have the ability
to walk erect, they have well developed arms and hands, nails in fingers and toes,
lemurs, monkeys and apes live in trees, humans have communities. Mammals differ
from other animals in that they have mammary glands that produce milk to nourish
their young and most have hair or fur. It has a single or few number of species.
The answers will depend on the pictures shown. Low diversity. Banana plants will be
toppled down, some may be washed to other areas, or whole plantation will be wiped
out. Small animals living in the plants will also die. Farm helpers will have no
income (cannot be paid by owner) and owner will lose his harvest and consequently
his profit. There are corals, fishes, sponges, algae, molluscs, seastars, sea
anemone etc. (Students may give other answers as long as they should be organisms
associated with a coral reef) Fishes come to the coral reef to breed, molluscs eat
the algae present, sponges will feed on the floating algae near the reef, clownfish
feed on leftover food of sea anemone, etc.
Q67. Q68. Q69. Q70. Q72.
Q71. Many of the banana plants will be affected/damaged or die.
Q73. Q74.
Q75.
193
Q76. Q77.
Crown of thorns may eat all the algae in the reef that provide oxygen to the other
animals, leading to death of these organisms. With high biodiversity, the risk of
damage from pest infestation is minimized leading to better income or profit, low
input of pesticides because different pests feed on different plants, various soil
nutrients will be available to different plants because of presence of other
organisms or nutrients are recycled, it can support more organisms Competition
among organisms is less as there are more choices for food, more shelter and water
available to organisms, balance of consumers and decomposers, less possibility of
species extinction, support more organisms. Biodiversity is important to ecosystems
because of interdependence of organisms to one another. Mango plantation, ranch
containing grass and a few trees and cows only, coffee plantation. Actual students’
answers. May include: cure for illnesses, food for all people, etc. Examples of
acceptable answers: Bantay Dagat, Clean Air Act RA 8550(Philippine Fisheries Code
of 1998), local resolutions on conservation of important species and protection of
the environment by the town, city or provincial governments DENR, Local government
units, PAWB, BFAR Actual student answers. Actual student answers.
Q78.
Q79. Q80.
Q81 to Q84. Actual student answers. Q85.
Q86. Q87. Q88.
194
Priority Pyramid Page
195
Making It Happen
(Note: These are some examples. Each project to be included should be described in
detail to enable students to match the project to their priority conditions for the
future.) 1. Programs and projects of the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB)
of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources a. Invasive Alien Species
Project b. New Conservation Areas in the Philippines Project c. The Coral Triangle
Initiative d. Peatland Project e. Integrated Coastal Resource Management Project f.
Samar Island Biodiversity Project 2. Laws and Policies related to protection and
conservation of biodiversity in the Philippines a. Republic Acts (e.g., Philippine
Clean Air Act of 1999: Republic Act 8749) b. Executive Orders (e.g., Guidelines for
Ecotourism Development: Executive Order No. 111) c. Presidential Proclamations
(declaring certain places as protected areas and buffer zones) d. DENR
Administrative Order (declaring certain places for specific biodiversity
conservation activity; e.g., DENR AO 2011-10 declaring Cabusao Wetland Area in
Camarines Sur as critical habitat) e. DENR Memorandum Circular/Order (e.g., DMO No.
2011-04: Strict regulation of activities, projects and land uses in all areas
proposed for inclusion in the National Integrated Protected Areas System) 3. The
Ramsar Convention and Ramsar Sites in the Philippines 4. Palawan Council for
Sustainable Development 5. Organic farming 6. “No fishing” : species, zone and
timeframe (e.g., Zamboanga waters: sardines) 7. Herbal medicine 8. Planting of
mini-forests in cities and municipalities 9. National Ecotourism Strategy (database
of ecotourism sites and protected areas in each region) 10. Biodiversity Hotspots
of the World 11. “No plastic” drive in some cities and municipalities 12. IRRI Rice
Seed Bank 13. Species Conservation Programs (e.g., Philippine Eagle Center,
crocodile, tamaraw, tarsier, etc.) 14. SM (Shoemart’s) M.O.B. Day Campaign
196
References Crisci, J. V., Mclnerney, J. D., & McWethy, P. J. (1993). Order and
diversity in the living world: Teaching taxonomy and systematic in schools. Reston,
VA: The Commission for Biological Education of the International Union of
Biological Sciences in Cooperation with UNESCO. Hernandez, R.S. (1993, March).
Microorganisms in biotechnology [Module]. Quezon City: UP Institute for Science and
Mathematics Education Development. Khan, M. M. (1988). Azolla agronomy. Laguna:
IBS-UPLB and SEARCA. Strauss, E., & Lisowski, M. (1998). Biology: The web of life
(Teacher’s ed.). Reading, MA: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley. Reece, J. B., Taylor,
M. R., E. J., & Dickey, J. L. (2012). Campbell biology: Concepts and connections
(7th ed.). Singapore: Pearson Education Philippines. Department of Education.
(2009). Science and Technology II Textbook. (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional
Materials Development Corporation Philippines. Department of Education. (2009).
Science and Technology II Teacher’s Guide. (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional
Materials Development Corporation University of the Philippines Institute for
Science and Mathematics Education Development. (1996). Plants of the Philippines
(2nded.). Manila: Pundasyon sa Pagpapaunlad ng Kaalaman sa Pagtuturo ng Agham.
Links Extreme Science. (2013). Deep sea hythermal vents. Retrieved from
http://extremescience.com/deep-sea-vents.htm Globio. Glossopedia. (n.d.). Species.
Retrieved from http://www.globio.org/glossopedia/article.aspx?art_id=34 Karser, G.
E. (2006). The prokaryotic cell: Bacteria. Retrieved from
http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecquide/unit1/shape/shape.html
http://www.stuartxchange.com/Dilaw.html
www.aquaticcommunity.com/crocodiles/philippine.php www.mabuwaya.org/index.cfm?
p=1EB9CC43-F1ED-2AA3... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunicate marinelife.about.com ›
Education › Marine Life › Sharks
197
What causes malaria? (n.d). Retrieved from
http://www.davidson.edu/academic/psychology/ramirezsite/neuroscience/psy32
4/rebergner/what_causes_malar...2/20/2013 www.iucn.org/about/
http://www.philippineeagle.org/index?pageval=the thephileagle
198
Unit 4 MODULE
INTERACTIONS
In this module, students will learn about the concept of “Interactions” in which
organisms in the ecosystems acquire energy for their survival. Students should know
that all organisms they observe in the environment interact in order to survive.
This module introduces the idea of flow of energy in an ecosystem through
interactions of organisms in the ecosystems. These interactions can be observed in
many ways. Some interactions are beneficial; others are harmful. There are also
interactions in which populations of organisms are neither benefitted nor harmed.
Teachers should also emphasize the idea that organisms interact with each other and
their environment to meet their basic needs and survive. Interactions between
organisms and their environment are also a familiar scene: carabaos helping farmers
till the soil, earthworms burrowing in the ground may contribute in the fertility
of soil which is beneficial to plants, and birds gathering twigs to build their
nests. Human intervention has had a range of effects on natural biodiversity.
Agriculture has expanded into environmentally sensitive regions. In its natural
state, an area of land that has shrubs and grasses on it has an inherent tolerance
against flooding, drought and insect infestation. Because of expanding lands for
agriculture and diversification of crops such as growing corn, some ecosystems have
become more vulnerable. In this module, students will identify the roles of
organisms in food chains and food webs. Students conduct a simulation to
investigate how energy is transferred from one source to another. Students will be
able to:        sequence a food chain to show the transfer of energy from
one trophic level to another trophic level identify the organisms comprising a food
chain and the function of each identify the organisms comprising a food web and the
function of each describe a food pyramid in terms of the amount of biomass or
energy at each level analyze the relationship between energy and matter analyse the
harmful effects of some farming practices to increase crop yield identify
alternative agricultural practices which can minimize or possibly eliminate the
problem that go with some farming practices
The module has activities that will help students construct their science ideas and
develop science thinking skills through embedded questions. The understanding of
these concepts and skills will be strengthened through inquiry-based activities 199
such as making observation, analyzing information and discovering on their own
relationships and connections from the data gathered. The concepts learned in these
modules will prepare students to tackle more abstract science concepts about
transfer of energy in higher grade levels particularly in the topic of
photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
How does energy become transferred from one organism to another?
In this module, students gather evidence to understand that organisms in an

ecosystem are tied together by their need for energy. Students execute the
activities that provide them the idea that the Sun's energy is captured by
producers and passed along to other consumers in the food chain. They then
demonstrate their understanding of the flow of energy in an ecosystem by feeding on
other organisms. They will learn these in the succeeding activities. There are
embedded questions both in the discussion portion of the text and within the
activities.
Answers to the Questions:

Q1. What raw materials from the environment are needed in the process of
photosynthesis? Answer: Water and carbon dioxide
Activity
How do you identify the components of a food chain in an ecosystem?
In Activity 1, students will read a short article about “Monfort Bat Cave.” Remind
the students to read the procedure. Student should answer the questions within the
activity. Q2. What are the organisms found in the surrounding area of Monfort Bat
Cave? List them down in the table below.
200
Table 1. Organisms found in Monfort Bat Cave Plants durian trees other trees
Animals bats crows rats pythons monitor lizards dogs (untamed) cats (untamed)
humans
Q3. What groups of organisms are considered producers? Answer: In this situation,
the durian trees and other trees are the producers, providing food to the bats. Q4.
What part of the durian trees and other trees served as food for the bats? Answer:
nectar, fruits Q5. The population of cave-dwelling bats is declining because they
are being eaten by other organisms. What are these organisms that feed on bats?
Answer: crows, rats, pythons, monitor lizards, cats (untamed), dogs (untamed),
humans Q6. Among the organisms that feed on bats, are there organisms that possibly
feed on the predators of bats?  Yes _ No 3. Divide the organisms into the
following categories as shown in the table below: Table 2. Categories of organisms
living in the Monfort Bat Cave Producers durian trees other trees 1st bats Order
Consumer 2nd Order Consumer crows rats pythons monitor lizards cats (untamed) dogs
(untamed) humans
4.
Based on Table 2, construct a food chain with at least 3 organisms representing the
producer, 1st order consumer and 2nd order consumer. Energy from the Sun durian
trees Producer 201 bats pythons
1st order consumer 2nd order consumer

Q7. You have just analyzed by categorizing the organisms according to their trophic
level. In your own words, describe a food chain. Answer: A food chain is a transfer
of energy from the Sun in sequence, for example, from green plants (convert energy
from the Sun into chemical energy), to animals that eat plants, to animals that eat
other animals. The feeding of one organism upon another in a series of energy
transfers is known as a food chain. Q8. Without decomposers will producers stay
alive? Why? Answer: No. Decomposers act on dead organisms and change these to
simple nutrients which plants can use again. Without decomposers, nutrients needed
by producers will not be available. Producers cannot stay alive. Q9. Without
producers, will consumers stay alive? Why? Answer: Without producers, there will be
no food for consumers.
Activity
Making food webs
Think of the food your family ate for supper last night. Make a food web based on
your meal. Remember, your food web must have producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Q10. To which group of organisms do you belong? Answer: Consumer
Q11. Which trophic level do you occupy? Answer: Answer will depend on the food web
constructed by students. Definitely, humans occupy the top trophic level in the
students’ food webs. Q12. Which group of organisms has the greatest biomass? Which
has the greatest energy? Answer: The producers, example grass, cabbage, and shrub –
greatest biomass and greatest energy Q13. Which group of organisms has the least
biomass? Which has the least energy? Answer: The top consumer: hawk What happens to
the amount of biomass from the bottom to the top of the pyramid? Answer: The amount
of biomass decreases at each succeeding level from the bottom to the top of the
pyramid. 202
Q14.
Activity
Meat eaters vs. plant eaters
Q15.
How much biomass of humans can the chickens support? Answer: 50 kg How much biomass
of humans can 5 000 kg of corn support? Answer: 500 kg How much biomass of chicken
can 5 000 kg of corn support? Answer: 500 kg Which is more efficient in converting
biomass of producers to biomass of consumers – a meat eater or a plant eater? Give
your explanation. Answer: Plant eater; the same biomass of producers (corn) can
support a greater biomass of consumers (humans) than if one were an animal eater.
(Note: The teacher can explain that in the illustrated pyramids, if each person has
a mass of 50 kg. 5 000 kg of corn can support 10 plant eaters with a total mass of
500 Kg and only 1 meal eats with mass of 50 kg.) What gas do plants produce that
animals use? Answer: oxygen
Q16.
Q17.
Q18.
Q19.
Q20. What gas do animals produce that plants use? Answer: carbon dioxide Q21.
Describe one way by which the following practices may disrupt a food chain or food
web:  monoculture  use of insecticides  use of fertilizers
Note: There are several ways that are suggested in the module. Students can pick up
from the text in the module.
203
Summary
 Energy flow in the ecosystem is a one-way process. Energy flows from the sun, to
the producers, and to the consumers. An ecosystem consists of all the organisms in
an area interacting with one another and the nonliving environment. Producers such
as plants, algae, and certain bacteria capture the energy of sunlight to produce
food molecules. Consumers such as animals eat or consume producers and other
organisms to obtain energy. The flow of energy between organisms can be shown by a
food chain or a food web. A food chain is a sequence of organisms used as food and
the organisms that feed on them. It starts with a producer followed by a series of
consumers. A food web shows the complex feeding interrelationships between
organisms in an area. It consists of interconnected food chains. Energy flows
through different feeding levels called trophic levels in food chains and in food
webs. Producers occupy the first trophic level. Consumers are at succeeding trophic
levels ending with the top or highest-level consumers. A food chain or a food web
can be arranged in the form of a pyramid. A pyramid of biomass shows the decreasing
amount of matter or tissue while an energy pyramid depicts the decreasing amount of
energy. The greatest amount of biomass or energy is at the base of the pyramid. The
amount of biomass or energy decreases towards the top. While matter is recycled in
ecosystems, energy flows only in one direction 1st order from producer to consumer
to 2nd order consumer, etc. People are the top consumers in many food webs. To
increase food production, they use methods which may disrupt food chains or food
webs. They have to learn how to make decisions to correct these mistakes.
   
 
References Campbell, N. A., Reece, J.B., Taylor, M.R., Simon, E.J., Dickey, J.L.
2012. Campbell Biology: Concepts and Connections. Seventh Edition. Pearson
Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings, USA. Lantaw - Philippines
Outdoor and Travel Photos 2009: Retrieved March 13 2013
http://www.lantaw.com/2009/10/samal-monfort-bat-cave.html Department of Education,
Culture and Sports. Instructional Materials Corporation. (1990). Science and
technology II: Textbook. Quezon City: Author. 204
Unit 4 MODULE
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
This module revisits the lessons on organ systems taken up in Grades 6 and 7. In
Grade 6, the students learned how the different organ systems work together. In
Grade 7, they were introduced to the levels of organization in an organism of
which, organ systems are but a part. In this module, the students will learn not
just the structures of certain organ systems that work together but also the
processes they undertake to keep the state of balance in organisms. Emphasis will
be given on the digestive system. Four of the major functions of the digestive
system are covered here: ingestion of food, digestion of food, absorption of
nutrients, and elimination of waste materials. This module covers also the
complementary role played by the respiratory and circulatory systems in the
digestion of food.
How does the digestive system break down food to nourish the body?
Start the lesson with a review of the different structures of the digestive system
and their functions. These are lessons the students have learned in Grades 5, 6,
and 7. Draw out in your review with the students the concept of interaction among
these structures and the importance of such interaction in the survival of species.
Activity 1A may serve as a motivational activity.
205
Activity
1A
A gutsy game
Activity 1 is a board game that is played with tokens and a die (refer to the board
game on the next page. This game aims to help students identify the organs that
make up the digestive system and describe the function of each organ. Moreover, the
game should also be able to help students describe the interaction taking place in
the digestive system as these organs carry out the digestion of food. Guide the
students through the procedure. The game may be played in pairs or in groups of 5,
at the most. There should be as many tokens as there are members of the group. The
first member to make it all the way through the digestive system wins the game. As
the students play the game, guide them through the questions that follow. After
they have finished the game discuss with the class their answers to the questions.
Teaching Tips
13. The game is an analogy of some processes involved in the digestive system and
not a simulation. As such, it has its limitations. The game aims to help students
to identify the organs that make up the digestive system and to describe the
function of each organ. Discuss with the students what they understood about the
concept of digestion and the processes involved in the digestive system after
playing the game. After which, ask them what other things they would like to learn
about the digestive system.
14.
Figure 1. The human digestive system.
206
207
15.
During the game, it helps if you post on the board an illustration of the digestive
system or display a model of the human torso -- if available. If not, the students
can refer to Figure 1.
The playing pieces or tokens used in the game represent the food we eat. The spaces
on the game board are a representation of the different parts of the digestive
system through which food passes. Have the students describe the illustrations in
the board game and how these illustrations relate to the digestive system and the
process of digestion. Notice that there are spaces or boxes on the game board that
asks the players to move back several spaces. Ask the students if they can think of
an instance when the food that was just eaten moved back.
Q1. The tokens represent the food that was eaten. Q2. The spaces on the board game
represent the different organs or structures of the digestive system. Q3. The
directions on some of the spaces describe the different physical and chemical
conditions that affect proper functioning of the digestive system.
Q4. The digestive systems of different representative species of animals are

similar to each other in that they are all made up of a continuous tube with two
openings: the mouth and the anus. But as shown in Figure 2, certain differences are
also noted particularly on the structures that compartmentalizes the different
digestive tracts. Digestion in Animals
Digestion in animals is carried out physically and chemically. Physical digestion
refers to the physical breaking down of food to smaller pieces; chemical digestion
changes the large molecules in food into their building blocks. In the lower
grades, the students have learned how these processes are carried out in the human
digestive system. At this point, call the students’ attention to Figure 2. Have
them compare the different structures of the digestive systems of different
representative organisms. How are they alike and how are they different? What
structures do some species have in their digestive system that other species do not
have? What purpose do these structures have in the digestive system of these
species? At the end of the activity, have them visit the library or certain trusted
websites to read more about the parts or structures that are unique to each of
these organisms. Ask the students how these structures and their functions are the
same or different from those of humans. 208
Figure 2. Digestive systems of different representative species of animals.
The process of digestion is not unique to humans. Even the simplest animals -- the
invertebrates -- have structures they use to digest food. Refer the students to
Figure 3 and have them describe the process of digestion in Hydra. The students
should be able to note that the Hydra has a ‘digestive system’ that has only one
opening -- the mouth! This is called an Incomplete Digestive System. Have the
students read more about digestion among invertebrates and have them name other
organisms that have incomplete digestive systems. In your discussion have them
compare the digestive system of invertebrates with those of the vertebrates.
209
Figure 3. (a) Hollow body of Hydra. The animal takes in food, digests food in its
digestive cavity, and removes wastes through its mouth, (b) is an enlarged part of
the body wall, and (c) the outer part of the wall shows the nematocysts.
Revisit these lessons with the students to help them better understand the
importance of the whole process of digestion. Activity 2 gives emphasis on the
chemical digestion of food. They will discover what enzymes are, which ones are
involved in digestion, and the role these enzymes play in making the nutrients in
food available to organisms.
Activity
1B
A sweet break!
Chewing breaks down food into smaller pieces. To help students draw out the idea of
smaller pieces of food being more easily chemically digested, have them think of
what happens when they chew a piece of candy rather than waiting for the whole
candy to dissolve. Breaking down food to smaller pieces increases the surface area
of the food on which enzymes like the amylase found in saliva act. Amylase breaks
down large carbohydrate molecules like starch into simple sugars. This is why you
might notice that a boiled sweet potato tastes a little sweeter after chewing it
for a while. Note however that the sugar in sweet potatoes is starch; it is the
simple sugars released from the breaking down of starch that tastes sweet. This
activity should enable students to describe what happens to food as it gets
digested mechanically and to infer the importance of breaking down food to speed up
its digestion.
210
Teaching Tips
1. Explain to students that simple sugars dissolve readily in water. They require
little digestion and are quickly absorbed into the bloodstream. Starches are also
relatively simple and are converted to sugars in the mouth. 2. While sugars and
starches quickly can be prepared to go into the bloodstream, most foods are more
complex. Ask students to respond to this question: if they placed a piece of food
(lettuce, meat, bread) into their mouths without chewing, would it completely
dissolve in their mouth so that the body could absorb the nutrients in it? 3.
Explain that the digestive system produce many different chemicals called enzymes
that help digest nutrients. Introduce students to the concept of enzymes and enzyme
actions. The following activities will help them better understand the role that
enzymes play in the digestion of food.
Q5. Breaking the candy to smaller pieces increases the surface area of the food on
which solvents like water and digestive juices act. For which reason, the rate of
the food’s dissolution and chemical digestion also increases. Q6. Crushing the
candy represents the chewing of food -- a form of mechanical or physical digestion
of food. The stomach is made up of muscles that perform both in the mechanical and
chemical digestion of food. These muscles contract and help the stomach churn its
contents; this turns the food into even smaller particles as it gets mixed with the
gastric juices. The stomach also produces hydrochloric acid -- a strong acid -- and
pepsin -- a digestive enzyme. Together, they start breaking down protein. After
digestion of food in the stomach, it gets moved on to the small intestine as a
chyme. Activities 2 and 3 will try to simulate the chemical environment of the
stomach and the processes it carries out to help in the digestion of food.
Activity
How do enzymes affect digestion?
The importance of enzymes in the proper functioning of the body cannot be

overstated. The different biological processes such as reproduction, growth, and
development are all influenced by enzymes. In this activity, the students will be
introduced to the nature of enzymes and their role in the digestive system and the
digestion of food. As an introduction, the discussion on enzyme and its function
does not include the chemical reactions in
211
which they are involved. Note that the topic on chemical reaction will be taken up
in Grade 9 Chemistry. After performing this activity, the students should be able
to infer the role that enzymes play in digestion.
Teaching Tips
1. Activity 2 simulates a part of chemical digestion that takes place in the
stomach and the small intestine. In your discussion, the students should also be
able to realize that what they observed is not the whole of chemical digestion.
There are other enzymes involved in the process and each of these enzymes has a
specific reaction that it can catalyze or speed up. 2. This activity is best
carried out in groups. A week before you perform this activity, assign each group
to bring the materials that will be used for this activity. 3. It helps also if you
have prepared in advance, setups to show the class. These setups can serve as their
guide. 4. Walk the students through the procedure. There may be steps in the
procedure where close supervision is needed such as in the preparation of gelatin
and bromeliad leaf juice. Remind the students of the precautionary measures they
need to observe in handling heating equipment, hot materials, and hazardous
chemicals such as acids and bases.
Q7. Bromelain prevented the solidification of gelatin. Q8. Observations made on
test tubes 2 and 3 showed this effect. Q9. Enzymes speed up the digestion of food.
Digestive Enzymes
In Activity 2, the students have explored an important part of the nature of
enzymes; they speed up the chemical reactions that help in the digestion of food.
There are different enzymes involved in the digestive system. In fact, there is a
specific enzyme involved in the chemical breakdown of each of the different food
groups. Carbohydrases -- which include amylase among others -- facilitate the
digestion of carbohydrates – breaking them down into simple sugars, Proteases such
as Bromelain help in the digestion of proteins into amino acids. Lipases on the
other hand, aids in the digestion of fats and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
Bromelain, which is a protease, was used in Activity 2. It breaks down collagen --
the protein present in gelatin. This change should have been observed in
212
test tubes 2 and 3. Bromelain is an enzyme that is naturally present in the leaves,
stems, and fruits of bromeliad plants such as pineapple, kiwi, and papaya. Enzyme
activity of bromelain and the other enzymes is influenced by different factors such
as pH, temperature, and enzyme concentration. There are certain conditions to these
factors that allow the enzymes to work optimally. In the next activity, only pH
will be considered. Here, the students will investigate the effect of pH on enzyme
activity.
Activity
How does pH affect enzyme activity?
The stomach is naturally acidic. This acidic environment of the stomach helps kill
microorganisms to keep the food safe to the body as it gets moved along the
digestive tract. It also enables enzymes to do their job like in the case of
proteases that work best under acidic conditions. Proteases help in the digestion
of proteins. Activity 3 simulates the acidic chemical environment of the stomach
and its effect on one particular group of enzymes -- the proteases. Some enzymes
like a number of proteases need a certain degree of acidity to optimize their
enzyme activity. That is to say that at a given pH range, some proteases are better
able to help in the digestion of proteins. Activity 3 should enable students to
infer the function of the acidic chemical environment of the stomach and the
intestine in providing an optimal condition for certain enzymes to speed up the
digestion of proteins. They should also be able to infer the relationship of pH to
enzyme activity in general.
Teaching Tips
1. Activity 2 simulates the effect of pH on the chemical digestion of proteins.
This activity is best carried out in groups. 2. Assign each group in advance to
bring the materials that will be used in the activity. Most of the materials they
will need in this activity have already been made available in Activity 2.
Replenish only those that have already been consumed or those that needed
replacement. 3. It helps also if you have prepared setups to show the class. This
serves as their guide. 4. Walk the students through the procedure. There may be
steps in the procedure where close supervision is needed such as in the preparation
of gelatin and bromeliad leaf juice. Remind the students of the precautionary
measures they need to observe in handling heating equipment, hot materials, and
hazardous chemicals such as acids and bases.
213
Q10. Q11. Q12. Q13. Q14. Digestive enzymes speed up the digestion of food. The
greatest degree of protein digestion is shown in Test Tube A. The least amount of
protein digestion is shown in Test Tube B. Results show that Bromelain -- a kind of
protease -- is better able to speed up the digestion of proteins under acidic
environments. Yes, the data support our hypothesis that the greatest degree of
protein digestion will take place under acidic conditions. Or, No, the data do not
support our hypothesis that the greatest degree of protein digestion will take
place under acidic conditions. (Either way the students answer the question, they
should be able to account for their answers using the data they have gathered.)
Q15. Protein is chemically digested in the stomach and the small intestine. Start
the lesson by revisiting Activities 1A, 1B, 2, and 3 of Module 3. At this point,
they should have learned already that food goes through physical and chemical
digestion. In Activity 4, which is an optional activity for this module, you will
present a video clip to the class. This video clip shows the changes that food
undergoes as it gets digested and what happens to it next once digested. Activity 4
provides an audiovisual summary of Module 3.
Activity
A journey into the digestive system
Activity 4 is an optional activity. A video clip that tracks the changes that food
undergoes as it gets moved to the different parts of the digestive tract will be
shown to the class. Have the students take down notes as they watch the video clip.
After watching the video clip, guide the students through the questions embedded in
the activity. You can also use these questions to start a discussion on the topic.
In your discussion, the students should be able to describe how the different
organs of digestion – including those of the circulatory, respiratory, and
excretory systems – and the different enzymes and gastric juices released, work
together to break down food, nourish the body, and maintain overall wellness. More
specifically, the students should be able to explain how the nutrients are broken
down into small particles that can be used by the body. They should also be able to
explain how these particles are absorbed into the bloodstream. In the human body,
most of the process of absorption takes place in the intestine. Inside the
214
digestive tract, the surface area is increased by folds and protrusions (villi and
microvilli) to allow more contact with the materials that pass through it.
Teaching Tips
1. Activity 4 features a video clip that tracks the fate of food as it is moved all
the way through the digestive tract. You can access the video clip through this
link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e3O1AdlC8bI. Note however, that you are not
limited to using just this video clip. You can use other similar multimedia
resources. 2. It will help if you watch the video clip in advance. This way, you
can help the students to understand the narration better. 3. Have the students take
down notes as they watch the video clip. Alternatively, you can start discussion 4.
After watching the video clip, have the students narrate what they understood about
the video clip. You can also use the questions in the Learning Material to guide
the class through the discussion.
Q16. Q17. The video clip shows the changes that food goes through as it gets
digested and moved through the different parts of the digestive tract. What was
shown in the movie is the digestion of a mashed food for infants. The food
disintegrates as it mixes with the liquid content of the stomach. Other changes
were also shown as the food is moved from one part of the digestive tract to the
other.
Summary
The digestive system carries out the following processes: ingestion of food,
digestion of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes (refer to
Figure 5). Have the students describe each of these processes. They should also be
able to infer that all these processes are part of a continuous biological event
called digestion and therefore, are related to each other. These processes work
together to enable organisms to obtain energy from the food they eat.
Figure 4. Peristalsis in the esophagus.
215
In your discussion, draw out from the students the concept of interaction among the
different organ systems. In this particular case, describe how the circulatory
system helps the digestive system in transporting the soluble particles to the
different parts of the body. In Grade 9, this topic will be revisited to kick start
the topic on respiration – cellular respiration, in particular – and the
respiratory system. Interaction of the respiratory system with the digestive and
circulatory systems will also be covered as well as the system’s role in the
derivation of energy from food.
Figure 5. The process of digestion.
References Beckett, B. & Gallagher, R. (2001). Modular science: Biology. Oxford:

Oxford University Press Goldsmith, I. (1969). Human anatomy for children. New York:
Dover Publications Guyton, A. (1964). Function of the human body. Philadelphia: W.
B. Saunders Ravielli, A. (1963). Wonders of the human body. New York: The Viking
Press. VanCleave, J. (1995). Jan VanCleave’s the human body for every kid: Easy
activities that make learning science fun. New York: John Wiley Link Journey of the
digestive system Link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e3O1AdlC8bI
216
Unit 4 MODULE
NUTRITION AND WELLNESS
This module explores the connection between nutrition and wellness, the effects of
nutrients in maintaining a healthy body, and how students can apply the concepts of
nutrition to their daily lives. There are three activities in this module. Activity
1 familiarizes the students with the food pyramid and the food plate and enables
them to track down their food intake. Activity 2 will lead them into understanding
that the human body has nutrient requirements for proper maintenance, growth, and
development, and the severe consequences of nutritional deficiencies. Finally, in
Activity 3, the students plan a 3day menu where they can now apply the concepts
they have learned in Activities 1 and 2.
What are the nutritional needs of our body? What happens when the body’s
nutritional needs are not met adequately?
217
Activity
Am I eating right?
In Part A of this activity, the students will make a record of their daily meals
for 3 days. Give this as an assignment before the start of this module. Show the
Sample Daily Meal Journal (Table 1) to the class. The Daily Meal Journal will
provide the students with a record of what their food intake is. The journal is not
meant to be shared to the class. Invite a resource person (a school nutritionist,
school nurse, or barangay health worker) to impart information on what nutrients
are important for a healthy diet. Request the resource person to share the
recommended dietary allowance of nutrients for teenagers. Divide the class into
groups of 4-5 students. Ask the students to gather data on what local produce are
available in their province and two nearby provinces. Use the Food Pyramid (Figure
1) to classify the local produce they have identified into the food groups
indicated in the food pyramid.
218
Figure 1. The Food Pyramid for teenagers recommends eating a variety of foods to
ensure that all nutrients are provided in proper amount and balance. Source: Food
and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology
To wrap up Activity 1, have the students compare their food intake with the
recommended variety and number of servings. Inform them that the recommended number
of servings vary across age, activity level, gender, if pregnant or breastfeeding,
or body size.
219
Activity
What happens when nutritional needs are not adequately met?
In this activity, the students will be divided into groups of five. Each group
researches on specific nutrients including food sources, functions, and symptoms of
deficiency of the nutrient. If possible, examples of food sources should include
local produce. All of the groups present their findings to the class. One of the
main objectives of Activity 2 is for students to realize that food directly affects
and makes up the structures of the body. A complete diet is necessary to supply the
nutrients that organisms need for growth, development, and maintenance. Dietary
deficiencies in these important nutrients can result in complications and diseases.
Activity
Using essential concepts in nutrition in planning a menu
In this activity, students will now apply the concepts that they have learned in
Activities 1 and 2. They will develop a 3-day menu that meets the daily nutritional
requirements as identified in the food pyramid for teenagers. Menus should include
breakfast, lunch, dinner, and two snacks. Emphasize that their menu should include
food products that are locally available. You may ask representative students to
present their outputs.
220
Criteria Required information in menu -variety and amount of food groups -inclusion
of local food produce -inclusion of required meals
4 Outstanding All meals are balanced in terms of the variety and amount of food
groups. Menu includes local food produce. Menu includes breakfast, lunch, snacks,
and dinner.
3 Proficient Most of the meals are balanced in terms of the variety and amount of
food groups. Menu includes local food produce. Menu includes breakfast, lunch,
snacks, and dinner.
1 Needs more instruction Some (80% Most of the and below) meals are of the meals
not balanced are balanced in terms of in terms of the variety the variety and
amount and amount of food of food groups. groups. Menu does Menu not include
includes local food local food produce. produce. Some meals Menu (breakfast,
includes lunch, breakfast, snacks, and lunch, dinner) are snacks, and missing or
dinner. incomplete.
2 Satisfactory
Decide on the appropriate intervention to help the students improve when the output
reflects that the students need more instruction. You may wrap up the Unit with
this statement: Your body needs nutrients for growth, development, and maintenance.
Eating healthy and balanced meals provides you nutrients that your body needs.
Q1. Rice, rice products, corn, root crops, bread, noodles Q2. Rice Q3. Fruits,
vegetables Q4. Fruits – 3 servings; Vegetables – 3 servings Q5. Include servings of
fruits and vegetables in his diet
221
Sample Output for the Take Home Activity Province Albay Fruits / Vegetables / Root
crops / Seaweeds Malunggay Rice Coconut Kamansi (ogob) Sigarilyas (puro-pagulong)
Jackfruit Sweet potato (kamote) Seaweeds (lato) Papaya Kangkong Mongo Rice Corn
Coconut Banana Root crops Seaweeds (lato) Guyabano Peanut Ampalaya Santol Poultry /
Livestock / Fisheries Chicken Duck Beef Galunggong Kuhol Shellfish
Sorsogon
Crabs Shrimps Native chicken Beef Kuhol Dilis Grouper (bataway) Shellfish
References
Daily Nutritional Guide Pyramid for Filipino Children (13-19 years old). Retrieved
from:http://www.fnri.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=16 76
Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II textbook.
(Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation.
Philippines. Science Education Center. (1971). Plants of the Philippines (2nd ed.).
Quezon City, Philippines: Pundasyon sa Pagpapaunlad ng Kaalaman sa Pagtuturo ng
Agham, Ink.
222
Unit 4 MODULE
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION AND GENETICS
This module will focus on the relationships of the chromosome and heredity.
Emphasis is given on the behaviour of the chromosomes during meiosis to understand
the basis of the Mendelian laws of modern genetics.

What are the different types of cell division? How are traits passed on to the next
generation?
Activity
Observing mitosis
In this activity, the students should be able to identify in the white fish
blastula and onion root tip slides the mitotic cells based on the descriptions
given. The students should also be able to distinguish these cells from the
interphase or nondividing cells. Note that during interphase, the chromosomes are
not readily seen because they are thin and uncoiled. For the onion root tip, the
interphase cells have distinct nucleoli, which are readily seen as one or two
darkly stained bodies inside the well-defined nucleus. Answers to questions: Q1.
Centrioles are found in animal cells. Q2. Cleavage furrows form in animal cells but
not in plant cells. Plant cells have cell walls, which do not permit the formation
of the cleavage furrows. 223
Activity
Comparing mitosis and meiosis
In this activity, the students should distinguish between mitosis and meiosis. At
the end of the activity, they should also know the role of meiosis in the
production of gametes. Meiosis produces daughter cells that become gametes with
only half the chromosome number in order to prevent the doubling of the chromosome
number every time the gametes fuse during fertilization.
Completed table: Mitosis Number of daughter cells produced Number of chromosomes is

halved. (Yes/No) Pairing of homologous chromosomes take place. (Yes/No) The
daughter cells produced are always identical in terms of genetic material. (Yes/No)
Two No No Meiosis Four Yes Yes
No
Yes
The teacher should emphasize to the students that during the S phase of the cell
cycle, each chromosome will undergo replication; from one sister chromatid, each
chromosome will now have two identical sister chromatids. During crossing over in
Pachytene stage, however, segments of sister chromatids from homologous chromosomes
are exchanged. This will result in non-identical sister chromatids for each
chromosome, which is seen in Figure 3 (see below). Thus, the daughter cells
produced during meiosis will not be identical in terms of the genetic material they
contain as a consequence of crossing over.
224
Figure 3. Crossing over of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I.
Activity
Tossing coins and probability
This activity would introduce the principle of probability to students using a
simple exercise involving tossing coins. This principle could also be applied to
predict the outcomes of genetic crosses. In the first part of the activity
involving a single coin toss, the students should discover that because a coin has
two sides (Head and Tail), each side would have an equal probability of coming up.
Therefore, a single coin tossed 50 times should have a ratio of approximately 25 H:
25 T or 1:1. A small deviation might be expected if the result is not exactly 25:25
due to chance. If we assume the coin to represent the genotype of a parent, and
each face is an allele, with the head as the dominant allele (H) and the tail as
the recessive allele (h), then this would make the parent a heterozygote.
225
Q2: As with the coin toss exercise, this parent would be able to produce two types
of gametes, one with H and the other with h, each with equal probability of
occurring. Q2: Assume that by tossing two coins, you are crossing two heterozygote
parents, and each time the two coins face up, the combination represents the
genotype of the offspring. Therefore, the expected ratio should be ¼ HH, ½ HT and ¼
TT. Q4: The ratio should remain the same even if the number of tosses increases. In
fact, as the number of tosses increases, the closer the results should be in
approximating the expected ratio. Q5: The results should approximate the expected
ratio of Mendel’s experiments involving a single hybrid cross.
Activity
Comparing genotypic and phenotypic ratios for a typical Mendelian trait
This activity would allow the students to recognize the different Mendelian ratios
based on the different types of crosses involving parents of various genotypes. The
students are strongly encouraged to remember these phenotypic and genotypic ratios
as it would help them solve for genetic problems involving crosses. Completed
table. Cross 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. DD x DD DD x Dd DD x dd Dd x Dd Dd x dd dd x dd
Genotypic Ratio 100% DD (½) DD: (½) Dd (1 or 100%) Dd (¼) DD: (½) Dd: (¼) dd (½)
Dd: (½) dd (1 or 100%) dd
Phenotypic Ratio 100% dominant (1 or 100%) dominant (1 or 100%) dominant (¾)

dominant: (¼) recessive (½) dominant: (½) recessive (1 or 100%) recessive
226
Activity
Filling up the Punnett square for a dihybrid cross
This activity would teach the students how to solve for genetic problems involving
two loci. In this example, the two loci are both heterozygous (hybrid), although
the technique can also be performed using other genotypes. One thing the students
should bear in mind is that, if the pairs of alleles are found in separate
chromosome pairs, then they should segregate independently of each other.
Therefore, different possible combinations will arise, as shown in Figure 10.
Round, yellow seeds
RrYy
RY
Ry
rY
ry
Figure 10. Gametes produced by a dihybrid genotype.
Once the different types of gametes and their expected frequencies are determined,
then the expected frequencies of the different genotypes can be computed.
227
Completed table: ¼ RY ¼ Ry ¼ rY ¼ ry
¼ RY
1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16 G:RRYY G:RRYy G:RrYY G:RrYy P:RY P:RY P:RY P:RY 1/16 G:RRYy
P:RY 1/16 G:RRyy P:Ry 1/16 G:RrYy P:RY 1/16 G:Rryy P:Ry 1/16 G:RrYy P:RY 1/16
G:rrYY P:rY 1/16 G:rrYy P:rY 1/16 G:Rryy P:Ry 1/16 G:rrYy P:rY 1/16 G:rryy P:ry
¼ Ry
¼ rY
1/16 G:RrYY P:RY
¼ ry
1/16 G:RrYy P:RY
NOTE: G = Genotype; P = Phenotype
Q1. Q2. Since both parents have the same genotype (RrYy), they would have the same
types and frequencies of gametes: ¼ RY, ¼ Ry, ¼ rY, and ¼ ry. For RY: 1/16 RRYY +
2/16 RrYY + 2/16 RRYy + 4/16 RrYy = 9/16 For Ry: 1/16 RRyy + 2/16 Rryy = 3/16 For
rY: 1/16 rrYY + 2/16 rrYy = 3/16 For ry: 1/16 rryy = 1/16 There are 9 genotypes in
all (see answer in Q2). For RRyy = 1/16 For RrYy = 1/4 For Rryy = 1/8 For RRYY =
1/16
Q3. Q4.
228
Activity
Phenotypes and genotypes in incomplete dominance
For this activity, the students should remember that in incompletely dominant
traits, the heterozygote condition is expressed as a distinct phenotype. Therefore,
the genotypic ratio of a particular cross would also become the phenotypic ratio.
Q1. Since the parents produce pink flowers, this makes them heterozygotes (R1R2).
They would produce two types of gametes: R1 and R2, each with ½ probability. Q2.
The genotypes of the offspring are as follows: (¼) red, (½) pink and (¼) white. Q3.
The genotypic and phenotypic ratios are the same: (½) red or R1R1: (½) pink or
R1R2.
Activity
Inferring genotypes of ABO blood types based on the parental blood types
This activity should develop in students the ability to infer the most probable
genotype(s), and therefore the phenotype(s), of an unknown individual if the
phenotypes of his/her family members are known. Completed table: Mother’s Blood
Type
Father’s Blood Type A or O
Child’s Blood Type A
A or AB
AB
AB
A or B or AB or O
229
References and Links Brooker, R.J. (2008). Genetics: analysis and principles (3rd
ed). Irwin/McGraw-Hill. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory DNA Learning Center. (2
February 2013). How insulin is made using bacteria. Retrieved from
http://www.dnalc.org/view/15928-How-insulin-is-made-using-bacteria.html. Klug, W.
S., M. R. Cummings, and C. A. Spencer. (2007). Essentials of genetics (6th ed). New
Jersey, USA: Pearson Education, Inc. Lewis, R. (1999). Human genetics: concepts and
applications (3rd ed). WCB/McGraw-Hill. Philippines. Department of Education.
(2004). Biology: Science and technology textbook for 2nd year. (Revised ed.).
Quezon City: Author. Ramirez, D.A., Mendioro, M.S. and Laude, R.P. (2010). Lecture
notes in genetics (9th ed). San Pablo, Philippines: 7 Lakes Printing Press.
230

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UNIT 1 Force, Motion, and Energy

FORCES AND MOTION

Key questions for this module

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

Forces on objects at rest

Normal force / Force exerted by the table on the book

Answers to Questions Coin Drop

Force and acceleration

The Newton's third law of motion, or sometimes called as Law of ActionReaction,

14 F=1 unit F= 2 units F= 3 units F= 4 units

For F = 2 units V1 = 4.5cm/0.10s = 45 cm/s V2 = 5.5cm/0.10s = 55cm/s V3 =

For F = 3 units V1 = 8.5cm/0.10s = 85 cm/s V2 = 10cm/0.10s = 100cm/s V3 =

For F = 4 units V1 = 14.5cm/0.10s = 145 cm/s V2 = 16.5cm/0.10s = 165cm/s V3 =

100cm/s  85cm/s 2  v 2  v 1  165cm/s  145cm/s  200cm/s 2  150cm/sa 1 t 0.10s

v  v 2 185cm/s  165cm/s 2 2 v 3  v 2 115cm/s  100cm/s   200cm/s   150cm/s a

200 0 150 0 100 0 50

Figure 4: Graph of force vs acceleration

WORK AND ENERGY

Key questions for this module

Is there work done?

Figure 2. Equation for solving work if the force is at an angle

Work is a Method of Transferring Energy

Answer to the problem:

2. Compare the potential energy of an object/s for different reference level.

Answer to the problem:

Answers to the questions:

Work, Energy and Power

Sample data for Table 1

Bella Troy Mae Elijah

441 490 392 441

2205 2450 1960 2205

220 306 196 245

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Key questions for this module

Explaining hotness or coldness

Water at room temp

Figure 1. Scattering of the dye among the three water samples

What happens when ice melts?

100°C (Boiling point) W ater

0°C (Melting point) Ice Time Heat Figure 2

What happens to the temperature of water as it boils?

Comparing heat capacities

Key questions for this module

Figure 1. Ammeter connected in a circuit

negative terminal of the bulb

positive terminal of the bulb

Figure 2. Voltmeter connected across the load

Current and voltage

Current and Resistance

Current and resistance

What’s the connection?

Voltage drop (V) Bulb 1 Bulb 2 1.5 2.5 1.0 2.5

Voltage across the two bulbs (V) 3 3

Safety in Using Electricity

Related Misconceptions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sounds can be produced without using any

Comparing Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Has definite shape

Takes the shape of the container